BUILDING SERVICES – IV

(ACOUSTICS AND NOISE

CONTROL)
18ARC73
 MODULE 1: Introduction to Sound and Room Acoustics

•Introduction to Sound: Origin and nature of sound, its

characteristics and measurement– Amplitude, frequency, period, wavelength,
velocity of sound, sound pressure, sound intensity, decibel scale, sound and
distance – inverse square law. human hearing, auditory range for humans
(Frequency and Intensity – threshold of audibility and pain), pitch (association
with frequency), tone, loudness (association with amplitude and intensity),
Phon.
•Room Acoustics: Reflection - Nature of reflection from plane,
convex and concave surfaces, diffraction, Absorption, Echoes, focusing of
sound, dead spots, flutter echo. Room resonances, Reverberation -
reverberation time (RT) calculation using Sabine’s and Eyring’s formulae.
Effect of RT on speech and music.
 BROAD INTRODUCTION TO ACOUSTICS

• Acoustics is an exact and practical art dealing with a

science of sound and sound is the effect of vibration in a
medium having mass and elasticity. It is the sensation felt
by the ear resulting from fluctuations in the pressure of the
air.

• ACOUSTICS is concerned with the transmission of sound

from the orator to the audience clearly and distinctly.
Hearing is often the decisive sense for precise
communication of ideas between individuals and is
practically dominant when visual conditions are poor.
BRIEF HISTORY (1930)
Early days of Greeks : They used to augment the sound by using hard
reflecting surface behind audience and timber rostrums.
first scientific study---- by helmholtz----1826 ( resonators )
By lord raleigh ----------------- 1879 ( theory of sound )

By W.C. Sabine-
He is the pioneer who put science of acoustics on firm and sure basis. He
designed Fogg Art museum at Howard University (London),Symphony Hall,
New Boston ( U.S.)

CONCLUSION
Architectural acoustics is control of sound in and around the building. Make
provisions earlier in design to avoid later corrections, since source of sound
could be increased or decreased, path can be made less or more effective,
remove noise or create tolerance.

IT SHOULD BE SCIENTIFIC, AESTHETIC, FUNCTIONAL AND

PRACTICAL.
 DEFINITION

• TECHNICALLY SPEAKING, SOUND IS DEFINED

AS A VIBRATION IN AN ELASTIC MEDIUM.

(air, water, physical object, etc.) that has the ability to return
to its normal state after being deflected by an outside force
such as a sound vibration. The more elastic a substance, the
better it is able to conduct sound waves. Lead, for instance, is
very inelastic and therefore a poor sound conductor. Steel, on
the other hand, is highly elastic and an excellent sound
conductor.
 IMPORTANCE OF ACOUSTICS IN THE BUILDING DESIGN.
• The subject of acoustics besides being fascinating is also complex one. Its
application must combine knowledge of theory as well as practical
experience. Whether it is a theater, cinema hall, school, conference hall,
parliament, assembly hall, recording or broadcasting studio wherever sound
is produced and listened to must undergo what is called as “ SOUND
CONDITIONING “ OR “ACOUSTICAL TREATMENT” before they are
rendered for the purpose which they are meant.
• Architect must know which material to use, advantages and disadvantages
of various materials so as to make a choice. Like all other sciences
“ACOUSTICS” has spread itself into all activities of life and has important
role to play in modern building and architectural practices.
• Professionals can work on architectural design of the best halls for artistic
performances, the speech perception and transmission, etc. Whether it is
speech or music, they seek to maximize their ability to convey information
and minimize the effects of noise.

ANY PROJECT IS DEEMED INCOMPLETE WITHOUT ACOUSTICS

NATURE OF SOUND
SOUND IN SPHERICAL FORM
 NATURE OF SOUND

• Sound is generated by vibrating source and will travel in all

directions from the source in a manner somewhat
comparable with effect of water waves around the point
where the stone is dropped. These are spherical waves which
diminish with increasing distance from the source. Sound
does not travel in vacuum. It travels faster in solids and
liquids than in the air.
• SPEED OF A SOUND : 1130’-0”/S OR 340.00 M /SECOND
• SPEED OF A LIGHT : 186000.00 MILES OR 300000.00 KM/SEC.
SPEED OF SOUND IN ----WATER : 5000’/S, WOOD : 13000’/S(along fibre)
STONE: 12000’/S, STEEL : 166500’/S

AUDITORY RANGE FOR HUMANS:The frequency range for the human ear
extends from 20Hz. To 20,000Hz.(human audible range ) Human speech
ranges between 125 and 4,000 Hz.
 BASIC TERMINOLOGIES - PROPAGATION OF SOUND

• Sound can be generated by striking a tuning fork. As it moves in one

direction, it compresses Air molecules (particles) next to it. They, in turn,
pass on the reaction to adjacent particles of air. As the tuning fork vibrates
in the other direction, it leaves a void or rarefaction. creating alternately
“COMPRESSED AND RAREFIED “ fields due to “TO and FRO” movement.
This rarefaction follows behind the compression. Then, in turn, is followed
by another compression, and then another rarefaction and so on.
• This cycle is passed on to the next adjacent molecules traveling outwardly
from the source. (Chain reaction of vibration). Originally disturbed
molecules do not continue to move away but make back and forth
movement within limited zone and simply transfer their energy to next
molecules. This pressure disturbance created by tuning fork can not be
seen by naked eye but finally sound reaches a human ear drum to vibrate
and through complex mechanism creating a sensation of hearing in the brain.
DISPLACEMENT AMPLITUDE AND PARTICLE VELOCITY

DISPLACEMENT
AMPLITUDE
Max. distance the
individual particles moved
form their equilibrium
position.

PARTICLE VELOCITY:
The velocity with which
particles move back and
forth about their
equilibrium position.
Particle velocity =
Displacement Amplitude x
Frequency.
DISPLACEMENT, PARTICLE VELOCITY
PROPAGATION OF SOUND AND WAVE LENGTH
WAVE LENGTH

This is the distance

traveled by the sound
during the period of one
complete vibration and is
denoted by Greek letter
Lambda (i.e.dist.bet
.similar phases) Higher the
frequency shorter the wave
Wave length
length and vica versa
WAVE LENGTH
 WAVE LENGTH IN ACOUSTICS

If wave length is greater than the obstacle it is bent around the obstacle
known as DIFFRACTION.
‫= גּ‬ V Where ‫ = גּ‬Wave length in meters
f V = Velocity of sound in air
f = Frequency in Hertz
What is the wave length of a sound of 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz.?
340 340
‫ = גּ‬------- = 17.00 M ‫ = גּ‬----------- 17 mm
20 20,000
DIRECTIONALITY OF SOUND SOURCES:
•When the wave length of sound is very large in relation to the dimension of
the source energy it is radiated uniformly in all directions ( low pitched
vowels- spread uniformly)
•When the wave length of sound is small (high pitched sounds) it is
confined to relatively a narrow beam (like light)
 FREQUENCY, PITCH AND TONE.
• The number of vibrations completed per second is termed FREQUENCY.
Frequency is measured in terms of hertz (Hz). One Hz is equal to one cycle
per second.
Musicians refer to this as PITCH. Frequency is an objective (fact) measure
whereas PITCH is subjective (imaginary). Unit is Hertz (Hz) or cycles/second
or cps.or by symbol Hz. (The hertz is named after the German physicist Heinrich
Hertz, who made important scientific contributions to the study of electromagnetism
cycles per second was largely replaced by hertz by the 1970).
Musical note is a combination of many pure notes, whereas common sounds
like speech, music, noise etc. are much more complex than pure tone.
BELOW 20Hz.--- INFRA RANGE (elephants)--ABOVE 20,000Hz.--------
ULTRASONIC (bats )
TONE, in acoustics, sound that can be recognized by its regularity of vibration.
A simple tone has only one frequency, A complex tone consists of two or
more simple tones, called overtones. The tone of lowest frequency is called
the fundamental; the others, overtones. The frequencies of the overtones may
be multiples of the fundamental frequency, in which case they are called the
second, third, fourth, etc., harmonics of the fundamental tone, A combination of
harmonic tones is pleasant to hear and is called a musical tone.
 FREQUENCY BANDS

• For measurement purposes the audible frequency range Is divided into

convenient (20 to 20,000 Hz.) sub-divisions like octave bands—1/2,
1/3,1/10 of octave band.
• What is "frequency band"?
• Frequency bands are groupings of radio frequencies that are used by
mobile networks to communicate with mobile phones. The frequency bands
that a phone supports determine to a large degree where and on which
networks it can be used. For example, T-Mobile USA uses the 1900MHz
band for its GSM network, while AT&T uses both 1900MHz and the newer
850MHz frequency bands. Europe and most of the rest of the world use the
900MHz and 1800MHz frequency bands for GSM.
• Designation Name Frequency---
• LW----- long wave153 - 279 kHz
• MW---- medium wave531 - 1620 kHz
• SW-----short wave2310 - 25820 kHz
 TONE

• Tone, in acoustics, sound that can be recognized by its

regularity of vibration.
• A simple tone has only one frequency, although its intensity
may vary.
• A complex tone consists of two or more simple tones, called
overtones. The tone of lowest frequency is called the
fundamental; the others, overtones.
• The frequencies of the overtones may be multiples of the
fundamental frequency, in which case they are called the
second, third, fourth, etc., harmonics of the fundamental tone.
• A combination of harmonic tones is pleasant to hear and is
therefore called a musical tone.
FREQUENCY BANDS(CONTD.)

Frequency range from 20 to 20,000 Hz-- Although it is possible to analyse a

source on a frequency by frequency basis, this is both impractical and
time-consuming. For this reason, a scale of octave bands and one-third
octave bands has been developed. Each band covers a specific range of
frequencies and excludes all others. The word "octave" is borrowed from
musical nomenclature where it refers to a span of eight notes.

As in music, an octave band convention was chosen. Each progressive

band has double the bandwidth of the previous. The center frequencies
assigned for the bands for the full range of human hearing are: 31.5, 63,
125, 250, 500, 1000, 2000, 4000, 8000, and 16000 Hz.

It is called an octave because in music, an octave contains 7 lettered notes

so at the 8th note it is exactly double the frequency.
Count them, there are 8 musical intervals (or 12
semitones, if you count the accidental notes).
 VELOCITY AND SPEED OF A SOUND
• VELOCITY OF SOUND:
It is a speed of a sound in a specified direction. (vector quantity)
Velocity = Frequency x Wave Length . Velocity of a sound depends upon the
elasticity and density of the medium in normal air temperature which Is
approx. 1130’-0” or 340m/second. This is extremely slow compared to light
which is 186000 miles or 3,00,000.00km./second.

SPEED OF SOUND:
Speed of sound and velocity of sound are often used interchangeable
though they are not same. Velocity of sound includes both SPEED AND
DIRECTION whereas SPEED OF SOUND is independent of frequency
intensity and changes in atmosphere.
• If a sound after reflection reaches an observer more than 0.058 second
(sound travels approx.65’ in this interval) they can be distinguished as
echoes.
 ULTRASONIC

• Bats fly at night because there are more insects out

at night and less competition for the bats as well as
fewer predators out at night. they are able to fly at
night because of echolocation. which allows them to
see in complete darkness.

• Bats use sound waves to locate their prey, so they

don't have to be able to see the insects they're
hunting. Flying at night gives them an advantage
over their prey because it's harder for the insects to
see them coming.
Solution 1: Echolocation
The bat emits a loud sound
(represented by the orange
lines) that travels out into the
environment until it hits
something (such as the insect
in this picture). When the
sound hits, it is reflected back
as an echo (the gray lines in
the figure). The bat can hear
the echo and use that to tell a
lot about the obstacle, such as
how far away it is, its size and
shape. This allows many of
these bats to capture flying
insects by hunting them down
BIOLOGICAL SONAR like a radar-guided
CALLED ECHOLOCATION missile. These types of bats
tend to have large ears and
small eyes, vision is not as
important to these bats
Solution 2: Excellent Vision

• Some bats have solved

this problem using their
eyes. These bats have
large eyes that are
capable of seeing well
even in almost total
darkness, but sounds
are not as important.
 INFRA RANGE

The lowest frequency of an

elephant rumble is 14 to 35
hertz.

From research in Namibia, Zimbabwe, and Kenya, researchers learned

elephants use infrasound for communicating over many miles. Elephant calls
are outside the pitch of most human ears
 ACOUSITICAL POWER

All the common sounds like music, speech and noise are complex because
they contain sound energy over considerably wider ranges of human audible
spectrum ( 20 Hz to 20 Kz ) Most sounds contain energy to some degree.
(sound energy is partially converted into thermal energy known as
DISSIPATION i.e. wasted or separated. Sound power (w) in watts describes
the energy of a sound source.
PEAK POWER IN WATTS
Conversation speech female 0.002
Conversation speech male 0.004
Piano 0.27
Drum 25.00
Orchestra 10.70
Air raid siren 37.00 K.watt.

Auditorium – 80’ x 50’x25’ (1.00.000.00cft.) requires 10,000.00

microwatts. (one millionth of watt).
 SOUND INTENSITY

Expressed in watts/cm2 (symbol I). It is a power (energy) radiated

(transmitted) through unit area perpendicular to the specified direction. If
a sound originates at a point in a homogeneous & undisturbed Medium
away from all reflecting and diffracting surfaces the sound is propagated
radically in all direction with spherical wave front. Since intensity of
waves falls off inversely as the square of distance, sound pressure also
falls off in the same manner. (AREA OF SPHERE = 4 II times x square of
the radius.)

• Sound intensity is defined as the sound power per unit

area. The usual context is the measurement of sound
intensity in the air at a listener's location. The basic units
are watts/m2 or watts/cm2.
DECIBEL SCALE
 DECIBEL SCALE
Sound pressure near an airplane propeller at top speed is million times more
than pressure near lips of a person producing a faint whisper. Since
acoustics deals with quantities extending over a wide range of sound, a
convenient method of measuring these quantities on logarithmic scale is used
which is known as decibel scale. Unit is bel and 1/10 of it is decibel.
The Decibel is not an absolute measure but a relative one- i.e. it always gives
ratio of TWO pressures.
A- 2 & 3 units
B- 20 & 30 units ratio is 2:3 This is the basis of decibel scale which is used to
reduce the range of numbers. “It is defined as 20 times the logarithm (to
the base of 10) of the ratio of two pressures. i. e decibel ratio = 20 log
P1/P2 where P1 & P2 are pressures being compared. It is customary to
compare pressures of all sounds with 0.0000Pa (This is arbitrary choice but it
approximates closely the minimum sound pressure that is audible to normal
human ear.)
 LOUDNESS AND LOUDNESS LEVEL
Loudness is the subjective response of the human hearing (imaginary )
mechanism (sensation) to changing Frequency spectrum ( sound pressure)
It is an observer’s auditory impression of the STRENGTH of a sound. It is
measured in SONES
In acoustics, loudness is the subjective perception of sound intensity. a
loudness of 1 sone is equivalent to the loudness of a signal at 40 phons or
40dbs.
LOUDNESS LEVEL:
Loudness level of a sound is measured by the “sound pressure level” of a
standard pure tone of specified frequency which is assessed by normal
observer as being equally loud. Loudness level in PHONES (unit of loudness
level) of a sound is equal to the sound pressure level in decibels of 1000 cps.
“REFERENCE PURE TONE” which is judged by listener to be equal in
loudness.
“PURE TONE” OF 1000 CPS. (As reference). Then adjusting” sound
pressure level” of tones of various frequencies until they are adjudged to be of
some loudness as that of arbitrarily chosen pressure level of “reference tone”
THRESHOLD OF AUDIBILITY

“A sound wave must have a minimum value of pressure in order to be heard”

And this value for selected observer who have good hearing, facing the
source plane progressive waves and listening with both the ears is called
“MIN.AUDIBLE THRESHOLD” for a free field.

The threshold of audibility at any specified frequency is the min. value of

sound pressure of a pure tone of that frequency which is just AUDIBLE.

A whisper is about 20 dB. A normal conversation is typically from 60 to 70

dB, and a noisy factory from 90 to 100 dB. Loud thunder is approximately
110 dB, 120 dB borders on the threshold of pain.
 THRESHOLD OF FEELING

An observer in the field of a free plane progressive wave will notice that as the
pressure of the wave is increased the resulting sound becomes louder and
louder until it attains a level at which the sound can be
“felt as well as heard”. This level is called “threshold of feeling”

Threshold of feeling at any frequency is the minimum value of sound

pressure of a pure tone which will cause a sensation of feeing to the ear. It is
measured in dynes/cm2 or watts/cm2.

Above this threshold the observer experiences a mixed sensation of sound,

feeling and pain. 20cycles and 20000 cycles are determined as lower and
upper limits of frequency of audibility respectively. These are average values
for young persons with good hearing. This upper limit decreases with
increase in age.
 THRESHOLD OF PAIN

• The threshold of pain is the SPL (Sound pressure level) beyond which
sound becomes unbearable for a human listener.
• Prolonged exposure to sound pressure levels in excess of the threshold of
pain can cause physical damage, potentially leading to hearing impairment.
• In brief, threshold of pain is the MINIMUM sound INTENSITY at which an
individual starts to feel pain. One main component of pain is its subjectivity,
meaning that a stimulus to two individuals can result in two different
reactions. So what could be painful to one person, can be less so to
another. It is an entirely subjective phenomenon.
• In sound, the pressure at which a particular sound becomes painful to the
listener is called the pain threshold of sound. The range could be said to be
from the threshold of hearing to the threshold of pain. Sound provides
highly protective mechanism during young age. However, this efficiency
decreases with age, and constant exposure to high volumes of sound can
lead to hearing impairments.
 INVERSE SQUARE LAW

• The loudness with which the sound is heard in the second room will be
weaker than the original sound for several reasons. First, all sound waves
attenuate in strength as they travel away from the source of the sound. For
example, whatever the strength of the original sound, 10 ft from the source the
sound waves will be about one-half as energetic as they were originally; 20 ft
from the source they will be about one-quarter as energetic; 30 ft away they
will be about one-eighth as energetic, and so on, until the sound becomes too
weak to be heard.
• Have you ever heard the sound of a car as it drives past you down the street?
The sounds of the engine and the tires on the road seem loud as it passes,
but soon become difficult to hear, even after just a few seconds. The sounds
of the car quickly fade because of the inverse square law.
• This simple mathematical relationship states that if you double the distance
between you and a sound, the sound will only be one-fourth as loud.
INVERSE SQUARE LAW

AREA OF SPHERE =
4 II times x square of the radius.)
BEHAVIOR OF A SOUND IN AN ENCLOSED SPACE

WHEN A SOUND WAVE IMPINGES (STRIKES) ON ANY

SURFACE IN A ROOM
1. Part is reflected
2. Part is transmitted
3. Part is absorbed
4. Rest is dissipated (wasted) as heat.

Most of the surfaces or structures vibrate as a whole or in parts under the

pressure of sound of waves (incl. masonry walls-not visible to naked eyes)
like diaphragms and radiate sound energy. As such effective means of
providing a high degree of sound insulation is affected by the combination of
rigid partitions and porous materials.
 REFLECTION OF SOUND

• Sound Waves proceed outwards from the source in ever increasing

concentric spheres and that the energy at any point becomes
progressively weaker as the distance from the source increases. Room
shape and surfaces act on sound waves in such a complicated manner
that an exact understanding of what is happening in any room is
virtually impossible.
• Sound is reflected in a similar manner as light i. e Angle of Incidence
= Angle of reflection. If source S is placed on one side of reflecting
surface it may be considered to have an image at an equivalent
distance on the other side of reflecting surface along the perpendicular
projection from S to the place analogous (similar) to the familiar optical
image.

• Hence study of Geometric and statistical method is a must.

REFLECTION OF SOUND FROM HARD SURFACE
REFLECTION FROM CURVED SURFACES
REFLECTION FROM CURVED SURFACES AND CORNERS
DIFFUSING AND FOCUSSING EFFECT OF CONVEX
AND CONCAVE SURFACES
SOUND DISTRIBUTION
DIFFUSERS
REFLECTION-ABSORPTION-DIFFUSION

• A sound wave can be controlled in one of three different ways – it can

be reflected, diffused or absorbed.

• Each of these reactions will depend entirely on the nature and

composition of the material it comes into contact with, and each can
be used to some extent in soundproofing.

• Below is a brief explanation of what happens in each case. Reflected

Sound is bounced off a surface. This usually occurs on flat, rigid
surfaces with a lot of mass like concrete or brick walls. Because the
sound wave can't penetrate very far into the surface, the wave is
turned back on itself. The sound bouncing back off the surface
creates an echo.
REFRACTION, DIFFRACTION, REFLECTION, ABSORPTION
REFLECTION-ABSORPTION-DIFFUSION
 ELIPTICAL AND CIRCULAR PLANS

ELLIPTICAL PLAN
ILLUSRATING AN ACOUSTICAL
DEFECT-SOUND FOCI

CIRCULAR PLAN – ILLUSTRATING

CIRCULAR PLAN MODIFIED BY CREAPING AND FOCUSSING
CONVEX DIFFUSING SURFACES EFFECT OF A SOUND
 DIFFRACTION OF SOUND (=braking up Refraction= bending)

• Disturbance of the sound field due to object or the change in direction of

propagational sound waves around an obstacle is called DIFFRACTION.
• Sound has an ability to flow around obstruction or through openings with
little loss of energy. Because of diffraction which causes the sound to be
bent around the corner, obstacles do not cast a complete acoustical
shadow. Sharp images and shadows can be formed by light.
• Wave length of light = 0.0004mm to 0.00075mm
• Wave length of sound = 17.00mm to 18.00meter
• “Diffraction will be marked for the low frequency sounds with long wave
lengths than for the short wave lengths of high frequency.”
• Because of the large disparity in the wavelength of light and sound the
light travels in straight line through openings and past obstacle whereas
sound spreads out very much in similar conditions.
 DIFFRACTION OF SOUND THROUGH OPENINGS.

When a plane wave falls upon a surface with an opening which is small
compared to the wave length of a sound it spreads out as a spherical wave.
But if opening is large compared to the wave length of the sound propagated
through it and there is only slight bending near the edges.

Sounds in speech ,
music which are made
up of wide range of
frequencies are
selectively diffracted
since the low
frequency components
will diverge widely
while high frequency
components will
DIFFRACTION OF DIFFRACTION OF continue in a relatively
SOUND AT SOUND PASSING narrow beam.
THE EDGE OF A THROUGH A
PARTITION SMALL OPENING
 DIFFRACTION OF SOUND FROM REFLECTIVE AND
ABSORPTIVE SURFACES.

• Decorative architectural treatment of rooms such as beams

columns, pillars etc. results in irregular discontinuities in the
boundaries of rooms which introduce complicated diffraction
phenomena. Discontinuity in the sound absorptive treatment of a
wall or irregularities in the shape of wall will diffract sound waves. As
such patches of absorptive material diffract or scatter incident sound
waves and aid in diffusing the sound throughout the room.
ACOUSTICAL SHADOWS

when an obstacle is large

in relation to wave length
of incident sound a sharp
“ shadow” similar to light
shadow is cast.

when an obstacle is small in

comparison to the wave
length of the incident sound
wave , the sound is
scattered in all directions.
ACOUSTICAL IMAGES In this figure are shown the three
FIRST ORDER IMAGES from three
nearby walls from a point source S.
These images go on increasing as
the first order will have second –
then second will have third and so
on- all of which will contribute to the
sound energy in a room.

In the reflected wave that appears to

come from I 2 3 will be beneficial for
audience’s seated nears the side
wall and so on.

Architects make use of law of

reflection for investigating the effects
of various shapes of a room on the
distribution of sound then design
interior surfaces that will give
beneficial reflections.
 WHISPERING GALLERIES-ECHOES
• WHISPERING GALLERIES : A phenomenon associated with
the reflections from curved surfaces especially in high
frequencies which travel or creep around a large concave
surface.
(Ex: St. Paul’s Cathedral in London, Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur.) It
could be heard up to 200’-0” wherein circular, elliptical
structures, curved surfaces are continuous for a long distance
•.
ECHOES : Reflected sound naturally travels more distance
than direct sound. If the distance between these two paths is
greater than 19.80M or 65’-0’ (0.058 seconds) reflected sound
could be heard distinctly as a separate sound which is known as
echo. Even if it is greater than 15.25 M or 50’-0’ it will create blur
or masking effect on original sound.
EXCELLENT VIDEO ON REVERBERATION AND ECHO
 FLUTTER ECHOES

• It occurs when a pair of walls are parallel with highly

reflective surfaces. An impulsive sound such as
handclap produces a multiple echo as the sound is
reflected back and forth between the parallel walls.
(more the distance, less is the effect).
It usually occurs in uncarpeted rooms where ceiling
and floor are parallel and highly reflective. This could
be avoided by using non-parallel walls or walls
broken with openings, shelves and hangings etc.
•
In short , the geometrical study of sound paths in
rooms is a valuable guide to practical acoustic design
wherein the shorter wavelength sounds play very
important part in the proper hearing of both speech
and music.
 ROOM RESONANCE

• The word resonance comes from Latin and means to

"resound" - to sound out together with a loud sound.
Resonance is a common cause of sound production in
musical instruments.
• Musical instruments are set into vibrational motion at
their natural frequency when a person hits, strikes or
somehow disturbs the object.

• Resonance - when one object vibrating at the same

natural frequency of a second object forces that second
object into vibrational motion.
 RESONANCE
• The tuning fork is the object that forced the air inside
of the resonance tube into resonance. As the tones of
fork vibrate at their own natural frequency, they create
sound waves in the resonance tube. These impinging
sound waves produced by the tuning fork force air
inside of the resonance tube to vibrate at the same
frequency.
• Resonance only occurs when the first object is
vibrating at the natural frequency of the second object.
So if the frequency at which the tuning fork vibrates is
not identical to one of the natural frequencies of the air
column resonance will not occur.
• But the location of the water level can be altered by
raising and lowering a water level to match to the
frequency at which the tuning fork vibrates. When they
match the tuning fork forces the air column inside of
the resonance tube to vibrate at its own natural
frequency and resonance is achieved. The result of
resonance is always a big vibration - that is, a loud
sound.
 SOUND FOCI-DEAD SPOTS
• SOUND FOCI : concentration
of sound or focusing effect of
sound that is created by
concave surfaces at one or
more places due to non
absorption is called sound foci.

• DEAD SPOTS : one can listen SOUND FOCI

well in all parts of a room or
auditorium except in a certain
spot or rows of seats. This is
because of localized
concentration of sound (sound
foci). These spaces receive DEAD SPOTS
insufficient sound because
most of the reflected sound is
concentrated else where.
These regions of deficiency are
called dead spots.
 ULTRASONIC AND INFRA RANGE SOUND

• BELOW 20Hz.--- INFRA RANGE (elephants)

• ABOVE 20,000Hz.-------- ULTRASONIC (bats )
• Bats use sound waves (ultrasonic) to locate their prey, so they
don't have to be able to see the insects they're hunting. Flying
at night gives them an advantage over their prey because it's
harder for the insects to see them coming.

• The lowest frequency (infra range) of an elephant rumble is 14

to 35 hertz.

• Can hear up to 4 km. distance in normal condition at day

time and up to 10 km. distance at night.
 REVERABERATION.

• Acoustical phenomenon of reverberation is inherent in every indoor space.

In a perfectly sound reflecting room (rather difficult situation to create ) a
sound once initiated in that space would continue forever perfectly reflected
between the wall, ceiling and floor surfaces; this LINGERING of sound
energy when SOUND SOURCE has ceased is Known as
• REVERBERATION.
• With each reflection sound energy is lost.
“Acoustical treatment” is to give “FINITE” length of time in which LINGERING
sound energy can be heard. This is defined as the Reverberation time, the
time required by the sound energy to decay 60 dbs.
• Or one-millionth of its initial intensity, (generally referred to the time at 500 or
1000 Hz.Or average of both.
REVERBERATION TIME
BUILD UP AND DECAY OF SOUND.
Reverberation is the smooth decay of sound as it reflects from surface to
surface in the room, gradually losing energy on each contact with
absorbing material. Some reverberation is always desirable to give it life
and character whereas echo is undesirable. Quality of sound can be
achieved by BALANCING the “early” and “late” sound energies.
Source of sound after buildup stops or begin to decay and this process
takes certain interval of time. The _TIME_ taken by the sound to decay
to one millionth of its initial value (i.e 60 dbs) is termed as
REVERBERATION TIME.
Reverberation is something quite different from echo. Echo is the distinct
repetition of a sound reflected from a distant surface

A whisper is about 20 dB. A normal conversation is typically from 60

to 70 dB, and a noisy factory from 90 to 100 dB. Loud thunder is
approximately 110 dB, and 120 dB borders on the threshold of pain.
 OPEN WINDOW UNIT
• OPEN WINDOW UNIT (OR SABINE UNIT NAMED AFTER W.C SABINE)
• Surface absorbing 25% of the incident sound has a coefficient of 0.25 and 4
times of this will be required to furnish100% absorption which is equal to
one open window unit or sabine unit. An open window, for example, has an
absorption coefficient of 1.0, since it can reflect nothing

ABSORPTON COEFFICIENT: Ratio of absorbed energy to the total

incidental energy of sound. In porous material sound penetrates deep into
pores and interstices which encounter friction which is converted into heat
energy resulting in absorption.

• All materials will absorb at least some of the sound energy that impinges
upon them. At the other extreme is an open window that will, as far as a
person inside a room is concerned, “absorb” almost 100 percent of the
sound energy “striking” it; an open window is a near-perfect sound
absorber.
 ABSORPTION COEFFICIENTS OF IMPORTANT MATERIALS

• ABSORPTION
COEFFICIENTS FREQUENCY Hz
125 250 500 1000 2000
• MASONRY WALLS
• Porous concrete blocks 0,05 0,05 0,05 0,08 0,14
• Standard brickwork 0,05 0,04 0,02 0,04 0, 05
• Ceramic tiles with smooth
surface 0,01 0,01 0,01 0,02 0,02
• Plaster on solid wall 0,04 0,05 0,06 0,08 0,04
• GLASS AND GLAZING
• 4mm glass 0,30 0,20 0,10 0,07
• 6mm glass 6mm 0,10 0,06 0,04 0,03
• Wood boards on joists 0,15 0.20 0,10 0,10
• timber wall paneling 0,18 0,34 0,42 0,59 0,83
•
• MINERAL WOOL AND FOAMS
• Glass wool 25mm 0,12 0,28 0,55 0,71 0,74
• Rock wool 50mm 0,15 0,60 0,90
• WALL TREATMENTS & CONSTRUCTIONS
• Cork tiles 25mm on solid
backing 0,05 0,10 0,20 0,55 0,60
• Cork board, 25mm 0,03 0,05 0,17 0,52 0,50
• 25mm thick hair felt 25mm 0,10 0,00 0,70 0,00
• Fibreboard on solid backing 0,05 0,00 0,15 0,00 0,3
• Acoustic plaster 25mm 0,03 0,15 0,50 0,80 0,85
• Curtains hung in folds 0,05 0,15 0,35 0,40 0,50
• Lightweight curtains 0,05 0,06 0,39 0,63 0,70
• Curtains (medium fabrics) 0,05 0,00 0,25 0,00 0,30 0,40
•
• FLOORS
• Smooth marble or
terrazzo slabs 0,01 0,01 0,01 0,01 0,02
• Wooden floor on joists 0,15 0,11 0,10 0,07 0,06
• Parquet fixed on concrete 0,04 0,04 0,07 0,06 0,06
• Linoleum stuck to concrete 0,02 0,02 0,03 0,04 0,04
• Carpet on wood floor 0,20 0,25 0,30 0,30
• Stone floor 0,02 0,00 0,02 0,00 0,05
• PANELS AND DOORS
• Solid timber door 0,14 0,10 0,06 0,08 0,10
• Acoustic door 0,35 0,39 0,44 0,49 0,54
• CEILINGS
• Mineral wool tiles, glued/
screwed to soffit 0,06 0,40 0,75 0,95 0,9
• Plasterboard 10mm thick 0,25 0,70 0,85 0,55 0,40
• Plywood, 5mm, on battens
• airspace filled in glass wool 0,40 0,35 0,20 0,15 0,0
• AUDIENCE AND SEATING
• Children, seated in plastic
or metal chairs
• Adults per person seated
• Empty plastic chairs
• Adults in plastic
• Adults in padded chairs
• Fully upholstered seats
• Auditorium seat, unoccupied
• Auditorium seat, occupied
• Orchestra with instruments
on podium per person
• Wood platform with large
space beneath
0,28 0,00 0,33 0,00 0,37
0,33 0,40 0,44 0,45 0,45
0,07 0,00 0,14 0,00 0,14
0,30 0,00 0,40 0,00 0,43
0,16 0,00 0,40 0,00 0,44
0,12 0,00 0,28 0,00 0,32
0,13 0,33 0,59 0,58 0,61
0,37 0,48 0,68 0,73 0,77
0,27 0,53 0,67 0,93 0,87
0,40 0,30 0,20 0,17 0,15
RECOMMENDED REVERBERATION TIME
SABINE AND EYRING EQUATIONS
In this study two classical equations, the Sabine and the
Eyring, for the prediction of RT were applied to the 41
churches measured.

SABINE EQUATION RT = 0.16 V / A

EYRING EQUATION RT = 0.16 V / [Aair - ST (1 - αavg)] -----

where:

V - Volume (m3); RT - Expected Reverberation Time (s);

A - Total Absorption (m2); αavg - Absorption Coefficient (avg.
all surfaces); Aair - Air Absorption (m2); ST - Surfaces Total
Area (m2).
 SABINE’S FORMULA

0.16 V WHERE
• R.T. = -------------
SXa V = VOLUME IN CUM

S = SURFACE AREA IN SQM

a = ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT
 ACOUSTICAL PROBLEMS
1. Calculate R.T. from the following data for a Board Room
having seating capacity of 100 when it is full & empty.
Sl.No ABSORPTIVE MATERIAL AREA ABS. COE TOTAL ABS

1 Concrete floor 200.00 sqm 0.02 4.00

2 Celotex fibre board 175.00 sqm 0.40 70.00

3 Carpets 150.00 sqm 0.15 22.50

4 Plaster to ceiling 150.00 sqm 0.20 30.00

5 False ceiling 210.00 sqm 0.10 21.00

6 Draperies 120.00 sqm 0.35 42.00

7 Fibre glass cloth 50.00 sqm 0.79 39.50

8 Air 600.00 cum --- ------

9 Empty chair 100.00 nos 0.18/C 18.00

10 Audience 100.00 nos 0.32/P 32.00

279.00

1. R.T. when full R.T. = 0.16V = 0.16 x 600 = 0.34

Sa 279
2. R.T. when Empty Sa = 279.00 – 32 = 247, 0.16 x 600 = 0.39
247
 2. From the following data calculate R.T. and additional abs. reqd.
Suggest special materials to be used to finish the remainder of the
required abs. Conference hall size = 15.00 x 25.00 x 6.00, Total abs.
reqd = Sa = 270.00

Sl .No ABSORPTIVE MATERIAL AREA ABS.COE. TOTAL ABS

1 Floor cork tile on conc. Floor incl. risers 375.00 sqm 0.05 18.75

2 Ceiling plaster 350.00 sqm 0.02 7.00

3 Window 6mm glass 35.00 sqm 0.04 1.40

4 Plywood panels 175.00 sqm 0.15 26.25

5 Perforated ply with 5mm mineral wool 45.00 sqm 0.75 33.75

6 Seats 500.00 nos 0.15 75.00

162.15
• R.T. = 0.16V = 0.16 x 2250 = 2.22 seconds
Sa 162.15
• Additional abs. required 270 – 162.15 = 107.85

• SOLUTION: To get the remainder of the abs. required following additional acoustical treatment
additional acoustical treatment is suggested.

• 1. Plywood panels 100.00 sqm 0.15 15.00

• 2. Perforated ply with 5mm mineral wool 60.00 sqm 0.75 45.00
• 3. Cushioned chairs (increased th.) 500.00 nos. 0.10 50.00

TOTAL : 110.00
• Reqd. R.T.= 0.16x225o
------------------- = 1.33
270.00
• This meets the requirement of additional absorption (5% margin allowed) which reduces R.T. to
1.33 second
 3. Calculate the total interior surface (S) and the no. of cushioned chairs
to be used to get optimum reverberation time of 1:00 at 500 cycles.

DATA: RT= 1.00 second, value of α= 0.23, volume = 2000.00 cum

ABSORPTIVE MATERIAL AREA ABS.COE. TOTAL ABS.

1. CORK CARPET 65.00sqm 0.05 3.25

2 MARBLEX FLOORING 345.00 sqm 0.04 13.80
3. WOOD PALELLING 180.00 sqm 0.06 10.80
4. CEILING 345.00 sqm 0.06 20.70
5. STAGE OPENING 7 8.00 sqm 0.40 31.20
6. REMAINING WALLS 2 25.00 sqm 0.06 13.50
7. UN-UPHOLSTERED CHAIRS 500.00 no.s 0.03/C 15.00
8. CUSHIONED CHAIRS ------------- 0.25/C
9. AUDIENCE 500.00 no.s 0.32/p 160.00
1238.00 268.25

TOTAL ABSORPTIVE (S) SURFACE REQUIRED FOR R.T 1.00

• S = 0.16 X 2000 = 320.00 , where as per data we are getting only

268.25 i.e 320.00-268.25 = 51.75

• it means we are short of 51.75 abs. which can be compensated by

providing cushioned chairs.

• No. of cushioned chairs required to get optimum R. T.

51.75 divided by 0.25 = 207.00 nos.
4. Calculate R.T. at 125Hz, 500Hz and 2000 Hz for a hall with following
data.
NOTE: floor coverage by audience reduces the absorption by 40% at
125 and 500 Hz and by 60% at 2000 Hz

Sl MATERIAL AREA IN SQM. 125 Hz 500 Hz 2000 Hz

No

1 Plaster on brick 265.00 0.02 5.30 0.02 5.30 0.04 10.60

2 3mm glass wool 43.00 0.30 12.90 0.10 4.30 0.05 2.15

3 Stage boards on joists 70.00 0.15 10.50 0.10 7.00 0.10 7.00

4 Wood wool glass 25mm 60.00 0.10 6.00 0.40 24.00 0.60 36.00

5 Ceiling plaster 310.00 0.20 62.00 0.10 31.00 0.04 12.40

6 Plate glass screen 96.00 0.10 9.60 0.04 3.84 0.02 1.92

7 Wood block floor 300.00 0.05 15.00 0.05 15.00 0.10 30.00

8 Audience 250.00 0.17/p 42.50 0.43/p 107.50 0.47/p 117.50

9 Air 2500.00cum - - - - 0.01 25.00

163.80 197.94 242.57

 125 Hz. 500 Hz. 2000.00 Hz.
163.80 197.94 242.57

Note: I.NO.7: Abs. is reduced by 40%

i.e. 40% of 15 = 6.00 - 6.00 - 6.00 - 18.00

R.T. @ 125 = 0.16 x 2500 = 2.53 0.16 x 2500 = 2.08 0.16 x 2500 = 1.78
157.80(163.80-6) 191.94(197.94-6) 224.57 (242.57-18)
Find out total absorption to be provided in a school auditorium
accommodating 800 persons.
Assumptions: Volume of the hall is considered as 3.50cum. per persons.

Optimum Reverberation Time = 1.25 seconds

Abs. Coe. Of cushioned chairs = 0.30 and unoccupied chairs = 0.16
Solution: The total absorption necessary to obtain optimum R.T.
S = 0.16V 0.16 x 2800 = 358.00sqm
R.T 1.25
Considering that the hall is 2/3full,
Absorption due to audience = 0.30 x 2/3 x 800 = 160.00sqm.
Abs. due to unoccupied chairs = 0.16 x 1/3 x 800 = 43.00sqm
203.00 sqm

Absorption to be provided by acoustical material 358.00 – 203.00 = 155sqm.

Suggestions

1. Perforated jolly boards 100.00 sqm x 0.55 (abs.coe.) = 55.00sqm

2. pulp boards 80.00sqm x 0.99 (abs.coe.) = 79.00sqm
3. Carpets, draperies, floor, untreated wall and ceilings etc = 21.00sqm
155.00sqm