EPET 400 Spacecraft Mission Design 1610062352

EPET 400: Spacecraft Mission Design
EPET 400: Spacecraft Mission

Design
Frances Zhu
EPET 400: Spacecraft Mission Design Copyright © by Frances Zhu. All Rights
Reserved.
Preface
Motivation
We’ve created this open source, free, online textbook to bring
the love and knowledge of spacecraft mission engineering to as
many people as possible. This resource is free to you because
the creators were funded through the NASA Artemis program.
Cost of a textbook or access to a formal aerospace engineering
program should not be an obstacle to your pursuit of building
spacecraft. Let’s get rid of the silly notion that you need to
be a “rocket scientist” to work stuff that goes to space. We’re
seeing the educational barrier to building satellites drop lower
and lower; middle schoolers and high schoolers have sent
satellites to space [NASA]. By including as many people as
possible into our community, we are fostering the most diverse
and creative ideas. Inclusion pushes forward our community’s
boundary of knowledge, whether that community is in your
classroom or club, in your state, in your nation, or in your world.
We hope that you find other soon-to-be spacecraft engineers and
use this textbook to craft your own spacecraft.
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Content
This textbook will guide you through the process of designing
a spacecraft and offer you a bounty of resources through
hyperlinks. We take full advantage of the web browser platform
in the following ways:
• online resources in the public domain; fun fact, all

NASA documentation is, which is so fitting for this
textbook!
◦ Many smart people publish quality work

and post online, outside of traditional
textbook or paper journal platforms.
◦ In the realm of academic tradition, some

scholars go above and beyond and pay for
open access – creative commons licensing
in peer-reviewed journals, which can be
upwards of a few thousand dollars! So
thank you to everyone who participates in
open science.
◦ You’ll gain direct access to the sources that

we used to write this textbook if you want
to interpret the raw material yourself or
want to delve further into the details that we
didn’t include.
• beautiful graphics that would otherwise be too big on

a textbook page or too colorful to print through a
textbook publisher within a reasonable price
EPET 400: SPACECRAF T MISSION DESIGN • 3
• video lectures that you would get in a lecture on a

university campus but watched at your own pace and
edited to lengths that are easily digestible
• interactive content assessments through the

Pressbooks platform. Tests of knowledge help engrain
knowledge so complete these even when no one is
watching. You could go one step further and see if
you really know the content by teaching it to someone
else.
• lab modules and tutorials around the Artemis CubeSat

Kit. If you have the CubeSat Kit, you have a very
basic spacecraft that you can assemble and send to
space right now but we really want you to play with
the spacecraft, understand it, and make it better.
You’ll get hands-on experience with spacerated
hardware by following the lab modules. The tutorials
will step through design, development, or validation/
verification processes we had to step through to finish
the cubesat that you’ll also have to do to launch the
spacecraft.
• best practices and lessons learned from experienced

engineers and students, offering more practical than a
pure theory textbook
You may still download the textbook in static forms, like as

a PDF, EPUB, MOBI, XHTML, etc., but you won’t get the
advantages that this technology platform could offer. Good to
have a static version saved if you’re in a pinch or without the
internet!
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Comparison with Other Courses and References

A spacecraft mission design course is commonly taught at
universities with an aerospace engineering degree program,
typically at the senior levels. These courses have at least a
lecture component, a student project developed on “paper”, and
sometimes, a lab component. This course cannot offer you the
campus environment, the predefined cohort of aerospace
engineering students, or the lab benches and facilities but it can
offer you a prefabricated basic satellite and basic knowledge to
start your own class or club. Following the textbook chapter by
chapter is like taking a spacecraft mission design course from
start to finish without an instructor at the front of the room.
For the course syllabi and textbook chapters I’ve been able to
find online, I’ve attempted to include as many topics as I find
relevant to cube satellite development. SMAD is a wonderful
go-to reference for a more traditional approach to designing
spacecraft. A majority of chapters hold for all spacecraft but
some chapters are not suited for small satellite or cube satellite
design. I don’t think SMAD was designed for the newer,
younger generation of spacecraft, which is fine! After all, the
latest revision of the new SMAD was in 2011, as cubesats started
to become more common and mainstream. We can’t ask this
one textbook to cover all relevant material, so we’ve made this
reference “book” to be more applicable to smallsat development.
With respect to other online courses, this online course includes

a comprehensive amount of reference material.
You’ll notice that this course/textbook is a hybrid of an in-

person course, a textbook, and an online course. The educational

experiences are limited in scope but accessible to many more
people. The topics are also more focused on small satellites,
aligned with the capabilities of smaller, Do-It-Yourself
aerospace engineering groups.
Prerequisites
There are no required prerequisites for this course but any bit of
background knowledge and skills helps! The more knowledge
and skills you begin with, the more easily and faster you will get
through this course. The less knowledge and skills, the more you
will have to stop and learn foundational skills to catch you up.
The benefit to starting with a clean slate is targeted learning of
only the skills and knowledge you need for designing spacecraft;
you could say that you’re an efficient learner in that sense.
Programming languages: Python, C++, C, JSON
Software Applications: Web Browser, Microsoft Excel,

OnShape, Eagle, KiCad, VirtualBox, Vagrant, QTCreator,
CMake, Anaconda, Google Collab (if working with others)
Mathematics:
• Algebra, Trigonometry, Pre-Calculus (vectors,

matrices, series & sequences)
• Calculus (derivatives, integrals, differentials)

• Differential equations (ordinary differential
equations…)
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• Linear algebra (matrices and operations)
Physics:
• Mechanics & Motion, Newton’s Laws, Energy,

Momentum, Rotation, Equilibrium, Gravitation
(orbit, Earth rotation, spherical masses, Kepler’s
laws)
• Waves and Light
• Electromagnetism
• Orbital Mechanics
Engineering Principles:
• Thermodynamics, thermal properties, heat transfer
• Electrical Engineering (circuitry, current, voltage,

conduction, magnetic fields)
• Static Systems, Dynamical Systems
• Control Systems & Algorithms, propagation
Astronomy:
• Scale of the universe
• Characteristics of the solar system, Sun, and Earth
• Conditions in space (gravitation, orbit, motion,

thermodynamics, magnetism)
Spaceflight
Other experience:
• conduct finite element analysis and stress/loading

simulations in SolidWorks,
• reading part drawings and specification sheets,
• navigating file directories through terminal,
• prototyping using 3d printing methods,
• using basic shop/lab tools (such as measurement

devices, screwdrivers, soldering irons, other handheld
tools, data collection),
• using COSMOS or COSMOS-web to receive and

send commands/data for space vehicles,
• handling basic circuitry, wires, and delicate

electronics,
• using safety precautions, culture, and PPE as

necessary if working with hardware,
• seeking help amongst peers, mentors, on online

platforms/forums, and references,
• teamwork and communication
• (see surveys, development side — not too familiar

with if any of these don’t translate to using the kit)
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Our Credentials
Technical Contributors
Dr. Frankie Zhu is an assistant research professor at University
of Hawai’i at Manoa in the Hawai’i Institute of Geophysics
and Planetology. She is an Associate Director of Hawai’i Space
Grant Consortium. She is an affiliate faculty member of the
Hawai’i Space Flight Laboratory, Mechanical Engineering
Department, and Earth Science Department. She received her
B.S. in mechanical engineering, Masters, and PhD in aerospace
engineering with a minor in Computer Science all at Cornell
University. During her undergraduate career, she was the
Attitude Dynamics, Control, and Sensing lead for the most agile
declassified small satellite at the time. During her graduate
career, she worked on novel mission concept architecture,
fabrication of chip satellites for the KickSat2 mission, and
technology development of a superconducting docking
interface. She has had a hand in every mission design review
across these various projects and mentored dozens of
undergraduates in her career. She is the Principal Investigator for
the Artemis CubeSat Kit project and wrote most of the content
in the textbook.
Amber Imai-Hong is an Avionics Engineer and Outreach

Specialist for the Hawaii Space Flight Laboratory. She graduated
with her B.S. in Electrical Engineering with a focus on
Electrophysics in 2012 and has been working with the Hawaii
Space Flight Laboratory on spacecraft design, development,
testing, and community educational outreach. Over the past
13 years, Amber has worked on eight satellite projects, three

suborbital payloads, mentored several student teams who
worked on the development of testing spacecraft systems and
components. During her undergraduate career, she gained
experience in the On-Board Computer, Electrical Power, and
Payload systems, and was the Assistant Project Manager for
UH Manoa’s NanoSat-6 Ho`oponopono team. At HSFL, she
has continued to do avionics work and environmental testing.
She also leads HSFL’s community and educational outreach
projects, and is Program Manager for the Artemis Kit. Amber
was the technical director of the Artemis CubeSat Kit in use
for this textbook and reviewed several chapters of the textbook,
including the electrical power system and command & data
handling chapters.
Dr. Trevor Sorensen is a specialist professor and project

manager in the Hawaii Space Flight Laboratory. Born in
Brisbane, Australia, Dr. Sorensen received his BS. (1973), M.S.
(1976) and Doctor of Engineering (1979) degrees in Aerospace
Engineering from the University of Kansas (KU). He did his
doctoral project on Pioneer Venus at NASA Ames Research
Center. He then was a Space Shuttle guidance and control
engineer (STS-1 & 2), worked in Mission Control as assistant
Flight Director, and finally was a software engineering manager
supporting Shuttle missions. In 1990 he joined Bendix Field
Engineering (now Honeywell, Inc.) in Alexandria, Virginia, as
Observations Manager of the Department of Defense’s LACE
satellite. In 1994, Dr. Sorensen was the Lunar Mission Manager
for the DoD/NASA Clementine lunar mission for which he
received the NASA Medal for Exceptional Scientific
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Achievement. Dr. Sorensen was the program manager for the

$23 million Space Systems Research & Development contract
with the Naval Research Laboratory under which the USAF
MSTI-3 satellite was operated. He was then technical director
for Honeywell’s global satellite tracking and control system,
DataLynx. Dr. Sorensen was an associate professor in the KU
Aerospace Engineering Department 2000-2007. In 2007 he
joined the Hawaii Space Flight Laboratory at the University of
Hawaii at Manoa. Dr. Sorensen was the author of the Space
Mission Operations chapter in the highly regarded book, Space
Mission Engineering – The New SMAD (Microcosm Press,
2011). He became tenured faculty in 2012. He is a Fellow of
the American Astronautical Society, a Fellow of the American
Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA), and from
2008-2014 was on the AIAA Board of Directors as the Director
of the Space and Missiles Group, which consists of 14 technical
committees. Dr. Sorensen has dual Australian and U.S.
citizenship. Dr. Sorensen reviewed the introduction and systems
engineering chapters, then wrote the space environment, orbital
mechanics, and propulsion sections of the textbook.
OER Specialists
Billy Meinke-Lau is the Open Educational Resources (OER)
Technologist for the University of Hawaii, supporting a system-
wide effort to leverage OER for student success, equity, and cost
reduction. Billy completed an MEd in educational technology
from UH Manoa and worked for Creative Commons before
taking his current leadership role with UH. He is also a doctoral
student of Political Science, investigating the politics of
collaborative scholarship in higher education. He lives in

Honolulu with his family.
LynleyShimat Lys is a nonbinary queer disabled poet,

playwright, essayist, and educator of Indigenous and multiracial
heritage, working on a Ph.D. in Creative Writing at UH Mānoa.
Lynley holds an MFA in Poetry and Literary Translation from
Queens College CUNY, an MA in Palestinian Poetry from the
Hebrew University of Jerusalem, and a B.A. in Comparative
Literature (Hebrew, Russian and English) from UC Berkeley, as
well as having won the Emily Chamberlain Cook Poetry Prize
and read in the Lunchtime Poetry Series.
Students
Kalila Phillips
Katlynn Vicuna was born and raised in Boston Massachusetts.

I have studied various martial arts since I was a small human.
In my 20’s, I moved out to Los Angeles, California. I ended up
going to school to be an automotive technician and specializing
in Mercedes-Benz vehicles. After about a decade of repair and
diagnostic work, I found my soulmate and we got married.
Shortly after, we lived in the Philippines until we moved to
Oahu, Hawaii. Where I continued my career in the automotive
field. After a few more years and a couple of injuries later I
realized there was no longevity in my career. I wanted to do
something that could make a difference for humanity as a whole.
I started going to Kapi’olani Community college to get my “pre-
engineering” degree. I was approached and offered to apply to
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be in the Ka ‘ie ‘ie program, which is a degree pathway program.

I am currently on my way to an aerospace engineering degree.
Literally and figuratively reaching for the stars.
Lee Danielle Young

1. Introduction
Chapter Outline
1.1 When? (Past, Present, Future)
1.2 Who? (Major Players)
1.3 Why? (Applications)
1.4 What? (Spacecraft Definition)
1.5 How? (The General Design Process)
Let’s answer key questions of who, what, when, why, and how
around spacecraft to give you context. Although not strictly
technical information, context makes for a good engineer/
scientist. We’ll review an abbreviated history of spacecraft, the
major players in the aerospace sector, technology and science
that can only be conducted in space, the definition of spacecraft,
and how to generally build spacecraft (introduction for the rest
of the textbook).
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Learning Objectives
• Answer key questions of who, what,

when, why, and how around spacecraft to
give you context. Although not strictly
technical information, context makes for
a good engineer/scientist.
• Review an abbreviated history of
spacecraft, the major players in the
aerospace sector, technology and science
that can only be conducted in space, the
definition of spacecraft, and how to
generally build spacecraft (introduction
for the rest of the textbook).
1.1 When? (Past, Present,
Future)
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The launch of STS-1, the first orbital space flight. Photo credit: NASA
or National Aeronautics and Space Administration
History
Spacecraft design is riddled with space heritage: (1) heritage

related to the process of carrying out science in space; (2)
heritage related to manned space flight/exploration; and (3)
human cultural heritage that remains off the surface of ‘planet
Earth’ [ICOMOS-IAU Thematic Study no. 1 (2010)]. In this
course of designing satellites in space, the first connotation is
most relevant to us: “What has flown successfully before?” As
spacecraft engineers, a brief history of how aerospace became a

field of study, symbol of military dominance, and commercial
sector will help you understand how we got here and where we
are going. This sector now retains immense inertia from its
history, making future trends rather predictable.
Hypatia of Alexandria: A Classical Age Female Scholar by Mark Miller.

Image Courtesy of: Historic Mysteries. A 1908 depiction of Hypatia by
Jules Maurice Gaspard. Image courtesy of Historic Mysteries
We, as a human species, have long dreamed of going to the

stars. Our longing to explore space is inextricably linked to
astronomical observations, documented famously by Ptolemy,
Aristotle, Copernicus, and Galileo. Historical female
astronomers often worked under the name of their male family
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members or mentors with little public recognition include

Theano of Crotone, Hypatia of Alexandria Egypt, nuns
Hildegard of Bingen and abbess Herrad de Landsberg, Sophia
Brahe, Maria Cunitz, Catherina Elisabetha Koopman, Maria
Margarethe Kirsch, Caroline Herschel, Madame Lepaute, Mary
Fairfax Somerville, Maria Mitchell, Williamina Fleming, and
Henrietta Swan Leavitt [Dobrosavljevic-Grujic]. International
events leading to space exploration pre-20th century include
telescope observations, theorizing the rocket equation, and
proposing the space elevator [Wikipedia].
Destination Moon: A 70th Anniversary Appreciation by Paul Gilster.

Image Courtesy of: Centauri Dreams. This is the poster of the movie
“Destination Moon”
A golden age of science fiction played a huge role in

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inspiring and proposing innovative, sometimes scientifically

feasible, ideas to explore space [Questia]. “Science fiction
stories, and films such as George Pal’s ‘Destination Moon’
(written by Robert A. Heinlein) helped to convince the
taxpaying public that space flight was not only possible, but
desirable from both a political and economic point of view”
[Moskowitz]. US’ Goddard (yes, the Goddard that NASA
Goddard Spaceflight Center is named after) files US patents on
multistage and liquid-fueled rockets in 1914 [Wikipedia],
develops theoretical methods to reach extreme altitudes with
rockets [Goddard] in 1919, and launches his first liquid-fueled
rocket. Much of Goddard’ progress resided amidst the times of
World War I. In 1923, Germany’s Oberth self-published his
doctoral thesis “By Rocket into Planetary Space” with the
subsequent formation of the Society for Space Travel (Verein
für Raumschiffahrt) established in 1927, focused on space
travel with rockets. The USSR (current-day Russia) founded the
Society for Studies of Interplanetary Travel in 1924, focused on
rocket and orbital mechanics.
View from outer space of the sun rising over Earth, illuminating the
atmosphere in a ring of blue. Image Courtesy of: NASA
World War II was a major catalyst in progressing rocket

technology as the US, German, and USSR governments pooled
their resources to develop missiles. The wealth and productivity
of a single inventor or group of scientists pales in comparison to
the wealth and urgency of a nation in wartime. The first
spaceflight (first crossing of the Kármán line) in history was
achieved in June 20th, 1944 by the V-2 rocket under the
direction of Nazi Germany and Dr. Wernher von Braun. Upon
the resolution of World War II, von Braun surrendered to the
Americans in Bavaria and “for fifteen years after World War II,
Von Braun worked with the U.S. Army in the development of
ballistic missiles” [NASA]. With the strategic capture of the
leading rocket expert of the world (and many other German
specialists), the US begins to dominate unprecedented
aerospace achievements from 1946 to 1956: first space research
flight, first pictures of Earth from 105 km, first animals in
space (fruit flies), first two-stage liquid-fueled rocket with an
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altitude record, and the first rocket to pass the Thermopause and
enter the Exosphere [Wikipedia]. The US establishes the
Redstone Arsenal in Huntsville, AL, and the Jet Propulsion
Laboratory in Pasadena, CA under military pretenses, which
will ultimately become the first centers of NASA.
Launch of V-2 May 10th 1942. Image Courtesy of: This Day in Aviation
The Cold War began in 1947, fostering an ideological tension

that led to the technological arena for competition: the Space
Race. Both the US and Soviet governments had prioritized the
development of Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs),
which is another way of saying weaponized rockets, ultimately
won by the USSR with the R-7 mission. The demand for
intelligence gave rise to overhead reconnaissance programs,
which began as U-2 overflights but transitioned to
reconnaissance satellites. Thus began the race to send the first
satellite to space, which was ultimately won in 1957 by the
USSR in their launch of the first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1,
and the first biological spacecraft, Sputnik 2. In response, the

US formed the National Aeronautics and Space Administration,
NASA, and just three months later, launched their first satellite,
Explorer I, into orbit.
Refer to the infographic to see an early history of satellites

that illustrate unprecedented missions and the entrance of other
nations in sending their first satellites to space.
The chart of cosmic exploration. Image by Info Grades.
The next obvious title to seize was the first human spaceflight,
won by the USSR for sending the first cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin
to space. Not even a month later, NASA sent Alan Shepherd to
space. The decade of 1960 saw the first solar and interplanetary
satellites and probes, the rise in geosynchronous
communications satellites, but prominently featured advances
in human spaceflight around the moon. The USSR had the Luna
missions and the US had the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo
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missions. Apollo 8 released the famous Earthrise photo. The

most famous lunar mission, Apollo 11, sent the first human to
the Moon’s surface and saw the first launch from a celestial body
other than the Earth. We also returned 22 kilograms of moon
samples, contributing heavily to the planetary science field. In
subsequent missions between 1969 and 1972, the Apollo
missions returned 382 kilograms of lunar rocks, core samples,
pebbles, sand, and dust from the lunar surface. For various
reasons, the USSR failed to dominate the race to the moon
despite its very early and promising progress [Zak]. US spending
(and arguably activity) peaked during the Apollo program
[Wikipedia] and although Roscosmos’ historical budget is
unavailable over time, the Soviet defense budget increased
steadily during this time to surpass the US defense spending
[Nintil].
In the 1970’s, the narrow lunar focus broadened to

incorporate the other planets. First, to our nearest neighbors
Venus and Mars, then, to Jupiter and Mercury. In 1975, we saw
the formation of the European Space Agency and a surprising
collaboration between the USSR and USA in the first
multinational manned mission, Apollo-Soyuz Test Project,
amidst the ongoing Cold War. NASA continues the attitude of
international collaboration with Germany’s DLR on Helios 2
and ESA and UK’s SERC on the International Ultraviolet
Explorer toward the end of the decade. NASA also makes an
unprecedented successful planetary surface landing on Mars,
sending back the first photos from the surface of Mars through
Viking Lander.
First photos from the surface of Mars in 1976. Image courtesy of NASA
The 1980’s saw the rise of persistent space structures (first

reusable crewed orbital spacecraft, first infrared and microwave
observatories, first consistently inhabited long-term research
space station), more sophisticated interplanetary missions (first
balloon on another planet Venus, first Uranus, comet, and
Neptune flyby), and the first spacewalks (first untethered
spacewalk and first spacewalk by a woman). The last Soviet
Union missions were flybys of Halley’s comet, Vega 1 and
Vega 2, in 1986 before the collapse of the USSR in 1991,
ending the Space Race definitively. In 1986, America suffered a
devastating loss of the Space Shuttle Challenger, a formative
memory of the US space program. Challenger hosted many
cultural firsts: first American female astronaut, Sally Ride, first
African American astronaut, Guion Bluford, and first Asian
American astronaut, Ellison Onizuka (from Kealakekua,
Hawaiʻi!). Although American attitudes shifted towards a net
positive assessment of the benefits and costs of space
exploration [Miller], the space shuttle program would change
drastically to reduce the effectiveness of the program by
exerting extreme caution: no more civilian launches, satellite
launches shifted from space shuttle to reusable rockets, and
astronauts no longer tasked with risky spacewalks [Howell].
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An illustration of the trajectories of Voyager 1 and Voyager 2. Image

credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech
Voyager 1 is on its way out of the solar system (although

Voyager won’t exit the influence of the sun until 2012) and with
Voyager’s collected imagery, the first photograph of the whole
Solar System can be formed at the start of 1990. As the result of
a NASA/ESA collaboration, the Hubble Space Telescope is
installed and is still currently in operation, well known both as a
vital research tool and as a public relations boon for astronomy.
NASA injects the first spacecraft into Jupiter’s orbit and
successfully lands the first operational rover on another planet,
Mars. Japan contributes the first orbital radio observatory.
Although not the first detection of an exoplanet, the first
confirmed published discovery of an exoplanet is in 1992 by
Canadian and Polish scientists [A. Wolszczan & D. A. Frail].
Russia reenters the efforts in space by recording the longest

duration spaceflight. Russia, USA, Europe, Japan, and Canada
participate in the first multinational space station and largest
artificial object built in space to date, the International Space
Station; a terrific end to the millenium.
The Hubble Space Telescope. Launched in April 1990. Image courtesy

of NASA
Modern day history, from 2000 onwards, does not break as

many technological records in quick succession as many
technological firsts have been accomplished in early history.
Russia seems not to participate in record breaking, although
they continue to offer crewed space support for the ISS. NASA
and ESA capture the spacecraft firsts for the remaining major
celestial bodies: first orbiting of an asteroid, first orbit of
Saturn, first soft landing in the outer Solar System, first orbit of
Mercury, the first orbit of dwarf planet Ceres, and first flyby of
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dwarf planet Pluto. The US starts prioritizing sample return

missions, like solar wind particles and comet samples, and the
identification of exoplanets through the Kepler space telescope.
Japan contributes the first sample return of and operational
rover on an asteroid. Many innovative space missions remain
unmentioned, like instruments on the ISS or the multiple
missions to the Moon and Mars, as they do not break records
but generally, the recent trend for spacecraft technology is to
accommodate ambitious science missions and payloads. We
also see a rise in commercial space dominance around rockets,
distributing the responsibility of spacefaring from governments
to private companies. Finally, we see the lightning fast entrance
of the Chinese government in sending spacecraft to the far side
of the moon with Chinese space agency budget implications
toward even more space involvement.
Although most of the noted space history was achieved by a

handful of countries, citizens from over 41 countries have
flown in space. Many failed spacecraft and follow-on missions
were not listed due to precedence; a full list may be found on
Wikipedia. A Solar System exploration timeline organizes a
subset of the unprecedented missions that were specifically to
Solar System bodies, while appending successor missions.
Although most missions are associated with the space agency
and country of origin, many aerospace businesses and
academics contributed to the overall progress of spaceflight,
which will be described in detail in the major players (who?)
section.
Present and Future
The majority of American ongoing spacecraft missions are

earth-observing satellites, payloads on the ISS, Solar System
spacecraft, solar missions, and universe observing
observatories. Many of the Solar System spacecraft are Mars-
centric but some noteworthy spacecraft outside Mars are Juno,
an orbiter around Jupiter that is the farthest spacecraft from the
sun to derive power solely from the sun, the Rosetta Orbiter,
OSIRIS-REx, and the still transmitting interstellar Voyager
missions. A particularly exciting form factor is the rise of small
satellites for real NASA missions, including but not limited to
MARCO, MinXSS, and RainCube.
Juno Missionentered the orbit of Jupiter on July 4, 2016. It was launched

to study the gas giant Jupiter. Image couresy of NASA/JPL
Satellites have been getting progressively smaller as

technology advances. The main trends include more capable
and reliable commercial-off-the-shelf microelectronics devices
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while miniaturizing the volume and minimizing mass

[Sweeting]. Although an iPhone is magnitudes more capable
than the Apollo command module [Kendall], small satellites are
not going to replace large satellites, rather complement and
open up new mission paradigms [Sweeting]. Instead of placing
state-of-the-art instrumentation on a large satellite that is
constrained to a single measurement at a specific place and
time, small satellite missions allow the deployment of a
multitude of spacecraft with less capable sensors but more
distributed observations over many places simultaneously. This
paradigm shift distributes capabilities, risk, and cost, resulting
in lower barriers to enter space.
Small satellite missions became immensely popular with the

standardization of cube satellites [CubeSat 101]. ‘Professors
Jordi Puig-Suari of California Polytechnic State University and
Bob Twiggs of Stanford University proposed the CubeSat
reference design in 1999’ without the intention of setting a
standard [Wikipedia]. Instead, ‘Twiggs set out to find “how
much could you reduce the size and still have a practical
satellite”’ and formed a modified Orbiting Picosatellite
Automatic Launcher, called the Poly-Picosatellite Orbital
Deployer (P-POD). The reliability and wide adoption of the P-
POD and cubesat standard along with Twiggs’ efforts on
CubeSats from educational institutions bring us to today’s
popularity of the CubeSat form for small business and
educational programs, like the Artemis Student Challenges
program that funds the development of this course. Although
cube satellite development was originally intended for graduate
students, this course lowers the barrier of entry to space even
lower to undergraduate level education. After prolonged

involvement with Mars, NASA is refocusing on building
infrastructure on the Moon to support future human exploration
and ultimately send the first woman to the surface of the moon
with the Artemis program.
The Discovery and Preparation of Cubesats. Image courtesy of

European Space Agency.
Future NASA missions include astronomical observatories

(Euclid, Webb, WFIRST), adventurous celestial body missions
(Dragonfly, Europa Clipper, JUICE, Lucy, Psyche), and more
ambitious CubeSat missions (TROPICS, SunRISE, Q-PACE,
LunaH-Map, CUPID). Every decade, the National Academy of
Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine conducts surveys in the
field of Astrophysics, Planetary Science, Heliophysics, and
Earth Sciences. Typically, these surveys are accompanied with
strategies and foci moving forward to answer the highest
priority science investigations.
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An interactive or media element has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view it online
here:
https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/epet302/?p=5
All images on dialog cards courtesy of Wikipedia. Image of

Artemis Cubesat kit courtesy of HSFL
1.2 Who? (Major Players)
Since the origin of spacecraft technology, the government has

had a huge role in funding technological progress for immense
nation-scale endeavors. The US government controls NASA
centers, government labs (civil and defense), and in part,
federally funded research and development centers (FFRDCs).
The other entities that exist in the aerospace sector include
academic institutions and privately owned businesses.
NASA has ten centers distributed across the US to execute

NASA’s programmatic vision. The earliest centers were born
from aeronautical research, like Langley Research Center, Ames
Research Center, John Glenn Research Center, and Armstrong
Flight Research Center. Briefly mentioned in the history section,
the Jet Propulsion Laboratory was started by a group of Caltech
students and initially funded by the Army to continue their
rocket research. The Marshall Space Flight Center was also
initially funded by the Army under the name of Redstone
Arsenal. Upon the creation of NASA, these centers were
absorbed into NASA. NASA created the Goddard Space Flight
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34 • FRANCES ZHU
Center, Stennis Space Center, Johnson Space Center, and

Kennedy Space Center. The larger organization also controls
minor facilities, like the Wallops Flight Facility, Deep Space
Network, White Sands Test Facility, and the Infrared Telescope
Facility. These centers interact the most with spacecraft (before,
during, and after launch), manage large contracts, and conduct
some in-house research. These centers include mission control
centers, launch facilities, huge experiment testbeds, and clean
rooms.
Location of NASA’s Centers and Facilities
Government agencies outside of NASA include a suite of

federally funded research and development centers (FFRDCs),
military research centers, and intelligence agencies Department
of Defense, National Reconnaissance Office, National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration, Department of Energy,
Federal Aviation Administration, National Science Foundation,
Federal Communications Commission, United States Geological
Survey [the balance]. FFRDCs are “public-private partnerships
which conduct research for the United States Government”, like
Sandia Labs, MIT Lincoln Labs, Lawrence Livermore. Their
involvement with space missions differs from NASA due to

their more limited involvement, developing technologies or
subsystems without integrating the whole system. Department
of Defense labs “are the foundation for research to support our
nation’s defense”; the most pertinent labs that do aerospace
research are the Air Force Office of Science Research, Air Force
Research Lab, Naval Research Lab. (Who knows what’s going
to happen with the Space Force?) Although the DoD does fund
research toward science objectives, the space missions are more
focused on defense applications and employers may require
varying levels of security clearance. Intelligence agencies
include the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, National
Reconnaissance Office, and National Security Agency. The
general sentiment of defense and intelligence agencies is that
they are well-funded and can progress technologies more
aggressively. An example of this gap in advancement is NRO’s
donation of Hubble-quality telescopes to NASA in 2012. The
general word-of-mouth without definitive validation is that the
defense side of aerospace is at least a decade ahead of civilian
aerospace (NASA).
The role of academic institutions is to educate/train an aerospace

workforce and conduct research. Pictured are our partners at Maui CC
36 • FRANCES ZHU
The role of academic institutions is to educate/train an

aerospace workforce and conduct research. Aerospace
engineering as a field of study was first formalized in 1914 at
the University of Michigan. Much of the aerospace engineering
curriculum overlaps with the mechanical engineering
curriculum; “aerospace engineering is just high-speed, variable-
pressure, safety-critical mechanical engineering”. From the most
recent US News ranking, only 65 universities in the US list
aerospace programs, which include sub-space. There are 637
ABET-accredited US universities. In that intersection, 10
percent of ABET schools have aerospace programs. Many states
(24 out of 52 states and territories) do not have an aerospace
program in their state. With the rise in digital platforms, there are
several online courses or video series that delve into aerospace
engineering. Academic institutions do not have as advanced
facilities but retain experts in research fields that mature
technology and science at a more basic, foundational level. Work
done at the university rarely sees spaceflight, as much work
is needed to mature technologies beyond basic research, but
university small satellite teams are ever more prevalent, some of
which do successfully reach space.
Aerospace companies in leaders in Countries & Companies Leading the

Aerospace Industry Into the Future. Image by Industry tap into the news.
Aerospace businesses often act as contractors or tiered levels

of subcontractors, where some larger businesses subcontract to
smaller businesses. These contracted activities include products
with established processes and rarely include research, although
some large companies host research and development groups.
The commercial sector of the aerospace industry is the most
volatile sector over time as the companies are heavily subject to
the economic winds. This volatility is characterized by waves of
company creation during wartime and economic prosperity, then
a succession of mergers during economic depressions, like any
industry.
38 • FRANCES ZHU
In 1903 The Wright brothers “Wright Flyer” makes its first flight at
Kitty Hawk, NC, Dec. 17, 1903. Image courtesy of public domain.
American aerospace businesses began as aeronautical

businesses, originating from the Wright brothers’ licensing to
companies to build their aeroplanes. The title of the first
aerospace business is debatable, but a list of the first companies
that have persisted over time are Gallaudet (the ancestor of
General Dynamics), Burgess Company and Curtiss, Thomas
Brothers, Loening Aeronautical, Aeromarine Plane and Motor
Company, Glenn Martin Company, L-W-F Company, Boeing,
and Loughead (Lockheed) [US Centennial of Flight
Commission]. These companies boomed during World War II
but upon the VJ Day resolution, but after the military cancelled
all orders on aircraft, some aircraft companies tanked [Bugos].
Aerospace companies had to adapt to the technological advances
in World War II and the needs of the Cold War, such as long
range strategic bombers (Boeing B-47), high-speed high altitude
experimental aircraft (Bell X-1), guided missiles (Raytheon,

Sperry, and Hughes), and jet engines (McDonnell Aircraft and
Lockheed). The Aerospace Corporation, Space Technology
Laboratories of TRW Inc., and Lockheed Missiles and Space
dominated the ICBM programs. After the Cold War, the US
Congress significantly decreased defense spending, leading to
many great aerospace business mergers, particularly in the
1990’s. The “Great Merge” produced what is colloquially called
the “Big Five” now: Lockheed Martin, Boeing, Raytheon,
Honeywell, and Northrop Grumman. The modern aerospace
business zeitgeist has been coined, NewSpace, likely inspired by
the Silicon Valley startup culture, billionaire philanthropists, and
monotonically decreasing low barriers to space. Of the current
players, the biggest private companies are XPrize, Bigelow,
Virgin Galactic, Blue Origin, United Launch Alliance, and
SpaceX. A majority of these businesses focus on getting people
and spacecraft into space, but notable satellite or technology
companies include Planet Labs, Made in Space, Paragon,
Tethers Unlimited, and Honeybee Robotics.
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In 2020, the DoD received 14.1 billion to invest specifically

in the space domain and NASA as a whole received 22.6 billion.
In 2018, Aerospace Corporation estimated that the US industry
output for space systems totaled 39 billion and provided 148,700
jobs [2019 Facts and Figures]. Nearly all funding for these three
sectors (government labs, academia, and private businesses)

derive their funding from taxpayer dollars, typically funneled
through NASA and the DoD. Some aerospace companies bring
in revenue by selling satellite data (Planet Labs), relaying
communications (DirecTV), or exporting parts (Arconic). Most
aerospace jobs still reside in manufacturing with the least
common aerospace job in research [US Bureau of Labor
Statistics].
To navigate your career in aerospace, my advisor once said

that the most influence/power flows down from the government
to academia and government labs, and finally to the different
levels of contractors. Mobility in career follows the same
trajectory in which an initial career in the government will set up
more opportunities to work in a government lab or contractor;
valid for any other institution upstream moving downstream.
The institutions downstream want to know how funding
decisions are made upstream so that they can secure the largest
chunk of money flowing down the tiers. Outside of a pure
government job, the same direction of flow holds for researchers
pursuing basic research moving more easily into more applied
research. Unfortunately, the money flows in the opposite
direction; contractors get paid the most and government
employees the least. If you’re curious, like me, about the
experience in each type of institution or want to have the most
options open through your career, aim upstream while you are
young and presumably don’t need the money as much.

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here:

here:

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here:
1.3 Why? (Applications)
“The stars are calling and we must go” ~ Michael Watkins
Nagin Cox systems engineer for National Aeronautics and Space

Administration. Image credit: NASA/Dan Goods
Space takes a lot of money and a lot of effort so the reasons

for going to space must be compelling. Let’s get the intangible
yet compelling justifications out of the way first. The notion of
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space instills a sense of pride and curiosity at every scale of

our society, as an individual level, a country, a world. We have
been looking at the heavens since the beginning of time and have
wondered what’s out there. We want to be the best as individuals
and as societies, building upon the progress of our predecessors
while standing out from them [Griffin]. Some of the urge to
explore space is to scratch these emotional itches and inspire
the next generation. Regardless, there exist plenty of reasons to
justify spending a quarter of a penny of every US Congressional
budget dollar on space exploration [Hawking].

here:
“Why we should go to space” by Stephen Hawking. Video courtesy of NASA.
Humanity’s justifications for space exploration are rooted in

self-interest and in curiosity. If there’s any one basic instinct
that persists through all life, it is survival. Humans will become
extinct at some point in the future, but by becoming a
spacefaring civilization, we can prolong the inevitable. By
staying on Earth, we are guaranteed extinction upon the Earth’s
expiration date. Still, even before leaving Earth, humans must
worry about the possibility of near-Earth objects (NEOs) that
enter our atmosphere and cause a premature mass extinction,
like the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event. By progressing
space technology, we can deflect or redirect NEOs; NASA has
a planetary defense coordination office dedicated to this topic!
The final big-picture anthropocentric justification is the scarcity

of resources on Earth that may be augmented by space resources
[Wertheimer]. Asteroid mining is speculated to bring in trillions
of dollars by bringing in achondrites (precious metals), which
are rich in platinum group metals (ruthenium, rhodium,
palladium, osmium, iridium, and platinum) used in high-
performance electronics [Glester]. Other space resources include
water and solar power.
The Basics of Near Earth Objects (NEOs). Image courtesy of NASA/

JPL
Our curiosity leads us to use space as a medium to

demonstrate technology and advance science otherwise
unachievable on Earth. Technological advancements may also
be mixed with self-serving goals, such as satellite
communications, direct broadcast, navigation, and surveillance
[SMAD]. Some technologies take advantage of the gravity-free
environment, such as space manufacturing and hyper-efficient
46 • FRANCES ZHU
propulsion. Science data from satellites help us monitor the

weather or combat climate change. Earth-observing satellites
must orbit in space to sweep over large expanses of Earth’s
surface and atmosphere (remote sensing) or collect in-situ
measurements of atmosphere gases. A partial list of space
system classifications include communication, positioning and
navigation, weather, remote sensing, and launch [Weigel].
Astronomy, astrobiology, and planetary science are
predominantly sciences for the sake of knowledge. As we
mature into a spacefaring civilization, these sciences will
become more pragmatic.
The Submillimeter Array of radio telescopes at night. Located on Mauna

Kea. Image courtesy of Wikipedia
Astronomical questions are addressed with space-based

telescopes and observatories, which avoid atmospheric
aberrations to achieve the clearest view of planets, stars, and

galaxies. Clarity begets hypersensitive measurements that can
detect exoplanets. Earth’s atmosphere absorbs much of infrared
and ultraviolet light so we must send telescopes into space to
specifically observe these wavelengths. Some observatories are
placed farther than just low-Earth orbit to escape the
atmosphere; the James Webb Space Telescope will orbit the sun,
a million miles away from Earth at the second Lagrange point to
use the Earth as a sun shield [NASA].
Various current satellite, Moon, and Mars missions. Image courtesy of

NASA
Planetary science missions strive to better understand the

history of our solar system and the distribution of life within it
[NASA]. These missions have visited every planet and a variety
of small bodies in our Solar System. The morphology these
spacecraft have taken include orbiters, probes, and rovers, with
considerable efforts dedicated to Mars and future efforts
dedicated to returning to the Moon. “NASA’s robotic explorers
gather data to help scientists understand how the planets formed,
48 • FRANCES ZHU
what triggered different evolutionary paths among planets, what

processes have occurred and are active, and how Earth among
the planets became habitable. In searching for evidence of life
beyond Earth, scientists use these data to map zones of
habitability, studying the chemistry of unfamiliar worlds, and
unveiling the processes that lead to conditions necessary for
life. With this knowledge, NASA is enabling safe and effective
human missions to destinations beyond low Earth orbit”
[NASA].

here:
1.4 What? (Spacecraft
Definition)
A human and spacecraft are similar in a lot of ways. The human

anatomical parts are compared with the spacecraft components.
A spacecraft is a “vehicle or device designed for travel or

operation outside the Earth’s atmosphere” [Merriam-Webster].
Spacecraft are commonly separated into seven engineering
subsystems (Structure, Attitude Determination, and Control,
Onboard Data Handling, Communication, Power, Thermal,
Propulsion) and a Payload.
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The spacecraft bus supports the payload and may be broken down into
eight potential subsystems.
Structure & Mechanisms
◦ For large spacecraft, structures,

mechanisms, and/or ordnance are often
treated as separate subsystems
◦ Provides structural support to spacecraft
components and spacecraft configuration
◦ Provides mechanical support for moving

spacecraft elements (e.g., deploying and
moving solar arrays, booms, or antennas)
◦ Provides ordnance for separating or

deploying movable components (usually,
ordnance is explosive in nature, e.g.,
explosive bolts)
The Soil Moisture Active Passive satellite has a large antenna boom that
supports a large antenna. Image courtesy of JPL/NASA
Electrical Power Subsystem
◦ Supplies the spacecraft with the power

required to sustain bus and payload
operations.
◦ Provides excess power that may be stored

(in batteries) for later use.
◦ All spacecraft must at least generate and

distribute power.
◦ For most spacecraft that do not venture

beyond the orbit of Mars, power generation
is usually accomplished via solar cells.
52 • FRANCES ZHU
Space Shuttle Electrical Power System System

Diagram. Image by Space Shuttle Guide.
Command, (Telemetry, &) Data Handling
◦ Receives, validates, decodes, and

distributes commands to spacecraft systems
◦ Gathers, processes, formats, and records

spacecraft housekeeping telemetry and
payload data for downlink and/or use by the
on-board computer (OBC).
◦ All spacecraft must handle commands and

data, even Sputnik, that had to send 1’s and
0’s across electronics to blink its light.
Image courtesy of Trevor with HSFL

Communications/RF
◦ Receives command data transmitted from a

ground/space-based communications
antenna
◦ Transmits telemetry data (containing

spacecraft health and payload data) to
ground/space-based receiving antennas
◦ All spacecraft must communicate with its

operators; Sputnik blinked lights to know it
had survived in space.
Artist’s concept of Voyager in flight. Image courtesy of NASA, JPL

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Attitude, Determination, Control, and Sensing
◦ senses changes in spacecraft orientation/

stability
◦ controls spacecraft or component (e.g.,

antenna or sensor) orientation as required to
support payload/spacecraft pointing
requirements.
Layout of the Kepler Space Telescope, including its 4 reaction wheels.

Image courtesy of NASA Ames / Ball
Thermal (Monitoring &) Control
◦ Maintains satellite components within

required temperature limits by monitoring
and heating/cooling components as
required.
Radiators on the ISS, shedding excess heat. Image Courtesy of NASA
Propulsion
◦ Stores and converts the potential energy of

on-board propellant(s) into the propulsive
energy needed to exert a required force(s)
on a satellite.
56 • FRANCES ZHU
An example architecture from the mid-2010s of a

human spaceflight mission to Mars, as envisioned
by the United States space agency by NASA.
Image courtesy of NASA.
Environment Control & Life Support
◦ Provides control of the spacecraft

environment to support human and other
required life forms by supplying oxygen,
food, and potable water; maintaining
comfortable temperatures; and removing,
cleansing/ recycling waste products
(gaseous, liquid & solid).
◦ Thermal Control is sometimes included in

the ECLSS
Image source: The International Space Station water recovery

component of the Environmental Control and Life Support System.
“Space bus” a visual comparrison of components of a space craft to a

school bus. Image courtesy of Understanding Space: An Introduction to
Astronautics by Jerry Jon Sellers

here:
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here:

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1.5 How? (The General Design
Process)
The verification and validation model broken down into different phases
of the design cycle. Created by Dr. Frankie Zhu of HSFL.
A useful systems engineering model for the spacecraft

lifecycle is the “V-model” or “V&V process”. The process
begins on the top left with stakeholder analysis, then moving
down the definition and design process: system/mission
requirements definition, system architecture/subsystem
performance decomposition, tradespace exploration/
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design solution, and component development. Along the design

process, the team must pass the system requirements review
(SRR), preliminary design review (PDR), and critical design
review (CDR) [NASA Systems Engineering Handbook]. When
verifying and validating that the design meets the requirements
and the stakeholders will be happy, the verification and
validation process includes component performance analysis,
subsystem performance analysis, system performance analysis,
and mission operations. Along the way, the team must pass the
system integration review (SIR) and fight readiness review
(FRR). Although this diagram looks very linear, the design
process is iterative and should include various loops returning
the design team to earlier stages of the design process when
incompatibilities are identified. This textbook will cover the
intricacies of the design process by describing spacecraft design
drivers, the role and design of each subsystem, and best
practices for the design process.
62 • FRANCES ZHU
Design Review Expectation
• System requirements have been

System
completely and properly identified and
Requirements
that a mutual understanding between
Review (SRR)
the government and contractor exists.
• Preliminary design meets all system

requirements with acceptable risk and
within cost & schedule restraints.
Preliminary • Shows that correct design options have
Design Review been selected & interfaces identified
(PDR) • ~10% of the detailed design has been
completed.
• Establishes a basis for proceeding
with detailed/final design.
• Detailed design is expected to meet

requirements with adequate margins at
an acceptable level of risk.
• High confidence exists in the product
baseline & adequate documentation
exists (or will exist in a timely
manner) to allow proceeding with
Critical Design fabrication, assembly, integration, and
test.
Review (CDR)
• ~90% of the detailed design has been
completed.
• Does the design “close”?
• In plain language, the design is
essentially complete and ready to
move into the fabrication/assembly
phase.
• SIR is conducted at end of the final

design phase and before the systems
assembly, integration, and test phase
• SIR ensures the system is ready to be
integrated
• Interfaces have been verified against
System the interface control documentation
Integration • Segments, components, and
Review (SIR) subsystems are available & ready to be
integrated into the system
• Verify that all assembly & integration
facilities are ready & available
• Think in terms of, “Are we ready to
begin assembly & integration of the
vehicle?”
64 • FRANCES ZHU
• Examines tests, demonstrations,

analyses, and audits that determine the
Flight-Readiness overall system (all projects working
Review (FRR) – together) readiness for a safe and
successful flight/launch and for
subsequent flight operations.

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2. Systems Engineering
Learning Objectives
• Associate how the process of systems

engineering will relate to your own
process throughout the semester, in
program phases and schedule milestones
• Analyze how design drivers become
mission requirements to system
requirements to subsystem requirements
to component requirements
• Relate different project management
tools to the systems engineering process
• Scheme how you could design a
mission around the Artemis CubeSat Kit
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Background of Systems Engineering
Learning Objectives
2.1 Program Phases (Context for the Design Phase)
NASA’s Big Programs
Cube Satellites
The Scope of This Design Course
2.2 The Systems Engineer
2.3 Requirements
Defining Requirements
Artemis CubeSat Kit Requirements Example
2.4 Product Breakdown Structure
Artemis CubeSat Kit Subsystem Requirements Example
Requirements Verification Matrix
2.5 Products of Design Reference Missions
Concept of Operations
Space Systems Architecture
2.6 Project Management Tools and Documents
Technology Readiness Levels

Interface Control Documents
System Block Diagrams
Work Breakdown Structure
Gantt Charts
PERT charts
Mass and Power Estimation
Cost Estimation
Schedule Estimation?
2.7 Decision Analysis Tools
2.8 Managing Risks
Risk Tracking
Hazard Analysis
Suggested Activity
2.1 Program Phases
NASA’s Big Programs
Suggested Reading
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Suggested reading in NASA systems engineering

handbook is Chapter 3.0-3.9, NASA Program/Project
Life Cycle.
A spacecraft mission design course will prepare you for the

“formulation phase” of a NASA project life cycle. The whole
project life cycle gives a more informed understanding of the
subsequent implementation phases that might affect the
technical design outside of technical specifications, such as ease
to integrate or operate. A good systems engineer considers the
entire life cycle in the seemingly short window of design
formulation. Figure __ is comprehensive for a large spaceflight
mission, but a small satellite mission may reduce the number of
reviews to adjust for an abbreviated program cycle with quicker
turnaround time. The formulation phase includes Phase A:
Concept and Technology Development and Phase B:
Preliminary Design and Technology Completion.
NASA Life Cycle overview. Space Systems Engineering Principles of

Space Systems Design. By the University of Maryland. Image Courtesy
of NASA.
NASA Formulation Overview. Space Systems Engineering Principles of

Space Systems Design. By The University of Maryland. Image courtesy
of NASA.
From the previous EPET 301: Space Science Instrumentation

course, you should be familiar with potential science missions
that drive a space mission. The preliminary analysis includes
defining the payload, proof of concept analyses, and “build or
buy” decisions [Akin]. Pre-Phase A concept studies include a
“broad spectrum of ideas and alternatives for missions [for
which activities include] determining the feasibility of the
desired system, developing mission concepts, drafting system-
level requirements, assessing performance, cost, and schedule
feasibility, and identifying potential technology needs and
scope”. This phase may include a peer review, called the Mission
Concept Review. Assuming that the concept studies resulted
74 • FRANCES ZHU
in a clear set of questions, methods, and solutions within a

feasible schedule and budget, we may begin Phase A: Concept
and Technology Development.
An Overview of the Mission Design Process.The NASA Engineering

Management Council (EMC). By Dr. Michael G. Ryschkewitsch. Image
courtesy of NASA.
Phase A should produce a fully developed baseline mission

concept that responds to the program expectations,
requirements, and constraints. In this planning phase, we should
ensure that the “project justification and practicality are
sufficient to warrant a place in NASA’s [or your targeted funding
agency’s] budget”. To do so, refer to NASA’s decadal surveys,
strategic plans and roadmaps, and the taxonomy report. Detailed
products from this phase include a final mission concept,
system-level requirements, needed system technology
developments, and program/project technical management
plans. Typical activities include developing baseline top-level
requirements and constraints including internal and external

interfaces, developing engineering units for high-risk concepts,
allocating system requirements to functions and to the next
lower level, validating requirements, and identifying risks. The
design is peer-reviewed in separated or combined a system
requirements review (SRR) and a mission design review (MDR)
for compliance, which results in returning to refine the baseline
concept or moving onto Phase B.
Phase B aims to “complete the technology development,

engineering prototyping, heritage hardware and software
assessments, and other risk-mitigation activities”. Detailed
products include a system structure and preliminary designs for
each system structure end product. Typical activities include
identifying one or more feasible preliminary designs including
internal and external interfaces, selecting a preliminary design
solution, developing an operation plan on matured ConOps,
improving fidelity or models and prototypes used in evaluations,
and developing preliminary plans (Orbital Debris,
Decommissioning, Disposal). The design is peer-reviewed in the
preliminary design review (PDR), which results in a return to the
preliminary design process or progression to Phase C.
Project Phase C establishes a final design for fabrication and

software development. These efforts refine the preliminary
design to explicit definition of all the components with
compatible internal and external interfaces. Typical activities
include fully maturing preliminary designs, fully documenting
the final design and developing data package, defining
interfaces, developing baseline plans for later phases, and
76 • FRANCES ZHU
fabricating the product. The design is peer-reviewed in stages at

the critical design review (CDR) and system integration review
(SIR), which results in refining the design, procedures, and plans
or progression to Phase D, the final phase before launch.
Cube Satellites
NASA CubeSat Launch initiative. Image courtesy of NASA
Cube satellite projects are smaller than typical NASA

projects, require less team members, and follow compressed
timelines. From 2011, the NASA CubeSat Launch Initiative
“provides opportunities for small satellite payloads built by
universities, high schools, and non-profit organizations to fly on
upcoming launches” and wrote a stellar CubeSat 101 Handbook.
CubeSat101 Basic Concepts and Processes first-Time CubeSat

Developers NASA CubeSat Launch Initiative For public release. Image
courtesy of NASA
The CubeSat project timeline “can vary depending on the

launch vehicle selected and what you are trying to accomplish
with your CubeSat” but generally follows:
1. Concept Development (1–6 months)

78 • FRANCES ZHU
2. Securing Funding (1–12 months)
3. Merit and Feasibility Reviews (1–2 months)

4. CubeSat Design (1–6 months)
5. Development and Submittal of Proposal in Response

to CSLI Call (3–4 months)
6. Selection and Manifesting (1–36 months)
7. Mission Coordination (9–18 months) – Once this

phase begins, a schedule will be provided by the
integrator that will dictate hardware and
documentation delivery dates, essentially providing
the completion dates for the subsequent phases.
8. Licensing (4–6 months)
9. Flight-Specific Documentation Development and

Submittal (10–12 months)
10. Ground Station Design, Development, and Testing

(2–12 months)
11. CubeSat Hardware Fabrication and Testing (2–12

months)
12. Mission Readiness Reviews (half-day)
13. CubeSat to Dispenser Integration and Testing (1 day)
14. Dispenser to Launch Vehicle Integration (1 day)
15. Launch (1 day)
16. Mission Operations (variable, up to 20 years)

How the potential phases of a project come together. By CubeSat 101

Basic Concepts and Processes for First-Time CubeSat Developers.
NASA CubeSat Launch Initiative. Image courtesy of NASA.
The main difference between a large NASA mission and a

CubeSat mission is the proposal selection for full development
occurs after the spacecraft is significantly designed on paper.
The NASA programs assume that a launch is secured prior to
significant design work and only upon catastrophic program
failure along the way, a launch is lost. Cube satellite programs,
as a result, are commonly bootstrapped by self-motivated
engineers and don’t always make it to launch. Some cube
satellite programs are lucky enough to be funded upfront and
developed in-house by NASA or have venture capital funding
raised, like PlanetLabs. As of May 31st, 2018, 855 CubeSats had
been launched [Villela et al.]. CSLI has launched 66 CubeSats
and selected 162 CubeSats for free launches, a significant
portion of all CubeSat launches [Crusan & Galicia].
80 • FRANCES ZHU
The Scope of This Design Course
Common cost associate with developing a CubeSat. By CubeSat 101

Basic Concepts and Processes for First-Time CubeSat Developers.
NASA CubeSat Launch Initiative. Image courtesy of NASA.
Most spacecraft design courses expect students to design a

spacecraft from the NASA Pre-Phase A to Phase B, ending their
design at a preliminary design review phase. From the CSLI
phase list, the scope of most courses is to cover Steps 1 to 4.
We hope to push further into aspects of NASA Phase C or CSLI
Step 11 by offering hardware and software that demonstrate
spacecraft functionality in verification and validation through
lab modules.
The general process of designing a spacecraft from Pre-Phase A

to Phase B is listed in steps [the New SMAD]:
1. Defining Mission Objectives
In this class, we will assume that your team has come

up with mission objectives. This should be the case if
you took EPET 301: Space Science Instrumentation. If
you haven’t come up with a mission yet, do take time

to explicitly define your goals before moving on. The
goal can be as simple as recreating the simplest satellite
possible: Sputnik, a spacecraft that beeps in space. If you
have access to space scientists, collaborate with them on
a more compelling mission! In the CSLI timeline, this is
the beginning of the concept development phase
2. Involving Principal Players
We will assume your principal players are with you; they

are your fellow classmates (engineering and science),
your faculty mentor, and interested volunteers. Be sure
you define roles in your team to be explicit about
responsibilities. We’ll review the role of a systems
engineer and program manager in the following section.
3. Evaluating Program Timescales
From the CSLI phase timeline, the concept development

and CubeSat design usually take 1-6 months for each
phase but are not strictly defined, unlike the larger NASA
programs. For this class at UH Manoa, we will constrain
CubeSat concept development and design phases to one
semester but for those at home, feel free to take your
time! You won’t have to adhere to a strict timeline until
after you secure a launch.
4. Estimating Preliminary Mission Needs,

Requirements, and Constraints
This part of the concept development and CubeSat design

82 • FRANCES ZHU
is covered in the requirements and design reference

mission product sections.
5. Choosing Pieces of the Mission Architecture
A section of this chapter discusses the flow down of

requirements to other subsystems. The other chapters in
the textbook will delve into each subsystem’s roles,
designing to requirements, and choosing satisfactory
components. These chapters will be particularly useful to
subsystem specialists and leads.
6. Resolving Interfaces of Pieces in the Mission

Architecture
The project management tools section of this chapter

discusses interface control documents and system block
diagrams, which assist systems engineers in ensuring a
cohesive system between the subsystems. Each
subsystem chapter will discuss interconnectivity between
and impacts on the other subsystems.
7. Defining System Drivers and Critical Requirements

is specifically covered in the requirements verification
matrix and managing risks section. Each subsystem
chapter will expand upon specific subsystem drivers and
critical requirements.
8. System Trade Studies and Performance Assessments


is covered in the decision analysis tools. Each subsystem
chapter will expand upon specific trade studies and the
rigorous analyses necessary to assess performance.
9. Evaluating Mission Utility and Figures of Merit
Outside the scope of this course, internal and external

reviewers will evaluate how well the design met the
mission (requirements verification matrix) and how
compelling your mission is (design reviews and CSLI
proposal selection). We will assist with the mission
design but selling your project to CSLI is outside the
scope of this course. To apply to CSLI, make sure to
10. Defining the Baseline Mission Concepts, Revising

Requirements, and Evaluating Alternatives
This final step is essentially a regathering of the design

and reflection of which parts of the system design need
iteration. Requirements may be revisited. Alternative
components may be selected. The design process is
iterative so commonly, the team will return to step 4
to reassess requirements, component selection, and
reevaluate the design.
84 • FRANCES ZHU
Launch of ELaNa-II from Vandenberg Air Force Base, CA on December

6, 2013. Four CubeSat Missions were deployed. Image courtesy of
Corkery/ULA.
2.2 The Systems Engineer
For projects that are too large for a single person to handle
in their head, the field of systems engineering is to formalize
the development of large, complex systems, typically run by
teams [Akin]. Systems engineering offers a rigorous, systematic
approach to organization and record-keeping, first introduced in
the 1950’s for ICBM development for failure-critical missions.
As spacecraft missions are failure-critical, the spacecraft
program life cycle follows a rigorous and systematic timeline
with explicit definitions of progress.
NASA is an enormous entity with inertia, maintains central

organization, and publishes documents publicly, making NASA
standards widely adopted in spacecraft systems engineering.
NASA has created a reference handbook for systems
engineering, intended to “provide general guidance and
information on systems engineering that will be useful to the
NASA community”.
85
86 • FRANCES ZHU
Figure __: Difference and commonality in roles between systems

engineer and project manager.NASA Systems Engineering Handbook
by Steven R. Hirshorn Chief Engineer, Aeronautics Research Mission
Directorate (ARMD). Image courtesy of NASA. [NASA]
We will reference and even paraphrase this handbook heavily

and highly recommend a detailed reading of the handbook for
deeper discussions of the system engineering process. For the
fundamentals in systems engineering, the suggested reading is

Chapter 2 of the NASA systems engineering handbook, only 14
pages long. The next paragraphs are a summary.
Systems engineering tasks include “design, realization, technical

management, operations, and retirement of a system”, or the
entire system’s life cycle [NASA]. A systems engineer is a
technical manager, who focuses on the interfaces between
subsystems, evaluates system-level performance, and makes
“big picture” decisions. The systems engineer interfaces with
the subsystem specialists, balancing technical needs against each
other, sometimes in the face of exactly opposing requirements or
constraints. In a team environment, the systems engineer must
often navigate tense social situations, from individual egos to
high-stress team dynamics. When interacting with lead scientists
or higher-level program management, the systems engineer
supports the development of the concept of operations (ConOps)
and system architecture.
88 • FRANCES ZHU
Figure__:Stephen Cox is the Launch Control Center (LCC) Manager for

Exploration Ground Systems (EGS) at Kennedy Space Center (KSC).
Stephen discusses lessons learned as a project manager. The full video
can be found at Launch Control Center Project Management by Stephen
Cox Launch Control Manager. Video courtesy of NASA.
In overall project management, the counterpart to a systems

engineer is the program or project manager, who is a separate
person for larger projects but may be merged with the systems
engineer for smaller projects. As this textbook is geared towards
undergraduate projects typically smaller in scope, the latter case
is much more likely, so we will expand upon aspects of project
management in depth in this textbook as well.
Difference and commonality in roles between systems engineer and

project manager.NASA Systems Engineering Handbook by Steven R.
Hirshorn Chief Engineer, Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate
(ARMD). Image courtesy of NASA.
2.3 Requirements
Defining Requirements
Suggested Reading
Suggested readings in the NASA systems

engineering handbook are chapter sections 4.2 and
6.2. the following text is for your convenience and is
heavily paraphrased from the NASA systems
engineering handbook, which offers a more detailed
discussion.
A good design is derived from good requirements. The

requirements document is “the ‘bible’ of the design and
development process” [Akin]. Systems engineers work with
stakeholders (typically principal investigators) to generate a
clear, unambiguous, numerical list of validated technical
90
requirements that, if achieved, will complete the program. These

requirements take into account the baselined stakeholder
expectations, baselined concepts of operations, baselined
enabling support strategies, and measures of effectiveness.
Notice each input is prefaced with baselined, as requirements
may evolve in the design process if the requirement is
impossible to meet, adheres overly imposing constraints on the
design, or is deemed irrelevant after a design change. Enabling
support strategies are the infrastructure or resources needed to
“develop, test, produce, operate, or dispose of the end product”.
This input is one method of injecting the subsequent product
life cycle phases into the design. For your system design, make
sure you are adhering to the most conservative requirements in
the program life cycle so there will be no surprising redesigns,
especially later in the process. Measures of effectiveness are
defined by stakeholders to evaluate the project’s success, not
only in the spaceflight mission but also through development,
and are translated to measures of performance.
92 • FRANCES ZHU
Technical Requirements Definition Process. by NASA System

engineering handbook. Image courtesy of NASA
The process of generating requirements with the mentioned

inputs and outputs is given in Fig__’s flow diagram. Before
defining requirements, we must define constraints, functional
and behavioral expectations. The most stringent constraints are
considered first as these constraints typically cannot be changed
and/or are non-negotiable for mission success. Softer constraints
are derived from elements that are already under design control
and helps narrow potential design solutions. Other constraints
include external and enabling systems that the system must
interface within the system’s life cycle. The final considerations
for requirements are not constraints but are generated from
functional and behavioral expectations. The resulting
requirements are a combination of internally (authored by the
design team) and externally composed requirements (adhered by

external agencies).
Requirements can be technical and non-technical.

Nontechnical requirements may reside at the program or project
requirements level, such as human needs for manned space, user
intuition in working with a cube satellite kit, or international
collaboration when sourcing major components. Allocated
technical requirements can be defined as functional
requirements (what functions need to be performed to
accomplish the objective?), performance requirements (how
well does the system need to perform the functions?), and
interface requirements (what connections must be made to the
system to perform the functions?). Crosscutting technical
requirements originate from the nature of the space environment
(like radiation, thermal, acoustic, mechanical loads,
contamination, radiofrequency), safety, reliability, human
factors, and those that originate from the “-ilities” and from
Design and Construction (D&C) standards [NASA]. Standards
(or program expectations), even within NASA, are not
consistent from center to center so make sure you are aware
of the specific standards your project must adhere to; Goddard
(GSFC), for example, has publicly posted their own General
Environmental Verification Standard, specific to GSFC
payloads, subsystems, and components and describes methods
for implementing those requirements.
94 • FRANCES ZHU
Verification test report forms. GENERAL ENVIRONMENTAL

VERIFICATION STANDARD (GEVS) For GSFC Flight Programs and
Projects. By Chief Engineer, Director of Applied Engineering and
Technology, Director of Flight Projects, and Director of Safety and
Mission Assurance at Goddard Space Flight Center. Image courtesy of
NASA.
Requirement definition is an art form and a science. Appendix

C of the NASA systems engineering handbook contains a
checklist on how to write good requirements and Appendix E for
validating requirements (requirements for requirements). Bad
requirements cause misunderstanding and miscommunication

between team members, leading to more rework, schedule
delays, and overrun budgets. These requirements are used by the
stakeholders to establish the absolute minimum expectation of
system function and the technical team to work toward meeting
the requirements/flowing down the requirements to subsystems
or components. For additional information on types of
requirements, requirements databases, and the use of technical
standards, refer to the NASA Expanded Guidance for Systems
Engineering document.
Expanded Guidance for NASA Systems Engineering. By Hirshorn,

Steven R. Image courtesy of NASA.
Requirements specifically made for the CubeSat form factor

were written by CalPoly SLO [CubeSat Design Specification
Rev. 14]. For your convenience, their definition of requirement
terms are as follows:
96 • FRANCES ZHU
1.6.1 Shall is used to denote requirements that must be

met and will need formal verification.
1.6.2 Should is used to denote a strong recommendation

or a suggestion to make formal verification of another
requirement easier. In many cases, failure to adhere to
“should” statements will limit launch opportunities.
1.6.3 Will is used to denote a situation that is going to

happen regardless of inputs from the launch vehicle and/
or spacecraft developer. “Will” statements serve to
indicate events that the spacecraft developers should be
prepared for.
1.6.4 Note is used to denote a recommendation or advice

meant to aid the CubeSat Developer
Artemis CubeSat Kit Requirements Example
The Artemis CubeSat Kit mission statement is to create 1) a

low-cost satellite kit that can be used as a space flight mission,
suborbital payload, avionics on a rocket, or as a tabletop data
collector and 2) an online course that teaches undergraduates
with no prior aerospace engineering experience the
fundamentals to designing and building a small satellite. The
CubeSat kit’s highest level program and project requirements
are:
System Requirements
The CubeSat kit components shall be rated for spaceflight

1
operations
The CubeSat kit shall be low-cost and accessible to universities

2
and private individuals
The CubeSat kit shall function as a basic spacecraft with a

3
payload in space.
The CubeSat kit components shall at least include components

4 in educational ground kits extended to spaceflight equivalents
when budget allows.
The CubeSat kit shall include software that is intuitive for

5
undergraduate students
The CubeSat kit shall be accompanied with an online course and

6
tutorials for Spacecraft Mission Design
The CubeSat kit shall be tested to meet environmental

requirements set forth in NASA GEVS for spaceflight. The
7
end-user will be responsible for doing final flight environmental
testing set forth by their launch provider.
Suggested Reading
Suggested reading in NASA systems engineering

handbook, Chapter 4.3
98 • FRANCES ZHU
Example of the Flow down Requirements. By NASA System

Engineering Text book. Image courtesy of NASA.
Example of the Logical Decomposition Process. By NASA System

Engineering Text book. Image courtesy of NASA.
In the NASA systems engineering handbook, the act of

flowing down requirements toward component selection is
called the logical decomposition process, shown in Figure 4.3-1.
After the system performance requirements are set, the
functional and performance requirements of different
subsystems (structures, ADCS, etc.) may be derived, like in
Figure 4.2-3. An example of how science pointing requirements
at the mission level flows down detailed component
100 • FRANCES ZHU
requirements is shown in Figure 4.2-5.
With the goal in mind, the process to flow down requirements

begins by establishing a system architecture model, which
partitions the system into subsystem elements and defines
relationships between partitioned subsystems. This system
architecture is then functionally analyzed to ensure that the
partitioned elements when recombined contribute to the whole
system as the system requirements intended. Functional analysis
“identifies and links system functions, trade studies, interface
characteristics, and rationales to requirements, usually based
on the ConOps for the system of interest. Three key steps in
performing functional analysis are:
1. Translate top-level requirements into functions that

should be performed to accomplish the requirements.
2. Decompose and allocate the functions to lower levels

of the product breakdown structure.
3. Identify and describe functional and subsystem

interfaces.”
The hope is that the subsystems and subsystem relationships

are explicitly defined such that each subsystem may be
developed separately from each other. The handbook promotes
“a creative, recursive, collaborative, and iterative process that
combines an excellent understanding of the project’s end
objectives and constraints with an equally good knowledge of
various potential technical means of delivering the end
products”.
For additional information on product breakdown structure and

functional analysis techniques, refer to the NASA Expanded
Guidance for Systems Engineering document.
Artemis CubeSat Kit Subsystem Requirements Example

For each high-level requirement, more detailed requirements for
the CubeSat Kit are given:
1. The CubeSat kit components shall be rated for Low

Earth Orbit operations, with the option of suborbital and
tabletop
1.1 The CubeSat kit shall meet the requirements

outlined in NASA’s Launch Services Program
Level Dispenser CubeSat Requirements Document
(LSP-REQ-317.01B)
1.2 The CubeSat kit shall meet the environmental

102 • FRANCES ZHU
qualification testing requirements outlined in the

Program Level Dispenser CubeSat Requirements
Document (LSP-REQ-317.01B)
1.3 The CubeSat kit shall use components that are

rated for the space environment or components
that are tested and proven to be space worthy for at
least 18 months
2. The CubeSat kit shall be low-cost and accessible to

universities and private individuals
2.1 The CubeSat kit shall cost less than $5000

USD
2.2 The CubeSat kit shall be commercially

accessible through a public domain digital
platform (website)
3. The CubeSat kit shall function as a basic spacecraft with

a payload in space.
3.1 The CubeSat power system shall generate

power in LEO and provide sufficient power to all
other bus components
3.2 The CubeSat thermal system shall verify or

regulate that all components are within an
acceptable thermally operational range
3.3 The CubeSat ADCS system shall estimate its

position to within 100 m and attitude to within 3

degrees
3.4 The CubeSat command and data handling

system store, process, and route all data for the
predefined kit components and while providing
margin for the data needs of a variety of
undergraduate payload missions
3.5 The CubeSat communications system shall

transmit telemetry from LEO
3.6 The CubeSat structure shall be contained

within 1U and offer flexibility in mounting
components internally
4. The CubeSat kit components shall at least include

components in educational ground kits
4.1 The kit’s EPS components shall include solar

panels, battery, battery sensors, and a distribution
(sub)board
4.2 The kit’s thermal components shall include

sensors for the temperature sensors for the solar
panels, batteries, and other thermally sensitive
boards
4.3 The kit’s ADCS components shall include

GPS, magnetometer, sun sensors, estimation
algorithms, and processing (sub)board.
104 • FRANCES ZHU
4.4 The kit’s OBCS components shall include an

onboard processing board and memory.
4.5 The kit’s communication components shall

include a radio, antenna, and (sub)board.
4.6 The kit’s structure components shall include

chassis walls, base plate, cover plate, and board
mounting fixtures
4.7 The kit’s software shall include plug and play

capability for the kit hardware, real-time
monitoring and commanding, visuals for
numerical fields and plots, and be opensource
4.8 The kit’s ground support equipment shall

include components necessary to handle and
develop the kit into a CubeSat
4.9 The kit shall include safe assembly and

disassembly instructions that are easily accessible
online
5. The CubeSat kit shall include software that is intuitive

for undergraduate students
5.1 The CubeSat kit shall be programmable by

undergraduate students at the junior level
5.2 The CubeSat kit shall be brought from open

box to visual plots for at least one sensor in at most
one hour
6. The CubeSat kit shall be accompanied with an online

course and tutorials for Spacecraft Mission Design
6.1 The CubeSat kit shall include demos and

tutorials to step students through from open box to
fully functioning satellite
6.2 The CubeSat kit shall include lessons learned

and best practice guidance
6.3 The CubeSat kit shall host a forum for

engineering and community support
6.4 The CubeSat course shall offer the theory in

designing all subsystems in a small satellite
7. The CubeSat kit shall be tested to meet environmental

requirements set forth in NASA GEVS for spaceflight. The
end-user will be responsible for doing final flight
environmental testing set forth by their launch provider.
7.1 All components shall undergo a vibration test

that qualifies them for spaceflight
7.2 Lithium batteries shall undergo vibration and

vacuum testing, as detailed in the NanoRacks
Battery Test Procedures Document to qualify them
for Manned Flight
7.3 All components shall undergo a thermal

vacuum test that qualifies them for spaceflight
106 • FRANCES ZHU
The hardware components and software are further

defined:
Hardware Component Requirements:
3. The CubeSat kit shall function as a basic

spacecraft with a payload in space.
3.1 The CubeSat power system shall generate

power in LEO and provide sufficient power to all
3.1.1 The solar panels shall generate a

minimum of 2.5W to charge the battery
3.1.2 The power distribution system shall

supply sufficient power to all the other
subsystems
3.1.3 The battery shall have a capacity of at

least 10Wh
3.2 The CubeSat thermal system shall verify or

regulate that all components are within an
acceptable thermally operational range
3.2.1 All components shall operate between

0 and 50 degrees Celsius
3.2.2 The CubeSat’s estimated thermal

profile shall not exceed the 0 to 50 degree
Celsius range for an ISS orbit
3.2.3 Heaters and thermal straps shall

provide thermal control of the sensitive
components
3.3 The CubeSat ADCNS system shall estimate its

position and attitude
3.3.1 The ADCNS sensors shall resolve

3DOF attitude to within 3 degrees in LEO
3.3.2 The ADCNS sensors shall resolve

3DOF position to within 100 m in LEO
3.4 The CubeSat command and data handling

system store, process, and route all data for the
predefined kit components and while providing
margin for the data needs of a variety of
undergraduate payload missions
3.4.1 Define minimum hard drive memory

needed for payload and other components
3.4.2 The onboard computer flash memory

shall have at least 32kB
3.4.3 The onboard computer CPU shall

have a clock speed of at least 16MHz
3.4.4 The onboard computer shall be the

centralized computer commanding all
daughterboards
108 • FRANCES ZHU
3.4.5 The onboard computer shall have at

least 1 USB port available
3.5 The CubeSat communications system shall

transmit telemetry from LEO
3.5.1 The radio shall transmit detectable

telemetry in amateur radio frequency
(UHF)
3.5.2 The ground stations shall receive

UHF and process true telemetry
3.5.3 The link budget shall have a margin of

at least 5 dB
3.6 The CubeSat structure shall be contained

within 1U and offer flexibility in mounting
components internally
3.6.1 The CubeSat kit structure shall remain

inside a 10 x 10 x 11.35 cm +/- 0.1mm
volume while undeployed
3.6.2 All four protruding corners on the top

and bottom of the main body of the CubeSat
shall not exceed a height of 6.75mm, shall
have a minimum length and width of 6mm,
and shall have a surface area of 6.5mm x
6.5mm, per NASA CLSI requirements
3.6.3 There shall be a minimum of 20mm

from the CubeSat surface to the top of the

corners along the Z direction per NASA
CSLI Requirements
3.6.4 The four edges of the CubeSat along

the Z direction shall have a hardness greater
than or equal to Rockwell C 65-70 per
NASA CSLI Requirements
3.6.5 The overall structure shall withstand

1200N between two XY planes applied in
the Z direction, per NASA CSLI
Requirements
3.6.6 The maximum mass of the entire

CubeSat Kit shall not exceed 1.33kg per
NASA CSLI Requirements
3.6.7 The center of gravity shall be within

2cm of its geometric center relative to the Z
direction, per NASA CSLI Requirements
3.6.8 The CubeSat kit shall be easy to

assemble with the provided instructions
Software Requirements
5. The CubeSat kit shall include software that is
intuitive for undergraduate students
5.1 The CubeSat kit shall be programmable by

undergraduate students at the junior level
110 • FRANCES ZHU
5.1.1 The necessary programming

languages shall require little-to-no prior
coding experience
5.1.2 Documentation and tutorials shall be

detailed and easily accessible
5.1.3 A forum for users looking to

overcome issues shall be created
5.2 The CubeSat kit shall be brought from open

box to visual plots for at least one sensor in at most
one hour
5.2.1 The CubeSat kit shall be provided

with pre-installed software
5.2.2 A tutorial shall be provided which

details initial steps to test and demonstrate
sensor functionality, completable by most
students within one hour
5.2.3 A thumb drive with the necessary

development tools will be included to
minimize setup time
Note that some requirements, especially in the hardware

components, have explicit numerical thresholds whereas the
software requirements are softer in definition to account for a
diversity of users. These softer requirements need more testing
and iteration later in the process to properly fulfill the
requirements.
Requirements Verification Matrix
Verification Matrix by NASA Systems Engineering Textbook. Image

courtesy of NASA
A master spreadsheet, called the requirements verification

matrix, that “tracks all requirements, sources, status, and
documentation” [Akin]. This document “ensures that nothing
gets overlooked and everything is done for a purpose”. A
template of the requirements verification matrix may be found in
the NASA Systems Engineering Handbook Appendices.
2.4 Products of Design
Reference Missions
112
Cover photo of Human Exploration of Mars Design Reference

Architecture 5.0 by Mars Architecture Steering Group at NASA
Headquarters and Bret G. Drake, editor at NASA Johnson Space Center,
Houston, Texas
A design reference mission (DRM) “establishes an

operational context, descriptions of the environment and
situations in which solution concepts are expected to operate, an
operational narrative of expected behavior including a sequence
of operational activities and interactions between systems in an
environment, and sample measures for establishing goals for
mission success” [Giammarco and Shebalin].
DRMs are “critical tools at the mission level for evaluating

potential architectural concepts. Without a well thought out
DRM, a conceptual mission design is at risk for not optimizing
system trades, identifying necessary technology development,
114 • FRANCES ZHU
managing resources, and achieving a balanced design. The DRM

provides traceability from science objectives to engineering
requirements and can be used to examine options and
implications for observations; finding “tall poles” and drivers
and identifying the ultimate limits of performance. In this
manner, it is a crucial tool for recognizing and nourishing the
major strengths of the observatory and ranking design drivers.
The DRM is used as a guide and referee for major “big picture”
trades such as orbit selection, schedule availability and
scheduling approaches for operations, and time-to-complete the
DRM as a metric for observational efficiency” [Lightsey and
Wilkinson].
The DRM could take the form of a narrative, storyboard,

pictogram, timeline, or combination thereof and is created by
eventual users of the system (“stakeholders”) very early in the
development cycle [Akin]. An immense DRM for reference is
the Human Exploration of Mars Design Reference Architecture
5.0 and addendum.
Quote by Ray Bradbury, Mars and the Mind Man. Image courtesy of
NASA.
Concept of Operations
A concept of operations is a “description of how the proposed

system will accomplish the design reference mission(s) and will
appear to be similar to DRM, but is a product of the design,
rather than a driving requirement” [Akin]. A concept of
operations is commonly shortened to ConOps, derived from
DoD origins. ConOps samples include a Lunar Reconnaissance
Orbiter, Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites
(GOES-R), Ice Home Mars Habitat, and Sentinel-1 Satellite.
There exist plenty of infographics of current and proposed
ConOps by sifting through a Google Image search. A concept
of operations that is feasible with the Artemis CubeSat Kit is a
proposed Ke Ao mission.
116 • FRANCES ZHU
Ke Ao CubeSat ConOps
• Ke Ao is a 1U CubeSat with a similar purpose as

the Artemis CubeSat Kit, designed by undergraduate
students from the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa. Its
mission is to take a picture of Hawaiʻi from space,
and be the first iteration of the HiCubeSat Kit – an
educational and research kit with the goal of creating
and promoting aerospace workforce training and
education in Hawaii.
Exploded view of Ke Ao. Image courtesy of Hawaii Space

Flight Laboratory.
• Ke Ao’s Concept of Operations can be broken up into

four phases:
◦ Phase 1 (Launch Phase): Ke Ao will be

launched to the ISS, then get deployed into
orbit and power on.
◦ Phase 2 (Charge Phase): Once Ke Ao is in

orbit, the batteries to power the Ke Ao
system will be charged via solar panels.
◦ Phase 3 (Alignment Phase): Ke Ao’s

Attitude Determination and Control System
will orient the satellite such that it’s pointing
at Earth, so the Payload camera can take a
picture of Hawaii.
◦ Phase 4 (Viewing Phase): Ke Ao will take

a picture, then transfer data to it’s Ground
Station at Kauai Community College.
• During Ke Ao’s lifetime, it will repeat Phases 2, 3, and

4 in space.
118 • FRANCES ZHU
Side view of Ke Ao with the panels removed. Image courtesy

of HSFL.
Space Systems Architecture
A space systems architecture is a “description of physical

hardware, processes, and operations to perform DRM” [Akin].
The space systems architecture “can be broken down into main
three physical parts: the space segment, the launch segment,
and ground segment. The space segment can be either a single
satellite or a constellation of satellites in the same or multiple
orbits. The launch segment can be relatively simple for a single
satellite architecture, or very intricate for a many-satellite
architecture (like Iridium, or GPS). The ground segment often
includes a choice of whether to use data downlink gateway
systems in space (i.e. TDRSS) or on the earth (i.e. the Deep
Space Network, or AFSCN) ” [Weigel].
Image source: Space Systems

2.5 Project Management Tools
and Documents
Systems engineering and program management can generate

a lot of documentation. Useful documents include interface
control documents, system block diagrams, work breakdown
structures, Gantt charts, and PERT charts. Many tools exist,
like NASA’s Software Tools for Project Management which
bundles the Work Breakdown Structure (WBS), budgeting, task
plans, and analysis. These tools can also be found separately,
individually, or created from scratch by the user.
Technology Readiness Levels
Technology readiness levels (TRLs) are used to estimate the

maturity of technologies, first developed by NASA in the 1970s.
The Department of Defense and European Space Agency have
adopted this standard for their technology assessment as well.
There are nine different levels of TRL where TRL 1 is the lowest
maturity and TRL 9 is the highest maturity. I visit NASA’s
120
definition of TRL website so often I may as well bookmark

the page. Although this standard is widely adopted and used,
multiple people may evaluate a technology at different TRLs
based upon their interpretation of maturity. TRLs may be
attached to any level of technology, from a component as small
as a bolt to the entire spacecraft system. Software may even be
attached with a TRL. This standard’s primary purpose is to help
make decisions concerning the development and transitioning of
technology [Wikipedia]. TRL definitions also help technologists
understand the capabilities necessary to mature the technology
toward spaceflight.
122 • FRANCES ZHU
Technology Readiness Levels (TRL) are a type of measurement system

used to assess the maturity level of a particular technology. Image
courtesy of NASA.
Interface Control Documents
Interface control documents specify interfaces between

mating systems, which include mechanical, electrical, and data
interfaces [Akin]. If the interfaces must be connected into a
cohesive system before flight, these interfaces must be checked
and caught before it’s too late. But if the interfaces are
disconnected until after flight and are expected to be assembled

in orbit, the interface errors would cause critical catastrophes
for an immensely expensive project that could have been fixed
with a simple check. Here’s an example of an interface control
document and all the ICDs of our kit can be found here.
Akin’s Laws of Spacecraft Design #15
(Shea’s Law) The ability to improve a design

occurs primarily at the interfaces. This is also the
prime location for screwing it up.
System Block Diagrams
System block diagrams are visual aids to show the

relationships between projects, systems, subsystems, and/or
components. These diagrams can help subsystem leads catch
interface errors or communicate the partitioning of
responsibilities. The following diagram is a spacecraft system
diagram, which does not include the larger picture of ground
stations to control centers. This diagram includes components
in each subsystem but not the individual constituents of each
component or interface connection. That level of detail can be
portrayed in a separate or embedded system block diagram.
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Images courtesy of Mitch with Hawaii Space Flight Laboratory.
System block diagram for an interstellar spacecraft concept. This

mission is fictitious and should only serve as a way one can lay out a
system block diagram. Images courtesy of Mitch with Hawaii Space
Flight Laboratory.
Work Breakdown Structure
“A [Work Breakdown Structure] is a product-oriented family

tree that identifies the hardware, software, services, and all other
deliverables required to achieve an end project objective. The
purpose of a WBS is to subdivide the project’s work content
into manageable segments to facilitate planning and control of
cost, schedule, and technical content” [NASA WBS]. In the
project development cycle of initiating, planning, executing,
controlling, and closing, the WBS occurs in the task of defining
the work during the planning phase.
Akin’s Laws of Spacecraft Design #24
It’s called a “Work Breakdown Structure” because

the Work remaining will grow until you have a
Breakdown unless you enforce some Structure on it.
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Project Development Cycles and Activities. Image courtesy of NASA.
However, at the lowest level a WBS generally has tasks of

the form such as “test gizmo” rather than nouns. This helps
in one of the important tasks of the WBS, which is to track
costs during the project. The Agency’s Core Financial System
currently limits the ability to capture costs to a maximum of
seven levels. These seven levels of the WBS are defined below.
• Level 1 is the entire project.
• Level 2 elements are the major operational product

elements along with key common, enabling products
(as defined in NPR 7120.5, NPR 7120.7 (NID 7120.99
Interim Directive), and NPR 7120.8 standard WBS
templates).
• Level 3-7 contains further definable subdivisions of

the products contained in the level 2 elements (e.g.,
subsystems, components, documents, functionality).
WBS Levels Illustration Partial WBS with Numbering System. Image

courtesy of NASA.
WBS elements should be identified by a clear, descriptive
title and by a numbering scheme as defined by the project that

performs the following functions:
• Identifies the level of the WBS element.
• Identifies the higher-level element into which the

element will be integrated
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Gantt Charts
A Gantt chart is a “bar chart depicting start and finish dates

of activities and products in the WBS” [NASA SE Handbook].
This document aids systems engineers and project managers
in gauging the level of progress with respect to schedule and
milestones. Gantt charts can be made in Microsoft Excel or
with custom online tools, like Lucidchart, teamgantt, canva, etc.
Gantt Charts can help track resources and show interdependency
between the WBS tasks (e.g., Task A must be completed before
Task B is started). This Gantt chart was made by our structures
lead over the summer to communicate his progress to our
systems engineer and program manager, Amber Imai-Hong.
Gannt Chart Credit: Kevin Williams
PERT charts
Program Evaluation and Review Technique, PERT, Charts are

graphical representations of a project’s timeline. They reveal
task dependencies and the critical path for scheduling. A short
tutorial to find a critical path is given in Akin’s lecture slides.
Tools to create a PERT chart include SmartDraw and
LucidChart.
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PERT chart for a project with five milestones (10 through 50) and six
activities (A through F). The project has two critical paths: activities B
and C, or A, D, and F – giving a minimum project time of 7 months with
fast tracking. Activity E is sub-critical, and has a float of 1 month.
Image courtesy of Wikipedia.
Mass and Power Estimation
Over the design process, the spacecraft’s estimated mass and

power grows until those mass and power allocations converge
to the final design at delivery. The overall spacecraft may be
separated into the payload and the supporting spacecraft
subsystems. A study by NASA and the Aerospace Corporation
assessed the historical mass, power, cost, and schedule growth
for multiple NASA spacecraft buses from the last twenty years.
Generally, the modification of existing designs or addition of
new designs naturally leads to greater overall uncertainty in the
design and potential for growth of spacecraft resources over
time. The authors provided more nuance in that the instrument’s
relative lack of maturity to spacecraft technology contributed to

larger growth of mass, cost, and schedule.
Image Source: Historical Mass, Power, Schedule & Cost Growth for
NASA Instruments & Spacecraft
Contingencies are allocated at different design stages to

account for this growth. For mass and power, the NASA Green
Book, Goddard Gold Rules, JPL Design Principles, and AIAA
Standard guidelines are compared to the historical growth. For
instruments, “Historical Mass & Power growth percentage at
Phase B Start typically higher than guidelines while PDR &
CDR are more in line”. Whereas for the spacecraft, “guidelines
appear mostly adequate compared to historical mass & power
growth”. By subsystems in the spacecraft, “interconnected”
systems appear to have the highest growth: Thermal, EPDS
(Harness), SMS (Brackets/Support Structure), and “Box-like”
systems appear to have the lowest growth: C&DH, TT&C,
ADCS.
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Image Source: Historical Mass, Power, Schedule & Cost Growth for
NASA Instruments & Spacecraft
For 1U cube satellites, the mass and volume standards are pre-
determined: 1.33 kg and 10 cm³.
Cost Estimation
Image Source: Commercial Space Transportation Study
Cost is a huge driver in a space mission, as the funding

agency or customer will hold you accountable and may end
the program if the budget is overrun. Spacecraft missions are
typically very expensive, due to launch costs and labor costs in
the rigor of development/testing to meet critical requirements.
Funding agencies and customers will use cost to justify the value
of the mission and the expectation of rigor to execute a mission.
A linear depiction of the cost estimation process is given in the
figure below, although a note of application is that this process is
an iterative process with the incorporation of new data [NASA
Cost Estimating Handbook].
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NASA Cost Estimating Process. Image courtesy of NASA.
Much like mass and power, contingencies must be allocated

for cost. The same NASA and Aerospace Corporation study
found that instrument Historical Cost & Schedule growth
percentages are significantly higher than guidelines at most
milestones whereas the spacecraft recommendations were
adequate.
Image source: Historical Mass, Power, Schedule & Cost Growth for
NASA Instruments & Spacecraft.
The NASA Cost Estimating Handbook is a detailed reference to

walk through the steps of cost estimation. Other tools include
software packages, like PCEC, MOCET, CET, CDB, and NICM

(alphabet soup!):
• Project Cost Estimating Capability (PCEC) develops

cost estimates/models for space systems, created by
Marshall Space Flight Center. This technology
combines an Excel add-in with a simple, robust, and
transparent collection of NASA cost-estimating
relationships (CERs), statistics, work breakdown
structures, and cost-estimating algorithms.
• Mission Operations Cost Estimation Tool, MOCET,

provides a new capability to generate cost estimates
for the operational, or Phase E, a portion of NASA
science missions and was created by Ames.
• The Data Service Provider Cost Estimation Tool

(CET) and Comparables Database (CDB) package
provides NASA’s Earth Science Enterprise (ESE) the
ability to make lifecycle cost estimates for the
implementation and operation of the data service
providers that are required to support its science and
applications programs. The Data Service Provider
CET and CDB package was developed by Goddard
Space Flight Center.
• NASA Instrument Cost Model (NICM) is a

probabilistic cost and schedule estimating tool. NICM
has proven instrument cost and schedule modeling
capabilities that provide probabilistic estimates at both
the system and subsystem level for many different
instrument types.
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• SMAD’s Mission Operations Cost Prediction

Spreadsheet
2.6 Decision Analysis Tools
For decisions where no single clear analytical metric exists, the

following approaches allow use of subjective rankings between
criteria to create numerical weightings [Akin]:
• Decision Matrices (aka Pugh Method) incorporate

evaluation criteria and the relative importance of each
criteria to narrow a list of options into one choice.
The American Society for Quality offers a procedure,
example, and considerations in developing a decision
matrix [ASQ]. Mogan et al. created a Pugh Matrix
highlighting various mission trade-offs for a Lunar
Extraction for Extraterrestrial Prospecting mission:
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Image source: 2017 Caltech Space Challenge – Lunarport: Lunar

Extraction for Extraterrestrial Prospecting (LEEP)
• Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), created by Saaty,

is a method of ranking used to derive ratio scales
from both discrete and continuous paired
comparisons. The original paper talks through the
process through a couple examples in a lengthy
format for which Akin gives a simple example in
slides 56-62. Guerra and Christian walk through an
incredibly thorough example of AHP that motivates
AHP use, the basic steps, and the evaluation metrics
around the 2007 Mars Design Reference Mission
Mars Surface Power System.
Prioritization matrix. Image courtesy of NASA.
Analytical Hierarchy Process. Image courtesy of NASA.
• Quality Function Deployment (QFD) “was developed

by the Japanese in 1972 to improve quality and lower
costs in industrial and business related fields, by
assuring all of a company’s operational decisions are
driven by customer needs. It uses a set of matrices to
relate customers wants and needs with project
specifications and requirements” [Dodd]. ASQ
provides a procedure in how to develop the initial
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house of quality matrix and subsequent waterfall

relationship of QFD matrices. Zapata at Kennedy
Space Center used a QFD “to add definition and
insight to the development of long term Highly
Reusable Space Transportation (HRST)”.
• Six Sigma (6σ) is” a set of techniques and tools for

process improvement. It was introduced by American

engineer Bill Smith while working at Motorola in
1986” [Wikipedia]. “‘Six Sigma quality’ is a term
generally used to indicate a process is well controlled
(within process limits ±3s from the center line in a
control chart, and requirements/tolerance limits ±6s
from the center line)” [ASQ].
◦ Six Sigma is more of a best practices

methodology at an organizational level to
transform businesses than an individual
decision-making tool. The phases of
business transformation include define,
measure, analyze, improve, control.
◦ Key Six Sigma techniques include

brainstorming, root cause analysis, voice of
the customer, the 5 S system, Kaizen
(continuous improvement), Benchmarking,
Poka-yoke (mistake proofing), and value
stream mapping [Kumar]. NASA Glenn
Research Center has generated their own
root cause analysis tool to facilitate the
analysis of anomalies, close calls, and
accidents and also identify the appropriate
corrective actions to prevent recurrence.
◦ Six Sigma tools are statistical and data-

driven: Cause and Effect Analysis, Flow
Chart, Pareto Chart, Histogram, Check
Sheet, Scatter Plot, Control Chart
2.7 Managing Risks
Risk Tracking
Risk management process cycle. Image courtesy of European Space

Agency.
As space missions are extremely risk averse, systems engineers

and program managers need to track technological risks to
evaluate an acceptable risk posture or decide to mitigate risk.
Risk management is an iterative process through the entire
project lifecycle, as seen by Figure __ [Atkins ESA]. Risk is
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an expected value composed of likelihood of occurrence and

consequence of occurrence. Likelihood rating categories are
separated into:
1. Improbable (P<10-6)
2. Unlikely to occur (10 -3>P>10 -6)
3. May occur in time (10 -2>P>10 -3)
4. Probably will occur in time (10 -1>P>10 -2)
5. Likely to occur soon (P>10 -1)
Consequence rating categories are separated into:
1. Minimal or no impact
2. Additional effort required, no schedule impact, <5%

system budget impact
3. Substantial effort required, <1 month schedule slip,

>2% program budget impact
4. Major effort required, critical path (>1 month slip),
>5% program budget impact
5. No known mitigation approaches, breakthrough

required to resume schedule, >10% program budget
impact
Magnitude of risk ranges between 1 – 25 and binned into the

following categories:
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Standard risk management. Image courtesy of ESA.
During the iterative process of monitoring and mitigating risk,

the goal is to move every risky scenario down or left along the
risk matrix. The different zones require different levels of action.
Red zones require new processes or a change in the baseline
plan. The orange zone requires aggressive management and the
consideration of alternative processes. The yellow zone requires
some management actions. The green zone signifies that the
current approach is sufficient. The risky scenarios to manage are
a result of hazard analysis.
Hazard Analysis
Hazard analysis results in the identification of risks and the
means of controlling or eliminating them. Hazard analysis also
quantifies the risk for the Program/Project Manager [NASA
Hazard Analysis Process]. The process of hazard analysis
includes the identification of the following: • hazardous
conditions, events or states • the effect of the hazardous state
• severity of the effect • all potential causes of the hazardous
states • controls for each of the hazard causes • likelihood of
each cause • verification strategies for the controls. The process
closes by classifying, managing, and tracking the risk of hazard.
Generic hazards include: • Collision or Impacts • Loss of Control
• Contamination • Corrosion • Electrical Discharge/Shock •
Environmental/Weather • Temperature Extremes • Gravitational
Forces • Electromagnetic Interference • Radiation • Explosion •
Fire/Overheat • Flight Termination Systems • Implosion/Loss of
Pressure • High Pressure Sources • Loss of Structural Integrity
• Mechanical • Loss of Critical Function • Loss of Safe Return
Capability • Loss of Habitable Environment • Pathological/
Physiological/ Psychological • Inadequate HF Engineering •
Lasers • Utility Outages.
Another type of hazard analysis is job hazard analysis. “A job

hazard analysis is a technique that focuses on job tasks as a
way to identify hazards before they occur. It focuses on the
relationship between the worker, the task, the tools, and the work
environment. Ideally, after you identify uncontrolled hazards,
you will take steps to eliminate or reduce them to an acceptable
risk level” [OSHA].
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Tools for hazard analysis include a Web-based, access-

controlled NASA Hazard Management System (HMS), which
provides a centralized repository for hazards regardless of origin
and offers the ability to report and manage real-time hazards and
controls. NASA HMS was created by Johnson Space Center.
Tools for hazard analysis include a Web-based, access-controlled NASA

Hazard Management System (HMS), which provides a centralized
repository for hazards regardless of origin and offers the ability to report
and manage real-time hazards and controls. NASA HMS was created by
Johnson Space Center. Image courtesy of NASA.
Suggested Activity
Given a few requirements from above,

– Compose a compelling science mission around
Earth for a 1U CubeSat
– Construct a fictitious Gantt chart including
program and development phases for the senior
design project spanning 1 semester

here:
3. Spacecraft Design
Drivers, Space and Orbit
Learning Objectives
• Associate spacecraft design drivers

from various stages of the spacecraft life
cycle and evaluate how they affect the
spacecraft design
• Relate payload requirements to
spacecraft bus subsystems requirements
• Describe the various physical
phenomena that affect spacecraft in outer
space
• Relate relevant parameters in
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mathematical expressions and calculate

the magnitude of the effect
• Calculate and contrast the dominant
phenomena at different regimes
• Understand the equations of motion
for orbital mechanics and the variations
of orbits
• Identify the spacecraft parameters that
affect orbits and relate parameter change
to orbit change
Spacecraft Design Parameters and Drivers
Learning Objectives
3.1 Design Process Parameters
Characteristics of the program
Review Process
Design Process
Development Process
Suggested Activity
3.2 ITAR/EAR
Suggested Activity
3.3 Mission Components
Subject and Payload
Ground Segment
Orbit and Launch
Spacecraft Bus
The CubeSat Specification [CubeSat Design Specification Rev.

14]
3.4 Payload Design
Suggested Activity
The Space Environment
Physical Phenomena Definition
Gravity
Atmosphere
Atmospheric Layers
The Ionosphere 1
Vacuum
Electromagnetic Radiation
Solar Radiation Pressure

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Damage Due to Ultraviolet Radiation
Cosmic Radiation
Solar Activity
Spacecraft Charging
Single Event Effects
High Velocity Impacts
Space Debris
Tabel???: Mission Design Considerations for Orbital Debris and

Impacts
Effects on the Spacecraft
Suggested Activity
Orbital Mechanics
History of Astrodynamics
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)
The Basics
Newton’s Laws of Motion

The Two-Body Problem
Assumptions
Equation of Motion
Center of Mass
Canonical Units
Constants of Motion
Orbits
Orbital Mechanics Demonstration
Suggested Activity
3.1 Design Process Parameters
Design parameters and drivers exist for both the systems

engineering process and the spacecraft bus product. Very briefly,
the systems engineering process is affected by nontechnical
parameters like current technology feasibility [NASA SmallSat
SoA Tech], needs vs. capabilities approach, funding availability,
and characteristics of the program [NASA Systems Engineering
Handbook].
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Characteristics of the program
1. Type of mission. For example, the requirements for a

human space flight mission are much more rigorous
than those for a small robotic mission.
2. The criticality of the mission in meeting the Agency

Strategic Plan. Critical missions that absolutely must
be successful may not be able to get relief from NPR
requirements.
3. Acceptable risk level. If the Agency and the customer

are willing to accept a higher risk of failure, some
NPR requirements may be waived.
4. National significance. A project that has great

national significance may not be able to get relief
from NPR requirements.
5. Complexity. Highly complex missions may require

more NPR requirements in order to keep systems
compatible, whereas simpler ones may not require the

same level of rigor.
6. Mission lifetime. Missions with a longer lifetime
need to more strictly adhere to NPR requirements
than short-lived programs/projects.
7. Cost of the mission. Higher cost missions may

require stricter adherence to NPR requirements to
ensure proper program/project control.
8. Launch constraints. If there are several launch

constraints, a project may need to be more fully
compliant with Agency requirements.
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Example of program and project types. Image courtesy of NASA

System Engineering Textbook.
For this course, we are focusing on programs similar to Type D,

where programs are low priority, high risk, minimally complex,
and have low national significance, small budgets, short mission
lifetimes, significant alternative or re-flight opportunities. Cube
satellite missions are on the extreme end of Type D missions,
where student-led program costs rarely exceed tens of thousands
of USD, are primarily educational programs (low significance)
with little to no success, and finish within a few years. Cubesats
are a great way to demonstrate state-of-the-art technologies
cheaply or to launch a multitude of satellites to demonstrate

distributed sensing, which offers compelling missions. For
spacecraft bus components that are not the payload, there are
many commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) parts that can be
purchased. For funding availability, the NASA CSLI is probably
the best bet to get your CubeSat to space as a student
organization for which there are plenty of writing tips in the
CSLI handbook, like Figure __. You can get potential funding
to purchase hardware or fund labor from the NASA Space Grant
Consortium in your state.
Logo for the NASA Hawaii Space Grant Consortium. Image

courtesy of NASA.
Crowdfunding is also an option, like LightSail or KickSat, or

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commercial funding through venture capital if you have a

profitable business plan, like Spire.
Light Sail 2 over India Light Sail 2 regularly transmits images from its
onboard cameras. These images help engineers track the condition of the
sail while providing stunning public outreach images. Image courtesy of
The Planetary Society
Review Process
During the reviews along the way, find a community that can
offer honest feedback on your ability to fulfill the mission design
and stay on track with cost and budget. You can find a CubeSat
community on slack, through this Pressbooks forum, or faculty
mentors at your university. You want reviewers “who have
knowledge/experience with your focus area (science, technology
and/or education), that can assess why a flight opportunity is
required, with knowledge of space flight and spacecraft, but
otherwise knowledgeable in various areas of hardware and
project development and that can assess your team’s ability to

deliver your spacecraft on time and on budget” [CSLI]. Make
sure to include your customer in this review panel. You can
have a number of reviewers to fulfill the sum of reviewer
requirements.
CubeSAt 101. Basic concepts and processes for first time developers.
Design Process
During the design process, you will need a variety of software
applications that can save you time and achieve better results
than reinventing the wheel. We will only mention free software
as we want to reduce any financial barriers associated with
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this project. Mechanical structural design and analysis may be

achieved with OnShape or Autodesk Inventor. Electrical board
design and simulations may be achieved through Eagle, KiCAD,
PCB Artist, and PSpice. Thermal analysis may be achieved with
thermal desktop. Orbit design and analysis may be achieved
through STK. Flight software may be written through NASA’s
open-source version of cFS, OpenSat Kit.
Artemis Kit Specific
HSFL’s very own COSMOS provided to you with

the kit. Every lab module or tutorial in this textbook
will step through relevant satellite design activities in
which the relevant software and steps will be
explicitly defined.
Development Process
During the procurement and
fabrication process, you will
need to pay attention to how
you source your materials and
the equipment needed to bring
this hardware to spaceflight
readiness. The Artemis
CubeSat Kit should be
complete to launch unto itself
so if you want to demonstrate
a completely software-centric
mission, skip this section. But
let’s say you want to modify
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the parts or start from scratch.

The most important aspects of
hardware selection from
particular vendors are
spaceflight readiness and
export control.
The Artemis CubeSat Kit should be complete to

launch unto itself.
As CubeSat vendors are becoming more and more common,

the variety of commercial-off-the-shelf parts allows more
customization and direct fulfillment of your technical
component requirements. Outside of technical requirements,
component characteristics include space heritage, which
associates with cost, labor, and risk Typically, components that
have been rigorously tested and have flown in space (TRL 9)
reduce labor for rigorous testing and reduce mission operational
risk. The downside of space-rated components is that they are
typically very expensive to compensate for all the overhead
development, testing, and proof of operations in space. There are
several reasons why you may decide to buy a COTS component

from any electronics vendor and do the testing yourself: the
space-rated component is too expensive, the non-space-rated
component is better suited for the requirements, or a mission
goal is to gain space heritage for the component. The
disadvantage to maturing the technology in house is the
additional cost of labor and testing equipment and the additional
risk that must be managed. The mentality for big projects is to
minimize risk as much as possible, using space-rated parts often,
which may manifest as using outdated technology.
The mentality of small projects, like CubeSats, is

to accept and tolerate risk at a higher level, which
was the mentality that the Artemis CubeSat Kit
design team took.
HSFL had all the testing facilities (like a vibration table, thermal
vacuum chambers, dynamics testbed, and clean room) to support
verification testing of the Artemis CubeSat kit.

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None of the components are space-rated, which is

the reason why we are able to get the kit to you at
such a low cost, but we’ve rigorously tested all the
components so that they theoretically will work in
space. If you add a payload or modify any of the
components, you will have to go through similar
testing procedures as we’ll lay out in later chapters
(HSFL is happy to do support).
U.S. export controls for the commercial space industry affect

the composition of the team as the ultimate consequence is the
ability or inability of team members of differing nationalities
to work on controlled technologies. “The U.S. export control
system is designed to prevent the spread of sensitive
technologies to foreign actors that could threaten U.S. interests,
while at the same time allowing U.S. companies to engage in
legitimate commercial activity. Controlled technologies include
defense articles (e.g., missiles), defense services (e.g.,
integration of a spacecraft onto a launcher), and dual use items
(e.g., commercial spacecraft and components)” [FAA]. There
are two sets of regulations: International Traffic in Arms
Regulations (ITAR) and Export Administration Regulations
(EAR). The ITAR process controls items, information, or
activities that could be used for threatening foreign military
purposes, whether actual products (defense articles) or
assistance (defense services). The EAR process controls items
and technologies considered to be “dual use”, meaning
applicable to commercial or military use. The vast majority
of commercial spacecraft and components fall under the

jurisdiction of the EAR.
We will dedicate a section to ITAR and EAR

regulations but for the Artemis CubeSat Kit, none of
the components are ITAR or EAR so anyone can
work with the technologies inside the kit.
3.2 Mission Components
The goal of the overall spacecraft mission engineering process

(from the last chapter) is to define a mission concept such that
the following components are defined: 1. Subject, 2. Payload,
3. Spacecraft bus, 4. Ground station, 5. Mission operations, 6.
Command, Control, and Communications Architecture, 7. Orbit,
and 8. Launch segment [New SMAD]. This course will center
around the design of the spacecraft bus but will briefly discuss
how the other components affect the spacecraft bus design.
Subject and Payload

The mission centers around the subject, which includes physical
phenomena or objects, that the spacecraft needs to observe,
discover, or manipulate; these subjects could include
gravitational waves [GRACE], broadband internet frequency
waves [Starlink], asteroids [OSIRIS-REx], or neutrons
[Neutron-1]. We will assume that you discussed this topic matter
outside the scope of this course, like in EPET 301: Space
Science Instrumentation or with your fellow scientists/
168
technologists who are your customers. You may also find

compelling science or technology missions in NASA’s decadal
surveys, strategic plans and roadmaps, and the taxonomy report.
The subject drives the orbit requirement if the spacecraft must be
proximal to the subject source to detect the subject (like OSIRIS-
REx, GRACE, and Neutron-1). The payload is the hardware or
software that detects, measures, or interacts with the subject.
If the subject is what, the payload is the how. There can exist
different levels of payloads if we widen the scope of the system.
For example, the payload on the Neutron-1 mission is a neutron
detector but if we consider the rocket that launches Neutron-1 to
space, the rocket’s payload is the entire Neutron-1 satellite. We
will strictly focus on the payload within the spacecraft bus for
which an entire section will be dedicated because the subject and
payload drive the spacecraft bus design.
For the Artemis CubeSat kit, we’ve given you an

infrared and visible spectrum camera to promote
Earth and lunar missions with the option to take out
the camera and utilize ¼ of the CubeSat’s volume for
your own payload. We’ve tried to make the
spacecraft bus as amenable as possible to a variety of
electrical connectors, acceptable voltages, and power
needs.
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Ground Segment
The ground segment consists of all the components that stay on
the ground: ground station, mission operations, and command,
control, and communications architecture.
Examples of ground stations. Image Source: HSFL
A ground station is a “terrestrial radio station designed for

extraplanetary telecommunication with spacecraft”. These
ground stations communicate and control spacecraft by
receiving dim signals from the spacecraft and transmitting
powerful signals to the spacecraft. Large ground stations are
commonly characterized by their parabolic dish, which is an
antenna that offers high directivity. These large dishes, like
NASA’s Deep Space Network,
Example of a large dish in NASA’s Deep Space Network. Image

courtesy of NASA.
may also detect sensitive radio signals from astronomical radio

sources; although today, the state-of-the-art astronomical
discoveries are made with specific dishes that are significantly
larger than dishes necessary for spacecraft communications.
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Example of an astronomical radio source. This is a schematic view of a

pulsar. The sphere in the middle represents the neutron star, the curves
indicate the magnetic field lines, the protruding cones represent the
emission beams and the green line represents the axis on which the star
rotates. Image courtesy of Wikipedia.
Small ground stations typically consist of an array of dipole

antennas, the most widely used class of antennas in everyday
life. These dipole antenna arrays are omnidirectional, require
less construction, and are more theoretically simple to
understand, which are characteristics that make them more
approachable for university teams. Both types of antennas may
either be fixed or rotate to track a satellite; the larger directional
antennas are less likely to dynamically track signals due to the
complexity of the dynamic system to support such an immense
mass. The construction of ground stations is outside the scope
of this course but you are welcome to reach out to HSFL to
support your mission, schedule access through AWS Ground
Station services, or participate in the SatNOGS, an open-source

global network of satellite ground stations.
Animated diagram of a half-wave dipole antenna receiving a radio wave.

The mission operations team can be separate specialists in a

big program, like the NASA Curiosity rover operators that had
to be specifically trained, or can be the satellite design team
for small projects. If you’re a student on a small team, you
will most likely be one of the mission operators; who better
to operate the satellite than one of the engineers who created
the satellite? You will have the distinct advantage of knowing
precisely the capabilities of the spacecraft without having an
engineer to consult as that engineer is in your head! The mission
operations software allows the operators to monitor the state
of health of the spacecraft and relevant mission parameters,
whilst also commanding the spacecraft from a computer. NASA
has created Open MCT, a next-generation Web-based mission
operations data visualization framework for desktop and mobile.
174 • FRANCES ZHU
NASA Open MCT. Image courtesy of NASA.
The Artemis CubeSat kit comes with COSMOS, a

software package that allows the development of
flight software and offers a mission operations
interface.
The command, control, and communication architecture is the

interface between mission operations, your ground station, and
the spacecraft. The architecture includes the telecommunications
link between the spacecraft and the ground station, then the
wires or wireless connections between the ground station and the

mission control center. Ideally, the signal path is as uninterrupted
as possible to provide real-time information and reaction with
your spacecraft, critical for high priority missions, but for low
priority missions, communications can be delayed. For example,
you may rely on amateur radio or ham radio enthusiasts to
pick up your signals and report them back to you. There is no
guarantee that any one radio operator will be listening or that
they will send the packets to you if they pick it up.
Example of amateur radio. Image courtesy of Wikipedia.

176 • FRANCES ZHU
For the Artemis CubeSat kit, we recommend

working with HSFL as the satellite design
incorporates HSFL ground stations, missions
operations software, and the interfaces in between.
FCC Licensing. Image courtesy of US FCC.
A critical decision in the communication architecture is the

communication frequency and subsequent RF licensing to use
that frequency band [CSLI Chapter 9]. The Artemis CubeSat kit
can only get an amateur or experimental license and we will
certainly attempt to guide you through the documentation to gain
FCC licensing [FCC Guidance and Spectrum Guidance]. This
step is infamously difficult and bottlenecked; the government is
attempting to make this process easier from the top level down
and we’re going to try to meet them in the middle by educating

you from the bottom up.
Spectrum certification process. Image courtesy of NASA.
Orbit and Launch

The orbit is the path of the spacecraft during its mission with
respect to planetary bodies and astronomical references. A
section is dedicated to describing various orbits and the
subsequent space environment so this paragraph will serve as
a brief, high-level overview. The orbit dictates the space
environment that the spacecraft must survive and the launch
vehicle that the spacecraft must interface with. Orbits’
characteristics vary the dominant physical phenomena in that
space environment, which impose different technical
178 • FRANCES ZHU
requirements on the spacecraft subsystems to achieve the

mission objective. The space environment may even affect the
mission operations as there are time delays or blackouts in
communication. The distance or delta-V the launch vehicle must
provide to the spacecraft to achieve the desired orbit affects the
size of the rocket and thus the size of the fairing on top of the
rocket that the spacecraft must fit into.
Example of an orbital path of a spacecraft. Image courtesy of

Physics.org
For the Artemis CubeSat kit, the as-delivered

hardware is designed to function in LEO, specifically
in ISS orbit as many CubeSats are deployed from the
ISS.
The 1U CubeSats are typically “integrated into dispensers on

the ground, transported to the ISS in a pressurized cargo vessel
(e.g., SpaceX Dragon, Orbital ATK’s Cygnus, etc.), and hand-
carried onto the ISS from the cargo vessel. Astronauts aboard
the ISS are responsible for deploying the CubeSats from the ISS
typically 1–3 months after arrival” [CSLI Chapter 3.5].
If the Artemis CubeSat is not softly stowed, we

have also tested the kitto NASA CSLI standards to
survive ridesharing as auxiliary payloads mounted
directly to launch vehicles [NASA GEVS].
If you choose to launch outside of the CSLI ecosystem, like

UNP, you can find other launch providers with their own
environment testing standards that ideally are less rigorous than
CSLI standards so that you do not have to redo all the
environmental testing we did for you.
180 • FRANCES ZHU
Selecting a launch provider for youe cubesat. Image courtesy of

Spaceflight Industries.
Spacecraft Bus
Upon setting out on a preliminary design, the suggested mass
and power budgets to initially allocate for a non-propulsive
spacecraft are as follows. A systems engineer typically keeps
track of these budgets, along with budgets for pointing and
alignment for ADCS, propellant (for a propulsive spacecraft),
downlink and uplink for communications, and data usage for
command and data handling. These budgets will be described in-
depth in their respective subsystems.
Ke Ao
(a
Subsystem (% SMAD Hermes Artemis
OreSat variant
of Dry Mass) suggestion CubeSat CubeSat
of
Artemis)
Allocated
Payload 41%
in T&C
Structure and
20% 32.3%
Mechanisms
Thermal
2% 0%
Control
Power
(including 19% 13.5%
harness)
Telemetry and
2% 22.5%
Control
Command
and Data 5% 3.6%
Handling
Attitude
Determination 8% 2.4%
and Control
Other
(balance + 3% 25.7%
launch)
Total 100% 100%

182 • FRANCES ZHU
Hermes
CubeSat Ke Ao
SMAD
Subsystem (% (mean (a
suggestion Artemis
of Total between OreSat variant
(average CubeSat
Power) min and of
power)
max Artemis)
power)
Allocated
Payload 43%
in T&C
Structure and
0% 0%
Mechanisms
Thermal
5% 0%
Control
Power
(including 10% 0.2%
harness)
Telemetry and
11% 95.3%
Control
Command
and Data 13% 1.9%
Handling
Attitude
and Control
Total 100% 100%
CubeSat Design Specification Rev. 14

2.1 General Specifications

2.1.1 All parts shall remain attached
to the CubeSats during launch, ejection,
and operation.
2.1.2 Pyrotechnics shall conform to
AFSPCMAN 91-710, Volume 3.
2.1.3 Any propulsion systems shall be
designed, integrated, and tested in
accordance with AFSPCMAN 91-710
Volume 3.
2.1.4 Propulsion systems shall have at
least 3 inhibits to activation.
2.1.5 Note: It is recommended to
consider the Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA) requirements for
Batteries Carried by Airline Passengers.
For example, the maximum allowed
capacity for consumer-sized lithium-ion
batteries in carry-on baggage is 100 Wh
per battery.
2.1.6 CubeSat hazardous materials
shall conform to AFSPCMAN 91-710,
Volume 3.
2.1.7 CubeSat materials shall satisfy
low out-gassing criteria, as defined in
2.1.7.1 and 2.1.7.2, to prevent
contamination of other spacecraft during
integration, testing, and launch. A list of
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NASA approved low out-gassing

materials can be found at:
http://outgassing.nasa.gov.
2.1.7.1 CubeSats materials shall
have a Total Mass Loss (TML) of
less than or equal to 1.0 %
2.1.7.2 CubeSat materials shall
have a Collected Volatile
Condensable Material (CVCM) of
less than or equal to 0.1%
2.1.8 The magnetic field of any
passive magnets shall be limited to 0.5
Gauss above Earth’s magnetic field,
outside the CubeSat static envelope.
2.1.9 The CubeSat shall be designed
to accommodate ascent venting per
ventable volume/area of fewer
3.3 Payload Design
The subject and payload are the most important design drivers
as they are the reason the mission exists. The subject drives
the location/orbit the spacecraft must go, the payload that must
be accommodated, and all the subsequent design requirements
that flow down into the spacecraft bus design. Classifications of
payloads include observation, communications or navigation, in-
situ, action at a distance, and human spaceflight [New SMAD].
The majority of CubeSat payloads are Earth observation,
communication, navigation, science and technology [Alen];
human spaceflight payloads and action-at-a-distance payloads
are rarely accommodated on CubeSats. Observation payloads
are self-explanatory as payloads that observe, typically through
remote sensing. The subjects may be outward facing toward
deep space (on exoplanets, astronomical features, or our sun’s
effect on space weather) and inward facing toward Earth (on
climate, surveillance, land surface mapping, or water bodies).
These observational payloads function at different wavelength
bands.
185
186 • FRANCES ZHU
Electromagnetic Spectrum. Image courtesy of NASA.
(NASA electromagnetic spectrum mapping to space

phenomena). Communication payloads may be separated into
unidirectional systems that gather information or two-way
systems that gather but also transmit information. Navigation
payloads track and transmit position information, like the Global
Positioning System or Software Defined Radio platforms. In-
situ payloads measure signals in the environment directly that
cannot be remotely sensed, like magnetic field, gravity, or
sample collection.
We will focus on observational payloads as the

Artemis CubeSat kit comes with a visible-IR camera.
The Ke Ao team at UH Manoa wants to take a
picture of Hawai’i (observation) from Low Earth
orbit and transmit the picture back to the mission
operators. The payload is a Raspberry Pi visible
spectrum camera.
Before seriously considering the spacecraft bus subsystem

design as a result of payload selection, look at the constraints
of the payload design. There are four types of constraints:
fundamental, technological, mission, and programmatic [NASA
& NOAA]. Fundamental constraints include diffraction limit,
photon noise, Nyquist limit, which all refer to laws of physics
that limit observation. Some missions are impossible because
of these fundamental limits, even if technology gets better over
time. Technological limits stem from the ability of state-of-the-
art detectors to measure the subject, capped by detector size and
performance; optical form, figure, fabrication, and alignment, or
processor speed. Outside the theoretical limits of observation,
the detectors or optics that we manufacture are bound to perform
less ideally. To constrain the technology further, the mission
constraints adhere to size, weight, and power constraints due
to spacecraft design and launch vehicle selection. Detectors or
payloads may not be miniaturized any further without significant
sacrifice to the mission performance. Finally, programmatic
constraints, like cost, schedule, risk, and regulatory
requirements, may break a mission that is fundamentally
feasible, technologically feasible, and closes in mission design.
This sequence of constraints moves from the highest level
science to the physical and societal reality of spaceflight
missions.

188 • FRANCES ZHU
For the Ke Ao project, the payload is not a past

state of the art. The Raspberry Pi camera is
technologically proven. The physical characteristics
of the camera are well within reason for a 1U
CubeSat mission and the program constraints are
quite lenient as it is a vertically integrated project
within a university environment.
The payload design process generates requirements for accommodating

the payload. Image courtesy of NASA and NAP
Say you’ve found a payload that fits within all those constraints.
Now you have the go-ahead to design the mission architecture.
We’ve discussed solutions for the mission components but for
the concept of operations, we’ll focus on mission lifetime and
the sequence of events once the satellite reaches space.

The Artemis CubeSat kit does not have a specific

expiration date or concept of operation as it depends
significantly on the mission objective and payload.
The Ke Ao mission, an instantiation of the Artemis
CubeSat kit, has an operational lifetime of 1 year and
has the following concept of operations:
With the mission architecture defined, we can design spacecraft

buses around the payload with context of the operations and
mission components. Regardless of the type of payload, the
payload’s data, size, weight, and power (SWaP) requirements
must be accommodated by the spacecraft bus design. The
payload-spacecraft interface requirements for an observational
payload reside in mechanical, thermal, electrical, and subject-
specific accommodation requirements [NASA & NOAA]:
190 • FRANCES ZHU
Subject
Mechanical Thermal Electrical
Specific
Conducted
and Sensor
Size (Structures radiated Power orientation and
and Launch heat flux requirements clear fields of
Vehicle) to/from the (Power) view
payload (Structures)
(Thermal)
Thermal
gradients
Mass and
Output data rate Pointing
(Structures and baseplate
and storage stability, agility
Launch distortion
(CDH) (ADCS)
Vehicle) (Thermal
and
Structures)
Command,
Contamination:
control, and
Moments of particulates,
telemetry
inertia outgassing
(Communications
(Structures) (Environment
and Ground
Testing)
Segment)
Level of
Electromagnetic
Uncompensated autonomy and
interference
momentum operations
(Environment
(ADCS) (Mission
Testing)
Architecture)
Launch loads
(Environment
Testing and
Launch
Vehicle)
Disturbances
(Environment
Testing and
Orbit)
Each spacecraft bus subsystem and peripheral mission

component is mentioned at least once in the payload
accommodation requirements table. The spacecraft bus
subsystems are affected by the payload in the following ways:
◦ Structures: the payload could require
▪ a certain orientation within the

spacecraft frame (facing away
from the spacecraft center)
▪ an unobstructed view into the

space environment (most optics)
▪ accommodation of specific size

and weight
▪ active mechanisms or deployables

(like a extendable boom)
192 • FRANCES ZHU
ASNARO-1 Satellite has many components that have unobstructed

views or access to the space environment, like the star tracker, camera,
imager, and antennas” Image Courtesy of NEC.
◦ Power: the payload could require
▪ an orbit average and peak power

on the power distribution (wire
harnessing, motherboard and
daughterboard control)
▪ a specific amount of power

generated and/or stored (solar
array and battery size)
▪ voltage conversion and limits

(circuit board design)
▪ current regulation or limits

(circuit board design)
Schematic view of the Wideband

Imaging Camera (WIC) instrument,
showing the placement of the power
supply with respect to the instrument.
Image courtesy ofUCB/SSL.
◦ Command and Data Handling: the payload

could require
▪ processing speed (on-board

computer processors; CPUs and
GPUs, RAM)
▪ data storage (on-board computer

memory; SD card or hard drive)
▪ specific data format (image,

frequency spectra)
▪ bandwidth or data rate to transfer

across network (RAM and
software algorithm to prevent
bufferbloat)
▪ data resolution (the number of

194 • FRANCES ZHU
significant figures in
measurements to retain)
Data budgets and link speeds for NEOTωIST -An Asteroid Impactor
Mission. Image courtesy of Research Gate
◦ Communications: the payload could require
▪ a link budget that closes and has

margin (communication
reliability and two way
transmission)
▪ Command uplink data rate

(critical operating modes during
mission sequence)
▪ Telemetry downlink data rate

(prevent onboard memory from
overflowing)
◦ Attitude Determination, Control,

Navigation, and Sensing: the payload could
require
▪ accuracy and precision pointing,

slewing, or tracking maneuvers
(momentum control systems)
▪ specific resolution of attitude or

position estimate (estimation
algorithms, sensors)
Suggested Reading
Instrument Pointing Capabilities: Past, Present,

and Future
196 • FRANCES ZHU
The primary mission objective of BRITE Constellation is to provide

milli-magnitude (0.1% error) differential photometry of bright stars.
On-orbit fine pointing performance of UniBRITE spacecraft (left) and
BRITE-Toronto spacecraft (right); the payload plate scale is 26″/pixel
(image credit: UTIAS/SFL).
◦ Thermal: the payload could require
▪ specific thermal operating range

(optics like to be cold)
▪ structural stability due to

temperature (materials resistant to
thermal expansion or temperature
maintenance)
A unique combination of meticulous old-world skills and high-tech

materials produced the finely sewn, super-strong and extremely
lightweight thermal blankets that protected Cassini from the extreme hot
and cold of deep space. Image courtesy of NASA.
◦ Propulsion: the payload could require
▪ stationkeeping (intermittent
correction of the orbit)
▪ orbit changes (delta-V and

propellant budget)
198 • FRANCES ZHU
For payloads that require a certain inclined orbit, a spacecraft gets from
the initial orbit to the final, lower-inclination orbit, by providing a
downward thrust at one of the nodes.
For a list of other payloads, compiled by David

Doody:
• Deep Space 1
Artist rendition of Deep Space 1. Image courtesy of

NASA.
• Voyager Science Instruments
Voyager spacecraft equipment. Image courtesy of NASA.
• Galileo Science Experiments
Artist’s rendering of the Galileo science experiment. Image

courtesy of NASA.
• Cassini Science Instruments

200 • FRANCES ZHU
Cassini Orbiter mission instrument. Notice the humans for

size reference. Image courtesy of NASA.
• Huygens Science Instruments
The Huygens probe a scale 1 replica. Image courtesy of

NASA
• Mars Global Surveyor Science Instruments

Mars Global surveyor. Image courtesy of NASA.
• Mars Express Science Instruments

202 • FRANCES ZHU
Examples of Mars Express Science Instruments.Ultraviolet and Infrared

Atmospheric Spectrometer (SPICAM) on the left. High-Resolution Stereo
Camera (HRSC) pictured on the right. Images courtesy of NASA.
• New Horizons Science Instruments

New Horizons Instruments. Image courtesy of NASA/Johns

Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Southwest
Research Institute
• Venus Express Science Instruments
Venus Express Science Instruments. Image courtesy of ESA
• Messenger Science Instruments

204 • FRANCES ZHU
Messanger Science Equipment. Image courtesy of John

Hopkins Applies Physics Laboratory and NASA
• Ulysses Science Instruments

Artist’s rendering of Ulysses spacecraft. Image courtesy of

Wikipedia
• Mars Exploration Rover (Spirit, Opportunity) Science

Instruments
206 • FRANCES ZHU
An artist’s concept portrays a NASA Mars Exploration

Rover Opportunity. Image courtesy of Wikipedia
• Mars Pathfinder Science Instruments
Mars PathFinder Science Instrument. Image courtesy of

NASA
• Alpha-Particle X-ray Spectrometer

Alpha-Particle X-ray Spectrometer. Image courtesy of NASA
• CRS (Cosmic Ray Subsystem)

208 • FRANCES ZHU
Cosmic Ray Subsystem. Image courtesy of Wikipedia.
• EPD (Energetic Particles Detector

Energetic Particles Detector (EPD). Image courtesy of

NASA.
• Heavy-ion counter
210 • FRANCES ZHU
Heavy Ion Counter. Image courtesy of NASA and CAL.
• INMS (Ion and Neutral Mass Spectrometer)

Ion and Neutra mass spectrometer as shown on the Cassini

mission. Image courtesy of NASA.
• GCMS (Gas Chromatograph Mass Spectrometer)

212 • FRANCES ZHU
• Wide-angle (Voyager’s Wide Angle Camera

Voyager one. Image courtesy of NASA.
• Narrow-angle (Voyager’s Narrow-Angle Camera)
• MRO (Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter)
MARS Reconnaissance Orbiter. Image courtesy of NASA.
• MIMI (Magnetospheric Imaging Instrument)

214 • FRANCES ZHU
Magnetospheric Imaging Instrument (MIMI). Image courtesy

of NASA.
• MIMI’s view of Jupiter
MIMI’s view of Jupiter. Image courtesy of NASA.
• MIMI’s view of Saturn

MIMI’s view of Saturn. Image courtesy of NASA.
• Photopolarimeter
Photopolarimeter and other various equipment as used on

Voyager. Image courtesy of NASA.
• Photometer
216 • FRANCES ZHU
The Double Helix Nebula captured by Spitzer’s MIPS.

Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/M. Morris (UCLA)
An interactive or media element has been

excluded from this version of the text. You
can view it online here:
https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=283
3.4 The Space Environment
Image source: A close-up of an erupting prominence with Earth inset at

the approximate scale of the image. Taken on July 1, 2002. Credits:
ESA&NASA/SOHO.
217
218 • FRANCES ZHU
The environment on Earth’s surface has commonalities and

differences from the space environment, past Earth’s
atmosphere; this boundary is defined by the Karman line. The
Earth’s atmosphere protects us ground dwellers from an
immense amount of cosmic radiation, plasma, and
micrometeoroids. Earth’s magnetic field protects us from solar
wind particles, part of the phenomena of space weather [NASA].
In the space environment and common to our surface
environment, spacecraft have to interact with gravity,
electromagnetic radiation (in differing doses), atmospheric
particles (in differing density). Although the spacecraft does
technically interact with atmosphere particles past the Karman
line, the spacecraft functions in a near-vacuum, approaching a
truer vacuum farther into space. In this section, we will define
each physical phenomena (with equations!), discuss how each
physical phenomena affects the spacecraft subsystems, and
explore the dominance of each phenomena in orbital regimes.
Similarities to our environment Unique to space environment
Gravity Cosmic radiation
Electromagnetic radiation Plasma
Atmospheric particles Micrometeoroids
Solar wind particles
Vacuum
Planetary surface albedo

Gravity

here:
epet302/?p=1200
Apollo 15 Commander Dave Scott demonstrates that the mass of an object does
not affect the time it takes to fall, using a hammer and a feather on the Moon.
Video Courtesy of Wikipedia.
All things with mass or energy experience gravity, the

phenomenon that brings objects or light toward (or gravitate
toward) one another. For objects in space with a large enough
mass, proximal smaller mass will be brought toward the larger
mass, like the sun attracting planets and like an apple falling
toward Earth. The larger mass moves toward the smaller mass
too but if the mass difference is large, the large mass’ movement
is imperceivable. Discovered in 1687, Newton’s law of
gravitation related the “forces which keep the planets in their
orbs must [be] reciprocally as the squares of their distances from
the centers about which they revolve: and thereby compared the
force requisite to keep the Moon in her Orb with the force of
gravity at the surface of the Earth; and found them answer pretty
nearly.”
F=G
220 • FRANCES ZHU
Where F is the force, m1 and m2 are the masses of the objects

interacting, r is the distance between the centers of the masses
and G is the gravitational constant. For our interest in satellites,
the force of gravity on a spacecraft from orbiting a planet is
related to the mass of the spacecraft, the mass of the planet, the
gravitational constant, and the distance between the center of
the spacecraft and the center of the planet. The mass to force
relationship is straightforward: the more massive the satellite,
the more gravitational force, and vice versa. The interesting
relationship in this equation is the inverse squared relationship
between force and distance. As the satellite moves farther away,
the force of gravity steeply drops off, which explains why we
need a rocket to get off the Earth’s surface but we only need
spacecraft thrusters once we’re in orbit.
INSERT a multiple choice question that visualizes the 1/r^2

relationship. For the available answers, for r= 6,371 km to 7,000
km: a) plot F=GM_earth / r , b) F = GM_earth * r , c) F =
GM_earth /r^2 , d) F = GM_earth [c is the right answer]

here:
epet302/?p=1200
We care about gravity in spacecraft design because we want to

know how fast the spacecraft is moving in its orbit or how fast
the spacecraft needs to move to be captured or escape a planet’s
gravity. Let’s assume for all cases, the mass of our satellite is
significantly less than the planet we’re orbiting, which is a very

reasonable assumption.
For the simplest circular orbit of very little eccentricity, the

velocity may be approximated as:
Where is the orbit velocity, M is the planet’s mass, and the

other variables carry over from the gravity equation.
INSERT an assessment:
calculate the orbital velocity of an object orbiting the moon at 20

km above the Moon’s surface
G = 6.67430×10−11 m3⋅kg–1⋅s–2
M = 7.342×10^22 kg
R_moon = 1738.1 km
R = 1,758,100 m
V_o = \sqrt(GM/r) = \sqrt(6.67430×10−11 *7.342×10^22 /

1,758,100)
V_o = 1,669.5 m/s

here:
222 • FRANCES ZHU
epet302/?p=1200
For closed orbits, the spacecraft’s orbital period is given by the

formula:
T=
A direct analogy may be made to the satellite revisit period, is

the time elapsed between observations of the same point on earth
by a satellite.
Fun history: astronomers couldn’t directly measure how far

away the other planets were but they could observe the time it
took for the same planet to complete an orbit around the sun by
observing the sky. Astronomers would use a reorganized version
of the orbital period formula
r=
to calculate the distance of the planet from the sun.
If we were to calculate the escape velocity of a spacecraft

leaving a planet’s surface, the escape velocity for that body, at a
given distance, is calculated by the formula:
If we were to shoot a cubesat from the Moon’s surface into outer

space, how fast would it need to go to escape Moon’s gravity?
G = 6.67430×10−11 m3⋅kg–1⋅s–2
M = 7.342×10^22 kg
R_moon = 1738.1 km
R = 1,738,100 m
V_o = \sqrt(2GM/r) = \sqrt(2 * 6.67430×10−11 *7.342×10^22 /

1,738,100)
V_o = 2374.58 m/s
For comparison, the escape velocity from Earth’s surface is

about 11,186 m/s!

here:
epet302/?p=1200
More generally for orbits of any eccentricity, the instantaneous

orbital speed of a body at any given point in its trajectory takes
both the mean distance and the instantaneous distance into
account:
v=
224 • FRANCES ZHU
Where μ is the standard gravitational parameter of the orbited

body, r is the distance at which the speed is to be calculated, and
a is the length of the semi-major axis of the elliptical orbit.
Now that we know how to calculate instantaneous velocity of

a spacecraft, we can calculate satellite revisit time, apply basic
knowledge of orbits to propulsive systems, and calculate effects
of other environment phenomena that depend on spacecraft
velocity.
Relevant parameters: altitude, eccentricity, planet mass
Outputs: orbit velocity, orbital period
Atmosphere
Our atmosphere consists of a rich abundance of nitrogen,
oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide, etc. [Wikipedia]. While we
humans may appreciate this fluid as a medium for life,
spacecraft view our atmosphere as more of a burden of particles
to push through (producing aerodynamic forces); think of
capsules, space shuttles, or rockets that must re-enter our
atmosphere.

here:
epet302/?p=1200
Ian Clark, principal investigator of the Low-Density Supersonic Decelerator,

takes us through a play-by-play of NASA’s recent ‘flying saucer’ Test in

Hawaii, using high-definition video shot from cameras on board the test
vehicle. Video courtesy of NASA/JPL.

here:
epet302/?p=1200
Space Shuttle Heat Protection – Last Flight of Spaceshuttle Columbia. Video

by BBC.

here:
epet302/?p=1200
Falcon 9 First Stage Reentry Footage from Plane. Video by SpaceX
Significant heat builds up from the spacecraft hitting many,

many, many atmospheric particles at high speed.
Atmospheric Layers
The atmosphere varies in air pressure and density, decreasing

with altitude. The atmosphere may be broken into different
layers corresponding to temperature behavior:
226 • FRANCES ZHU
The Earth’s Atmospheric Regions.

Earth’s atmosphere Lower 4 layers of the atmosphere in 3 dimensions as

seen diagonally from above the exobase. Layers drawn to scale, objects
within the layers are not to scale. Aurorae shown here at the bottom of
the thermosphere can actually form at any altitude in this atmospheric
228 • FRANCES ZHU
layer. Image courtesy of Wikipedia.
Troposphere: 0 to 12 km (0 to 7 miles)
80% of the atmosphere’s mass; this is where weather occurs
Stratosphere: 12 to 50 km (7 to 31 miles)
19% of the atmosphere’s mass, including the ozone layer; this is

where commercial airliners like to fly
Mesosphere: 50 to 80 km (31 to 50 miles)
This is where meteors burn up
Thermosphere: 80 to 700 km (50 to 440 miles)
This is where the ISS flies; solar activity plays a major role in
the temperature and density of this region
Exosphere: 700 to 10,000 km (440 to 6,200 miles)
The upper limit of the atmosphere where it merges into space
We care about the region past the Karaman line, starting at

100 km, which includes the Thermosphere and Exosphere. Past
the Exosphere’s altitude of influence at about 10,000 km, “the
influence of solar radiation pressure on atomic hydrogen
exceeds that of Earth’s gravitational pull” [Wikipedia].
The Thermosphere and Exosphere are the layers that primarily

impact satellite operations.
Thermosphere
• Temperature increases with altitude up to 700-1200º

C. This increase in temperature is due to the
absorption of solar radiation by the limited amount of
remaining molecular oxygen. Small changes in solar
radiation can greatly affect the temperature in this
region.
• The major atmospheric components in this region are

still nitrogen and oxygen. At this extreme altitude
gas molecules are widely separated (density at 300
km of 109 /cm3 compared to 1019 /cm3 at sea level).
• In the majority of the thermosphere, spacecraft

experience increased drag that causes orbital
velocities to increase, altitude to decrease, and
eventual reentry into Earth’s atmosphere.
• https://ccmc.gsfc.nasa.gov/RoR_WWW/SWREDI/
2015/SatDrag_YZheng_060415.pdf
Exosphere
• The exosphere is the transitional zone between

Earth’s atmosphere and interplanetary space.
• At exospheric heights, molecular escape from the
earth’s atmosphere is significant. Lighter atoms and
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molecules can escape at lower altitudes than heavier

ones.
• Solar winds start stripping away the exosphere. As
this layer’s atoms and molecules are so far apart, the
spacecraft experiences near vacuum and is not
significantly affected by atmospheric drag. This layer
is very cold, affecting the spacecraft bus subsystem
survivability.
Relevant parameters: pressure, density, temperature, orbital

velocity, spacecraft area
Outputs: orbital velocity
The Ionosphere
You’ll notice that the Ionosphere is not one of the atmospheric

layers shown or mentioned so far, even though it is probably the
best known. That is because, unlike the other layers, it is not
based on molecular density or temperature. Beginning at about
90 km, there is a significant quantity of ions and electrons in
the atmosphere (mainly created by interaction with solar x-ray
and UV radiation). This atmospheric region of charged particles,
overlapping with the Mesosphere, Thermosphere, and
Exosphere, is called the Ionosphere.
The Ionosphere includes the Thermosphere and parts of the Mesosphere

and Exosphere.
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The motion of ions and electrons in the ionosphere produces an

electrical current that heats and increases the density of the
atmosphere. As shown below, peak density of the ionosphere is
between 200 and 600 km (the F2 region). Image courtesy of
NASA.
Charged particles in the ionosphere are also able to reflect radio

waves, allowing RF transmission ‘over the horizon.’
• The highest frequency that can be reflected varies as

the amount of charged particles in the Ionosphere
varies – with the typical maximum reflective
frequency as low as 2Mhz during the night and as
high as 10 to 15 Mhz during the day when ionization
is greatest.
Charged particles from the sun in the ionosphere cause auroral

activity and LEO spacecraft hazards.
Vacuum
There are three main problems for spacecraft caused by the near-
vacuum of space:
1. Out-gassing
Tiny bubbles of gas trapped in materials under atmospheric

pressure, are released in vacuum. Not a problem for materials,
but can create a film of dirt over lens and sensors.
1. Cold welding
In space there is no longer a tiny cushion provided by air

between surfaces. As a consequence, raw material may weld
together. The process is usually reversible, but it is better to
avoid it with surface treatments (anodization).
1. Heat transfer
No conduction or convection, only radiation.

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There are advantages of operating in the near-vacuum of space:
1. RF Signal Attenuation
Radio frequency (RD) signals transmitted through the

atmosphere suffer degradation of signal (called attenuation). The
amount of attenuation depends on the frequency band and some
bands are also adversely affected by atmospheric conditions
such as rain or snow. RF signals traveling in the near-vacuum of
space do not suffer from this attenuation.
1. Drag
In the near-vacuum of space the distribution of molecules is very

sparse resulting in little or no effects of drag on the spacecraft
caused by collisions with the gas molecules. The lower the orbit,
the less-perfect is the vacuum, and the greater the drag on the
spacecraft.
Even the remote areas of interplanetary or interstellar space,

far from any planets, are not true vacuums and have widely
dispersed particles, molecules, and photons, known as the
interplanetary or interstellar medium.
The Sun-Earth Connection
The solar wind, composed mainly of charged particles, has

difficulty penetrating the Earth’s magnetic field and so attempts

to flow around it. In the up-wind direction (sunward) the
magnetic field is compressed and a bow shock is formed. In
the down-wind direction (anti-sunward) the magnetic field
elongates, forming a magnetotail. The cavity formed around the
Earth by the interaction between the solar wind and the Earth’s
magnetic field is known as the magnetosphere.
The Earth’s Magnetosphere. Image courtesy of NASA.
Solar wind particles can enter the Earth’s magnetosphere at two

locations:
• Through the polar cusps (producing the Aurora

effects)
• Through the ‘back door’ (resulting in particle
addition to the outer Van Allen radiation belt)
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Van Allen Radiation Belts
The Van Allen radiation belts are doughnut-shaped regions of

high-energy particles encircling the Earth, held in place by the
Earth’s magnetic field. (These radiation belts are named after
Dr. James Van Allen, the American physicist whose Geiger
counter on the first successful U.S. satellite, Explorer I, first
detected these belts in 1958. Dr. Van Allen was a professor at the
University of Iowa).
The Van Allen Radiation Belts. Image Courtesy of NASA.
Inner Belt:
• Formed by cosmic radiation and solar wind

• Composed primarily of high energy protons (10-100
MeV)
• Very intense, compact, and fairly stable
• Increases in intensity during solar minimum.
Outer Belt:
• Composed of ‘trapped’ solar wind plasma (typically

<50 KeV)
• Greatly influenced by fluctuations in solar activity

(e.g., solar storms); particle density can increase by a
factor 10 to 1,000 over a short period (minutes)
Solar Radiation Pressure
For GEO satellites and interplanetary spacecraft, solar radiation

pressure dominates the ‘drag’ that a satellite experiences similar
to the way that atmospheric drag affects LEO satellites. Below
800 km altitude, atmospheric drag accelerations are greater than
solar radiation pressure. Above 800 km, solar radiation pressure
is dominant. Satellite geometry and the surface area exposed
toward the Sun determine what effect solar radiation pressure
has on the satellite. Solar radiation pressure may result in
torques, rotation, and reorientation of GEO satellites.
Solar Radiation Torque
The solar radiation torque effect on the spacecraft is similar to

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that of aerodynamic torque, but the collision occurs with photons

instead of air molecules. The mean momentum flux from the
Sun, P, is:
where Fe is the solar constant (energy flux from Sun), c is the

speed of light, and S is the unit vector from the spacecraft to the
Sun.
Radiation from the Sun can be completely absorbed, specularly

reflected, or diffusely reflected, the probabilities of which are
called the coefficients of absorption, where
Ca + Cs + Cd = 1.
Space Radiation and Particles Electromagnetic radiation and particles

both have an effect of spacecraft in both Earth orbit and deep space.
Figure shows the typical radiation and particles with their dimensions
that affect spacecraft.
Figure shows the electromagnetic spectrum and particles that affect

spacecraft. Note that there is an error in this figure. “Micrometeorites”
should be “Micrometeoroids” – see below
Interesting Fact
What is the difference between a “meteoroid”, “meteor”, and

“meteorite”. Many people think they are just interchangeable
words for the same thing, but they are wrong. Here are the
definitions:
Meteoroid is a small rocky or metallic body in outer space that

is significantly smaller than an asteroid and varies in size from
a few millimeters to about a meteor. Smaller than this they are
known as “micrometeoroids.”
Meteor is a meteoroid that has entered and is passing through

the Earth’s atmosphere that leaves a trail as it burns up and is
commonly known as a “shooting star.”
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Meteorite is the remains of a meteor that has landed on the Earth

and is now a special type of rock. Most of the meteors burn up
before they reach the Earth’s surface, but the larger ones can
survive to become the rock known as meteorite. By analyzing
these rocks, scientists can tell if they are of Earth origin or from
outer space, even from another planetary body such as the Moon
or Mars. With the latter, sometimes they will find small pockets
of Martian gases trapped inside the meteorite.
Typical Effects of Radiation and Particles on Space Missions.

Damage Due to Ultraviolet Radiation
Long term exposure to UV radiation has been shown to cause significant

changes in optical and mechanical properties of various materials (such
as changes in color, thermal properties, brittleness, opaqueness). Most
spacecraft use beta cloth as the outer layer of multi-layer insulation
(MLI), protecting spacecraft components from the space environment.
Image by The Aerospace Corporation.
Cosmic Radiation
Cosmic Radiation. Image courtesy of NASA.
(TBS)
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Solar Activity
Solar flare. Image courtesy of NASA>
(TBS)
Spacecraft Charging
‘In-space charging effects are caused by interactions between

the in-flight plasma environment and spacecraft materials and
electronic subsystems. Possible detrimental effects of spacecraft
charging include disruption of or damage to subsystems (such as
power, navigation, communications, or instrumentation) because
of field buildup and electrostatic discharge (ESD) as a result
of the spacecraft’s passage through the space plasma and high-

energy particle environments. Charges can also attract
contaminants, affecting thermal properties, optical instruments,
and solar arrays; and they can change particle trajectories, thus
affecting plasma-measuring instruments.’
[Guide to Mitigating Spacecraft Charging Effects by Henry B.

Garrett and Albert C. Whittlesey, John Wiley & Sons, part of the
JPL Space Science & Technology Book Series, Joseph H. Yuen,
Editor-in-Chief, https://descanso.jpl.nasa.gov/SciTechBook/
st_series3_chapter.html]
Absolute Charging
The spacecraft has an electric potential that is at a different level
than the potential of the plasma through which the spacecraft is
traveling. Effects can include:
• Enhance surface contamination which can degrade

thermal properties
• Compromise scientific instruments trying to

‘measure’ properties of the space environment
Differential Charging
Different surfaces of the spacecraft are at different potential

levels. This may result in an electrostatic discharge (ESD)
‘arcing’ between areas of different potential. Arcing may result
in:
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• Physical material damage
• Electromagnetic interference (EMI)

• Long-term degradation of exterior surface coatings
• Vehicle torquing/wobble
Spacecraft charging, arcing
http://assets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9500.pdf
https://www.spenvis.oma.be/help/background/charging/
charging.html#SPI
Single Event Effects
When a single, high-energy proton/ion penetrates a satellite

surface and encounters an electronic device, it may decelerate
and lose energy through an ionization process. This results in a
short pulse of current in the impacted device, known as a Single
Event Effect (SEE). This can cause either a hard error or a soft
error:
Soft Errors
The damage is temporary and non-destructive. This includes:
• Single Event Upset (SEU or “bit flip”) – a change of

state or transient induced by an ionizing particle
impacting a device.
• Single Event Latchup (SEL) – a potentially

destructive condition where the component draws
excessive current (basically shorts to ground).
Hard Errors
The damage is permanent and functional in nature. This
includes:
• Single Hard Error (SEE) – a SEU that causes a

permanent state change such as a ‘stuck bit’ in a
memory device.
• Single Event Burnout – non-reversible device failure

due to a high current state in a power transistor.
• Single Event Gate Rupture- a destructive rupture of a

gate insulator.
High Velocity Impacts
One danger that faces all spacecraft, especially in Earth orbit, is

the possibility of a high-velocity impact with a piece of matter,
which can be either of artificial origin (e.g., space debris) or
natural (meteoroids). We’ll examine the nature and likelihood of
these threats, then look at the damage that the impact can cause.
Space Debris
Space debris, also called space junk, is artificial material that

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is orbiting Earth, but is no longer functional. The source is

usually from spent rocket boosters, defunct satellites, or pieces
of these objects after an explosion or break-up, as well as pieces
discarded (intentionally or unintentionally) by spacecraft during
missions. Satellite collisions (either unintentional or as a result
of an anti-satellite test) can produce hundreds or thousands of
pieces of space debris.
Distribution of space debris around Earth. Image by ESA.
The U.S. Combined Space Operations Center (CSpOC) tracks ~23,000

large objects and catalogs most of their orbits. Image courtesy of NASA.
The material mass in Earth orbit continues to increase and has exceeded
8000 metric tons. Image courtesy of NASA.
How much debris is up there? Image courtesy of NASA.
Due to high impact speed in space (~10 km/sec in LEO), even

sub-millimeter
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debris pose a realistic threat to human spaceflight and robotic

missions
10 km/sec = 22,000 miles per hour (the speed of a bullet ~1,500

miles per hour)
• Mission-ending threat is dominated by small (mm-to-

cm sized) debris impacts
• Total mass: >8000 tons LEO-to-GEO (~3000 tons in

LEO)
Examples of Impact Damage on Spacecraft. Image courtesy of NASA.


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Mission Design Considerations for Orbital Debris and Impacts
Step Notes
1. Define Different orbits (LEO, MEO, GEO and deep

Operational space) have different space environments,
Regime effects, concerns.
1. Identify
Government (e.g., NASA, NOAA, DOD),
Applicable
commercial, and international spacecraft
Regulations
come under different regulations (e.g.,
and
prevention of orbital debris)
Policies
Various models are available for analyzing,

1. Determine predicting, and testing mitigations for space
Suitable environment problems but vary in focus and
Models capability depending on the organization,
policies, and needs
Extensive resources are available from

various US and international government
1. Review
organizations, especially members of the
Resources
Interagency Debris Committee. Many
references are publicly available.
Review papers and reports on lessons

1. Lessons
learned from other space missions – many
Learned
available
1. Determine
your
Mission’s Based on the information reviewed from the
Hazard and previous steps
Policy
Compliance
Satellite Design Lifecycle for Orbital Debris Assessment. Image by

Microcosm 2011 SME-0316-01-C.
From Akin:
Planetary environments – deep space? temp
Electromagnetic radiation
Gravitation
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Atmospheric particles
Newtonian flow
Ionizing radiation
Micrometeoroids/orbital debris
Spacecraft charging
From space environment implications for spacecraft design:
I like these photos but we can’t use them directly. Use the
information inside
Besides the physical effects that the space environment has on

the spacecraft as we have discussed, most of the factors we have
mentioned impart a force on the spacecraft, which is usually
free to rotate, so the forces are normally experienced as torques
on the spacecraft and are called disturbance torques. This is
a measure of how much the spacecraft is effected by the
environmental factor. The effect of the factors depends on the
altitude at which the spacecraft is flying. Some factors, such as
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atmospheric molecules, have the strongest effect at low altitude,

while at higher altitudes, solar pressure becomes predominant.
Figure ??? shows the relative magnitudes of the disturbance
torques at different altitudes.
Disturbance Torques on the Spacecraft from Environmental Factors as a

Function of Altitude.
Suggested Activity
“Assign each group with a regimes
Each group has to calculate the percent dominance of each

physical phenomena and report breakdown back to the group. Is
this intuitive? Anything surprising?”
3.5 Orbital Mechanics
255
4. Structures and
Mechanisms
Learning Objectives
• Understand role of structure subsystem

in context of spacecraft as a whole and
between other subsystems
• Familiarize with typical requirements
and configurations
• Differentiate phases of structures
development for verification and
validation
• Conduct structural analysis (load and
vibe)
257
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Structures and Mechanisms
Learning Objectives
Suggested Reading
4.1 Definition
4.2 Subsystem Responsibilities
4.3 Typical Requirements and Design Considerations
Artemis Structures Requirements
Suggested Activity
Requirements Compliance Matrix
4.4 General Arrangement and Design Drivers
Geometry
Artemis CubeSat Kit Arrangement
Mass
Structural Loads
Materials
Process
4.5 Mechanisms
Deployers
Restraints or Launch Locks
Separation Mechanisms
Ordinance Devices
Spin Bearings
Scan Platforms
4.6 Structural Analysis
Safety Factors
Load Equations
Ultimate and Yield Loads
Buckling Load
Beam Stiffness
Beam Natural Frequencies
Random Vibe and Acoustic Equivalent g’s
Thermal Load
Simple Pressurized Shell
Fracture and Fatigue Analysis
Finite Element Analysis

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Artemis Finite Element Analysis Results
Suggested Activity
Reference Documents
Launch Services Program Level Dispenser and CubeSat

Requirements Document [NASA LSP-REQ-317.01] &
[CubeSat Design Specifications Rev 14]
Structural Requirements Excerpt from NanoRacks External

CubeSat Deployer (NRCSD-E) Interfac Definition Document
(IDD) [NR-NRCSD-S0004]
4.1 Definition
The structures and mechanisms subsystem is responsible for

all the mechanical interfaces of the spacecraft throughout its
lifetime:
• Adhere to mass constraints set out by form factor and

launch provider (during design)
• Mechanically support all other spacecraft subsystems

(during integration)
• Attaches the spacecraft to the launch vehicle (during

launch)
• Provides for ordnance-activated separation (during

orbit insertion)
• Provides deployment and other moving mechanisms

(during mission)
• Shielding from space environment, like radiation,
atmosphere, pyrotechnic shocks (during mission)
The mechanical design must satisfy all strength and stiffness
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requirements of the spacecraft and launch vehicle, such as

deflection during thermal expansion in space and vibration
tolerance during launch. The structures and mechanisms
subsystem may be separated into a primary structure and a
secondary structure: the primary structure carries the
spacecraft’s major loads and the secondary structure supports
components and provides non-load bearing covers, etc.
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Arc Welding Procedures, Techniques, and Welding Safety

Equipment – Aircraft Welding
Structural components include skin panel assemblies, trusses,

ring frames, pressure vessels, fittings, brackets, equipment
boxes, and much more. Structural interfaces include
attachments, joining options, and fittings. Attachment or joining
options in adhesive bonds, welds, and mechanical fasteners.
Adhesive bond strength depends on the process and
workmanship and requires strict process control and testing.
Welds are possible for most aluminum alloys but the heat from
welds can lower material strength near welds by more than 50%.
Welds require strict process control and testing. Mechanical
fasteners, such as bolts and rivets, can experience fatigue.
Fundamentals of adhesive bonding by Dr. Dmitri Kopeliovich

The Artemis CubeSat kit acknowledges the

extensive testing the kit may undergo during your
development process so replaceable inserts are
embedded within the structure. Most connections
within the kit are fastened by bolts.
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Types of Screws. A variety of fasteners for different jobs. Image

courtesy of The Indian DIY & Woodworker
Most composite material structures have metal end fittings or

edge members attached by bonding. Bolts can be used but local
stress concentrations around fasteners can cause premature
failure at lower load levels.

here:
Aerospace Fasteners Application: An Aerospace Manufacturing

Perspective.Slide show courtesy of Randy Swinger.
3D Exploded Image of CubeSat Created

by Kevin Williams with HFSL
In the Artemis CubeSat kit, the structures and mechanisms

subsystem consists of the 1U CubeSat frame, an antenna
deployment mechanism, a threaded rod, spacers, and various
fasteners. The structural frame is made out of aluminum 6061
T6 and is hard anodized. When stowed, the antenna deployment
mechanism relies on a spring-loaded antenna, fastened by a
fishing line. Upon deployment, the fishing line is burned through
by a nichrome wire, releasing the antenna. The threaded rod
is made of super-corrosion-resistant 316 stainless steel. The
various length spacers are made of aluminum. The inserts are
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made of stainless steel. The stainless steel fasteners include

slotted screws, hex nuts, and washers.
Video of Antenna Deployment by Kevin Williams with HSFL
The custom structure’s CAD can be found in the Artemis

repository but the list of parts for the remaining structural
components are as follows:
Manufacturer Part name Part Description Part Nu
Al 6061 T6, Hard

3D Hubs Top Frame —
Anodized
Al 6061 T6, Hard

3D Hubs Bottom Frame —
Anodized
Al 6061 T6, Hard

3D Hubs Side Frame —
Anodized
90 Degree Countersink,
316 Stainless Steel Hex
McMaster-Carr M2 x 0.40mm Thread, 93395A
Drive Flat Head Screw
5mm Long
Stainless Steel Helical M2 x 0.4 Thread Size, 4

McMaster-Carr 91732A
Insert mm Long
Super-Corrosion-Resistant
M3 x 0.5 mm Thread Size,
McMaster-Carr 316 Stainless Steel 94185A
1 M Long
Threaded Rod
316 Stainless Steel Super-Corrosion-Resistant,

Nylon-Insert Locknut M3 x 0.5 mm Thread
18-8 Stainless Steel 4.500 mm OD, 10 mm

Unthreaded Spacer Long, for M3 Screw Size
4.500 mm OD, 16 mm
McMaster-Carr ” “ 92871A
Long, for M3 Screw Size
4.500 mm OD, 17 mm
McMaster-Carr ” “ 92871A
Long, for M3 Screw Size
SWITCH SNAP ACTION

Digi-Key D2MQ-4L-105-1 D2MQ-
SPDT 50MA 30V
18-8 Stainless Steel M1.4 x 0.3mm Thread,

Slotted Screws 6mm Long
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18-8 Stainless Steel M1.4 Screw Size, 1.5 mm

Washer ID, 3.8 mm OD
18-8 Stainless Steel Hex

McMaster-Carr M1.4 x 0.3 mm Thread 91828A
Nut
Wear-Resistant 1095 0.0040″ Thick, 1/2″ Wide,

McMaster-Carr 9075K4
Spring Steel 25 Feet Long
High-Strength
Pan Head Phillips, 6-32
McMaster-Carr High-Temperature PEEK 96367A
Thread, 3/8″ Long
Screw
High-Temperature PEEK Number 6 Screw Size,

Plastic Washer 0.15″ ID, 0.38″ OD
High-Strength
McMaster-Carr High-Temperature PEEK 6-32 Thread Size 98886A
Hex Nut
Total $356.02
The structures and mechanisms system is responsible for:
• Surviving loads through launch and the entire

spacecraft mission.
• Supporting geometric requirements or constraints in

component placement.
• Deploying structures successfully.
• Ensuring mechanisms do not fail throughout the

entire spacecraft mission.

here:
Vibration Testing Arkyd 6 by Planetary Resources. Video Courtesy of Youtube.
During the design process, the structures and mechanisms (STR)

specialist:
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The Artemis CubeSat Kit is supported by

Solidworks and OnShape.
• is the owner and primary developer of the spacecraft

Computer-Aided Design (CAD).
• Must design the spacecraft frame and ensure the

primary structure, the spacecraft frame, survives the
spacecraft’s major loads, which includes the launch
vehicle conditions while contained in the deployer
and during the pod deployment.
• Must also generate secondary structures that support

components, like mounting brackets, baffles, and
camera covers.
• Must geometrically fit the various subsystem

components into the spacecraft structure, which may
be an iterative, time-consuming process.
• is responsible for adhering to the structural

requirements throughout the entire spacecraft
lifecycle through analysis and testing.
4.3 Typical Requirements and
Design Considerations
The Artemis II mission map shows the planned flight path and test
objectives for the flight. Image courtesy of NASA.
Sources for requirements may be generated from external

constraints or internally generated needs from all parts of the
spacecraft lifecycle, from manufacturing to spaceflight
operations. The basic requirements or design drivers for any
subsystem are the allocated size, weight, and power, which
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applies for structures and mechanisms. Requirements specific to

the structures and mechanisms system related to the spacecraft
mission include:
Flight to orbit. The life cycle of a rocket. Image courtesy of NASA.
• components requiring a certain orientation within the

spacecraft frame (facing away from the spacecraft
center)
• components requiring a certain placement within the

spacecraft frame (radiation shielding or protection)
• observing payloads that need an unobstructed view

into the space environment (most optics)
• accommodation of specific size within spacecraft

volume and weight distribution affecting moment of
inertia
• required active mechanisms or deployables (like a

extendable boom) to achieve mission objectives
• total mass and size of the spacecraft
• mechanical interfaces between spacecraft components

and primary structure
Sources of internal requirements during manufacturing and

assembly could include handling fixtures, container interfaces,
or stresses induced by manufacturing processes. The Artemis
CubeSat Kit does not have handling fixtures, has rails to
interface with the P-POD deployer, and inserts to deal with
manufacturing fatigue from assembly and disassembly.
3U cubesatellite alongside a P-POD deployer. Image courtesy of

Wikimedia.
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Sources of internal requirements during manufacturing and

assembly could include handling fixtures, container interfaces,
or stresses induced by manufacturing processes.
The Artemis CubeSat Kit does not have handling

fixtures, has rails to interface with the P-POD
deployer, and inserts to deal with manufacturing
fatigue from assembly and disassembly.
During transport and handling, requirements may include crane

or dolly interfacing (especially for large spacecraft) and
considerations for land/sea/air transport environments (like
shipping containers for freight boats or trucks). The Artemis
CubeSat Kit does not have any handling interfaces but will
arrive fitted snugly in fitted foam within a Pelican case, which
offers protection during shipment.
Techncians and engineers inside a clean room at NASA’s Jet Propulsion

Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., prepare to install SAM into the mission’s
Mars rover, Curiosity, using a crane. Image Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech.
The Artemis CubeSat Kit does not have any

handling interfaces but will arrive fitted snugly in
fitted foam within a Pelican case, which offers
protection during shipment.
During testing, external requirements from the launch provider

commonly include environmental testing from vibration or
acoustic profiles. These tests may require a fixture to the testbed
that also must withstand vibration loads. During pre-launch,
requirements could include handling during stacking sequence
and pre-flight checks.
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Two students and engineer Lloyd French working on the vibration table.
Image courtesy of HSFL
Commonly, 1U cubesats are stacked into a

deployer with other units of spacecraft (for
Nanoracks six units in a silo), so our structural
design offsets the mating face to avoid any physical
contact and potential damage.
During launch and ascent, the structure must withstand steady-

state booster accelerations, vibro-acoustic noise during launch
and transonic phase, propulsion system engine vibrations,
pyrotechnic shock from separation events, transient loads during
stage separations, etc. Generally, spacecraft are designed to

launch loads as these loads are the most intense out of any phase.
Shock absorbers on Ares 1 rockets to reduce significant vibrations that

could shake the Orion spacecraft and astronaut crews during early stages
of the flight. Image courtesy of Universe today and NASA.
The Artemis CubeSat Kit has been tested on a

vibration table to withstand these loads per the
Launch Services Program Level Dispenser and
CubeSat Requirements Document [NASA LSP-
REQ-317.01] and NanoRacks External CubeSat
Deployer (NRCSD-E) Interface Definition
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Document (IDD) [NR-NRCSD-S0004]. The CubeSat

may be soft-stowed on a resupply mission to the ISS
or hard-stowed as a secondary payload. We’ve tested
both profiles.
During mission operations, the spacecraft structure must

withstand thruster acceleration, transient loads from pointing
maneuvers, docking events, pyrotechnic shock from separation
or deployment, and thermal expansion.
The Artemis CubeSat Kit experiences antenna

deployment and thermal expansion for which both
the thermal vacuum chamber and antenna
deployment tests verified survival.
In the final phase of reentry and landing, spacecraft may

experience aerodynamic heating and transient winds or landing
loads. These phenomena are particularly relevant for the
astronaut return or for Mars entry, descent, and landing
operations.
Artist’s concept of the Mars Science Laboratory, containing the

Curiosity rover, entering the Martian atmosphere. The Mars 2020
mission will use the same heat shield design. Credit: NASA/
JPL-Caltech.
The Artemis CubeSat Kit need not survive reentry

as it is designed to burn up upon reentry.
From the CubeSat Design Specification Rev. 14, the CubeSat

dimensions and features are outlined in the CubeSat
Specification Drawings (Appendix B). Note: The CubeSat
Inspection and Fit-check Procedure (CIFP) can be used to aid in
verifying that the CubeSat meets the dimensional requirements
specified in Appendix B. The CIFP can be found on cubesat.org.
These requirements are applicable for all dispensers not utilizing
the tab constraint method. CubeSats designed with tabs can
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find those specific requirements at the PSC website. Within

the CubeSat Design Specification Rev. 14, the structural
requirements fall under section 2.2 CubeSat Mechanical
Specifications, which start on page 10.
The most stringent requirements imposed on the

Artemis CubeSat kit are from the NanoRacks
External CubeSat Deployer (NRCSD-E) Interface
Definition Document (IDD) [NR-NRCSD-S0004].
Please refer to section 4.1 Structural and Mechanical
Systems Interface Requirements. The following table
lists the Artemis CubeSat Kit’s structural
requirements, drawn from both the CalPoly and
Nanoracks document
The CubeSat
structure shall be
contained within
1U and offer
3.6
flexibility in
mounting
components
internally
The CubeSat kit structure shall remain

3.6.1 inside a 10 x 10 x 11.35 cm +/- 0.1mm
volume while undeployed
All four protruding corners on the top and

bottom of the main body of the CubeSat
shall not exceed a height of 6.75mm, shall
3.6.2 have a minimum length and width of
6mm, and shall have a surface area of
6.5mm x 6.5mm, per NASA CLSI
requirements
There shall be a minimum of 20mm from

the CubeSat surface to the top of the
3.6.3
corners along the Z direction per NASA
CSLI Requirements
The four edges of the CubeSat along the Z

direction shall have a hardness greater than
3.6.4
or equal to Rockwell C 65-70 per NASA
CSLI Requirements
The overall structure shall withstand

1200N between two XY planes applied in
3.6.5
the Z direction, per NASA CSLI
Requirements
The maximum mass of the entire CubeSat

3.6.6 Kit shall not exceed 1.33 kg per NASA
CSLI Requirements
The center of gravity shall be within 2cm

3.6.7 of its geometric center relative to the Z
direction, per NASA CSLI Requirements
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The CubeSat kit shall be easy to assemble

3.6.3
with the provided instructions
Requirements Compliance Matrix

In a NASA Technical Standard to establish NASA structural
design and test factors [NASA-STD-5001], this document’s
appendix provides a listing of requirements for selection and
verification of requirements by programs and projects. You may
use the entire appendix table to decide which requirements apply
to your program and by entering “Yes” to describe the
requirement’s applicability to the program or project; or entering
“No” if the intent is to tailor and enter how tailoring is to be
applied in the “Rationale” column. For all the requirements that
you’ve deemed applicable, you should read the corresponding
sections in NASA-STD-5001. The figure below is just a
snapshot of the 8 pages of potential requirements.
Potential requirements from the NASA Systems Engineering Handbook.

Image by NASA.
4.4 General Arrangement and
Design Drivers
This section will review the design drivers that affect the
structural design of the spacecraft: geometry, mass, structural
loads, materials, and processes. These design drivers affect each
other, sometimes beneficially, but also in ways that oppose each
other and cause problems. The design process is always iterative
and must consider all of these design drivers
“The appropriate design and test factors for a given mechanical

or structural flight hardware element depend on several
parameters, such as the materials used, attachment methods
(e.g., bonding), and the verification approach (prototype or
protoflight). In addition to the minimum factors of safety
specified in this NASA Technical Standard, some structural and
mechanical members may be required to meet other more
stringent and restrictive performance requirements, such as
dimensional stability, pointing accuracy, stiffness/frequency
286
constraints, or safety requirements (e.g., fracture control)”

[NASA-STD-5001B].
Geometry
The structure of the EST CubeSat. Notice the placement of all the parts
relative to each other. Which components are on the outside? Which are
facing out? CC SA 3.0. Image courtesy of Wikimedia.
For the primary structure, the design drivers are the first and
foremost the requirements, derived from external constraints and
internal needs. The primary structure is constrained to the launch
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vehicle fairing or deployer enclosure and must enclose all the

spacecraft bus components. Geometric considerations that affect
every subsystem could include:
Subsystem Consideration
• Unoccluded field of view for payloads

• Thermal deformation in critical
Payload payload components
• Electromagnetic Interference/
Capability
• Spatial organization to ensure

Structure and components do not intersect
Mechanisms
• Vibration isolation
• Facilitate thermal management

through conduction or radiation
Thermal Control • Regulating thermally sensitive
components through placement
• Enabling thermal isolation
• Securing harnessing in empty spaces

Power (including
harness) • Insulating battery (which is typically
thermally sensitive)
Telemetry and
• Unoccluded field of view for antenna
Control
Command and • Radiation shielding by placing

Data Handling computer behind other components
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• Sensor and actuator mounting in

defined orientations
Attitude • Regulating moments of inertia
Determination (emphasize one principal axis or
and Control uniform across axes)
• Minimize off diagonal moments of
inertia
• Direction of thrusters
Propulsion • Placement of propellant exhaust exit
with respect to payload optics
Artemis CubeSat Kit Arrangement
The Artemis CubeSat kit is straightforward in its

geometric arrangement as the subsystem components
are rather homogenous in their geometry; all the
subsystems are generally mounted on PCB boards
and stacked on a threaded rod as seen in Fig. __. The
antenna and deployer on the exterior of the satellite
to guarantee an unoccluded field of view. The
exterior skin has a cut out to allow a camera to peer
through; the first board in the stack has the payload
and payload supporting electronics. The power
distribution board follows. The onboard computer
sits nearly in the center of the cubesat, providing
radiation shielding. Between boards starting from

payload to onboard computer, 104-pin Cubesat kit
bus headers are used to reduce clutter. Pycubed
boards were not designed to be compatible with the
cubesat kit bus header, and thus integrated through
external connections. The low level control
computer, called the PyCubed, is stacked underneath.
Finally, we have the PyCubed battery board, which
runs warm and needs exposure to the space
environment to radiate its heat.
Mass
The structure and mechanisms subsystem specialist is an

important player in generating and managing the mass budget,
with the assistance of the systems engineer and the other
subsystem specialists. For a 1U cubesat, the total mass of the
spacecraft must not exceed 2 kg [CubeSat Design Specification
Rev. 14]. Any additional mass may be negotiated with the launch
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provider with an immense amount of paperwork and persistence

but it’s not impossible. Typically, 1U cubesats are between 1 kg
and 1.33 kg. To reiterate, a suggested mass budget and specific
1U cubesat project mass budgets are as follows:
Ke Ao
Subsystem (% SMAD Hermes Artemis (variant
OreSat
of Dry Mass) suggestion CubeSat CubeSat of
Artemis)
Allocated
Payload 41%
in T&C
Structure and
20% 32.3%
Mechanisms
Thermal
2% 0%
Control
Power
(including 19% 13.5%
harness)
Telemetry and
2% 22.5%
Control
Command
and Data 5% 3.6%
Handling
Attitude
and Control
Other
(balance + 3% 25.7%
launch)
Total 100% 100%
The mass budget typically carries margin at the preliminary

design phase. The design margin decreases over time as the
design converges to the final assembly. Refining the design

toward spaceflight reveals additional interfacing and detailing
that inevitably adds mass to the system [Hayhurst et al.]. Each
subsystem’s mass growth by design gate is shown in Fig. __.
Note, the spacecraft studied are traditional in size and mass,
which means that the study was not geared toward cube satellite
design.
Historical Mass, Power, Schedule & Cost Growth for NASA

Instruments & Spacecraft by Marc Hayhurst, Robert Bitten, Daniel
Judnick, Ingrid Hallgrimson, Megan Youngs The Aerospace
Corporation. Stephen Shinn NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
Structural Loads
This section will provide an overview of typical structural loads
and how they drive the spacecraft structural design. Loads are
generated by forces, deformations, or accelerations which cause
stresses, deformations, and displacements in structures. There
are two types of structural loads: static and dynamic. Static
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loads are steady-state loadings, like loads imparted on spring-

loaded deployers, launch acceleration, or pressurized vessels.
Think of these loads as built-up loads that are ready to burst or
buckle. Dynamic loads are loads from vibrations generated by
natural frequencies, like launch vehicles, pyrotechnic separation,
or deployment events. Think of these loads as shocking events.
Structural engineers are concerned with mitigating the effects of
the critical load: the load that the spacecraft most intensely feels
and is most likely to break the spacecraft. Critical loads could be
launch loads for an assembled spacecraft, pressurization loads
for a rocket casing, thermal loads for a propulsion system,
centrifugal forces from rapid rotation, or on-orbit collisions.
Three 1U CubeSats beside a 3U (Poly Picosatellite Orbital Deployer

(PPOD) developed at CalPoly. The spring mechanism used by P-PODs
to deploy CubeSats can be seen within the main housing, prior to
loading. Image Credit: California Polytechnic State University Source
publication
The Fox-1A CubeSat satellite has been integrated into the

Poly-PicoSatellite Orbital Deployer rig (P-POD) with two other
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CubeSats. The red arrows show the static load on the cubesats generated
from the compressed spring’s force.
Apollo 15 Launch and Reaching Earth Orbit. Courtesy of NASA.

Typical vibration spectrum of a launch.How to test satellites and not

destroy them by Ben Sampson Courtesy of Aerospace Testing
International.
Just as we reviewed every phase of the spacecraft lifecycle in

the Typical Requirements section, we will revisit these phases
to identify all loads and estimate the load. Load quantification
may be obtained through measurements, tests, references, and
asking the relevant engineers. Critical load estimation is not
always straightforward and may need to be indirectly quantified
or estimated.
• During manufacturing and assembly, stresses could

include welding, joint stressing due to tightening
bolts
• During transport and handling, requirements may

include loads from transferring the spacecraft to a
shipping container (especially for large spacecraft)
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and shock during transportation through land/sea/air

transport environments (like on freight boats or
trucks). The Artemis CubeSat Kit expects to be
handled delicately by human hands, which yield
gentle loads. The kit is not expected to survive being
dropped. The kit will arrive fitted snugly in fitted
foam within a Pelican case, which mitigates the shock
loads during transportation. These loads will not be
the critical loads.
• During thermal and vibration testing, critical loads

could be the stress from misaligned thermal
expansion, launch shock, acceleration loads, and
random vibration environments. These tests replicate
launch loads and thermal stressing from the mission
operations environment. The difference between
thermal and vibe testing in this phase with respect to
the real environments could be the disparity in
replicating the same loads in which case the
spacecraft must survive two different loading profiles.
Ideally, the test matches the launch and space
environment conditions so we will discuss critical
loads in those phases. A summary of tests is seen
below:
Launch Services Program. Courtesy of NASA.
• During pre-launch, the spacecraft must be handled

and packaged into the launch vehicle. For large
spacecraft, handling loads could include static loads
at hoisting interfaces. Cubesats experience the
compression of the P-POD deployer. Drawing from
the Nanoracks External CubeSat Deployer Document,
“The CubeSat shall be capable of withstanding a
force 1320N across all load points equally in the Z
direction”. The Artemis CubeSat kit was analyzed to
withstand this integrated load. This could be a critical
load for which we should do structural analysis.
• During launch and ascent, the structure must

withstand steady-state booster accelerations, vibro-
acoustic noise during launch and transonic phase,
propulsion system engine vibrations, pyrotechnic
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shock from separation events, transient loads during

stage separations, etc. Generally, the critical loads to
launch loads as these loads are the most intense out of
any phase. The Artemis CubeSat Kit has been tested
on a vibration table to withstand these loads per the
Launch Services Program Level Dispenser and
CubeSat Requirements Document [NASA LSP-
REQ-317.01] and NanoRacks External CubeSat
Deployer (NRCSD-E) Interface Definition Document
(IDD) [NR-NRCSD-S0004]. The CubeSat may be
soft-stowed on a resupply mission to the ISS or hard-
stowed as a secondary payload. We’ve tested both
profiles. For your convenience, we have listed all
relevant loads taken word for word from the
Nanoracks document.
◦ Acceleration loads: Payload safety-critical

structures shall (and other payload
structures should) provide positive margins
of safety when exposed to the accelerations
documented in Table 4.3.1-1 at the CG of
the item, with all six degrees of freedom
acting simultaneously.
◦ Random Vibration Environment: The

CubeSat shall be capable of withstanding
the dynamic flight environment for the
mission applicable launch vehicle (shown
in Table 4.3.2.1-1 through Table 4.3.2.1-4).

Nominally, NRCSDE missions are
launched on the Antares rocket; however,
Atlas V rockets have been utilized in the
past.
◦ Launch shock environment: The CubeSat

shall be capable of withstanding the shock
environment shown in Table 4.3.3-1. Any
mechanical or electrical components on the
spacecraft that are highly sensitive to shock
should be identified and assessed on a case-
by-case basis as defined in the unique
payload ICA.
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• During mission operations, loads include thruster

acceleration, transient loads from pointing
maneuvers, docking events, pyrotechnic shock from
separation or deployment, and loads from thermal
expansion. The Artemis CubeSat Kit experiences
antenna deployment and thermal expansion for which
both the thermal vacuum chamber and antenna
deployment tests verified survival. For your
convenience, we have reiterated the thermal
environment taken word for word from the Nanoracks
document.
◦ The CubeSat shall be capable of

withstanding the expected thermal
environments for all mission phases, which
are enveloped by the on-orbit EVR phase
prior to deployment. The expected thermal
environments for all phases of the mission
leading up to deployment are below in

Table 4.3.5-1.
• In the final phase of reentry and landing, spacecraft

may experience aerodynamic heating and pressure,
transient winds or landing loads. The Artemis
CubeSat Kit need not survive reentry as it is designed
to burn up upon reentry.
Upon identifying the various loads, we may conduct structural

analysis to determine which of these loads is the critical load.
From experience and intuition, a good guess is to design the
structural components of the spacecraft to the launch conditions
if your spacecraft will remain in orbit. If your spacecraft will re-
enter Mars’s atmosphere, for example, the entry,
descent, and landing phase may be more critical. The structural

analysis will be described in the last section of this chapter but
the consequence of the structural analysis is the iterative design
and redesign of the structural components to fulfill sufficient
margins of safety.
Structural analysis plays into the initial design of structures

by conducting back-of-the-envelope (simplified) calculations as
to the sizing or thickness of a structural component, like the
primary structure wall or supporting bracket. The structural
analysis enters at the redesign phase by showing that some
structural components fail at the critical load and need
reinforcement to achieve mission success. Structural analysis
may also show some structural components more than
sufficiently carry that piece’s critical load and could be trimmed
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in mass to allocate elsewhere. Finally, structural analysis in the

way of finite element analysis is a critical method of verifying
that structural designs will survive tests or survive conditions
that would otherwise be infeasible to test.
Materials
The selection of the structural material affects the survivable

structural load, mass, geometry, and concerns around
outgassing. Material properties include density, stiffness,
strength, weight, ductility, coefficient of thermal expansion,
fatigue, and outgassing:
• Density is the mass per unit volume of a material. As

space missions are proportional in cost to the mass
launched into space, lower density materials are
preferred.
• The precise term for material stiffness is Young’s

modulus, which “defines the relationship between
stress (force per unit area) and strain (proportional
deformation) in a material in the linear elasticity
regime of uniaxial deformation. Young’s modulus
enables the calculation of the change in the dimension
of a bar made of an isotropic elastic material under
tensile or compressive loads” [Wikipedia]. This value
is commonly represented by the letter E or Y.
◦ E is Young’s modulus
◦ is the uniaxial stress or uniaxial force

per unit surface
◦ is the strain, or proportional deformation

(change in length divided by original
length); it is dimensionless
◦ Both E and have units of pressure, while

is dimensionless. Young’s moduli are
typically so large that they are expressed
not in pascals but in megapascals (MPa or
N/mm2) or gigapascals (GPa or kN/mm2).
• There are two types of material strengths that we care

about: yield strength and ultimate strength.
◦ Materials, when stressed below the yield

point, return to their original form. Imagine
a rubber band stretched gently. When you
stop stretching the rubber band, the rubber
band returns to its original form; this is
elastic deformation.
◦ Yield strength is when a material is stressed

to the point where the material does not
return to its original shape; this is plastic
deformation. Imagine that the rubber band
was stretched more intensely and when the
stretching is eased, the rubber band looks a
bit longer than it started out.
◦ Ultimate strength is the maximum stress

that a material can withstand while being
stretched or pulled before breaking.
Imagine that this is when the rubber band
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snaps.
“Engineering” stress–strain (σ–ε) curve typical of

aluminum. 1.) Ultimate strength. 2.)Yield
strength. 3.)Proportional limit stress. 4.)Fracture.
5.) Offset strain (typically 0.2%) Image courtesy
od Wikipedia
• Ductility “is a measure of a material’s ability to

undergo significant plastic deformation before rupture
or breaking, which may be expressed as percent
elongation or percent area reduction from a tensile
test” [Wikipedia].
% EL= =
Malleability is the compressive counterpart to ductility.

Malleability “is a material’s ability to deform under compressive
stress”.
Schematic appearance of round metal bars after tensile testing. (a)

Brittle fracture (b) Ductile fracture (c) Completely ductile fracture.
• Coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) “describes

how the size of an object changes with a change in
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temperature. Specifically, it measures the fractional

change in size per degree change in temperature at a
constant pressure” [Wikipedia]. You’ll notice bridges
or parking lot structures have expansion joints that fill
gaps within the structure and act as a flexible,
variable filler that help the structure adapt to
temperature changes without distorting [Science
Clarified].
• Fatigue occurs when a material is cyclically loaded

and unloaded at a mean stress. Fatigue limit “is the
stress level below which an infinite number of
loading cycles can be applied to a material without
causing fatigue failure” [Wikipedia]. Interestingly,
aluminum seemingly has no fatigue limit. “Fatigue
failures, both for high and low cycle, all follow the
same basic steps process of crack initiation, stage I
crack growth, stage II crack growth, and finally
ultimate failure” [Wikipedia]. Characteristics of
fatigue include randomness in location of failure,
usual association with tensile stresses, inverse
relationship between applied stress and life, and
irreversible damage. “Fatigue life is influenced by a
variety of factors, such as temperature, surface finish,
metallurgical microstructure, presence of oxidizing or
inert chemicals, residual stresses, scuffing contact
(fretting), etc.”, which is why attention to
manufacturing processes is important to preserve the
structural integrity of components likely to fatigue.
Representative curves of applied stress vs number of cycles

for steel (showing an endurance limit) and aluminium
(showing no such limit). Image Courtesy of Wikipedia.
• Outgassing or offgassing is the “release of gas that

was dissolved, trapped, frozen, or absorbed in some
material” [Wikipedia]. Outgassing commonly occurs
when the spacecraft is exposed to a high-vacuum
environment. NASA keeps a database of outgassing
data of materials intended for spacecraft use and
promotes the use of materials with low-outgassing
properties. “Outgassing products can condense onto
optical elements, thermal radiators, or solar cells and
obscure them. For most solid materials, the method of
manufacture and preparation can reduce the level of
outgassing significantly. Cleaning of surfaces, or
heating of individual components or the entire
assembly (a process called “bake-out“) can drive off
volatiles” [Wikipedia].
Common choices for spacecraft structures include aluminum,

steel, titanium, and composites. Aluminum is incredibly
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common due to its high material strength with relative low

density to save on mass and low cost. Steel is stronger and
generally cheaper but heavier. Titanium is stronger and lighter
but much more expensive. Composite materials are higher in
strength and lower in density, also making them attractive
candidates, but have less space heritage or historical use. For a
more quantitative comparison, refer to the table below:
Material Aluminum 6061-T6 Stainless Steel 316
Density 2.7 g/cc 8 g/cc
Young’s
68.9 GPa 193 GPa
Modulus
Tensile
Yield 276 MPa 290 MPa
Strength
Tensile
Ultimate 310 MPa 580 MPa
Strength
Ductility 12 – 17 % 50 %
CTE 23.6 – 25.2 µm/m-°C 16 – 17.5 µm/m-°C
Fatigue
96.5 MPa 270 MPa-N/mm2
Strength
Outgassing
rate
Thermal
167 W/m-K 16.3 W/m-K
Conductivity
Cost for ¼”
3.46 USD 23.31 USD
x 1” x 1’ bar
Process
Although the process may seem like an afterthought, we must

consider the manufacturing, integration, assembly, and testing
process. The design may be geometrically elegant or structurally
strong but the design is not feasible if the structure components
are impossible to manufacture or assemble. The most
straightforward way to gauge if a design is possible to fabricate,
assemble, and test is to attempt to fabricate, assemble, and test.
Infeasible plans may be revealed through preliminary plans,
like consulting with machinists on part drawings or generating
an integration procedure. Best practice is to fabricate and test
prototypes prior to the actual deadline to iron out any hiccups in
the implementation progress.
ALTEN engineers during assembly, validation tests and final integration

(before launch) of a satellite. Image by ALTEN.
4.5 Mechanisms
For the beginner structures and mechanisms engineer, this

section will provide a brief overview of the various components
and what they’re used for in spacecraft. These mechanisms are
typically very risky as they have a significant rate of failure.
As they are so risky, systems engineers prefer not to use active
mechanisms unless necessary. Mechanisms may be critical for
engineering solutions or science applications, which will be
discussed below. Thus, deployers are rigorously tested on
ground in gravity offloading testbeds, which simulate
microgravity by placing wheels underneath a structure or
stringing cables from the structure to the ceiling to compensate
for gravity.
312
Mechanical gravity offloader. Image courtesy of Gravity-Offloading

System for Large-Displacement Ground Testing of Spacecraft
Mechanisms by Olyvia Han, David Kienholz, Paul Janzen and Scott
Kidney.
Deployers
Deployers or deployment mechanisms transform a packaged
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spacecraft into its operational form. The common need for all
deployers is the desire to achieve a different geometry than is
feasible with the rocket fairing volume constraint. Deployers can
achieve great lengths (booms), large surface areas (solar panels
or solar sails), or immense volumes (habitation modules).

here:
Full video can be seen: Glory Solar Array Deployment. Video Courtesy of
NASA via You Tube.
Booms
Booms are typically used to take advantage of length extension.
This length extension could offer spatial isolation, like
mitigating electromagnetic noise for a magnetometer on the tip
of the boom. A boom could also offer geometric placement
for optics, like a shade or occluder. Booms may also be used
to manipulate spacecraft dynamics. A boom can modify the
moment of inertia of a spacecraft to create spin stability [Pankow
et al.] or mass distribution of a spacecraft to create a gravity
differential to preference an orientation [Kowalski et al.].

here:
Deployable Composite Booms (DCB). Video courtesy of You Tube.
Solar panels
Solar panels rely on surface area to generate power. Some
spacecraft, like our Artemis Cubesat kit, have solar panels on
most faces of the spacecraft structure. But some spacecraft have
opted to extend solar arrays away from the primary structure to
get as much surface area and thus as much power as possible.
This level of power generation may be critical to fulfill mission
requirements. These solar arrays can’t fit in the rocket fairing
as is so the solar panels must be folded close to the primary
structure and deployed once in orbit. Solar panel hinges and
motors deploy these solar panels to their full extent. Vipavetz
and Kraft give great lessons learned as to the reasons solar
panel arrays have historically failed grouped into mechanical
loading, on-orbit space environment, tribology (mechanisms and
lubricants), and bas systems engineering.

here:
Glory Solar Array Deployment. video courtesy of NASA.

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Light sails or shades

Light sails or shades are deployed much like thin booms with the
addition unfurling a thin sail. The careful folding, like origami,
of the sail is ingenious. The sail is made of an incredibly thin
mylar material that could risk tearing with poor fabrication or
assembly. This surface area is necessary for a light sail to capture
as much linear momentum from photons as possible, as the
individual exchange from a single photon is not much, but the
summation across a large surface area can propel a small
spacecraft.

here:
Full video can be seen at Raw video: LightSail solar sail deployment test. Video
Courtesy of The Planetary Society.

here:
Full video can be seen at James Webb Space Telescope – Unfurls. Video
courtesy of Northrop Grumman.
Antennas
Antennas, like the radar antenna on RainCube, require a
parabolic dish shape that is too large to be launched as is, thus
they must be compacted and deployed after launch. A small
business, named Freefall Aerospace, has created a lightweight,
low-volume stowed spacecraft antenna that is inflatable,
bypassing rigid deployment. MarCO-A and B are “our first and
second interplanetary CubeSats”, enabled by a deployable high-
gain, X-band antenna flat panel.
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Photo: JPL/NASA RainCube’s Umbrella: The radar antenna for the tiny
RainCube satellite folds up into a 10-by-10-by-15-centimeter canister.
Upon deployment, its 30 ribs extend like an umbrella to form a parabolic
dish that’s still small enough to test in a thermal vacuum chamber.
Inflatable space habitats

Inflatable space habitats are a deployable module for crewed
space. The ISS has an expandable habitat called the Bigelow

Expandable Activity Module that has been operational since
2016. These habitats are pressurized structures and provide
greater volume of living space [Wikipedia]. There are proposed
uses of inflatable habitats on planetary surfaces but no instances
yet, only uses in space.
Series of photos showing the expansion of the Bigelow Expandable

Activity Module to its full size on May 28, 2016. Image courtesy of
NASA and Bigelow Aerospace.
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Restraints or Launch Locks
Eurockot’s MLS adapter system for a single satellite accommodation

Rockot User’s Guide, EHB0003, Issue 5, Revision 0, August 2011
Restraints or launch locks restrain the payload and isolator

during spacecraft launch. The spacecraft interfaces with an
adapter or dispenser system of the launch vehicle, commonly
called the Mechanical Lock System [Eurockot]. The adapters
and interfaces vary with the spacecraft and rocket, but there are
some standards associated with size. For example, CubeSats can
rely on the PPOD deployer for mechanical interfacing.
Cut-away detail of the Eurockot’s Mechanical Lock System Rockot

User’s Guide, EHB0003, Issue 5, Revision 0, August 2011
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Separation Mechanisms
A YouTube element has been excluded from this

version of the text. You can view it online here:
Separation mechanisms disconnect the spacecraft from the

launch vehicle once in proper orbit. There are many options
for separation mechanisms: clamp bands, motorized light bands,
Marmon clamps, dispensers, and custom systems [Spaceflight].
The best technical solution depends on the size of the spacecraft,
launch vehicle provider, allowable shock, and typical tip-off
rate. Separation mechanism characteristics include the imparted
velocity in the axial and lateral direction, spin rate, umbilical
connectors to supply power or data, allowable volume or length
dimensions, and any applied loads.
Clamp band system with major components identified. System is shown

in clamped, preloaded configuration.
Ordinance Devices
Typical launch with ordnance initiated events. Iyengar et al. Image

courtesy of ULA Launch.
Ordnance is an explosive device that enables the sudden release

of spacecraft. Ordnance systems initiate important discrete
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events, like lift off, stage separations, spacecraft separation and

flight termination [ULA launch]. Ordnance often incorporate the
use of explosive bolts, or pyrotechnic fasteners, in separating
different stages of the launch vehicle and spacecraft. An
explosive charge separates the bolt at a specified break plane.
The explosion can be the result of an explosive detonating
material or a pyrotechnic pressure generating material [Pacsci
EMC].
A cross-sectioned bolt, pre-explosion.Ray Lego.


Hi-Shear Explosive Bolt P/N 55-07057-1 HACL Film 554 [film] San Diego Air
and Space Museum Archives. Film from the Atlas Centaur Heritage Film
Collection which was donated to the San Diego Air and Space Museum by
Lockheed Martin and United Launch Alliance. The Collection contains 3,000
reels of 16-millimeter film.
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Spin Bearings
Dynamics and control of dual-spin gyrostat spacecraft with changing

structure. V. Aslanov, V. Yudintsev.
An example of spin bearings, or ball bearings, in space is a dual-

spin spacecraft. Two rigid bodies are connected by a bearing that
allows the two bodies to rotate at different rates. The spinning of
one body stabilizes the other body so that the payload may track
or point. Bearings notoriously fail in space, although specifically
reaction wheel bearings and not passive mechanical joints.
Bearings naturally wear over time, accumulating friction and
potentially jamming up. Some bearings fail due to bearing
damage caused by electrical arcing [AEGIS]. Rotating joints
also increase complexity in design. “When electrical power or
signals must be passed across a rotating interface, a slip ring
(sliding electrical contact) or twist capsule (specialized flexible

harness) is required” [Honeybee Robotics].
Scan Platforms
At the end of the science boom is the moveable scan platform that
houses 5 optical sensing instruments, including the two cameras. Image
courtesy of PBS.
Some payloads require sweeping across a field of view to collect

swaths of information. To conduct a sweep, the payload may be
mounted to a scanning platform. A famous example of a scan
platform is on the Voyager spacecraft. The payloads look away
from the rotation axis and collect visible, UV, and IR data along
a horizontal plane. Another sample mission is SENTINEL-1,
that carries a synthetic aperture radar instrument that scans
quickly along elevation and azimuth.
328 • FRANCES ZHU
SENTINEL-1 Modes: The IW mode images three sub-swaths using

Terrain Observation with Progressive Scans SAR (TOPSAR). Image
courtesy of ESA.
4.6 Structural Analysis
The goal of structural analysis is to aid the structural engineer

in designing, evaluating, and verifying the structural integrity
of the structures and mechanisms on the spacecraft. Typical
requirements dictate margins of safety for critical structural
components that must be proven through testing or finite
element analysis. In aerospace engineering, safety is a critical
consideration in the design process.
Safety Factors
Factor of Safety = =
Margin of Safety = Factor of Safety – 1.0
The idea of safety can be numerically characterized by the terms

factor of safety and margin of safety. Factor of safety is the ratio
of failure load to design load, or equivalently, failure stress to
design stress as stress is load normalized to area. The design
load is what you anticipate seeing on the structure in realistic
conditions; in our analysis, the design load is the critical load.
329
330 • FRANCES ZHU
The failure load is how much the structure can withstand before
failure, derived from a back-of-the-envelope calculation, finite
element analysis, or testing. Structural components are not just
designed to bear the critical or design load; they are designed
to withstand much more than the intended critical load. For
bridges, the factor of safety is 10, meaning that if the bridge
anticipates 1 car’s weight in a footprint, the bridge was designed
and built to withstand 10 cars in that same footprint: a very
conservative and safe design. For aircraft and other aerospace
engineering applications, the factor of safety is very commonly
2. Factor of safety is a user-defined threshold that the structure
design must meet, typically imposed by the end-user, customer,
or structural engineer. This number is defined by how uncertain
you are of the load or structure or how safe you want to be;
more uncertainty and more safety both lead to higher factors of
safety. When in doubt, crank that factor of safety up. The trade-
off to imposing too high of a safety factor is that could lead
to significant mass accumulation as stronger parts are usually
achieved with more mass.
The NASA Structural Design and Test Factors of Safety for

Spaceflight Hardware document specifies for various factors of
safety that must be met for various materials. There are two
different failure loads that are used in the definitions: 1) Ultimate
Design Load: The product of the ultimate factor of safety and the
limit load and 2) Yield Design Load: The product of the yield
factor of safety and the limit load. These loads correlate with
ultimate strength and yield strength of the material structure.
“Structural designs generally should be verified by analysis and
by either prototype or protoflight strength testing. For metallic
structures only, it may be permissible to verify structural

integrity by analysis alone without strength testing” [NASA
STD].
Structural Design and Test Factors of Safety for Space Flight Hardware. Image
Courtesy of: NASA.
For the Artemis CubeSat Kit, the primary structure

is the aluminum skeleton frame that immediately
interfaces with the deployer and contains all the
cubesat components. The critical load is the launch
acceleration load coupled with the deployer
compression at 1320 N. Through finite element
analysis, the factor of safety was deemed to be __, or
__ toilet paper rolls in the time of COVID. A finite
element analysis tutorial is at the end of the chapter.
332 • FRANCES ZHU
Load Equations
In the Structural Loads section of this chapter, we discussed the
driving critical loads (design loads) but how do we relate these
loads to factors of safety? In this section, we will cover some
key structural formulas for back-of-the-envelope calculations,
valid for simplified geometries/models. The following sections
describe 1 degree-of-freedom problems but structures reside in
3 dimensions. Make sure to repeat calculations for all degrees of
freedom or axes.
Ultimate and Yield Loads
We talked about estimating critical loads or design loads but to

get a factor of safety, we need to also find the failure loads. The
failure load comes in two flavors: ultimate load and yield load.
To find ultimate load and yield load, we refer to the structure’s
material properties to extract ultimate strength in yield strength
in units of Pascal or .
A material being loaded in a) compression, b) tension, c) shear. Strength

of Materials Courtesy of Wikipedia.
Stresses come from different directions of loading: compression,

tension, and shear. Material sheets will typically specify the
strength associated with each direction as the yield or ultimate
strengths value are different. Direction of loading matters so
make sure you use the correct strength number! The area that the
load travels across also matters. The stress formula is:
where F is the force and A is the cross-sectional area. If we

plug in yield or ultimate strength in and we know the cross-
sectional area of the piece we are analyzing, we have yield/
ultimate force as our one unknown to solve for.
334 • FRANCES ZHU
Buckling Load
Euler’s Buckling Formula. Courtesy of Engineering Course.
Buckling is a failure mode of compressive loading in which

the two ends of a beam are constrained and the beam fails
by bending, seen in Fig __. This loading scenario describes a
slender member bolted at two ends experiencing a compressive
load, like the Artemis CubeSat frame corner posts under launch
acceleration. The equation to find the critical buckling load,
, depends on the Young’s modulus, E, the moment of inertia
that resists the direction of buckling, I, and the length of the
slender member. As the length of the slender member is likely
constrained, the slender member’s strength can be scaled by
varying the moment of inertia in that direction. One of the edge
lengths affects the moment of inertia to the cubic power, which
could be taken advantage of to quickly reinforce a beam that is

facing critical loading.
The Moment of Inertia Modul. Image Courtesy of VCCS Engineering

Education via Course Bridge Modules.
336 • FRANCES ZHU
For different boundary conditions and pin constraints, the

modified critical load equation is scaled by , where K is
defined by the effective length of the slender member:
You’ll notice that by minimizing K, the critical load will

increase. Decreasing K involves constraining the beam or
slender member along the length, “breaking up” the effective
length. For spacecraft support members, “breaking up” the
effective length could involve bolting a strut to the main
member.
Beam Stiffness
A cantilever beam is a slender structure with a fixed constraint

on one end and no constraints on the other end (free end), like
a deployed solar array or boom. A cantilever beam deflects if

a load is imparted along the length of the beam or the beam
experiences a load if a deflection is forced. There are various
loading cases seen in Fig. __ with corresponding formulas,
where is the maximum beam deflection, P is the load, L
is the length of the beam, E is the Young’s modulus, I is the
moment of inertia in the loading direction, and M is a moment
or torque.
338 • FRANCES ZHU
Beam Deflection Calculator. Image Courtesy of: Omni Calculators.
These formulas may be useful to convert between beam

deflection and force. If we know the acceleration profile acting
on the beam, we can calculate the deflection along the beam,
important for missions like SMAP, which has a spinning large
flexible reflector/structure that points toward the Earth. The
spinning motion produces centrifugal force and the mass at the
end of the beam accentuates the centrifugal loading.
Stages of Reflector Deployment. Image Courtesy of Earth Online
A cantilever beam’s yield and ultimate load differs from the

buckling load in that the buckling load is parallel with the length
of the beam whereas the cantilever beam’s load is perpendicular
with the length. The failure load may be calculated by
calculating the intermediate variable, bending moment. An
example of the moment calculation for the simple point source
force at the end of a cantilever beam is: = -FL, where F
is the magnitude of force and L is the length of the beam. The
critical bending moment occurs at the fixed end of the beam, or
the joint between the beam and primary structure. The stress in a
bending beam can be expressed as σ = y where σ is stress, y
is distance to point from neutral axis, M is bending moment, and
I = moment of Inertia. This stress value may then be used in the
yield and ultimate factor of safety.
340 • FRANCES ZHU
Cantilever Beam Stress Distribution. Technical Tidbits ©2010 Brush Wellman

Inc.
Beam Natural Frequencies
Cantilever Beam vs. Coil Spring Technical Tidbits ©2010 Brush Wellman Inc
Structures under dynamic loads (vibration or acoustic loads) can

exhibit resonance at the natural frequencies and cause failure.
The cantilever beam, like a diving board, can deflect and vibrate
once the load suddenly disappears.
A common scenario that this vibration describes is

a sudden boom deployment, like the Artemis
CubeSat antenna deployment event. The
phenomenon that a cantilever beam experiences
deflection and vibration may be captured in an
analogy with a spring.
The structure deflects or displaces with a load, like a spring,

and upon release, the beam oscillates around the unloaded
equilibrium, like a spring. The natural frequency of the beam in
units of rad/s may then be calculated with the following formula
[Meirovitch, 1967]:
where is the natural frequency, m is the mass of the beam,

L is the length of the beam, E is the Young’s modulus, I is
the moment of inertia in the loading direction, and are
coefficients describing the first, second, and third natural
frequencies. The first natural frequency is the fundamental
frequency. The natural
frequency, may be converted to units of Hz with a
conversion factor: .
342 • FRANCES ZHU
Random Vibe and Acoustic Equivalent g’s
A structure experiences a load due to random vibrations and

can be approximated by a number of g’s, an acceleration unit.
Developed by John Miles in 1954, GRMS is Root Mean Square
Acceleration in G’s (sometimes given as ÿRMS) that relates
natural frequency , transmissibility Q at where is

the critical damping ratio, and input acceleration spectral density
at [Simmons]:
The expected stress as a result of from random vibration

loads is then:
where m is the mass of the beam and I is the moment of inertia

in that vibration axis.
Thermal Load
Materials expand at different rates, dictated by their coefficient

of thermal expansion (CTE) and their temperature difference.
If these structures of differing CTE are bonded together and
undergo a temperature difference, the structure will change in
length and experience stress. The structural change could result

in a deflection (load perpendicular to the length of the beam) or
shrinkage/elongation (load parallel to the length of the beam).
The change in length is calculated by the total length L, change
in temperature T and CTE .
The resultant stress from deflection may be calculated with a

previous Beam Stiffness section and the axial stress, , can be
found with the following formula:
where E is Young’s modulus and L is the length change

calculated previously.
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Simple Pressurized Shell
The large hydrazine propellant tank prior to integration with the core
structure of the MAVEN spacecraft at a Lockheed Martin clean room
near Denver. Image Courtesy of NASA.
Pressurized vessels are rounded sheets that experience tension if

the vessel is in positive pressure or compression if the vessel is
in negative pressure. Think of blowing up a balloon as positive
pressure and sinking a submarine for negative pressure. We
care about this stress when dealing with propulsion systems
that store propellant. These walls can burst if the cylinder walls
experience more stress than the tensile ultimate strength. The
thin walls of the vessel experience hoop stress and longitudinal
stress, related to pressure p, radius R, and thickness t:
\sigma_{long}=\tfrac{pR}{2t}"
title="Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com" height="23"
width="188" style="vertical-align: -6px;">
Stress in the cylinder body of a pressure vessel. Image Courtesy of

Wikimedia
346 • FRANCES ZHU
Fracture and Fatigue Analysis
S-N curve for a brittle aluminium with an ultimate tensile strength of

320 MPa. Image Courtesy of Wikipedia.
Load cycle modeling examines the periodic nature of loads

throughout a spacecraft’s lifetime. These loads may incite
fatigue and failure in components; think of it like wear and tear
in structural components. Load cycles can occur from thermal
cycling due to periodic exposure to the sun or dynamic
maneuvers (like SMAP’s constant rotation deflecting a slender
member or Curiosity’s wheels running over sharp rocks).
Briefly mentioned in the materials section, fatigue limit is

correlated with the material’s endurance limit, the component’s
mean load, and ultimate tensile strength. It’s hard to know when
a component will break under fatigue due to the stochastic nature
of the cracks and failures. Fatigue S-N curves, fatigue prediction
models, and tests can offer validation that a structural
component will not fail under fatigue. For metallic structures, if
the number of cycles stays below 10^4 with loading reasonably

far away from yield or ultimate loads, the component will likely
survive the mission lifetime. Components undergoing higher
cycles should be more carefully scrutinized or replicated for
fatigue testing.
Finite Element Analysis

Finite element analysis is the use of computer generated
geometries, numerical methods, and first principles of loads
described above. The finite element model breaks down
computer geometries into smaller elements and approximates
the transfer of loads, cumulative deflection, and distribution of
stress for static analysis. Finite element analysis software is
complementary and commonly built into the CAD software, like
Autodesk Inventor, Solidworks, and OnShape.
The entire spacecraft model may be designed and analyzed

within one of these software packages.
1. By defining material properties for each component

in the spacecraft model, ultimate strength, yield
strength, CTE, Young’s modulus, and density are all
embedded in the model.
2. The primary structure, secondary structure, and all

supporting component interfaces must be defined and
constrained in motion.
3. Finite element analysis assists in identifying critical

loads on each part in the spacecraft model by
applying load conditions on the primary structure and
348 • FRANCES ZHU
probing the resultant stress on the rest of the

spacecraft structure.
4. The stress can then be converted to margins or factors
of safety. The software will identify the location of
the minimum safety factor. The load acting on this
component at this location is the critical load.
5. If this minimum safety factor does not satisfy the

requirements, there must be a redesign of the critical
component so that the minimum safety factor is
achieved. This process must be iterated from step 3
until all components meet the minimum safety factors
for all potentially critical loading scenarios.
Artemis Finite Element Analysis Results
In order to meet requirements set by launch service providers,

the artemis project completed a finite element analysis for static
loads using Solidworks. Graphs are shown below to detail the
load conditions, von mises stress, and factor of safety. By taking
the calculated minimum factor of safety and design load (1,200
N), the max failure load was found to be 6 kN (approximately
2,700 toilet paper rolls).
350 • FRANCES ZHU
Suggested Activity
back of the envelope kind of calculation of structural load and

natural frequencies (vibe) -> FEA
Reference Documents

Requirements Document [NASA LSP-REQ-317.01] & [CubeSat
Design Specifications Rev 14]
2.2 CubeSat Mechanical Specifications
CubeSat dimensions and features are outlined in the CubeSat

Specification Drawings
Note: The CubeSat Inspection and Fit-check Procedure (CIFP)

can be used to aid in verifying that the CubeSat meets the
dimensional requirements specified in Appendix B. The CIFP
can be found on cubesat.org.
These requirements are applicable for all dispensers not utilizing

the tab constraint method. CubeSats designed with tabs can
find those specific requirements at the PSC website
(planetarysystemscorp.com).
2.2.1 The CubeSat shall use the coordinate system as defined

in Appendix B. The origin of the CubeSat coordinate system is
located at the geometric center of the CubeSat.
2.2.1.1 The CubeSat configuration and physical dimensions

shall be per the appropriate section of Appendix B.
2.2.1.2 Note: Extra volume may be available for 3U, 6U, and
12U CubeSats. This extra volume is shown in Figure 3,
sometimes referred to as the “Tuna Can” volume. The
availability and volume dimensions are dispenser dependent.
2.2.2 The –Z face of the CubeSat will be inserted first into the
dispenser.
2.2.3 No components on the yellow shaded sides (see Appendix

B CDS drawings) shall protrude farther than 6.5 mm normal to
the surface from the plane of the rail.
2.2.3.1 Note: Please refer to the CIFP for recommended

protrusion measurement technique.
2.2.4 Deployables shall be constrained by the CubeSat, not the

dispenser. This requirement
originates from requirements of most Launch Providers.
2.2.5 Rails shall have a minimum width of 8.5mm measured

from the edge of the rail to the first
protrusion on each face.
2.2.5.1 Note: An example is shown in Figure 4.
2.2.6 Rails should have a surface roughness less than 1.6 µm.
2.2.6.1 Note: This is typically met if the rail material is shown

to be properly anodized. Otherwise, if the surface appears rough,
more testing may be required.
352 • FRANCES ZHU
2.2.7 The edges of the rails should be rounded to a radius of at

least 1 mm.
2.2.7.1 Note: This is typically met using engineering drawings

and manufacturer certification.
2.2.8 The ends of the rails on the +/- Z face shall have a
minimum surface area of 6.5 mm x 6.5
mm contact area with neighboring CubeSat rails (as per drawing

in Appendix B).
2.2.8.1 Note: If the CubeSat is not sharing the dispenser with

another spacecraft, the Launch Provider may choose to waive
this surface area requirement.
2.2.9 At least 75% of the rail should be in contact with the

dispenser rails. 25% of the rails may
be recessed.
2.2.10 Note: Table 1 shows the typical maximum mass for each
U configuration.
Table 1: CubeSat Mass Specifications U Configuration Mass

[kg]
1U: 2.00
1.5U: 3.00
2U: 4.00
3U: 6.00
6U: 12.00
12U: 24.00
2.2.10.1 Note: Masses larger than the one presented in Table

1 may be evaluated on a mission to-mission basis. Verify
constraints with your dispenser provider or Launch Provider.
2.2.10.2 Note: Acceptable masses may vary depending on the

dispenser capabilities. Verify capabilities with your dispenser
provider.
2.2.11 The CubeSat center of gravity shall fall within the ranges
specified in Table 2.
Table 2: Ranges of acceptable center of gravity locations as

measured from the geometric center on each major axis
X Axis Y Axis Z Axis
1U + 2 cm / -2 cm + 2 cm / -2 cm + 2 cm / -2 cm
1.5U + 2 cm / -2 cm + 2 cm / -2 cm + 3 cm / -3 cm
2U + 2 cm / -2 cm + 2 cm / -2 cm + 4.5 cm / -4.5 cm
3U + 2 cm / -2 cm + 2 cm / -2 cm + 7 cm / -7 cm
6U + 4.5 cm / -4.5 cm + 2 cm / -2 cm + 7 cm / -7 cm
12U + 4.5 cm / -4.5 cm + 4.5 cm / -4.5 cm + 7 cm / -7 cm
2.2.12 The CubeSat structure should be made from aluminum

alloy.
354 • FRANCES ZHU
2.2.12.1 Note: Typically, Aluminum 7075, 6061, 6082, 5005,

and/or 5052 are used for both the main CubeSat structure and
the rails. If materials other than aluminum are used, the CubeSat
developer should contact the Launch Provider or dispenser
manufacturer.
2.2.13 Any aluminum CubeSat external surfaces, such as rails

and standoffs that are in contact
with the dispenser rails, shall be hard anodized to prevent any

cold welding within the
dispenser.
2.2.14 If a CubeSat shares a dispenser with another CubeSat(s),

each CubeSat shall employ a
mechanism to encourage separation from neighboring CubeSats

within the dispenser.
2.2.14.1 Note: Any mechanism that will provide separation is

acceptable. The common assumption with separation springs is
that “stronger is better”. This is not always the case. Stronger
separation springs can overpower the CubeSat dispenser
deployment spring force during ejection and yield unpredictable
separation characteristics, possibly re-contacting neighboring
CubeSats. On the other hand, lower force springs may not have
sufficient energy to separate the CubeSats the required amount.
The general guideline is to select a separation spring with a max
force less than 6.7 N (1.5 lbf) but with a stroke length greater
than 2.5 mm (0.1 inches)
2.2.14.2 The separation mechanism shall not extend beyond the

level of the standoff in a
stowed configuration.
2.2.14.3 Note: The most common placement of the CubeSat

separation mechanism is centered
on the end of the two standoffs on the CubeSat’s –Z face as per

Figure 5.
2.2.14.4 Note: A separation mechanism is not required for

CubeSats that do not share a
dispenser with another CubeSat(s).
Structural Requirements Excerpt from NanoRacks External CubeSat

Deployer (NRCSD-E) Interface Definition Document (IDD)
[NR-NRCSD-S0004]
4.1 Structural and Mechanical Systems Interface Requirements
The NRCSD-E is designed to house 6U of payloads in each

of its six silos, for a total volume of 36U. It can accommodate
any combination of CubeSats from 1U to 6U in length, up to a
maximum volume of 6U in the 1x6x1U form factor. The only
dimensional requirement that vary between the form factors is
the total length (Z-axis dimension), which is specifically noted
in the requirements herein. This section captures all mechanical
and dimensional requirements to ensure the payloads interface
correctly with the NRCSD-E and adjacent CubeSats.
4.1.1 CubeSat Mechanical Specification

356 • FRANCES ZHU
1) The CubeSat shall have four (4) rails along the Z axis, one
per corner of the payload envelope, which allow the payload to
slide along the rail interface of the NRCSD as outlined in Figure
4.1.1-1.
2) The CubeSat rails and envelope shall adhere to the

dimensional specification outlined in Figure 4.1.1-1.
Note: Any dimension followed by ‘MIN’ shall be considered

a minimum dimensional requirement for that feature and any
dimension followed by ‘MAX’ shall be considered a maximum
dimensional requirement for that feature. Any dimension that
has a required tolerance is specified in Figure 4.1.1-2. The
optional cylindrical payload envelope (the “tuna can”) must be
approved for use by NanoRacks and special accommodations
may be required if utilizing this feature.
3) Each CubeSat rail shall have a minimum width (X and Y

faces) of 6mm.
4) The edges of the CubeSat rails shall have a radius of 0.5mm

+/- 0.1mm.
5) The CubeSat +Z rail ends shall be completely bare and have

a minimum surface area of 6mm x 6mm.
Note: This is to ensure that CubeSat +Z rail ends can serve as the
mechanical interface for adjacent CubeSat deployment switches
and springs.
6) The CubeSat rail ends (+/-Z) shall be coplanar with the other
rail ends within +/- 0.1mm.
7) The CubeSat rail length (Z axis) shall be the following (+/-

0.1mm):
113. 1U rail length: 113.50mm
118. 6U rail length: 681 to 740.00mm
Note: Non-standard payload lengths may be considered. Any rail

length differing from the above dimensions must be approved by
NanoRacks and recorded in the payload unique ICA.
8) The CubeSat rails shall be continuous. No gaps, holes,

fasteners, or any other features may be present along the length
of the rails (Z-axis) in regions that contact the NRCSD-E rails.
Note: This does not apply to roller switches located within the
rails. However, the roller switches must not impede the smooth
motion of the rails across surfaces (NRCSD-E guide rails, fit
gauge, etc.).
9) The minimum extension of the +/-Z CubeSat rails from the

+/-Z CubeSat faces shall be 2mm.
Note: This means that the plane of the +/-Z rails shall have no
less than 2mm clearance from any external feature on the +/-Z
faces of the CubeSat (including solar panels, antennas, etc.).
358 • FRANCES ZHU
10) The CubeSat rails shall be the only mechanical interface to

the NRCSD-E in all axes (X, Y, and Z axes).
Note: For clarification, this means that if the satellite is moved

in any direction while inside the NRCSD, the only contact points
of the payload shall be on the rails or rail ends. No appendages
or any part of the satellite shall contact the walls of the deployer.
11) The CubeSat rail surfaces that contact the NRCSD-E guide
rails shall have a hardness equal to or greater than hard-anodized
aluminum (Rockwell C 65-70).
Note: NanoRacks recommends a hard-anodized aluminum

surface.
12) The CubeSat rails and all load points shall have a surface
roughness of less than or equal to 1.6 µm (ISO Grade N7).
4.1.2 CubeSat Mass Properties
1) The CubeSat mass shall be less than the maximum allowable

mass for each respective payload form factor per Table 4.1.2-1.
Note: The requirement driver for the CubeSat mass is the

ballistic number (BN), which is dependent on the projected
surface area of the payload on-orbit. The mass values in Table
4.1.2-1 assume no active or passive attitude control of the
payload once deployed. If the CubeSat has attitude control
capabilities or design features, then the operational ballistic
number (BN) drives the mass requirement. If applicable, this
shall be captured in the unique payload ICA.
2) The CubeSat center of mass (CM) shall be located within the

following range relative to the geometric center of the payload:
a. X-axis: (+/- 2cm) b. Y-axis: (+/- 2cm) c. Z-axis: i. 1U: (+/-
2cm) ii. 2U (+/- 4cm) iii. 3U (+/- 6cm) iv. 4U (+/- 8cm) v. 5U
(+/- 10cm) vi. 6U (+/- 12cm)
4.1.3 RBF/ABF Access
1) The CubeSat shall have a remove before flight (RBF) feature

that prevents the CubeSatfrom powering on when the inhibit
switches are not depressed. The NRCSD-E has access ports
only on the -X face of the dispenser. CubeSats in silos without
the access panels should have timers implemented post RBF
removal to prevent powering on of the spacecraft. The access
port dimensions are defined in Figure 4.1.3-1.
Note: There is no physical access to the payload after integration

into the NRCSDE besides what can be accessed from the access
ports.
4.1.4 Deployment Switches
1) The CubeSat shall have a minimum of three (3) deployment

switches that correspond to independent electrical inhibits on the
main power system (see section on electrical interfaces).
2) Deployment switches of the pusher/plunger variety shall be

located on the rail end faces of the CubeSat’s -Z face.
3) Deployment switches of the roller/lever variety shall be

embedded in the CubeSat rails (+/- X or Y faces).
360 • FRANCES ZHU
4) Roller/slider switches shall maintain a minimum of 75%

surface area contact with the NRCSD-E rails (ratio of switch
contact to NRCSD-E guide rail width) along the entire Z axis.
5) The CubeSat deployment switches shall reset the payload to

the pre-launch state if cycled at any time within the first 30
minutes after the switches close (including but not limited to
radio frequency transmission and deployable system timers).
6) The CubeSat deployment switches shall be captive.
7) The force exerted by the deployment switches shall not

exceed 3N.
8) The total force of all CubeSat deployment switches shall not

exceed 9N.
4.1.5 Deployable Systems and Integration Constraints
1) CubeSat deployable systems (such as solar arrays, antennas,

payload booms, etc.) shall have independent restraint
mechanisms that do not rely on the NRCSD-E dispenser.
Note: Passive deployables that release upon ejection of the

CubeSat from the NRCSD are considered on a case-by-case
basis.
2) The CubeSat shall be capable of being integrated forwards

and backwards inside of the NRCSD (such that the +/-Z face
could be deployed first without issue).
Note: In general, the deployables should be hinged towards the

front of the deployer to mitigate risk of a hang-fire should the
deployables be released prematurely while the CubeSat is still

inside the NRCSD.
4.1.6 Deployment Velocity and Tip-Off Rate Compatibility
1) The CubeSat shall be capable of withstanding a deployment

velocity of 0.5 to 2.5 m/s at ejection from the NRCSD-E.
2) The CubeSat shall be capable of withstanding up to 5 deg/sec/

axis tipoff rate.
Note: The target tipoff rate of the NRCSD-E is less than 5 deg/
sec/axis. Additional testing and analysis are being completed
by NanoRacks to refine and verify this value. If a payload has
specific tipoff rate requirements, these should be captured in the
unique payload ICA.
4.4.9 Materials
4.4.9.1 Stress Corrosion Materials
Stress corrosion-resistant materials from Table I of MSFC-

SPEC-522 are preferred. Any use of stress corrosion-susceptible
materials (Table II) shall be pre-coordinated with NanoRacks
and documented in the ICA. Any use of Table III materials shall
be avoided.
4.4.9.2 Hazardous Materials
Satellites shall comply with NASA guidelines for hazardous

materials. Beryllium, cadmium, mercury, silver and other
materials prohibited by SSP-30233 shall not be used.
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4.4.9.3 Outgassing/External Contamination
Satellites shall comply with NASA guidelines for selecting all

non-metallic materials based on available outgassing data.
Satellites shall not utilize any non-metallic materials with a
Total Mass Loss (TML) greater than 1.0 percent or a Collected
Volatile Condensable Material (CVCM) value of greater than
0.1 percent. Since the satellite will be in close proximity to the
ISS for anywhere from 21-90 days, a more thorough outgassing
analysis is performed. This outgassing analysis, performed by
the ISS Space Environments group, uses ASTM 1559 data to
characterize any potential material issues.
Note: A Bill of Materials (BoM) must be provided to NanoRacks

to verify all materials requirements are met. The BoM shall
be provided in the template specified by NanoRacks, and must
include the vacuum-exposed surface areas of all non-metals. The
ISS Space Environments Team screens the BoMs to ensure there
are no external contamination concerns due to high-outgassing
components. A bake-out is not required. The NASA website
linked below is a useful source for obtaining outgassing data for
materials. https://outgassing.nasa.gov/

here:
5. Power System
Learning Objectives
• Understand the role of power

subsystem in the context of spacecraft as
a whole and between other subsystems
• Recognize possible sources of power
in space and power generation
technologies
• Identify various power storage
methods
• Describe considerations for power
distribution
• Analyze power budget and profile
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5.1 Definition
Responsibilities of power subsystem in spacecraft bus.
The electrical power system has three jobs: generate power,

store energy, and distribute power. The electrical power system
supports spacecraft bus components that must consume energy
at a specified power. Of these spacecraft bus systems, the most
notable power consumers are the payload, on-board computer,
communications system, attitude control system, propulsion
system, and ECLSS systems when relevant. The electronics that
drive these subsystems have associated properties that must be
managed by the electrical power system, like peak power draw,
average power usage, and lifetime energy consumption. These
high level characteristics may be broken down into voltage
regulation, current limits, and resistance.
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The complex electronics are composed of many simple circuits

interacting with each other to form a more complex circuit.
The key terms we must review are voltage, current, resistance,
energy, and power that you may have seen from a circuit analysis
course.
• Current is the “rate of flow of electric charge past a

point”, or literally imagine electrons moving along a
copper wire. The higher the current, the more
electrons move through the wire. The unit for current
is Ampere or Coulomb/second.
◦ Electrical charge is a fundamental property

of mass, consisting of positive, negative, or
neutral quantities. The smallest units of
charge are held by protons, neutrons, and
electrons. Protons have positive charge,
neutrons have no charge, and electrons have
negative charge. As the protons and
neutrons reside in the nucleus, current
refers to the movement of electrons. The
unit of charge is Coulomb.
The electrons, the charge carriers in an electrical circuit, flow in the

opposite direction of the conventional electric current. Conventional
Current by Romtobbi, CC BY 3.0, Image courtesy of Wikipedia.
• Voltage is the “the difference in electric potential

between two points” or “the work needed per unit of
charge to move a test charge between the two points”.
Electrical potential may be converted to electrical
work, which drives circuits. An analogy may be made
to mechanical potential energy, like a compressed
spring, that is converted to mechanical work, pushing
a block. The higher the voltage, the more electrical
energy is pent up to be transferred. The unit for
voltage is Volt or Joule/Coulomb.
◦ Electrical energy is the potential energy,

kinetic energy, or work in the electrical
domain. Electrical energy is important
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when characterizing the storage of energy

in batteries. The unit of energy is Joule.
◦ The relationship between energy and
voltage is that electrical potential energy is
the storage of energy per charge, Joules/
Coulomb or Volts.
Concept of the relationship between voltage,

current, and resistance. Image courtesy of
WordPress.
• Resistance is the “measure of its opposition to the

flow of electric current”. Everything that current runs
through has resistance, the question is how much
resistance. The resistance is mainly a function of the
material; insulators, like rubber, have high resistance
and conductors, like copper, have low resistance.
Conductors are useful for efficient circuitry and
insulators help contain charge. The unit for resistance
is Ohm.
Voltage of a car battery read from multimeter. Image by Car

From Japan.
• Power is the amount of electrical “energy transferred

or converted per unit time”. Power converts static
potential energy to electrical or mechanical
movement. For system level design, we pay attention
to power as the high level characteristic of a
component or subsystem to form a power budget and
profile for the mission. The summation of power
consumption from the various subsystems is the
overall strain on the battery. The unit of power is Watt
or Joule/second or Volt*Ampere.
◦ Power is the time derivative of energy: Watt

= Joule/second.
◦ Power is also the product of voltage and

current: Watt = Volt*Ampere. Power may
be calculated instantaneously by measuring
voltage and current draw.
The electrical power system is responsible for:
• generating power to power the spacecraft for the

entire mission.
• storing energy to power the spacecraft for

the entire mission.
• managing the power distribution to spacecraft
subsystems.
• converting the voltage and limiting the current

distributed to spacecraft components.
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During the design process, the electrical power system (EPS)

specialist:
• is the owner and primary developer of the

spacecraft’s electrical design, which includes
schematic diagrams, printed circuit board designs,
component placement on electronic boards, and
electric harness plan.
The Artemis CubeSat Kit is supported by

Eagle and KiCAD.
• selects the power generation and/or storage

technology then designs the power conversion,
distribution, and management system.
• must ensure sufficient energy is generated and stored

throughout the mission lifetime.
• analyzes that the electrical power system can supply

spacecraft bus components the proper power, voltage,
and current for all mission operations by managing
the power budget and profile.
• is responsible for adhering to the power requirements

throughout the entire spacecraft lifecycle through
analysis and testing.
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NASA Goddard Space Flight Center engineers testing

electrical components, multimeter and oscilloscope seen on
test bench.
Within the scope of the spaceflight mission, the electrical power

system must support the other subsystem designs and properly
interface electrical and data connections. Like with any
subsystem, the size, weight, and power are obvious requirements
or design drivers. Requirements for spaceflight include:
• an orbit average and peak power on the power

distribution (wire harnessing, motherboard and
daughterboard control)
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Orbital simulation showing power consumption as a function

of time over the course of a single orbit as power is
consumed during sensor operations and the battery is
recharged when in sunlight. MANAGE can make
autonomous decisions about optimal sensing operations
within the constraints of power consumption. cite: Ball,
Christopher, et al. “Simulation Toolset for Adaptive Remote
Sensing.” Ann Arbor 1001: 48109.
• a specific amount of power generated and/or stored

(solar array and battery size)
• voltage conversion and limits (circuit board design)
• current regulation or limits (circuit board design)
Let’s think about sources for requirements generated from

external constraints from all parts of the spacecraft lifecycle. Just
like the structures and mechanisms system, the electrical power
system design also needs to adhere to many considerations
outside of the spaceflight mission.
Engineer soldering on an electrostatic discharge (ESD) mat and wearing

an ESD bracelet to protect against accidental discharge. Image by
WordPress.
During manufacturing and assembly, electrical engineers and

technicians need to take proper care when handling electrostatic
sensitive components. Workbenches must be clear of paper and
other debris, and sensitive components must be handled on
grounded electrostatic discharge mats with the handler
connected with a discharge wrist strap. A clean work surface
prevents debris from contaminating the electronic board and
potentially short-circuiting the exposed circuitry. This holds
particularly true for any metal shards, which act as conductors.
Paper and cardboard boxes can interfere with the path-to-ground
of the grounded ESD mat if ESD sensitive components are
placed on top of paper instead of the mat [Desco]. Another
consideration is the growth of “whiskers” from ton or zinc
finished surfaces. These whiskers can grow up to 10 mm in
length but are typically less than 1 mm and typically around 1
micrometer in diameter. The reason for their growth is unknown.
To reduce the risk of tin whiskers, requirements could include
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the exclusion of pure tin plated components and independent

verification of the plating composition of the products [NASA].
Other practices include reflow and alloy the tin plating, replate
the whisker prone area, conformal coating or foam
encapsulation, or accepting the risk. Bonding requirements for
the ISS may be found in Space Station Electrical Bonding
Requirements [SSP 30245 Revision E]. The Artemis CubeSat
Kit will include an ESD mat, does not use tin or zinc plated
components, and follows all bonding requirements.
Tin “Whisker” shown above growing between pure tin-plated hook

terminals of an electromagnetic relay similar to MIL-R-6106 (LDC
8913) Photo Courtesy of Andre Pelham (Intern) NASA Goddard Space
Flight Center
Battery restrictions imposed by the TSA. Image by Hearing Health

Matters.

commonly include battery safety and survivability through
vibration tests. “All cells and batteries on the CubeSat shall
adhere to the design and testing requirements for spacecraft
flight onboard or near the ISS as derived from the NASA
requirement document JSC 20793 Crewed Space Vehicle
Battery Safety Requirements”. After vibration testing specified
in the structural requirements, the electrical power system must
be functionally tested to ensure safe operations. As the Artemis
CubeSat Kit may be soft-stowed with astronauts through launch
and handled by astronauts on the ISS for deployment, we have
followed the evaluation, qualification, and acceptance testing of
the kit batteries and avionics.
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During transport and handling, requirements may include

restrictions on batteries or pressurized vessels. Battery
composition or the maximum amount of charge on the battery
may be regulated during transportation. As an example for
airplanes, lithium batteries must not exceed 100 Watt-hours per
battery and may only be allowed in carry-on bags, not checked
bags [TSA]. Small compressed gas cartridges (for spacecraft)
are not permitted through TSA. The exceptions are if the gas
cartridges are for personal medical use or if the cylinders are
empty. The Artemis CubeSat Kit batteries are rated below 50
Watt-hours and there are no pressurized containers within the
kit. From the time of delivery through on-orbit deployment, the
CubeSat power system shall be at a power off state, utilizing an
RBF pin, which cuts all power to the satellite once it is inserted
into the satellite. The power is inhibited through a minimum
of three (3) independent inhibit switches actuated by physical
deployment switches. “The CubeSat shall have, at a minimum,
one deployment switch, which is actuated while integrated in
the dispenser” [NR-NRCSD-S0004]. During in-orbit operations,
“the CubeSat shall not operate any system (including RF
transmitters, deployment mechanisms or otherwise energize the
main power system) for a minimum of 30 minutes after
deployment. Satellites shall have a timer (set to a minimum
of 30 minutes and requiring appropriate fault tolerance) before
satellite operation or deployment of appendages. CubeSats shall
incorporate battery circuit protection for charging/discharging to
avoid unbalanced cell conditions ” [NASA LSP-REQ-317.01].
The Artemis CubeSat Kit has an RBF pin, at least three
independent inhibit switches, a 30 minute timer, and battery
circuit protection. Outside of these external launch provider
requirements (or really, constraints), the electrical power

system’s primary responsibility is to enable the other spacecraft
subsystems, particularly the payload. The EPS requirements are
highly prone to iteration following the dynamic design process.
Here are the initial requirements that drove the Artemis CubeSat
kit.
Artemis Power Requirements
The CubeSat power system shall

generate power in LEO and
3.1
provide sufficient power to all
The solar panels shall

generate a minimum of
3.1.1
2.5W to charge the
battery
The power distribution

system shall supply
3.1.2
sufficient power to all the
other subsystems
The battery shall have a

3.1.3
capacity of at least 10Wh
5.4 Design Process and Drivers
The main design driver in sizing the electrical power system

is the power and energy consumption of the payload and other
subsystems. This section will provide best guidance as how best
to size the power generation’s initial capability in producing
power. We start with an initial power budget is given by the New
SMAD’s Table 10-9:
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% of
% of Operating
Minimum Operating
Power for
Subsystem Power Power for
Medium to
Consumption Small
Large Spacecraft
Spacecraft
Payload 20 – 50 W 40 40 – 80
Propulsion 0W 0 0–5
Attitude Control 0W 15 5 -10
Communications 15 W 5 5 -10
Command and
5W 5 5 -10
Data Handling
Thermal 0W 5 0–5
Power 10 – 30 W 30 5 – 25
Structure 0W 0 0
Let’s focus on a small spacecraft design. The payload initial

characteristics drive the capabilities of the power generation
solution. If we need to support a payload that consumes 40 W,
which is recommended to consume 40% of the power budget,
the power system must produce 100 W and distribute the
remaining 60 W to the rest of the subsystem components.
With the remaining 60 W, we can start to find subsystem

component solutions that consume around the power allocated to
them on average. The key word here is average, where average
is taken over a single orbit or a set of multiple orbit completions.
A more detailed power budget and profile is discussed in the
analysis section but let’s discuss the intuition around variation
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in power consumption that must be taken into account when

calculating averages:
• The attitude control subsystem has a high %

allocation for average power consumption because
many payloads require active pointing during their
science operational phase. The attitude control
subsystem must be active for other mission
operational phases, like sun pointing to charge the
batteries or radio pointing when passing over ground
stations. You’ll also notice that the minimum power
consumption for an attitude control system is 0 W,
lower than the other subsystems, because the attitude
control system can be held at standby with no power
consumption.
• The communication subsystem has a rather high

minimum power consumption but a small %
allocation of average power consumption. The
communications subsystem is power hungry when it
is on but does not remain on constantly. When sizing
the communications subsystem, think about how
much data must be transmitted, how long the
transmitter must communicate with ground stations,
and how frequently the spacecraft encounters a pass
over a ground station.
• The command and data handling system is nearly

always on, unless an anomaly disrupts the system’s
operations. If the on-board computer only has one
power mode and uniformly consumes a steady
amount of power, this uniform power consumption is

the average consumption number. Some on-board
computers have low and high power modes, toggling
between low activity and high activity depending on
the operational mode. A high power mode is
potentially necessary during science operations and
for on-board processing prior to downlinking data. A
low power mode may be utilized if the spacecraft
needs to conserve energy during a long transit. The
average power consumption is a weighted average of
the power levels during each mission phase and the
length of time of each mission phase.
• The thermal system’s power allocation primarily

includes active thermal control components, like
heaters. Many thermal control solutions are passive
and do not consume power, like radiators or surface
coatings. For active components, the thermal control
system does not need to be active through the whole
mission and may be held at standby (0 W minimum
power consumption). The heaters may not be needed
during sun pointing, as a heat source is already
present. Heaters may be necessary during an eclipse
in which the satellite passes behind a planetary body
and the sun is occluded by the planetary body.
• The power system must support all the other

subsystems and commonly, an amount of power is
necessary to sustain electronic drivers or other
daughterboards at an overhead cost during standby.
The supporting electronics from all the subsystems
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accumulate a significant amount of power

consumption that varies with the mission phase, like
all the other subsystems. This power consumption
also includes line losses and other inefficiencies in
power conversion or transfer. As the power
subsystem is so pervasive in its involvement with all
the subsystems, the electrical power system has the
second highest average power allocation, behind the
payload.
• The structures and mechanism subsystem typically

does not need power, outside of single events like
deployment.
At the initial design, SMAD recommends a margin of 25% due

to the design’s immaturity so SMAD advises a power generation
solution that produces 125 W. As the initial design progresses,
the payload and spacecraft system will grow in power
consumption. The Aerospace Corporation conducted a historical
study of the power budget growth through the design phases
relative to the ultimate flight system [NASA & Aerospace].
They found the historical average of the instrument and
spacecraft power growth is closer to 40%, which is better advice
for margin. Although the results of this study are for traditionally
larger spacecraft, this study is based on real data analysis. We
should look for a power generation solution that produces 140
W.
Historical Power growth percentage at Phase B Start typically higher

than guidelines while PDR & CDR are more in line. Image courtesy of
NASA.
Guidelines appear mostly adequate compared to historical mass &

power growth. Image courtesy of NASA.
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Suggested Activity
Given your payload specification, what is the initial power

allocation to the rest of the subsystems?
How much power are we expecting from our power generation

solution?
Relate your concept of operations to different phases and

associated which components are on and off during these phases
5.5 Power Generation
We’ve motivated why the spacecraft bus needs to generate

power, now how do we actually go about generating power?
Spacecraft either use resources in space or they bring energy
sources with them into space. In this section, we’ll discuss the
various ways to generate power in space and the relevant
environment parameters that affect the system design.
Solar Cells (or Photovoltaic/Photoelectric Cells)
Solar energy is by far the most popular energy source,

dominating missions around the Earth and in close proximity to
the Earth. “As of 2010, approximately 85% of all nanosatellite
form factor spacecraft were equipped with solar panels and
rechargeable batteries. Limitations to solar cell use include
diminished efficacy in deep-space applications, no generation
during eclipse periods, degradation over mission lifetime, high
surface area, mass, and cost” [NASA]. Typically, solar energy is
not the primary power source for spacecraft farther than Jupiter
because 1) solar radiation is too weak, 2) current solar
technology is not efficient enough, and 3) the solar arrays would
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be too massive [Wikipedia]. The intensity of sunlight is the

driving factor in determining whether solar energy should be the
primary power source for a spacecraft mission. The intensity of
sunlight scales with distance squared from the sun. Juno mission
to Jupiter has broken the record to become humanity’s most
distant solar-powered emissary [NASA].
This graphic shows how NASA’s Juno mission to Jupiter became the
most distant solar-powered explorer and influenced the future of space
exploration powered by the sun. Credits: NASA/JPL-Caltech.
Mean distances of the Jovian Planets from the Sun. Orbits are drawn
approximately to scale by David Dooby. Image courtesy of NASA.
A major consideration in utilizing solar energy is the efficiency

of solar cells in converting sunlight into electrical energy. The
efficiency of solar cells depends on the ability of the technology
in capturing the energy within the wide spectrum of
electromagnetic radiation that is sunlight. Sunlight is a specific
distribution of light, spanning wavelengths of primarily
ultraviolet, visible, and infrared light. Although the sun does
emit all frequencies of electromagnetic waves, except gamma
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rays, wavelengths shorter than ultraviolet and longer than

infrared light have very low spectral irradiance; spectral
irradiance is energy per surface area, which is what we
ultimately care about. For those reasons, solar cells focus on
capturing light energy through surface area and converting this
light energy into electricity using the photovoltaic effect.
Sunlight spectrum in space as a function of wavelength. Public Domain

Image, image source: Christopher S. Baird, data source: American
Society for Testing and Materials Terrestrial Reference. What is the
Color of the sun by Dr. Christopher S. Baird.
The photovoltaic effect is the “generation of voltage and electric

current in a material upon exposure to light”, the combination
of a physical and chemical phenomenon. Photons hit a
semiconductor, are absorbed into the semiconductor material
structure, and create in essence free electrons in the solar cell
material. Positive charge is attracted to the p-type semiconductor
and negative charge to the n-type semiconductor. The difference
in potential creates a current, or electricity!
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How Solar cells work. The Anatomy of a Solar Cell by Save on Energy
The material affects the ability for photons to be absorbed, the

mobility of the electrons to move or transfer freely within the
structure, conversion efficiency, and the ease of manufacturing.
The selected material must match the spectral distribution of
sunlight. Photon absorption may be improved by maximizing
surface penetration, minimizing reflection, and reducing
obstacles. Monocrystalline (single crystal) cells can be
manufactured in a way that retains high purity or quality, which
makes them more efficient and prolongs their useful lifetime.
These cells appear black, are more energy intensive to make,
produces more waste, and thus are more expensive.
Polycrystalline cells appear blue, are less energy intensive to
make, produce less waste, and thus are more common and
inexpensive [EnergySage]. Finally, consider that solar cells
surface and electrodes degrade over a mission lifetime, carrying
a finite useful life and diminishing returns in later years. There
are many different types of solar cells and we’ll review the most
common choices for spacecraft.
When selecting solar cells for spacecraft, key metrics to evaluate

selection are specific power (watts generated per solar array
mass), stowed packing efficiency (deployed watts produced per
stowed volume), and cost. Specific power incorporates solar cell
efficiency and surface area but carries the evaluation one step
further by incorporating mass. As mentioned before, solar cells
degrade from usage but, in a space environment, additionally
degrade from ionizing radiation as a function of “differential
flux spectrum and total ionizing dose” [Wikipedia]. The effects
of ionizing radiation may be mitigated for special glass
coverings, reducing efficiency loss to 1% to 10% a year.
Solar cell technology progresses year by year, as they become

more popular for terrestrial applications. In the solar cell
industry, terrestrial applications mostly use single junction cells
(or a single pair of p-type and n-type electrodes), which usually
carry less than 20% efficiency. Terrestrial applications take
advantage of rather limitless surface area and the non-critical
nature of power generation. Spacecraft are limited in surface
area and power generation is mission critical, so spacecraft
designers prefer multi-junction solar cells with higher efficiency.
Multi-junction incorporates “multiple layers of light-absorbing
material that efficiently convert specific wavelength regions of
the solar spectrum into energy, thereby using a wider spectrum
of solar radiation” [NASA]. Theoretically, an infinite amount
of layers could be stacked to achieve 86.6% efficiency [Green].
In implementation, triple-junction cells balance high efficiency
with cost.
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Solar Cell Efficiency. State of the Art Power Generation. Photo Courtesy of
NASA.
Table 3-1 itemizes small-spacecraft solar panel efficiency per the

available manufacturers. Image courtesy of NASA.
The projected surface area of the panels exposed to the Sun also
affects generation, and varies with the solar incidence angle, the
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cosine of the angle between said panel and the Sun [NASA]. As
seen in Figure __, the projected surface area for a tilted solar
cell, a, is smaller than the projected surface area for the solar cell
that is more directly facing the sun, A. The efficiency of a solar
collecting device thus depends on the orientation of the solar cell
relative to the sun, . The scaled intensity of solar flux is given
by the following equation:
Where is the scaled intensity, is the full intensity of the

sun from direct exposure, and is the incidence angle. The
total solar irradiance around Earth, , is 1360.8 ± 0.5
[NASA].
Incidence Angle’s Effect on Efficiency. Image courtesy of MCEN

Sustainable Energy.

here:
ISS Solar Array Deployment. Vidoe courtesy of You Tube.
Image courtesy of Top Coder.
To mitigate the inefficiency of solar cells not directly facing the

sun, solar arrays may be deployed (for larger surface area) and
articulated to point more directly at the sun. For example, on the
ISS, the huge solar arrays were deployed with an extending truss
structure, pulling the end of the solar array out. The ISS uses
gimbals to track the position of the sun by continually rotating
the panels to face the sun, seen in Figure __. The RAVAN
cubesat shows the deployment and articulation of its solar
panels.
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Cubesat RAVAN’s solar panel arrays are deployed and articulated

toward the sun. Credit: Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics
Laboratory artist’s concept.
For deployed solar panels and a spacecraft with attitude control,

you can assume direct pointing toward the sun and no loss to
efficiency. For solar panels that are rigidly attached to the faces
of a cube, you can point the entire spacecraft body to face the sun
and maximize the sunlight hitting the solar panels. The optimal
incidence angle to point at the sun depends on how many faces
you can point toward the sun. If there are two panels adjacent
that can simultaneously face the sun, the optimal incidence angle
from each solar panel face is 45 degrees. Instead of 1 panel
facing the sun directly, 2 panels facing the sun at 45 degrees
achieves 1.41 times the amount of power of a single panel. If
there are three panels all touching the same corner, which can
point toward the sun, the optimal incidence angle from each
solar panel face is 54.7 degrees, seen in Figure __. Three panels
partially pointing to the sun achieves 1.73 times the amount of
power of a single head-on panel, which is the configuration of
the Artemis CubeSat kit.
Best spacecraft attitude for 3 adjacent solar panel faces on 1U CubeSat.

Author: Atakan Sirin. From Master’s thesis titled: Power System
Analysis of J3 CubeSat and RATEX-J High Voltage Power Supply
Calibration.
To size the solar array surface area, you must collect the
following information:
• Required power to generate based off your power

budget,
◦ Efficiency of the solar cells you’ve chosen,
◦ Solar irradiance at your distance from the

sun,
◦ Incidence angle across all solar arrays,
• The formula to calculate surface area of the array’s

surface from your power generation requirement is:
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Artemis Selection
For our system, we have the following:
◦ power generation requirement of 2.5 W,
◦ solar cell selection of ANYSOLAR’s

SolarBITs with 25 % efficiency,
◦ solar irradiance at Earth,
◦ incidence angle across all solar arrays, =

54.7 degrees
A=
*** QuickLaTeX cannot compile formula:

\tfrac{2.5W}{1360.8
*** Error message:

File ended while scanning use of \@genfrac.
Emergency stop.
W/m^2 = 0.0127 or
12,724
The total surface area across the 3 CubeSat faces is

30,000 . The solar cells need to cover at least
42 % of the CubeSat faces to satisfy the 2.5 W power

generation requirement.
Each solar cell has a surface area of 23 x 8 [mm] or

184 with a mass of 0.5 grams. We need at least
69 cells to meet this requirement or 23 cells per face.
To cover 5 available faces, the entire CubeSat will
have 115 solar cells with a total mass of 57 grams, or
about 5 % of our mass budget.
Solar Thermal Power Systems
Another way to utilize solar energy in space is to

convert solar energy into heat. Mirrors and lenses
concentrate sunlight into high-temperature collectors,
through a technique called concentrated solar power.
High-temperature collectors can then be used in
conjunction with various thermodynamic cycle
engines to generate electricity. In a thermodynamic
cycle, a working fluid (liquid of gas) converts heat
into useful work through pressure and temperature
differences. Well-known thermodynamic cycles are
the Otto cycle, used in spark ignition piston engines of
cars, and the Rankine cycle used in steam engines of
trains. Spacecraft typically do not bring combustible
or consumable fuel to incite internal or external
combustion, instead a sensical choice for a spacecraft
solar thermal engine is the Baker or Carnot heat
engine.
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A parabolic solar dish concentrating the sun’s rays on the

heating element of a Stirling engine. The entire unit acts as a
solar tracker.Image courtesy of Wikipedia.
A Carnot heat engine transfers “energy from a warm

region to a cool region of space and, in the process,
converting some of that energy to mechanical work”
[Wikipedia]. This cycle is special because the cycle
may be reversed and the whole system may be
contained in a closed system. The fluid that runs
through the engine can be any substance capable of
expansion. The total possible work is equal to the
difference in heat put into and heat taken out of the
system. This material is covered in a thermodynamic
course so I won’t expound further, as these heat
engines are not commonly used in spacecraft.
A Carnot cycle illustrated on a PV diagram to illustrate the

work done. Image courtesy of Wikipedia.
These solar thermal power systems can be

advantageous over solar cells, with higher areal
efficiencies and lower procurement costs. The
disadvantages are that there are moving parts that wear
down over time and require maintenance.
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Nuclear Power
The Curiosity rover took this self portrait on Mars that

includes its MMRTG electrical power source (the white
cylinder with radiator fins, at the rear of the rover). Image
courtesy of NASA.
Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators (RTGs) are

the most common power generator for spacecraft
missions past Jupiter and the Martian planetary rovers:
the Apollo missions
to the moon, the Viking missions to Mars, and the

Pioneer, Voyager, Ulysses, Galileo, Cassini and New
Horizons mission to Pluto and the Kuiper Belt all used
RTGs [NASAfacts]. RTGs are nuclear reactors that do
not rely on the space environment; all components and
physical phenomena are contained in the technology
built on ground. These tiny nuclear reactors generate
electricity from the heat of radioactive decay, typically
from the element Plutonium-238. These energy
sources constantly decay, emit heat, and degrade over
time. A sample of technical specifications used for the

Mars 2020 Rover, Perseverance, is seen in the table
below. These energy generators do not miniaturize
well, as there are many reactor components in
complex configuration to convert the nuclear energy
into electrical energy. 238Pu can also be toxic to
humans if improperly contained and exposed directly
in large doses. This highly radioactive element is also
strictly controlled by the Department of Energy for
which immense paperwork is required to obtain
significant amounts for a spacecraft mission. These
reasons motivate the use of RTGs for large unmanned
spacecraft or robotic missions.
Model of an Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric

Generator, including its internal General Purpose Heat
Source (GPHS) modules. Image courtesy of NASA.
408 • FRANCES ZHU

5.6 Consumable Power Storage
Ragone Plot of Electrochemical Devices Source: US Defence Logistics

Agency.
A ragone plot of electrochemical devices shows storage capacity

against instantaneous power output. On the extremes, capacitors
store little energy but discharge very quickly (useful for short but
powerful electrical movement, like deployment mechanisms).
Fuel cells store an immense amount of energy but outputs power
409
410 • FRANCES ZHU
at a low rate. The lines represent the relative time to get charge in
or out of the device. Lithium batteries are a compromise between
fuel cells and capacitors, charging and discharging at a relative
time of less than an hour, making them ideal candidates for
Low Earth Orbit spacecraft due to the temporal match in orbital
period. This section will give an overview into the various power
storage options, their physical innerworkings, and design
considerations.
Fuel Cells

Fuel cells convert chemical energy of a fuel and an oxidizing

agent into electricity. Commonly, the fuel is hydrogen and the
oxidizing agent is oxygen. The chemical reaction is shown by
2H_2 O + e-" title="Rendered by

QuickLaTeX.com" height="15" width="221" style="vertical-
align: -3px;">
Where are hydrogen molecules, are oxygen molecules,

O are water molecules, and e- is a free electron that can
produce electricity or heat. The production of electricity is solely
dependent on the availability of hydrogen and oxygen, so when
the fuel is gone, the ability to produce electricity disappears
as well. You’ll see that the reaction produces water that may
be used as potable water for humans or recaptured in a closed
system in storage. Water can be electrolyzed into and
molecules with excess power as a form of regenerated fuel.
This regenerative process requires a separate power source, like
solar cells, but in this way, fuel cells act as a power storage
device, like a high-capacity battery. Hydrogen fuel cells are on
the horizon for small satellite power generation technologies
[SmallSat Institute].
412 • FRANCES ZHU
In this hydrogen fuel-cell schematic, oxygen from the air reacts with
hydrogen, producing water and electricity.© 1999-2020, Rice
University. Except where otherwise noted, content created on this site is
licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
As fuel cells are not common for small satellites yet, we will
not delve deeply into the equations for developing and sizing
your own fuel cell. If interested, refer to these useful fuel cell
equations that relate to oxygen usage rate, air inlet flow rate,
air exit flow rate, hydrogen usage, and the energy content of
hydrogen, rate of water production, heat production [Wiley].
The stoichiometric reaction formulas yield the electrical power
of the whole fuel cell stack and the average voltage of each cell
in the stack. Voltage is typically 0.6 – 0.7 V per cell; 0.65V
is a safe assumption when voltage is not explicitly given. The
electrical power is either a given or estimated specification that
is the most basic and important information about a fuel cell

system. For reference, an experimental fuel cell from the
University of Illinois that is based on hydrogen peroxide rather
than water has demonstrated an energy density of over 1000
Whkg-1 with a theoretical limit of over 2580 Whkg-1, less than
half the theoretical limit [SmallSat Institute]! The maximum
theoretical efficiency of a complete fuel cell system based on
lower heating value of hydrogen is 228.6 kJ/mole ∕ 241.8 kJ/
mole or 94.5% [NREL]. You can see that the technology
development for fuel cells for space has a long way to go and
may be an exciting technology mission for CubeSats. I would
highly suggest diving deep into the other references and taking
courses in chemical engineering if this technology piques your
interest.
Comparison of Fuel Cell Technologies. Courtesy of Department of

Energy.
414 • FRANCES ZHU
Capacitors
Schematic illustration of a supercapacitor. CC BY-SA 4.0. Image

courtesy of AVS.
On the other side of the extreme on the ragone plot is the

capacitor, which supplies high power at high-energy efficiency
but has low energy density. For comparison, lithium-ion cells
have an energy density of 150 Wh/kg and super-capacitors have
between 5 – 30 Wh/kg [Underwood]. The difference between
capacitors and batteries is that capacitors store energy in an
electric field on conductive plates and batteries store energy in
chemical form.
Capacitors can act as a consumable power source when charged

and connected to a load, but also as an energy storage option
when connected to a charging circuit. “Capacitors are commonly
used in electronic devices to maintain power supply while
batteries are being changed” [Wikipedia]. Taking advantage of

the capacitor’s high current discharge, capacitors may also be
used to power ordnance devices, separation mechanisms, or
deployers. For power conditioning to be discussed in the power
management section, capacitors can “smooth current
fluctuations for signal or control circuits” [Wikipedia]. With the
rise of small satellites, these capacitors may satisfy the minimal
energy and power requirements of a spacecraft the size of a
cracker [ChipSat].
2011 ChipSat Labeled Design.Copyright © 2011 by Zachary

Manchester. Published by the American Institute of Aeronautics and
Astronautics, Inc., with permission.
Primary Batteries
Batteries operate by converting chemical potential energy to

electrical energy. “Batteries powering satellites or spacecraft
must be rugged enough to withstand the severe vibrations of
launch. Once the craft is deployed, these batteries must operate
in extreme conditions of heat and cold and solar radiation. And,
416 • FRANCES ZHU
they need to work in a vacuum without leaking or exploding.

There are many types of batteries: carbon-zinc, lead-acid,
nickel-cadmium, nickel-hydrogen, silver zinc, alkaline, and
lithium-ion to name a few” [NASA]. There are two types of
batteries: primary and secondary; secondary batteries will be
discussed in the power storage section. Primary batteries are
single use and disposable, storing a finite amount of energy
and discharging until energy can not be withdrawn. Although
consumable, primary batteries are typically higher in energy
density, which may be preferred for short space mission
lifetimes for their reliability and simplicity. These batteries were
used before solar panels were widely adopted and are still
commonly used for power small probes sent to the surface of
planetary bodies [Wikipedia]. The most recent mission to use
primary batteries is MASCOT, a scientific asteroid-hopping
rover deployed by Hayabusa2. You can see that MASCOT is
a tiny scientific, self-contained package with no deployable
mechanisms; a short and sweet mission powered by primary
batteries.
Left: Illustration of MASCOT separating from Hayabusa2. Right:

Illustration of MASCOT landing on the surface of Ryugu. (Image credit:
JAXA)
Primary batteries are evaluated by their energy density,

discharge rate, and temperature limits. For all primary and
secondary batteries, “important cell properties, such as voltage,
energy density, flammability, available cell constructions,
operating temperature range and shelf life”, which is dictated by
battery chemical compositions. When sizing the primary battery,
the EPS system lead must consider that the primary battery
contains the entire energy budget of the mission, unless there
is another power source. Based off of the power budget, the
primary battery must be able to output power associated with a
minimum discharge rate. The battery must also be operational
or thermally regulated to survive the thermal environment
throughout the mission.
Battery Terminology
• Ampere-hour (Ah) – TOTAL CAPACITY OF

418 • FRANCES ZHU
BATTERY (e.g. 40 Amps for 1 hr = 40 Ah)
• Depth of discharge (DOD) – percent of battery

capacity used in discharge (75% DOD means 25%
capacity remaining, DOD usually limited for long
cycle life)
• % DOD = (x 100)
WhLoad= Watt hours delivered to load
= (Load in Watts) x (Duration in hours)
C = Capacity of battery in amp-hours
= Average battery discharge voltage
• For long cycle life, DOD may be limited to 50% to

75%
• Watt-hours – stored energy of battery, equal to Ah

capacity times average discharge voltage
• Charge rate – rate Ah which battery can accept

charge. Rule of thumb = Capacity (Ah)/15 hr
• Average discharge voltage – number of cells times

cell discharge voltage (1.25 V for most cells)
5.7 Rechargeable Power Sources
Secondary Batteries
EMU batteries are composed of numerous, individual Li-Ion cells,

packaged in a brick fashion. Image courtesy of NASA.
Secondary batteries are by far the most common energy storage

option for spacecraft. Secondary batteries are rechargeable and
commonly paired with a power generation source, like solar
cells. The most common batteries currently used in space flight
are nick-cadmium (NI-Cad) and with the rise in CubeSats,
lithium polymer (Li-pol) and lithium ion (Li-ion) batteries
419
420 • FRANCES ZHU
[NASA, Knap]. A battery module is pictured in Figure __,

composed of many individual battery cells connected in series to
achieve a defined power, energy capacity, and voltage.
Chemical Short
Full Name Characteristics
Abbreviation Name
Lithium Low cost, high discharge rate

manganese LiMn2O4 LMO capability, good safety, low
oxide specific energy.
Low cost, high specific

Lithium
energy, good discharge rate
manganese LiNiMnCoO2 NMC
capability, low resistance,
nickel
good safety.
Lithium
The highest specific energy
nickel
and cycle life, lower
cobalt LiNiCoAlO2 NCA
discharge rate capability,
aluminum
good safety.
oxide
Lithium
nickel
LiNiCoO2 NCO Rarely used
cobalt
oxide
Lithium Expensive, low specific

cobalt LiCoO2 LCO energy, lower discharge rate
oxide capability, poor safety.
Lithium Highest discharge rate

iron LiFePO4 LFP capability, low specific
phosphate energy, excellent safety.
Secondary batteries are evaluated and selected by their energy

density, discharge rate, allowable depth of discharge, cycle life,
and temperature limits.
• To achieve the necessary power storage requirements

for the whole mission lifetime, we need to pay

attention to energy density or total energy storage
capacity, dictated by choice of material and number
of cells. Energy density degrades so be sure to add
margin when sizing the batteries.
• A battery’s required discharge rate is dictated by the

maximum instantaneous power draw of the spacecraft
bus during its most demanding phase, a quantity
derived from a power budget and profiling.
• A battery’s depth of discharge is dictated by the

maximum sustained energy consumption of the
spacecraft bus during the phase that draws the most
power over the longest period (power * time), a
quantity also derived from a power budget and
profiling.
• A battery’s cycle life is dictated by the concept of

operations and mission objectives by answering the
question: how many orbital periods, associated with
charging and discharging cycles, are proposed in the
concept of operations to fulfill the mission
objectives?
• As batteries have the strictest operational temperature

limits, batteries typically create a thermal requirement
that the structures and thermal subsystem leads must
design around. The EPS lead can help these other
subsystem leads by considering batteries with the
widest temperature range so that the other subsystem
leads need to adhere to a more forgiving requirement.
422 • FRANCES ZHU
Energy density degrades over time due to several factors:

internal physical changes or corrosion, fast discharging,
overcharging, environmental conditions (vibration, shock,
temperature), and storage. Degradation will always exist but best
practices may minimize the amount of total degradation.
• Batteries naturally discharge when not in use, called

self-discharge. Secondary batteries typically self-
discharge faster than primary batteries. To mitigate
the effects of self-discharge, we can store batteries in
refrigerators or freezers, slowing the uncontrollable
internal processes.
This graph shows typical self discharge rates for a Lithium Ion battery.
Copyright © Woodbank Communications Ltd.
• To mitigate degradation due to fast discharging, we

can size our battery module such that the necessary

power draw is limited in discharge rate.
The discharge curves for a Lithium Ion cell below show that the
effective capacity of the cell is reduced if the cell is discharged at very
high rates (or conversely increased with low discharge rates). This is
called the capacity offset and the effect is common to most cell
chemistries. Copyright © Woodbank Communications Ltd.
• Environmental conditions may be regulated with

structural dampening or thermal control to minimize
the vibration, shock, or extreme temperature
exposure.
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At the lower extreme, in batteries with aqueous electrolytes, the

electrolyte itself may freeze setting a lower limit on the operating
temperature. At low temperatures Lithium batteries suffer from Lithium
plating of the anode causing a permanent reduction in capacity. At the
upper extreme the active chemicals may break down destroying the
battery. In between these limits the cell performance generally improves
with temperature. Copyright © Woodbank Communications Ltd
(mpoweruk.com)
A battery’s state of charge, or percent of total capacity

discharged, can be estimated by measuring voltage of the cell.
We want to predict the state of charge of a battery to ensure
that we do not fully discharge the battery and impart permanent
damage to the battery cell. The voltage may be read by Analog-
to-Digital converters on the onboard computer or battery board.
For lithium ion batteries, the voltage for a significant portion
while discharging can read the same voltage level, which makes
determining the true capacity difficult and potentially inaccurate.
The danger for lithium batteries is not protecting the battery
from discharging until the rapid fall in cell voltage upon
complete discharge of the battery, dramatically shortening the

cycle life of the battery. Other methods for estimating state
of charge are based upon current, internal impedance, specific
gravity, etc. Estimating the state of charge is very difficult due to
but not limited to nonlinearity with respect to voltage, hysteresis
or memory effects due to previous cycling, variation to
temperature, and on. Today, algorithms for estimating state of
charge is state-of-the-art research, utilizing advanced techniques
such as machine learning techniques [Hannah et al.].
426 • FRANCES ZHU
The X axis shows the cell characteristics normalised as a percentage of

cell capacity so that the shape of the graph can be shown independent of
the actual cell capacity. If the X axis was based on discharge time, the
length of each discharge curve would be proportional to the nominal
capacity of the cell. Copyright © Woodbank Communications Ltd.
Battery Sizing
To size the battery, we must consider the total capacity, total

system load, duration, DOD, and average voltage. To calculate
total capacity of the battery, the formula follows:
The load and duration are determined from the spacecraft system
power budget and profile. The DOD and average voltage are
taken from the battery specifications.
Artemis Selection
Each cycle is an interval between the charge (charge current

1,020mA) with 100mA cut-off and the discharge (discharge
current 3,400mA) with 2.65V cut-off. Capacity after 500cycles.
428 • FRANCES ZHU
Capacity ≥ 2,010mAh (60% of Standard Capacity)
• To achieve the necessary power storage requirements

for the whole mission lifetime, we need to pay
attention to energy density or total energy storage
capacity, dictated by choice of material and number
of cells. Energy density degrades so be sure to add
margin when sizing the batteries.
• A battery’s required discharge rate is dictated by the

maximum instantaneous power draw of the spacecraft
bus during its most demanding phase, a quantity
derived from a power budget and profiling.
◦ Talk about the Initial startup, takes 16.05 W

but how long?
• A battery’s depth of discharge is dictated by the

maximum sustained energy consumption of the
spacecraft bus during the phase that draws the most
power over the longest period (power * time), a
quantity also derived from a power budget and
profiling.
◦ Talk about the Data Transmit mode, takes

3.29 W for 4 minutes
• A battery’s cycle life is dictated by the concept of

operations and mission objectives by answering the
question: how many orbital periods, associated with
charging and discharging cycles, are proposed in the
concept of operations to fulfill the mission
objectives?
• As batteries have the strictest operational temperature

limits, batteries typically create a thermal requirement
that the structures and thermal subsystem leads must
design around. The EPS lead can help these other
subsystem leads by considering batteries with the
widest temperature range so that the other subsystem
leads need to adhere to a more forgiving requirement.
Artemis Battery Sizing
To determine the number of battery cells that must be in the

spacecraft, we must define the maximum load and duration from
the spacecraft system power budget and profile and the DOD
and average voltage are from the battery specifications.
• The maximum load of the Artemis CubeSat occurs

during the Data Transmit mode at 3.29 W.
• The duration of this mode lasts for 4 minutes.
• The DOD from the selected battery is conservatively

50%.
• The average, nominal voltage is 3.6 Volts.
Total Capacity Requirement = (3.29 W * 0.0666 hr) / ( 0.5 * 3.6

V ) = 0.122 Amp-hr
430 • FRANCES ZHU
Battery Capacity Requirement = 0.122 Amp-hr * 3.6 V = 0.438

W-hr
A single battery cell offers 3.35 Amp-hr, more than satisfying

the total capacity requirement. Additionally, the Artemis
CubeSat Kit offers 4 cells in the battery pack to accommodate
more power-hungry payloads.
Flywheel Energy Storage
Flywheels are rotors that rotate at a very high speed and maintain
energy as mechanical, rotational energy. The kinetic energy of
the rotor can be converted into electrical energy in which the
rotor’s speed decreases but surplus electrical energy can be
stored back into the rotor as mechanical energy for further use.
The rotors are suspended by magnetic bearings and encased
in a vacuum to reduce energy loss to friction. State-of-the-art
research involves cooling superconductors and levitating magnet
rotors as a way to achieve a frictionless bearing to reduce
bearing losses and complexity of traditional flywheel storage
systems [Andrare].
The main components of a typical flywheel By: Pjrensburg License: CC

BY-SA 3.0.
5.8 Power Management and
Distribution
For the power generation and storage components to supply

power to the components, the electrical power system must
regulate the voltage and current to accommodate each
component’s specifications. The spacecraft power generation
technology has the option to directly distribute power to the
spacecraft subsystems components or to store energy and
distribute power from the energy storage technology. Either way,
the power must go through power conversion, management, and
distribution.
432
ISS Electrical Power Distribution. Author: NASA. License: Public

Domain. Image courtesy of Boeing.
The power conversion, management, and distribution

technology is the interfacing technology between the power
source and the spacecraft subsystem components. These
interfaces contribute to the EPS design requirements. The power
conversion, management, and distribution technology usually
resides on a centralized power distribution board that acts as this
interface. On this board, common components include voltage
regulators, current limiters, switches, shunts, and converters.
Source control components include shunt regulators, series
regulators, and shorting switch arrays. Power conditioning
components include DC-DC converters, DC-AC inverters, and
regulators. Energy storage control components include chargers
and regulators. A schematic diagram of the electrical power
system assists systems engineers and EPS specialists in
graphically depicting the interfaces and detailing relevant
information; a schematic of the International Space Station EPS
architecture is shown in Figure __. You’ll see the end nodes
434 • FRANCES ZHU
are power sources and the components running along the power
lines are power conversion, management, or distribution
components with a collection of these components composing
a printed circuit board. For large spacecraft, one must consider
that DC voltage is typically supplied at 28V (heritage from
aircraft) and long harnesses experience resistive power loss,
which must be accounted for.
When designing the power conversion, management, and

distribution (PDU in short) subsystem, you’re designing the
interfaces between the power consumers, power generators, and
energy storage components. The spacecraft PDU is likely going
to be custom designed for the unique configuration of the
payload and spacecraft bus components. The circuit design of
the PDU will likely necessitate printed circuit board design
software, like KiCAD or Eagle, schematic diagrams that display
the interfaces, and circuit design domain knowledge. Here are
some best practices when designing the PDU:
• DC switching – as a goal switches or relays should be

in positive line. Direct wire to negative
• ARC suppression – as near as possible to source of

ARC
• Modular construction desirable
• Grounding – ground cable preferable to ground via

structure
• Maintain continuity between structural elements,

thermal blankets, etc
• Maintain shield continuity, single shield ground point

desirable
• Don’t over complicate
Artemis CubeSat Kit Power Distribution Unit
Integrated Power Systems
Integrated power systems: a) energy storage as sole power source, b)

power generation as sole power source, requiring power conversion, c)
power generation and energy storage as complementary power sources,
requiring more complex power conversion, management, and
distribution.
In the previous sections, we’ve discussed design drivers for

power consumption, individual technologies for power
436 • FRANCES ZHU
generation and energy storage, and the design process for the
PDU. This section will discuss the various configurations for
integrated power systems and the design considerations for
which configuration to use for characteristics missions. The
various configurations are shown in Figure __, shown in
increasing complexity.
Discussed briefly in the energy storage section, missions that

rely solely on energy storage as the power source have finite
lifetimes that count down once the power source is tapped into.
This integrated power system, particularly the power
management and distribution system, is typically simpler as the
discharge power supplied to the spacecraft bus is predictable;
more specifically, discharge voltage follows a known curve and
discharge current is constant. Discharge relies only on the energy
storage system that is embedded in the spacecraft, which was
readily available for testing on ground prior to launch. Although
RTGs were mentioned in the power generation section, RTGs
are essentially nuclear batteries. Their power output and
characteristics mimic the behavior of a battery, producing nearly
constant power.
Different charge /discharge behavior of supercapacitors and

rechargeable batteries. Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public
Domain Dedication. Image courtesy of Wikimedia.
For an integrated power system that relies solely on a power

generation source, the system must also incorporate a power
conversion system, “such as converting between AC and DC;
or changing the voltage or frequency; or some combination
of these” [Wikipedia]. Solar cell arrays vary in power output
depending on the visibility and intensity of the sun. This high
power generation variability channelled directly to the power
distribution and management system can overload the circuit
and cause some catastrophic electrical failures, potentially
damaging other hardware. The use of solar cell arrays solely to
power spacecraft is very rare [KickSat] because if the spacecraft
enters eclipse, the spacecraft is in danger of powering off and
never turning back on. There must exist a power source during
eclipse to keep current flowing through the electrical power
438 • FRANCES ZHU
system. These conditions also apply to the thermal power

generation methods.
Suggested reading: Comparison of the Incident Solar Energy

and Battery Storage in a 3U CubeSat Satellite for Different
Orientation Scenarios
Breakdown of orbit related to eclipse for a CubeSat satellite. Creative

Commons License. Authors: Sergio Sanchez-Sanjuan, Jesus
Gonzalez-Llorente, Ronald Hurtado-Velasco.This is an Open Access
article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction
in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
The most common integrated power system configuration

includes both a power generation source and energy storage
for sustained, reliable access to power. The power conversion,
management, and distribution design will be more complex but
this configuration allows far more capabilities. The regenerative
power enables longer mission lifetimes, enabling end-of-mission
extended goals. The energy storage provides robustness to
eclipse and anomalies in power generation. The most common
pair of technologies is the solar cell and secondary battery,
which is the Artemis CubeSat kit’s configuration.
Artemis CubeSat Kit Integrated Power System

5.9 Power Budget and Profiling
To keep track of power consumption and generation, the EPS

subsystem lead can generate a power budget and mission profile.
This analysis will evaluate if the power generation and power
storage are sufficient to support the mission. If not, a new power
generation and/or storage system is selected and reanalyzed to
verify requirement satisfaction.
1. Define the mission’s concept of operations and time

in each phase,
440
Time Since Time in

Operational Mode
Deployment Phase
60
i. Initial Checkouts 30 minutes
minutes
30
ii. Initial Deployment 1.5 hours
minutes
90
iii. Sun Pointing/ Spacecraft Charging 2 hours
minutes
30
iv. Science Operations 3.5 hours
minutes
30
v. Radio Pointing 4 hours
minutes
120
vi. Sun Pointing/ Spacecraft Charging 4.5 hours
minutes
Return to iv and iterate science operations

loop until mission is fulfilled
2. Define discrete modes of operations where different subsets

of avionics are on or off,
442 • FRANCES ZHU
Subsystems > Attitude

Command Stru
Sensing Thermal
Payload Communications and Data and
Mode v and Control
Handling Me
Control
Initial
Off On On On Off Off
Checkouts
Initial
Off Off Off On Off On
Deployment
Science
On On Off On Off Off
Operations
Radio pointing/
data uplink and Off On On On Off Off
downlink
Sun pointing/
spacecraft Off On Off On On Off
charging
Stationkeeping/
Orbit Off On Off On Off Off
adjustment
3. Define the subsystem components, which subsequently

defines each component’s voltage, current, peak power draw,
and average power draw
Peak Average
Subsystem Component Voltage Current power power
draw draw
Payload
Structure and Deployment

Mechanisms Mechanisms
Thermal Temperature
Control Sensor
Heater
Power
(including Battery
harness)
Telemetry and
Receiver
Control
Transmitter
Command
On-Board
and Data
Computer
Handling
Daughter
Boards
Attitude Inertial
Determination Measurement
and Control Unit
Torque Coils
4. Summarize the average power draw for each mode by

summing the individual power draw of each component in each
mode
444 • FRANCES ZHU
Radio
pointing/
Initial Initial Science data
Subsystem Component
Checkouts Deployment Operations uplink
and
downlink
Payload
Structure and Deployment

Mechanisms Mechanisms
Thermal Temperature
Control Sensor
Heater
Power
(including Battery
harness)
Telemetry and
Receiver
Control
Transmitter
Command
On-Board
and Data
Computer
Handling
Daughter
Boards
Attitude Inertial
Determination Measurement
and Control Unit
Torque Coils
Average
Power during
Mode
5. Derive the power generation profile over time of an orbit

using your solar cell specifications, orbit-defined solar

irradiance, and incident angles over time or STK. The following
power profile is an example profile taken from STK with default
solar cell specification for a 1U cubesat surface area in ISS orbit.
1.
446 • FRANCES ZHU
Time (min) Power Generated (W)
0 3.004166667
1 2.9665
2 2.728
3 3.142666667
4 2.627333333
5 2.941833333
6 2.902833333
7 2.665333333
8 3.159833333
9 2.6665
10 3.014833333
11 2.9365
12 2.726
13 3.009833333
14 2.641166667
15 2.978833333
16 2.870833333
17 2.7025
18 3.244333333
19 2.641333333
20 2.897
21 2.921333333
22 2.6825
23 3.0465
24 2.675333333
25 3.018166667
26 2.967166667
27 2.726333333
28 3.126666667
29 2.623333333
30 2.940166667
31 2.8825
32 0.3241666667
33 0
34 0
35 0
36 0
37 0
38 0
39 0
40 0
41 0
42 0
43 0
44 0
45 0
46 0
448 • FRANCES ZHU
47 0
48 0
49 0
50 0
51 0
52 0
53 0
54 0
55 0
56 0
57 0
58 0
59 0
60 0
61 0
62 0
63 0
64 0
65 0
66 1.005166667
67 2.711333333
68 3.2025
69 2.631833333
70 2.9205
71 2.8985
72 2.6745
73 3.104
74 2.691333333
75 3.042333333
76 2.942
77 2.7195
78 3.071666667
79 2.634
80 2.976
81 2.8585
82 2.690333333
83 3.237666667
84 2.669
85 2.923166667
86 2.914833333
87 2.700333333
88 2.9925
89 2.678666667
90 3.003166667
6. Fill in the power profile with the modes throughout mission

450 • FRANCES ZHU
time, power consumption associated with each mode, and the

integrated energy storage
Orbit Time Energy Used Energy Energy Balance

Mode
Number (min) (Wh) Generated (Wh) (Wh)
Power
1 0 0 0.05006944444 0.05006944444
Generation
Power
1 1 0 0.04944166667 0.04944166667
Generation
Power
1 2 0 0.04546666667 0.04546666667
Generation
Power
1 3 0 0.05237777778 0.05237777778
Generation
Power
1 4 0 0.04378888889 0.04378888889
Generation
Power
1 5 0 0.04903055556 0.04903055556
Generation
Power
1 6 0 0.04838055556 0.04838055556
Generation
Power
1 7 0 0.04442222222 0.04442222222
Generation
Power
1 8 0 0.05266388889 0.05266388889
Generation
Power
1 9 0 0.04444166667 0.04444166667
Generation
Power
1 10 0 0.05024722222 0.05024722222
Generation
Power
1 11 0 0.04894166667 0.04894166667
Generation
Power
1 12 0 0.04543333333 0.04543333333
Generation
Power
1 13 0 0.05016388889 0.05016388889
Generation
452 • FRANCES ZHU
Power
1 14 0 0.04401944444 0.04401944444
Generation
Power
1 15 0 0.04964722222 0.04964722222
Generation
Power
1 16 0 0.04784722222 0.04784722222
Generation
Power
1 17 0 0.04504166667 0.04504166667
Generation
Power
1 18 0 0.05407222222 0.05407222222
Generation
Power
1 19 0 0.04402222222 0.04402222222
Generation
Power
1 20 0 0.04828333333 0.04828333333
Generation
Power
1 21 0 0.04868888889 0.04868888889
Generation
Power
1 22 0 0.04470833333 0.04470833333
Generation
Power
1 23 0 0.050775 0.050775
Generation
Power
1 24 0 0.04458888889 0.04458888889
Generation
Power
1 25 0 0.05030277778 0.05030277778
Generation
Power
1 26 0 0.04945277778 0.04945277778
Generation
Power
1 27 0 0.04543888889 0.04543888889
Generation
Power
1 28 0 0.05211111111 0.05211111111
Generation
Power
1 29 0 0.04372222222 0.04372222222
Generation
1 30 Pointing 0 0.04900277778 0.04900277778
Data
1 31 0.04762060333 0.04804166667 0.000421063333
Collect
Data
1 32 0.04896559333 0.005402777778 -0.04356281556
Received
Data
1 33 0.05491559333 0 -0.05491559333
Transmit
Data
1 34 0.05491559333 0 -0.05491559333
Transmit
Data
1 35 0.05491559333 0 -0.05491559333
Transmit
Data
1 36 0.05491559333 0 -0.05491559333
Transmit
1 37 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667
1 38 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667
1 39 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667
1 40 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667
1 41 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667
1 42 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667
1 43 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667
1 44 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667
1 45 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667
1 46 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667
1 47 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667
1 48 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667

454 • FRANCES ZHU
1 49 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667
1 50 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667
1 51 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667
1 52 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667
1 53 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667
1 54 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667
1 55 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667
1 56 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667
1 57 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667
1 58 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667
1 59 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667
1 60 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667
1 61 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667
1 62 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667
1 63 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667
1 64 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667
1 65 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667
Power
1 66 0 0.01675277778 0.01675277778
Generation
Power
1 67 0 0.04518888889 0.04518888889
Generation
Power
1 68 0 0.053375 0.053375
Generation
Power
1 69 0 0.04386388889 0.04386388889
Generation
Power
1 70 0 0.048675 0.048675
Generation
Power
1 71 0 0.04830833333 0.04830833333
Generation
Power
1 72 0 0.044575 0.044575
Generation
Power
1 73 0 0.05173333333 0.05173333333
Generation
Power
1 74 0 0.04485555556 0.04485555556
Generation
Power
1 75 0 0.05070555556 0.05070555556
Generation
Power
1 76 0 0.04903333333 0.04903333333
Generation
Power
1 77 0 0.045325 0.045325
Generation
Power
1 78 0 0.05119444444 0.05119444444
Generation
Power
1 79 0 0.0439 0.0439
Generation
Power
1 80 0 0.0496 0.0496
Generation
Power
1 81 0 0.04764166667 0.04764166667
Generation
Power
1 82 0 0.04483888889 0.04483888889
Generation
Power
1 83 0 0.05396111111 0.05396111111
Generation
Power
1 84 0 0.04448333333 0.04448333333
Generation
456 • FRANCES ZHU
Power
1 85 0 0.04871944444 0.04871944444
Generation
Power
1 86 0 0.04858055556 0.04858055556
Generation
Power
1 87 0 0.04500555556 0.04500555556
Generation
Power
1 88 0 0.049875 0.049875
Generation
Power
1 89 0 0.04464444444 0.04464444444
Generation
From this analysis, we see that the battery capacity over the
orbit returns back to full charge, verifying that the spacecraft
is sufficiently supported by the electrical power system. If the
battery charge slowly drains every orbit, the EPS specialist must
find a power generation technology that produces more power
or the systems engineer must modify the mission operations
timeline to spend longer periods in power generation mode. If
the power budget reveals a large surplus of power that’s just
being shunted or risks overcharging the battery, the systems
engineer may decide to utilize that surplus energy by powering
other operations or scaling down the power generation
technology to save on mass.
Suggested Activity
Produce a power budget and profile

5.10 Electrical Power System
Design Tools
Other than basic office software (like Microsoft excel or Google

sheets), you will likely need other software to create schematic
diagrams and printed circuit board designs. Schematic diagrams
are generally good for systems engineers who need to
graphically depict connections between various subsystems, but
an electrical power system lead needs schematic diagrams to
1) refine a conceptual design and selection of components to a
closer representation of the as-built hardware, revealing crucial
interfaces and 2) define the routing of power and signal lines
and placement of PDU components. From schematic diagrams,
we can create an electrical harness plan if needed. Schematics
are helpful tools for carefully planning and reviewing circuit
designs. A good, well organized schematic includes design
blocks for more complex circuits included on the board, and is
well labeled and documented.
These two levels of refinement lead to printed circuit board
457
458 • FRANCES ZHU
design: the technical manifestation of a schematic diagram to

move the design closer to fabrication. Printed circuit board
design is the CAD equivalent for electronics: placing
components on a physical layout and connecting traces between
components. Designing printed circuit board designs are
typically reserved for electrical engineers or advanced
technicians as the process is tedious and initially inaccessible
due to a steep learning curve. Student teams generally minimize
custom circuit design by using plug-and-play components for
simplicity and more fool-proof integration but at the expense of
suboptimal EPS design. This section will attempt to expose you
to these software programs in the context of spacecraft design.
Schematic Diagram Software
https://www.digikey.com/schemeit/design-starters/
https://www.altium.com/solution/free-schematic-capture-
software
https://www.schematics.com/
https://skycad.ca/features.php
https://circuit-diagramz.com/free-electrical-schematic-diagram-
software/
Printed Circuit Board Design Software
https://www.electronics-lab.com/top-10-free-pcb-design-
software-2019/
Integrated Schematic and PCB Design Software
https://www.electroschematics.com/pcb-design-software/
https://www.circuitstoday.com/electronics-circuit-drawing-
softwares
https://kicad.org/download/
https://www.autodesk.com/products/eagle/free-download
https://www.4pcb.com/free-pcb-layout-software
KiCAD and PCB Artist are free to use for everyone. Eagle is free
for students with a educational email address, or an email ending
with “.edu” or the K12 equivalent or a very limited version is
available for free to hobbyists. PCB Artist is a basic integrated
schematic to PCB design software that is great for beginners.
KiCAD and Eagle are more complex software packages that
allow
Summary
In summary, the procedure to design the electrical power system

is to:
1. Define the power consumption and electrical

characteristics of the spacecraft bus components
2. Define the necessary power generation and energy

storage required to fulfill the power consumption
requirements
3. Select the power generation and energy storage

460 • FRANCES ZHU
methods
4. Analyze the system’s power budget and profile from

the beginning of the mission to end of the mission to
ensure the selected components are sufficient to
supply power
5. Design a power conversion, management, and

distribution subsystem to interface the the power
sources and power consumers
6. Procure and fabricate components
7. Conduct tests on isolated components
8. Conduct tests on integrated components
Reference Documents

Requirements Document [NASA LSP-REQ-317.01]
Electronic systems will be designed with the following safety

features. These specifications are
applicable for all dispensers.
2.3.1 To prevent CubeSat from activating any powered

functions, the CubeSat power system
shall be at a power off state from the time of delivery to the LV

through on-orbit
deployment.
2.3.1.1 Note: CubeSat powered function include the variety of

subsystems such as C&DH, RF Communication, ADC,

deployable mechanism actuation. CubeSat power systems
include all battery assemblies and solar cells.
2.3.1.2 Powered-on battery protection circuitry may be

permitted per specification 2.3.6.
2.3.2 The CubeSat shall have, at a minimum, one deployment

switch, which is actuated while
integrated in the dispenser.
2.3.2.1 In the actuated state, the CubeSat deployment switch

shall electrically disconnect the power system from the powered
functions.
2.3.2.2 The deployment switch shall be in the actuated state at

all times while integrated in the dispenser.
2.3.2.3 In the actuated state, the CubeSat deployment switch

should be at or below the level of any external surface that
interfaces with the dispenser or neighboring CubeSat. This
ensures that the switch will not damage or interfere with the
contacting surface.
2.3.2.4 If the CubeSat deployment switch toggles from the

actuated state and back, the
satellite shall reset to a pre-launch state, including reset of

transmission and
deployable timers.
462 • FRANCES ZHU
2.3.3 Real Time Clocks (RTC) may be permitted, if they satisfy

requirements 2.3.2.1 through
2.3.2.3.
2.3.3.1 RTC circuits shall be isolated from the CubeSat’s main

power system.
2.3.3.2 RTC frequencies shall be less than 320 kHz.
2.3.3.3 RTC circuits shall be current limited to less than 10 mA.
2.3.4 The RBF pin and all CubeSat umbilical connectors shall be
within the designated access
port locations if available on the CubeSat’s dispenser. Please

contact the manufacturer for
specific charging and diagnostic port locations and procedures.
2.3.4.1 Note: Some dispensers do not have access ports,

therefore the RBF must be removed before insertion into the
dispenser. It is advised that the CubeSat developer takes this
possibility into account when designing the power-on and boot-
up sequence.
2.3.5 The CubeSat shall include an RBF pin, which cuts all
power to the satellite once it is
inserted into the satellite.
2.3.5.1 Access to the CubeSat is not guaranteed during or after

integration. The RBF pin shall be removed from the CubeSat
before integration into the dispenser, if the dispenser does not

have access ports.
2.3.5.2 The RBF pin shall protrude no more than 6.5 mm from
the CubeSat rail surface when it is fully inserted into the
satellite.
2.3.6 CubeSats shall incorporate battery circuit protection for

charging/discharging to avoid
unbalanced cell conditions. Additional manufacturer

documentation and/or testing will be
required for modified, customized, or non-UL-listed cells.
2.3.7 The CubeSat shall have at least three independent RF

inhibits to prohibit inadvertent RF transmission.
2.3.7.1 Note: An inhibit is a physical device between a power

source and a hazard.
2.3.7.2 Note: A timer is not considered an independent inhibit.
2.3.7.3 Note: Some launch vehicle providers will only require

one or two independent inhibits depending on the CubeSat’s RF
power output. However, the use of three independent inhibits
is highly recommended and can reduce required documentation
and analyses.
2.3.8 The CubeSat shall have at least three independent inhibits

to prohibit the inadvertent
464 • FRANCES ZHU
release of any deployable structures such as antennas or solar

panels.
Electrical Requirements Excerpt from NanoRacks External CubeSat

Deployer (NRCSD-E) Interface Definition Document (IDD)
[NR-NRCSD-S0004]
CubeSat electronic system designs shall adhere to the following

requirements.
4.2.1 Electrical System Design and Inhibits
1) All electrical power storage devices shall be internal to the

CubeSat.
2) To minimize hazard potential, the CubeSat shall not operate

any system (including RF
transmitters, deployment mechanisms or otherwise energize the

main power system) for
a minimum of 30 minutes after deployment. Satellites shall have

a timer (set to a
minimum of 30 minutes and requiring appropriate fault

tolerance) before satellite
operation or deployment of appendages.
3) The CubeSat electrical system design shall incorporate a

minimum of three (3)
independent inhibit switches actuated by physical deployment

switches as shown in
Figure 4.2.1-1. The satellite inhibit scheme shall include a

ground leg inhibit (switch D3 in Figure 4.2.1-1) that disconnects
the batteries along the power line from the negative
terminal to ground.
Note: This requirement considers an inhibit as a power interrupt

device, and a
control for an inhibit (electrical or software) cannot be counted

as an inhibit or
power interrupt device. The requirement for three (3) inhibits is

based on the
worst-case assumption that the CubeSat contains a potential

catastrophic hazard
that exists in the event of an inadvertent power-up while inside

the NRCSD-E.
However, the electrical system design shall incorporate an

appropriate number of
inhibits dictated by the hazard potential of the payload. If this

requirement cannot
be met, a hazard assessment can be conducted by NanoRacks to

determine if an exception can be granted and documented in the
unique payload ICA.
466 • FRANCES ZHU
4) The CubeSat electrical system design shall not permit the

ground charge circuit to
energize the satellite systems (load), including flight computer

(see Figure 4.2.1-1). This
restriction applies to all charging methods.
5) The CubeSat shall have a remove before flight (RBF) feature

or an apply before flight (ABF) feature that keeps the satellite
in an unpowered state throughout the ground handling and
integration process into the NRCSD-E.
Note: The RBF pin is required in addition to the three (3) inhibit
switches. See
Section 4.1.2 for details on mechanical access while the payload

is inside the
NRCSD-E.
6) The RBF/ABF feature shall preclude any power from any

source operating any satellite functions with the exception of
pre-integration battery charging.
4.2.2 Electrical System Interfaces
1) There shall be no electrical or data interfaces between the

CubeSat and the NRCSD-E. As
outlined in Section 4.2, the CubeSat shall be completely

inhibited while inside the
NRCSD-E.
4.4.7 Batteries
All cells and batteries on the CubeSat shall adhere to the design
and testing requirements for spacecraft flight onboard or near
the ISS as derived from the NASA requirement document JSC
20793 Crewed Space Vehicle Battery Safety Requirements.
Specific provisions for battery use are designed to ensure that
a battery is safe for ground personnel and ISS crew members
to handle and operate during all applicable mission phases,
particularly in the enclosed environment of a crewed space
vehicle. These NASA provisions also ensure that the battery
is safe for use in launch vehicles, as well as in unpressurized
spaces adjacent to the habitable portion of a space vehicle. The
required provisions encompass hazard controls, design
evaluation, and verification. Evaluation of the battery system
must be complete prior to certification for flight and ground
operations. Certain battery cell chemistries and battery
configurations may trigger higher scrutiny to protect against
thermal runaway propagation.
It is imperative that NanoRacks receive all requested technical

data as early as possible to ensure the necessary safety features
are present to control the hazards associated with a particular
battery design and to identify all necessary verifications and
testing required (as documented in the unique payload ICA).
Redesign efforts greatly impact the PD both in cost and
schedule. Consult with NanoRacks before hardware is
468 • FRANCES ZHU
manufactured. Cell/battery testing associated with the

verification of the safety compliance shall be completed as part
of the safety certification of the spacecraft. To comply with the
requirements herein, every battery design, along with its safety
verification program, its ground and/or on-orbit usage plans, and
its post-flight processing shall be evaluated and approved by
the appropriate technical review panel in the given program or
project and captured in the unique payload ICA.
4.4.7.2 Battery Types
Although any battery may be made safe to fly in the crewed

space vehicle environment, there are some batteries that are
not practical to make safe. For example, lithium-sulfur dioxide
cells have built-in overpressure vents that release SO2 (sulfur
dioxide) gas and other electrolyte
components that are highly toxic; thus, these are unacceptable in

the habitable area of a space
vehicle. However, these chemistries have been used safely in the

non-pressurized areas of
crewed spacecraft. Often the cells used in batteries for crewed

space vehicle are commercially available.
Battery types typically used in spacecraft include:
• Alkaline-manganese primary
• LeClanche (carbon-zinc) primary
• Lead-acid secondary cells having immobilized

electrolyte
• Lithium/lithium-ion polymer secondary (including

lithium-polymer variation)
• Lithium metal anode primary cells having the

following cathodic (positive) active
materials
o Poly-carbon monofluoride
o Iodine
o Manganese dioxide
o Silver chromate
o Sulfur dioxide (external to habitable spaces only)
o Thionyl chloride
o Thionyl chloride with bromine chloride complex additive (Li-

BCX)
o Iron disulfide
• Lithium sulfur
• Mercuric oxide-zinc primary
• Nickel-cadmium secondary
• Nickel-metal hydride secondary

• Silver-zinc primary and secondary
• Zinc-air primary
470 • FRANCES ZHU
• Sodium-sulfur secondary (external to habitable space)
• Thermal batteries
4.4.7.3 Required Battery Flight Acceptance Testing
All flight cells and battery packs shall be subjected to an

approved set of acceptance screening
tests to ensure the cells are able to perform in the required load
and environment without
leakage or failure. While the specific test procedures vary

depending on the type of battery, the
majority of lithium ion or lithium polymer cells or batteries used

in CubeSats can be tested to a
standard statement of work issued by NanoRacks (NR-

SRD-139). Some generic battery design
requirements are outlined below.
Note: The battery test plan and verification approach shall be

captured in the payload
unique ICA. No testing shall be performed without the approval

of NanoRacks.
4.4.7.4 Internal Short
Protection circuitry and safety features shall be implemented at

the cell level to prevent an
internal short circuit.
• Application of all cells shall be reviewed by

NanoRacks.
• Charger circuit and protection circuit schematics shall

be reviewed and evaluated for
required fault tolerance.
4.4.7.5 External Short

the cell level to prevent an
external short circuit.
• Circuit interrupters that are rated well below the

battery’s peak current source
capability shall be installed in the battery power circuit.

Interrupters may be fuses,
circuit breakers, thermal switches, positive temperature

coefficient (PTC) thermistors, or
other effective devices. Circuit interrupters other than fuses shall

be rated at a value
equal to or lower than the maximum current that the cell is

capable of handling without
causing venting, smoke, explosion, fire, or thermal runaway.

472 • FRANCES ZHU
• The battery case is usually grounded/bonded to the

structure; the interrupters should
be in the ground (negative) leg of a battery where the negative

terminal is connected to
ground. Where the circuit is “floating,” as in plastic battery cases

used in portable
electronic devices, the circuit interrupters can be placed in either

leg. In either case, the
circuit interrupters should be placed as close to the cell or battery

terminals as the
design allows, maximizing the zone of protection.
• All inner surfaces of metal battery enclosures should

be anodized and/or coated with a
non-electrically conductive electrolyte-resistant paint to prevent

a subsequent short
circuit hazard (if applicable).
• The surfaces of battery terminals on the outside of the

battery case should be protected from accidental
bridging.
• Battery terminals that pass through metal battery

enclosures should be insulated from
the case by an insulating collar or other effective means.

• Wires inside the battery case should be insulated,

restrained from contact with cell
terminals, protected against chafing, and physically constrained

from movement due to
vibration or shock.
• In battery designs greater than 50 Vdc, corona-

induced short circuits (high-voltage
induced gas breakdown) shall be prevented.
4.4.7.6 Overvoltage and Undervoltage Protection

the cell level to prevent
overvoltage or undervoltage conditions of the cell.
4.4.7.7 Battery Charging
It should be verified that the battery charging equipment (if not

the dedicated charger) has at
least two levels of control that prevent it from causing a

hazardous condition on the battery being charged.
Note: This does not apply if the CubeSat will not be charged at
NanoRacks.
4.4.7.8 Battery Energy Density
For battery designs greater than 80 Wh energy employing high

474 • FRANCES ZHU
specific energy cells (greater than 80 watt-hours/kg, for

example, lithium-ion chemistries) require additional assessment
by
NanoRacks due to potential hazard in the event of single-cell, or

cell-to-cell thermal runaway.
Note: Any system over 80 Wh requires additional design

scrutiny and testing (likely
including destructive thermal runaway testing). It is possible that

this additional testing
may be avoided by implementing design features in the system,

such as splitting up the
cells into distinct battery packs less than 80 Wh and physically

isolating them at opposite
ends of the CubeSat (so that thermal runaway cannot propagate

between packs). Other
methods such as reducing the state of charge of the batteries at

the time of delivery can
be explored with the JSC Battery Safety team to reduce the risk
of a thermal runaway
event.
4.4.7.9 Lithium Polymer Cells

Lithium polymer cells (i.e., “pouch cells”) shall be restrained at

all times to prevent inadvertent
swelling during storage, cycling, and low pressure or vacuum

environments with pressure
restraints on the wide faces of the cells to prevent damage due to

pouch expansion. Coordinate
with NanoRacks for guidance on specific implementation.
4.4.7.10 Button Cells
Button cell or coin cell batteries often are used in COTS

components to power real-time clocks
(RTCs), watch-dog circuits, or secondary systems for

navigation, communication, or attitude
control. These batteries shall be clearly identified by part

number and UL listed or equivalent.
Note: Flight acceptance screening testing of these cells typically

is not required; only a
functional test of the system needs to be reported. NanoRacks

confirms requirements
upon documentation of all coin cell part numbers in the unique

payload ICA.
4.4.7.11 Capacitors Used as Energy Storage Devices

476 • FRANCES ZHU
Capacitors are used throughout today’s modern electronics.

Capacitors used as energy storage
devices are treated and reviewed like batteries. Hazards

associated with leaking electrolyte can
be avoided by using solid-state capacitors. Any wet capacitors

that utilize liquid electrolyte must
be reported to NASA. The capacitor part number and electrolyte

must be identified, along with
details of how the capacitor is used and any associated

schematics.
Note: NanoRacks will advise on any required flight acceptance

screening testing once the information has been captured in the
payload unique ICA.
4.4.9.4 Electrical Bonding
All spacecraft components shall be electrically bonded per SSP

30245 to ensure the spacecraft is free from electrical shock
and static discharge hazards. Typically, spacecraft components
may be bonded by either nickel plating or chemical film-treated
faying surfaces or dedicated bonding
straps.
JSC 20793 Crewed Space Vehicle Battery Safety Requirements
4.2.2 Qualification Testing
This section addresses the qualification testing of the flight

battery.
1. Qualification testing shall be performed to the worst-

case relevant flight
environments with margin.
The qualification sample of batteries should be randomly

sampled from units
from the flight lot that have passed acceptance testing.
1. Environmental tests shall include, at a minimum,

extreme temperature
exposures, vacuum, and vibration tests.
The margin used for qualification tests will be provided by the

respective projects or
programs or from SSP41172 for ISS environments. Appendix A

may be used as a
guideline for qualification vibration tests (QVTs) for cells and

batteries if there are no
project-provided environments. The margin proposed here

should be consistent with
478 • FRANCES ZHU
the program’s margining policies. In the event none are

provided, as a guideline, 6 db
above the maximum expected is typically used.
The qualification of the battery should include testing the

batteries to environmental and
vibration levels that are higher than the mission requirements.

The number of flight
missions that the batteries will be used for, along with the
location of the battery in the
spacecraft, should determine the period and level of vibration.

As a minimum, the
qualification test program should include the following:
1. Functional baseline test (open circuit voltage (OCV),

mass, capacity or load
check, internal resistance, visual inspection).
2. Vibration to qualification levels.
3. Functional baseline test recheck.
4. Charge/discharge cycles (for rechargeable batteries)

or a load test (for primary
batteries) at 20 degrees Fahrenheit (°F) margin above and below

worst-case hot
and worst-case cold, respectively.

6. Vacuum (approx. 0.1 psi) or equivalent leak checks.

For batteries used in a pressurized volume or environment,

exposure to a vacuum
environment (approximately 0.1 psi) for a minimum of 6 hours

should be carried out.
For batteries used in an unpressurized volume or environment,

thermal vacuum cycles
must be performed with the deep vacuum levels below 1 × 10–4

Torr (instead of the 0.1
psi used for habitable volume/pressurized environments).

Alternatively, the thermal
cycles and vacuum environment tests can be performed

independently.
If the acceptance test vibration levels and spectra used to screen

cells for
manufacturing defects are not enveloped by the mission

vibration levels, a separate
qualification for acceptance vibration test (AVT) should be

performed to verify that the
screening levels do not degrade cell reliability.

480 • FRANCES ZHU
The qualification batteries should pass all cell and battery

acceptance tests as
described in Section 4.2.3 prior subjecting them to qualification

tests.
For custom battery designs, safety (abuse) testing performed

during engineering
evaluation should be repeated at qualification with pass/fail

criteria for the qualification
tests determined based on information derived during

engineering evaluation.
1. Flight cell lot destructive testing shall consume a

randomly selected sample size
that is, at minimum, 3 percent of the flight lot size or three cells,
whichever is
greater for each destructive test. The destructive test sample size
need not
exceed 350 cells.
This is to adequately populate the test matrix necessary to

confirm critical safety
and performance characteristics, especially those features that

are critical for
mission and crew safety. For COTS batteries, cells can be

obtained from the
disassembly of a sample from the battery flight lot. To achieve

statistically
significant results, all initial destructive tests must be populated

with a minimum
of three cells. The maximum sample size was established to

define as a
reasonable limit.
1. The operation of cell safety devices, if used as a

control at the battery level, shall
be verified by a qualification test at the battery level or at a level

that accurately
simulates the level at which the control is required to confirm the

operation of the
safety device.
The pass/fail criteria for these qualification tests should be

established after
engineering evaluation tests are completed.
1. To verify cell manufacturing quality does not vary

within the lot, cell lot
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destructive testing shall include a minimum of 3 randomly

selected cells (or 3
cells from 1 randomly selected COTS battery) that has passed

cell (or battery)
acceptance screening.
The cell/battery should be downgraded from flight class to

uncontrolled class
prior to the DPA. Supporting the DPA with a prior CT scan

examination is
recommended. The pass/fail criteria for the DPA should be

established after the
engineering DPAs are completed. Variation of components and

methods used in
cell construction can be detected by DPA and are grounds for lot
rejection.
1. Qualification testing shall be performed at the battery

level, using flight equivalent
builds.
Multiple qualification units may be used to run different tests in

parallel. Tests
may be re-sequenced to accommodate schedule and resource

constraints as
long as the intent of the test is not compromised.
Battery designs deemed non-critical need only provide

verification evidence as required
to complete the Unique Hazard Report for the subject battery

system.
4.2.3 Acceptance Testing
This section addresses the acceptance testing of the flight

battery.
1. Cell lots intended for custom flight batteries shall

undergo 100-percent
acceptance screening that includes, at minimum, visual

inspection of bare cell
with shrink wrap removed if present, mass, OCV retention,

alternating current
(AC) and direct current (DC) resistance.
Work Instruction EP-WI-031 provides an example of OCV

retention screen.
1. Batteries intended for flight shall undergo flight

acceptance (nondestructive)
testing, which will include an evaluation of OCV, mass, capacity

(for
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rechargeable chemistries) or load check (for primaries), internal

resistance,
visual inspection, vibration to flight acceptance levels, and

thermal/vacuum
Testing.
As a minimum, the flight acceptance test program should

include the following:
1. Functional baseline test (OCV, mass, capacity (for

rechargeable chemistries or
load check for primaries), internal resistance, and visual

inspection).
2. Vibration to flight acceptance levels (see Appendix A

for more details).

4. Vacuum (approx. 0.1 psi) or equivalent leak checks.
For batteries used in a pressurized volume or environment,

exposure to a
vacuum environment (approximately 0.1 psi) for a minimum of

6 hours.
For batteries used in an unpressurized volume or environment,

thermal vacuum
cycles must be performed with the deep vacuum levels below 1

× 10–4 Torr
(instead of the 0.1 psi used for habitable volume/pressurized

environments).
Alternatively, the thermal cycles and vacuum environment tests

can be
performed independently.
Details of recommended flight acceptance tests are provided

under each battery
chemistry section in Section 6 with a detailed example in Section

6’s lithium-ion section.
For those chemistries not listed in Section 6, early consultation

with program technical
staff is recommended.
Battery designs deemed non-critical need only provide cell

verification in the form of UL
(or similar) certification data or acceptance test results, battery

system functional
performance, and verification of hazard control features.

here:
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6. Communications
Communications
Learning Objectives
Definition
Subsystem Responsibilities
General Design Process
Typical Requirements and Design Considerations
Artemis Requirements
Suggested Activity
General Arrangement and Design Drivers
Fundamentals in Signals
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Analog/Digital Signals
Quantization
Sampling
Aliasing
Nyquist Theorem
Coding
Source Coding
Channel Coding
Modulations
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Frequency Modulation (FM)
Phase Modulation
Digital Modulation
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
Digital vs. Analog Modulation
Polarization
Bit Error Rate (BER)
Link Budget
Antenna Gain
Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power
Free Space Losses
Frequency Selection
Noise
Signal Noise
System Noise
Environmental Noise
Link Margin
Technologies
Antennas
Diplexer
Communications Analysis and Link Budget
Suggested Activity
Appendix: Optical Communications
Optical Modulation
Detection
Noise in Optical Communications

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Optical Link Budgets
Communications
We would like to acknowledge Dr. Daniel Selva of Texas A&M

as many parts of this chapter utilize his lecture notes.
Learning Objectives
• Understand role of telecommunications subsystem in

context of spacecraft as a whole and between other
subsystems
• Calculate the equations of transmission and reception

as a function of spacecraft parameters
• Review different modulation schema, technologies,

and constraints
• Produce a link budget
Definition
The communications subsystem in a spacecraft combines the
communication link between the spacecraft and ground. There
are antennas and transceivers on both the spacecraft and on
ground to transmit and receive signals. The ultimate goal is
to guarantee a communication link between the spacecraft and
mission control for required phases of the mission to download
clean payload data and upload spacecraft commands.
An illustration of a spacecraft sending information to and receiving

information from a DSN antenna. Image credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech.
Signals are carried through space by electromagnetic waves

defined at a certain radio frequency. These radio waves are
transmitted and received by antennas and transceivers/
transponders, which must then be translated into digital
electrical signals. A communication link must travel from the
original data, through data filtering, encoding algorithms and
modulation hardware, through space, through antenna and
receiver hardware, to demodulation, decoding, and
decompression algorithms to finally reach mission operators.
This same process is true for mission operators to send
commands to spacecraft. We will focus this chapter on the
spacecraft side of communications but briefly discuss ground
stations when the context is appropriate.
7. Thermal Control
Thermal Analysis and Control of MIST CubeSat.
Learning Objectives
• understand role of thermal subsystem in context of

spacecraft as a whole and between other subsystems
• show the relationship of spacecraft parameters in heat

transfer equations
• survey different methods of passive and active
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thermal control
• analyze and apply control to manipulate the thermal

profile of a satellite
Definition
The thermal control system manages the heat sources and

interfaces of the spacecraft through heat transfer. Heat transfer
includes convection, conduction, and radiation of which
conduction dominates heat transfer internal to the spacecraft and
radiation dominates heat transfer external from the spacecraft to
the space environment. The thermal control system utilizes these
fundamentals of thermodynamics to keep the spacecraft within
operational temperature ranges for the spacecraft components.
Spacecraft have to survive in extremely hot and cold

environments and have to withstand extreme temperature
changes in short amounts of time. The thermal control system
distributes temperature sensors throughout the spacecraft,
emphasizing temperature sensitive components. A thermal
subsystem can have two flavors of technology: passive and
active. A passive thermal control system does not need power
or control logic to regulate heat transfer. An active thermal
control system reacts to temperature changes detected from the
sensors by powering heating or cooling technologies to regulate
the components. The thermal control system doesn’t necessarily
need to be one distinct component, like a cryocooler, but can be
distributed or embedded in other components, like OreSat’s use
of copper conduction strips at the edge of electronics boards.
The thermal control system is responsible for:
• Set and maintain the spacecraft’s components within

a required range.
• Regulating the thermal interaction with the space

environment
• Sampling temperature sensors throughout the

spacecraft to ensure spacecraft components are within
a required range.
• Reject heat to space or absorb it, as necessary
• Control the temperature of spacecraft and its

components by directing the flow of thermal energy
toward/away from components through conduction
and radiation:
◦ Transporting, displacing, and collecting
heat to a radiating device
◦ Dissipating excess heat (typically passive
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radiators)
◦ Cooling down certain components (e.g.,

instruments)
◦ Heating up or storing heat onto certain

components (e.g. sometimes batteries)
The thermal control system specialist:
• Collates thermal sensitivities and required

temperature ranges of all spacecraft components.
• Selects components and locations to attach

temperature sensors onto to monitor health of these
components and the thermal profile of the entire
spacecraft.
• Models the thermal profile of the spacecraft within a

space environment
• Conducts analysis on a finite element model to ensure

all components cycle in a safe, operable thermal
range
• Produces thermal control algorithms or policies for

active thermal control systems
• Minimize complexity, maximize reliability and

minimize use of resources like electrical power and
mass
7.2 General Design Process
1. Gather requirements
2. Compute max and min orbit avg temperature using

surface property estimates and average power
dissipation
3. Adjust thermal coatings to see if requirements can be

met with purely passive thermal control
4. Develop multi-node thermal model
5. Determine conduction and radiation couplings that

lead to acceptable temperatures. If needed, relocate
components and/or use active thermal control.
6. Predict performance for different scenarios of

couplings, environments, surface properties, power
dissipations.
7. Thermal balance test
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Major heat sources of CubeSat in orbit. Image courtesy of Research

Gate.
During the spaceflight mission, the thermal control system

supports the other subsystem designs and interfaces between
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thermal connections. As always, the size, weight, and power

are obvious requirements or design drivers. For the thermal
subsystem specifically, orbit is a significant design driver. The
internal components of the spacecraft are generally the same but
the space environment could vary wildly from being up close
and personal with the sun or venturing between stars with little
to no external heat source. Regardless of the space environment,
here are some typical spacecraft components operational
temperature range requirements:
• Keep batteries between 10-20C
• Keep computers between 10-50C
• Keep humans alive (e.g. crew cabin at ~295K)
• Keep liquid propellant from freezing/boiling
• Keep instruments cold
• Keep RTG heat source hot
• Avoid thermal cycling of components that can lead to

thermal fatigue and structural failure
Just like the other subsystems, we shall think about sources for
requirements outside the space mission. During manufacturing
and assembly, thermal engineers need to ensure that the thermal
components that require proper contact are integrated as such.

commonly include thermal vacuum bakeout. The CubeSat
Design Specification Rev. 14 specifies that:
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“3.2.1 Thermal vacuum bakeout shall be performed to ensure

proper outgassing of components.
3.2.2 The test specification will be defined by the Launch

Provider.”
The NanoRacks External CubeSat Deployer IDD states: “The

CubeSat shall be capable of withstanding the expected thermal
environments for all mission phases, which are enveloped by the
on-orbit EVR phase prior to deployment. The expected thermal
environments for all phases of the mission leading up to
deployment are below in Table 4.3.5-1”:
Although these mission phases reside outside the testing phase,

these thermal conditions should be replicated in a finite element
analysis and/or in a test chamber to ensure the survivability
of these physical components. Another thermal test that should
be done during the testing phase simulates the mission’s space
environment within a thermal vacuum chamber to validate the
results of a finite element analysis and/or to observe how the
physical behavior differs from a modeled behavior. This test

could require specific testing fixtures and mounting holes on the
spacecraft.
The transport, handling, and re-deployment requirements were

expressed earlier in the launch provider requirements. Outside
of these external launch provider requirements (or really,
constraints), the thermal control system’s primary responsibility
is to enable the other spacecraft subsystems, particularly the
payload. The TCS requirements follow the component selection
and cannot be finalized until the design freezes to some degree.
Here are the initial requirements that drove the Artemis CubeSat
kit.
The CubeSat thermal system

shall verify or regulate that all
3.2 components are within an
acceptable thermally operational
range
All components shall

3.2.1 operate between 0 and 50
degrees Celsius
The CubeSat’s estimated

thermal profile shall not
3.2.2 exceed the 0 to 50 degree
Celsius range for an ISS
orbit
Heaters and thermal straps

shall provide thermal
3.2.3
control of the sensitive
components
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Suggested Activity
“What kind of thermal requirements must you impose on your

system to fulfill your science mission?
7.4 General Arrangement and
Design Drivers
The main design drivers for the thermal control system are
the individual component thermal requirements and the space
environment. The space environment sets the tone for the
thermal control system as the environment surrounds the
spacecraft. The environment dictates if the spacecraft will run
warm or cold. General blanket measures for warm environments
include surface coatings that reflect light, which is the main
source of energy and heat in space, and insulation to protect
components from getting too warm. General blanket measures
for cold environments are surface coatings that absorb light,
insulation to reduce heat loss, and bringing heat sources into
space. Regardless of the environment, there are some
components that can be uniquely designed to survive at lower or
higher temperature ranges that should be selected per the space
environment.
The thermal control system lead can use spatial placement
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within the spacecraft as the first method of controlling thermal

ranges for individual components. Components near the centroid
of the spacecraft stay warmer and experience less fluctuation,
typically the computer and batteries. Components that are less
sensitive to thermal fluctuation can be placed closer to the space
environment. If components do not have flexibility to be placed
elsewhere, like the payload or ADCS sensors, the TCS specialist
must design aspects of the mission or targeted thermal control.
Here’s how the TCS specialist can negotiate with the other
subsystems to regulate temperature:
The attitude determination, control, and sensing system can

orient the spacecraft to preference surface area toward the sun.
Constant rotation, like a rotisserie, can evenly warm a
spacecraft, whereas preferential orientation can focus heat on
one side and keep the other side cool.
The temperature difference between the hot and cold sides of the
telescope is huge – you could almost boil water on the hot side, and
freeze nitrogen on the cold side. Image courtesy of NASA.
• The communications subsystem typically generates a

lot of heat, particularly with transmitting antennas
which must produce a lot of power. The antennas are
not entirely efficient so some of that power turns into
heat. The antenna can also be used to reject heat
through the large surface area [Perellon et al.].
• The command and data handling system is nearly

always on and, thus, is always emitting heat. The
onboard computer can almost be used as a stand-in
heater.
• Likewise, the power system components will emit

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heat.
• The structures and mechanism system does not

generate any heat but can be used to distribute heat
through conduction and reject heat to the space
environment. Primary, secondary, or heck even
tertiary structures can be made of different more
thermally conductive or insulative materials as long
as the structural integrity under critical loads holds.
Going through the different subsystems, you can see general

trends of which subsystems contribute heat and can be used
to reject heat. You can also see that these various subsystems
have thermal characteristics and we cannot think of the thermal
subsystem as an isolated system. The thermal system is
distributed and integrated through the spacecraft. The thermal
lead must manage all the subsystem component characteristics
and cleverly work with or around the other subsystem designs.
I’ll make an analogy to chess, where great chess players initially
start playing a game in which each move steers the game toward
a configuration where they can win. At the beginning, there are
many different configurations that could ultimately ensue. With
more and more decisive movement and steering, the end of the
game converges to a single result. There is certainly a lot of
intuition and broad stroke decision making at the beginning then
pointed decision making towards the end to close the spacecraft
thermal design.
7.5 Fundamentals of Heat
Transfer
Heat Transfer Mechanisms
The image above, provided by NASA, highlights how all three

heat-transfer methods (conduction, convection, and radiation) work in
the same environment.
Conduction
Conduction is the direct transfer of heat that occurs between
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materials that 1) have physical contact and 2) have a relative

temperature difference. “Conduction takes place in all phases:
solid, liquid, and gas. The rate at which energy is conducted
as the heat between two bodies depends on the temperature
difference (and hence temperature gradient) between the two
bodies and the properties of the conductive interface through
which the heat is transferred” [Wikipedia].
Diagram showing the transfer of thermal energy via conduction. Credit:

Boundless.
Conduction is the primary heat transfer mechanism internal to

the spacecraft. Heat flows from hot (high temperature) to cold
(low temperature) until an equilibrium can be achieved. The
basic law of one-dimensional heat conduction was formulated
by Fourier in 1822. The amount of heat transfer , is
proportional to the thermal conductivity , area , and thermal

gradient .
Thermal conductivity can be defined in terms of the heat flow across a

temperature difference. Image courtesy of Wikipedia.
Thermal conductivity is a material property with units .

Thermal conductivity is likened to electrical resistance in the
way that both properties represent the ease at which energy
transfers through a material. Common materials in spacecraft
structures and their thermal conductivity are [Wikipedia]:
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Thermal
Material Spacecraft Use
Conductivity
Aluminium 237[6] Structure
Electrical interfaces and

Copper (pure) 401[4][12][13]
grounding planes
Silica aerogel 0.02[4] Insulation
Thermal regulation or
Water 0.5918[15]
propellant
Polycarbonate 0.2 Printed circuit board material
If we were to inspect a system more closely as to how heat

“flows” in a solid, we need a general differential equation that
describes how heat propagates spatially through time:
Where
q(r,t)=internally generated heat
ρ=density (kg/m3)
c=specific heat (J/kg°K)
This equation is used in models of heat diffusion, constituting

the backbone of finite element analysis of temperature
distribution across a body over time.
Convection
Snapshots of the temperature field in 2D Rayleigh–Bénard convection

simulations. (Top) For suitably weak temperature drops ΔT the fluid
remains at rest and heat transfers via conduction. (Middle) Sufficiently
large ΔT destabilizes the conduction state and coherent convection rolls
actively increase the heat flux. (Bottom) Convective turbulence sets in at
larger ΔT.
Convection is the transfer of heat through the movement of

fluids. Convection is usually the dominant form of heat transfer
in liquids and gases. Fluids utilize gravity for circulation. We
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don’t have much gravity or fluids in space so we will gloss over

the physics.
Simulation of thermal convection. Red hues designate hot areas, while

regions with blue hues are cold. A hot, less-dense lower boundary layer
sends plumes of hot material upwards, and likewise, cold material from
the top moves downwards. This illustration is taken from a model of
convection in the Earth’s mantle. Image courtesy of Wikipedia.
Radiation
“Thermal radiation is the emission of electromagnetic waves

from all matter that has a temperature greater than absolute zero.
Thermal radiation reflects the conversion of thermal energy into
electromagnetic energy. Thermal energy is the kinetic energy
of random movements of atoms and molecules in matter. All
matter with a nonzero temperature is composed of particles with
kinetic energy” [Wikipedia]. “Thermal radiation can be emitted
from objects at any wavelength, and at very high temperatures
such radiation is associated with spectra far above the infrared,
extending into visible, ultraviolet, and even X-ray regions (e.g.
the solar corona). Thus, the popular association of infrared
radiation with thermal radiation is only a coincidence based on
typical (comparatively low) temperatures often found near the
surface of planet Earth” [Wikipedia].
In short, thermal radiation works through electromagnetic fields

and does not need a medium for transport, so radiation works in
a vacuum. Radiation is the only mechanism for the spacecraft to
thermally interact with the space environment, which we use to
dump or remove heat external from a spacecraft in orbit.
Materials with higher emissivity appear to be hotter. In this thermal

image, the ceramic cylinder appears to be colder than its cubic container
(made of silicon carbide), while in fact, they have the same temperature.
Radiation is the primary heat transfer mechanism external to

the spacecraft. Heat flows from hot (high temperature) to cold
(low temperature) until an equilibrium can be achieved, just
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like conduction. The rate of heat transfer by emitted radiation

is determined by the Stefan-Boltzmann law of radiation. The
amount of heat transfer , is proportional to the emissivity
, surface area , and absolute temperature in Kelvin .
is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant that has a value of
.
The full form of the Stefan-Boltzmann equation is
where =environmental temperature (=3°K for space)
Two bodies in a thermal equilibrium within a cavity isolated from the

environment. The arrows depict the radiant powers. The letters e and a
stand for the emitted and absorbed radiation of the white body.CC
BY-NC-SA 2.0. Image courtesy of SEOS.
Emissivity is a material property that indicates the radiation of

heat from a body. Emissivity ranges from 0 (a ‘white’ body that

reflects radiation) to 1 (a ‘black’ body that absorbs all heat).
Values between 0 and 1 signify a ‘grey’ body that partially
reflects and absorbs at some ratio; emissivity is a dimensionless
value. More formally, “emissivity is the ratio of the thermal
radiation from a surface to the radiation from an ideal black
surface at the same temperature as given by the
Stefan–Boltzmann law” [Wikipedia]. Here are some common
materials used in space and their emissivity values
[EngineeringToolbox]:
Material Emissivity Spacecraft Use
Aluminium (Highly 0.039 –

Structure
Polished) 0.057
Aluminum
0.77 Structure
(Anodized)
Amorphous Silicon 0.45 – 0.8 Common solar cell material
Copper (plated, 0.03 – Electrical interfaces and

polished) 0.06 grounding planes
Silica aerogel 0.79 Insulation
0.95 – Thermal regulation or

Water
0.96 propellant
0.90 –
Polycarbonate Printed circuit board material
0.97
Absorptivity of the surface of a material is its effectiveness

in absorbing radiant energy. For a given wavelength ,
absorptivity is equal to emissivity :
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However, there are some materials that absorb in a different

wavelength than it emits, the emissivity and absorptivity are
different:
Various materials with differing emissivity and absorptivity are

given below:
Material Ratio
Aluminum 0.09 0.03 3.00
White paint 0.2 0.92 0.22
Black paint 0.92 0.89 1.03
Silver
0.08 0.8 0.1
Teflon
Aluminized
0.38 0.67 0.56
Kapton
These materials can be leveraged to achieve general warming or

cooling effects. A ratio greater than 1 promotes warming and a
ratio less than 1 promotes cooling. Some common strategies:
• Use Silver Teflon to minimize solar absorption but

max emissions (e.g., for telescope mirrors)
• Use black paint to maximize energy transfer, both
absorption and emission (interior)
• Use metals (e.g., Aluminum) to minimize both

absorption and emission (instrument sun shield)
• Combine these surfaces to get almost any

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Radiation Interactions
Thermal Radiation to Space
Recall the Stefan-Boltzmann equation:
Where is the temperature in Kelvin,
is the surface area projected to space in ,
is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, and
is the emissivity of the surface, which depends on the

wavelength .
Note that emissivity of different wavelengths are not equivalent:

. But also that
radiation is emitted at all wavelengths, so how do we distinguish
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what value of emissivity to use? We use Wien’s law to determine

the wavelength that is most dominant.
Black-body radiation as a function of wavelength for various

temperatures. Each temperature curve peaks at a different wavelength
and Wien’s law describes the shift of that peak. CC BY-SA 3.0. Image
courtesy of Wikipedia.
As a quick example, for a spacecraft with a surface emissivity of

0.8, temperature of 330K, and surface area projection of 1m^2,
the heat radiating to space comes out at 538 Watts!
Solar Irradiance
Solar Radiation Spectrum.Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike

3.0 Unported license.
“The sun produces light with a distribution similar to what

would be expected from a 5525 K (5250 °C) blackbody, which
is approximately the sun’s surface temperature. These curves are
based on NREL data for above the atmosphere and at sea level,
which are standards adopted by the photovoltaics industry to
ensure consistent test conditions and are similar to the light that
could be expected in North America.” [Wikipedia].
For example, let’s take an example of white paint, where the

emissivity is 0.8 but the absorptivity is 0.4. The incoming power
from solar irradiance is given by:
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where is the area perpendicular to the Sun vector and

is the solar irradiance around Earth; see some similarities from
the solar cell power equation? The incoming power for these
parameters is 547 Watts.
A final note about the effect of solar radiation, outgassing

deposits particles on surfaces that increase absorptivity but have
almost no effect on emissivity.
Spectral absorptance/emittance of several materials and coatings. Image

courtesy of Research Gate.
Albedo
Suggested Reading: Using real Earth Albedo and Earth IR Flux

for Spacecraft Thermal Analysis
Example of daily albedo data (CERES).
Reflected sunlight from planetary bodies comes in the form

of albedo. Albedo is the fraction of solar irradiance reflected
off a planetary body’s surface, most commonly calculated for
the Earth. Albedo is a function of orbit and spacecraft attitude.
Values for Earth oscillate between 0.2 to 0.6. is the area
project to Earth.
Illustration of effective albedo at any instant as perceived by an Earth

orbiting spacecraft.Peyrou-Lauga, Romain. “Using real Earth albedo and
Earth IR flux for spacecraft thermal analysis.” 47th International
Conference on Environmental Systems, 2017.
To calculate the resultant heat coming from albedo:

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Where R is the albedo coefficient. Let’s do a sample calculation

incorporating some example values where absorptivity
, albedo , and . The
resultant heat from albedo is 219 Watts.
Thermal Emission from Earth
The Earth’s radiation budget is incoming radiation to Earth must equal

outgoing radiation. Absorbed solar radiation (short-wave) increases the
Earth’s temperature, while emitted long-wave radiation (heat) lowers the
temperature.
The Earth not only reflects sunlight but emits heats as a radiative
source. Earth absorbs heat from the sun and also generates its
own heat from its dynamic, molten core. This heat is emitted
nearby spacecraft with the following relationship:
Where F is a geometric factor called the view factor. View factor

is dimensionless factor between 0 and 1 that determines how
much of a surface is visible to another surface and is a pure
geometric property [Klobuchar].
View factors are typically tabulated in calculators or

spreadsheets. For an interaction between a spacecraft and the
Earth, the Nusselt Unit Sphere method calculates the view factor
between a sphere and a flat surface.
For a sample calculation where altitude is 500 km and angle

between the normals to the surfaces of the areas is 90 degrees,
the view factor is 0.28. Earth’s emissivity is about 1,
near perfect to a black body. The temperature is about 255
Kelvin. Area of radiation is the spacecraft area
perpendicular to Earth, which we’ll use 1 m^2. The Earth’s
emissivity is at 240 Watts.
Thermal Equilibrium
In thermal equilibrium, the heat power going in equals that going

out. This result comes from the first law of thermodynamics:
“the law of conservation of energy states that the total energy of
an isolated system is constant; energy can be transformed from
one form to another, but can be neither created nor destroyed”
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[Wikipedia]. The change in internal energy of a closed system

is the difference in the heat going into the system and
the amount of thermodynamic work done by the system :
For spacecraft, the heat going in is the incident energy

absorbed. The heat going out is radiated energy. The work
done internally is internal power used (negative work in this
sense – adds to total heat in the system).
Environment
Let’s look into a specific case for an Earth-centric spacecraft to

demonstrate how to find equilibrium temperature.
Heat exchange between the satellite and the space environment.Open

Access Abdelkhalek, Hamdy Soltan, et al. “Simulation and Prediction
for a Satellite Temperature Sensors Based on Artificial Neural
Network.” Journal of Aerospace Technology and Management 11
(2019).
The power going into the system is a result of direct solar

irradiance , reflected sunlight (albedo) , thermal
emission from Earth , and internal heat sources
(like electronics and humans):
The power going out of the system is from a single sink:

radiation to space, which depends on the surface temperature.
The thermal balance equation is then:
One equation and one unknown leads to a unique solution. This

heat balance equation solves the equilibrium temperature for a
single-node, which is the spacecraft. This solution is the mean
temperature of the entire spacecraft and does not inspect the
temperature differences between different components within
the spacecraft.
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Effect of Distance on Equilibrium Temperature.Akin ENAE 483/788D –

Principles of Space Systems Design Lecture Notes.
Surface Properties
Let’s gain some intuition as to how the equilibrium temperature

varies with surface properties we can control, like satellite
geometry and absorptivity/emissivity ratio. A shape absorbs
energy only via illuminated faces but a shape radiates energy via
all surface area. Basic assumption made is that black bodies are
intrinsically isothermal (perfect and instantaneous conduction of
heat internally to all faces). Although the balance includes the
effects of the sun, albedo, Earth, and internal components, let’s
simplify the balance to just include sunlight power and radiated
power out:
Where
And
The new balance with all variables include:
By isolating temperature on the left, we have:
There are three ratios that temperature scales with: 1) constants

that we cannot vary, 2) ratio of absorptivity and emissivity that
we can change surface coatings, and 3) ratio of sunlit area to
radiative area. The ratio of sunlit area to radiating area for
various geometries is given below:
Geometry Absorbing Area Radiating Area Area Ratio
Double-sided Wall 1 1 1/2
Sphere 1/4
Cylinder
Cube 1 6 1/6
Something you’ll notice is that the more compact the spacecraft

volume, the smaller the area ratio the lower the equilibrium
temperature.
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Effect of Shape on Black Body Temperature.Akin ENAE 483/788D –

Principles of Space Systems Design Lecture Notes.
Internal Power Generation
60×60×10 mm straight-finned heat sink with a thermal profile and

swirling animated forced convection flow trajectories from a tubeaxial
fan, predicted using a CFD analysis package. CC BY-SA 3.0
Thus far, we have only talked about ideal heat transfer

interactions. We need to include non-ideal effects that better
reflect reality, such as power generation within the spacecraft.
The spacecraft avionics will generate heat due to inefficiencies
in using or transferring power, like when a current flows through
a resistor in an electric circuit [Renesas]. The spacecraft may
also have embedded heaters that intentionally or pointedly
generate power. This generated power is on the left hand
side of the equation as a part of the heat going into the system
.
When a semiconductor conducts current, there is a non-zero voltage

drop across it. This results in losses that are converted almost entirely
into heat. Consider the following simplified structure of a typical use
case of an IGBT silicon chip and a diode silicon chip, mounted to a case
that is mounted to a heat sink. For both the IGBT and diode, the heat
power originates in the junction, where its value is the highest. The
instantaneous value of power is equal to the resistance (I x V) of the
IGBT or diode. The heat flows through the thermal impedance of the
structure and dissipates in the ambient environment. The lower the
thermal impedance, the lower the rise of the silicon temperature above
ambient is.
To calculate a ballpark number of power generated, measure

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the total power consumed by the electronics and multiply it by

the useful efficiency. The lost power turns into heat through
conduction, heating up the component:
Where is the efficiency of the electronic part and
is the total power consumed by electronic components
For heaters, this same equation can be used by setting %\nu

= 0 Q_{int} = P_{int}
Q_{int}$ is
a summation of all the sources of heat within the spacecraft. For
a more detailed finite element analysis, each heat source should
also be associated with a location within the spacecraft.
7.6 Technologies
There are various heat transfer technologies to implement

conduction, radiation, and even convection. We’ll survey
mechanisms used in spacecraft to achieve these thermal
interactions.
Highlighted Thermal Design Components of the New Horizon’s

Spacecraft. By the end of this section, you should be able to recognize
these various components and understand their function in the system.
531
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New Horizons Spacecraft System Diagram.
Suggested Reading: New Horizons Thermal Control System
Passive
Passive components do not consume any electricity or need any

control logic to achieve their full function. We’ll review different
passive heat transfer technologies, common use cases, and how
to select a particular technology per your use.
Materials and Coatings
Selecting structural materials or coating surfaces varies the ratio

of absorptivity and emissivity , which toggles the
equilibrium temperature of the spacecraft. We described this
phenomenon in the Radiation subsection of the Fundamentals of
Heat Transfer section but here it is again for convenience:
Material Ratio
Aluminum 0.09 0.03 3.00
White paint 0.2 0.92 0.22
Black paint 0.92 0.89 1.03
Silver
0.08 0.8 0.1
Teflon
Aluminized
0.38 0.67 0.56
Kapton
These materials can be leveraged to achieve general warming or

cooling effects. A ratio greater than 1 promotes warming and a
ratio less than 1 promotes cooling. Some common strategies:
• Use Silver Teflon to minimize solar absorption but

max emissions (e.g., for telescope mirrors)
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The multiple light paths taken by radiation impinging on a

second-surface mirror oriented at an angle ν to the incoming solar
radiation. By Youngquist. Image courtesy of NASA.
• Use black paint to maximize energy transfer, both

absorption and emission (interior)
Black heat shield on ESA’s Solar Orbiter at IABG in Ottobrunn,

Germany in October 2019. ESA – S. Corvaja. Image courtesy of ESA.
Summary of properties of selected commercial black thermal control

paints.Image courtesy of Acktar.
• Use metals (e.g., Aluminum) to minimize both

absorption and emission (instrument sun shield)
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Technicians at Astrotech Space Operations in Titusville, Fla., work on

the back side of the MESSENGER spacecraft, mating it with the
Payload Assist Module, the Boeing Delta II third stage, below. The
white panel seen here is the heat-resistant, ceramic cloth sunshade that
will enable MESSENGER to operate at room temperature. Image
• White paint: State-of-the-art research conducted by

Youngquist at Kennedy Space Center uses a very fine
NaCl (Salt) powder as a thin coating, called “Solar
White”, to theoretically reach temperatures as low as
50 Kelvin even in direct sunlight. Previously, one
only thought that cryocoolers (active cooling
systems) could reach cryo temperatures but this
method is completely passive. The downside is that
“Solar White” is in the early phases of transitioning
from research to broad use.
Optical testing with NaCl. The image on the left shows finely
ground NaCl, along with a 20 mmdiameter, 1 mm-thick
pressed disk of NaCl powder. The image on the right shows
the reflecting ability of this thin layer of NaCl powder. Image
courtesy of NASA.
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Summary of properties of selected commercial white thermal

control paints. Image courtesy of Acktar.
• Combine these surfaces to get almost any

\tfrac{\alpha(lambda_{visible}){\epsilon(lamb
*** Error message:

Emergency stop.
you want
Suggested Reading: Cryogenic Selective Surfaces
Heat Shunts and Straps
Heat shunts, heat straps, heat sinks, and radiators are all passive
methods to displace heat from one location to another. The

aforementioned list of components ranges from smallest to
largest in size.
Where it is preferable to deliver heat to the air, parts with higher internal
thermal impedance should be used. One example is OARS-XP series
(figure 5) in which the element is lifted away from the PCB. The
corresponding thermal image (figure 6) shows that the solder joints
remain at around 110°C even when the element temperature exceeds
200°C. This format will minimize heating of the PCB and can better
take advantage of forced air cooling if provided.
“Electrically insulating but thermally conductive “heat shunt”

components are attached to PC boards along with regular
electronic components to improve heat dissipation. The heat
shunts are typically a small bar of thermally conductive ceramic
with spaced-apart metal mounting pads on the ends for soldering
to the PC board. Their shape is similar to standard electronic
components for placement by automatic machinery and they
extend, for example, from a transistor collector contact pad on
the PC board to an adjacent ground lead having holes plated
through to the metal back plane of the PC board in contact with
the heat sink” [US Patent 4941067].
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4C-PURE OFHC Copper Thermal Straps.
“Thermal straps are often used when heat (thermal energy) needs
to be transferred and a large temperature gradient cannot be
tolerated between two or more discrete locations (interfaces) that
are either:
1. positionally fixed but not well defined relative to each

other
2. positionally fixed and well defined relative to each
other, but it is necessary to decouple transported
mechanical energy (vibration, shock)
3. not always positionally fixed relative to one another

over time
Thermal straps in various forms, from simple or crudely

constructed linkages to high-precision components with well-
defined interfaces, have been used to manage heat flow in many
applications from the commercial electronics and automotive
industries to our most advanced scientific, military, defense, and
space systems. Sometimes a thermal strap may be as basic
as a coiled tube, bunch of wires, or stack of foils without a
solid attachment terminal. In other configurations, the terminal
or end fitting is welded, brazed, soldered, bonded, or otherwise
attached to the flexible section of the strap to provide more direct
and robust mounting capability. The appropriate configuration
for any thermal strap really depends upon what thermal
management system it is going to be integrated with” [Thermal-
Space].
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Room temperature thermal conductivities of typical thermal strap

materials. Image courtesy of Thermal Space.
Heat shunts on PCBs are like heat straps that stay on the board.
Heat straps are a larger component that can transfer heat through
conduction from hot components on a board to the primary
structure, like the aluminum spacecraft frame. Heat straps differ
from heat sinks as heat straps transfer heat and do not absorb or
radiate heat away.
Heat Pipes
Heat pipes on spacecraft typically use a grooved aluminum extrusion as

the envelope. CC BY-SA 3.0. Image courtesy of Wikipedia.
“A heat pipe is a heat-transfer device that combines the

principles of both thermal conductivity and phase transition to
effectively transfer heat between two solid interfaces. At the hot
interface of a heat pipe, a liquid in contact with a thermally
conductive solid surface turns into a vapor by absorbing heat
from that surface. The vapor then travels along the heat pipe to
the cold interface and condenses back into a liquid, releasing the
latent heat. The liquid then returns to the hot interface through
either capillary action, centrifugal force, or gravity and the cycle
repeats” [Wikipedia].
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Thermacore copper water heat pipes cooling satellite board. Heat Pipes
for Space Applications by Dr. Xiao Yang.
“Heat pipes and loop heat pipes are used extensively in

spacecraft, since they don’t require any power to operate,
operate nearly isothermally, and can transport heat over long
distances. Ammonia is the most common working fluid for
spacecraft heat pipes. Ethane is used when the heat pipe must
operate at temperatures below the ammonia freezing
temperature” [Wikipedia].
IberEspacio’s Superficial Heat Pipes that can be formed into Axial

Grooved Heat Pipes and Arterial Heat Pipes. Image by Iber Espacio.
Heat Sinks and Radiators
We eliminate the unwanted heat that is given out by these electronic

devices through heatsinks, which operate through conduction and
radiation. What I Learned About Heatsinks Using Thermal Simulation
by MENTOR, A Siemens business.
“A heat sink is a passive heat exchanger that transfers the heat

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generated by an electronic or a mechanical device to a fluid

medium, often air or a liquid coolant, where it is dissipated away
from the device, thereby allowing regulation of the device’s
temperature. A heat sink is designed to maximize its surface area
in contact with the cooling medium surrounding it”; in space,
the medium is the space environment. “Heat sink attachment
methods and thermal interface materials also affect the die
temperature of the integrated circuit. Thermal adhesive or
thermal paste improve the heat sink’s performance by filling
air gaps between the heat sink and the heat spreader on the
device. A heat sink is usually made out of aluminum or copper”
[Wikipedia].
A fan-cooled heat sink on the processor of a personal computer. To the

right is a smaller heat sink cooling another integrated circuit of the
motherboard. GFDL 1.2. Image by Wikipedia.
Heat sinks are evaluated upon the following design factors:

thermal resistance, material, fin arrangements, conductive
connection, and surface color. Thermal resistance is defined

as temperature rise per unit of power, analogous to electrical
resistance, and is expressed in units of degrees Celsius per watt
(°C/W). Thermal resistance is the reciprocal of thermal
conductance:
thermal conductance = , measured in W⋅K−1.
thermal resistance = k
A L
Experimental values of thermal conductivity. Data from en: List

of thermal conductivities. For en: Thermal
conductivity#Experimental values. Image courtesy of
Wikipedia.[/caption] For a constant geometry, the thermal
conductivity is the way that we toggle the amount of heat
transferred. Heat sinks are valued for transferring thermal
energy, so we will pick materials that have higher values of
thermal conductivity. To balance mass and cost, we typically
use aluminum or copper. [caption id="" align="aligncenter"
width="1752"]"" Heat sink types: Pin, Straight, and Flared Fin.
Image courtesy of Wikipedia.[/caption] In general, the more
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surface area a heat sink has, the better it works. In reality, pin
fin heat sink performance is significantly better than straight
fins when used in their intended application where the fluid
flows axially along the pins rather than only tangentially across
the pins. ``Placing a conductive thick plate as a heat transfer
interface between a heat source and a cold flowing fluid (or any
other heat sink) may improve the cooling performance. It is
shown that the thick plate can significantly improve the heat
transfer between the heat source and the cooling fluid by way of
conducting the heat current in an optimal manner'' [Wikipedia].
[caption id="" align="aligncenter" width="625"]"" Rectangular,
inline heatsink with an attached transparent fan. Image by
Semiconductor Engineering.[/caption] Like the surface coating
subsection, similar concepts apply for the heat sink: ``Matte-
black surfaces will radiate much more efficiently than shiny bare
metal. A shiny metal surface has low emissivity. The emissivity
of a material is tremendously frequency dependent, and is
related to absorptivity (of which shiny metal surfaces have very
little)'' [Wikipedia]. [caption id="" align="aligncenter"
width="1132"]"" One elements of which is the large, square
black radiator visible at center, one of two that will be
installed—is shown undergoing thermal testing at NASA
Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland in late
February. Image courtesy of Wikipedia.[/caption] ``Radiators
come in several different forms, such as spacecraft structural
panels, flat-plate radiators mounted to the side of the spacecraft,
and panels deployed after the spacecraft is on orbit. Whatever
the configuration, all radiators reject heat by infrared (IR)
radiation from their surfaces. The radiating power depends on
the surface's emittance and temperature. The radiator must reject
both the spacecraft waste heat and any radiant-heat loads from
the environment. Most radiators are therefore given surface
finishes with high IR emittance to maximize heat rejection and
low solar absorptance to limit heat from the Sun'' [Wikipedia].
[caption id="" align="aligncenter" width="983"]"" Panels and
radiators (white square panels) on ISS after STS-120. Image
courtesy of Wikipedia.[/caption] Insulation [h5p id="51"]
Radiative insulation enlists the use of thin sheets, typically made
from mylar or kapton with surface coatings, to isolate panels
underneath from solar radiation. This extra layer of separation
between the sun and panel creates a different equilibrium
experienced by the panel. The panel reaches equilibrium with
radiation from sheet and from itself reflected from sheet. The
sheet reaches equilibrium with radiation from the sun and panel,
and from itself reflected off panel. Not extend this idea to
multiple layers and we've got Multi-Layer Insulation: the most
method of thermal control in space. [caption id=""
align="aligncenter" width="994"]"" Multilayer insulation
reduces radiation heat transfer by reflecting radiation back
towards the source.[/caption] Multi-Layer Insulation (MLI) uses
multiple insulation layers to cut down on radiative transfer; ``in
its basic form, it does not appreciably insulate against other
thermal losses such as heat conduction or convection. MLI gives
many satellites and other space probes the appearance of being
covered with gold foil which is the effect of the amber-colored
Kapton layer deposited over the silver Aluminized mylar''
[Wikipedia]. This surface insulation is a highly effective means
of insulation and can act additionally as a defense against space
dust/particulate impacts. A problem that can occur during
manufacturing is the physical connection between insulated
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components, creating conductive leak paths, analogous to short

circuiting a thermal circuit. [caption id="" align="aligncenter"
width="942"]"" Closeup of Multi-layer insulation from a
satellite. The metal coated plastic layers and the scrim separator
are visible. CC BY-SA 2.5. Image courtesy of
Wikipedia.[/caption] To estimate the effective emissivity "
title="Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com" height="2372"
width="2425" style="vertical-align: -4px;">\epsilon_{eff}
\epsilon_{sun} \epsilon_{cold}
\epsilon_{mylar}
ThermalEngineer]:" title="Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com"

height="36" width="672" style="vertical-align:
0px;">\epsilon_{eff} = \tfrac{2n}{ \epsilon_{mylar}} – n – 1
+ \tfrac{1}{\epsilon_{sun}} + \tfrac{1}{\epsilon_{cold}}
\epsilon_{mylar}$ = 0.03
Effective emissivity with respect to number of layers. Image by Thermal

Engineer.
“Even if conduction between the layers is ignored, adding

additional layers to achieve the required effective emittance is
impractical due to weight and packaging considerations.
Furthermore, since the effective emittance is a function of the
reciprocal of the number of layers, adding additional layers
becomes increasingly less effective with the number of layers.
In order to achieve the required effective emittance, the shield
needs to be configured such that energy is allowed to escape
to space from between the layers before reaching the cold-side
layer. As the example case in the figure above shows, this
approach allows the number of layers to be greatly reduced.
It is this approach of enabling the loss of energy out from
between film layers which provides the required low effective
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emittance and makes it possible to passively cool to very low

temperatures” [ThermalEngineer].
The golden areas are MLI blankets on the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.
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A block of aerogel in a hand. Image courtesy of Wikipedia.
Another type of insulation is called aerogel. “Aerogel is a

synthetic porous ultralight material derived from a gel, in which
the liquid component for the gel has been replaced with a gas
without significant collapse of the gel structure. The result is
a solid with extremely low density and extremely low thermal
conductivity. NASA used an aerogel to trap space dust particles
aboard the Stardust spacecraft. The particles vaporize on impact
with solids and pass through gases, but can be trapped in
aerogels. NASA also used aerogel for thermal insulation of the
Mars Rover” [Wikipedia].
The Stardust dust collector with aerogel blocks. (NASA) . Image

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Properties of Silica Aerogel compared to Silica Glass. Image courtesy of

NASA/JPL.
Suggested Reading: Aerogel: Mystifying Blue Smoke

Radioisotope Heater Unit
Diagram of a radioisotope heater unit. Image courtesy of Wikipedia.
Radioisotope heater units (RHU) are small devices that provide

heat through radioactive decay, much like radioisotope
thermoelectric generators (RTG) but without the step of
converting this heat into electrical energy. Because RHUs do
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not need components to convert heat to electricity, RHUs are

more compact than RTGs. RHUs give off heat continuously
somewhere between several decades and up to centuries, given
the gradual degradation of the radioactive isotope.

here:
RHU Pull-apart Animation. Video courtesy of NASA.
“An RHU contains a Pu-238 fuel pellet about the size of a pencil
eraser and outputs about 1 Watt of heat. (The entire RHU is
about the size of a C-cell battery.) Some missions employ just
a few RHUs for extra heat, while others have dozens. NASA
missions enabled by radioisotope heater units” [NASA]:
• Apollo 11 EASEP Lunar Radioisotope Heater –

contained two 15W RHUs
• Pioneer 10 & 11 – 12 RHUs each
• Voyager 1 & 2 – 9 RHUs each
• Galileo – 120 RHUs (103 on orbiter, 17 on

atmospheric probe)
• Mars Pathfinder Sojourner Rover – 3 RHUs
• Cassini – 117 RHUs (82 on orbiter, 35 on Huygens

Titan probe)
• MER Spirit & Opportunity Rovers – 8 RHUs each
Radioisotope Heater Units have been critical for providing heat to keep
some spacecraft warm enough to accomplish their missions, including
the battery powered Galileo and Huygens probes and the two solar
powered Mars Exploration Rovers. Image courtesy of NASA.
Active
Active heating and cooling systems require electricity and

control logic.
Heaters
“Heaters are used in thermal control design to protect

components under cold-case environmental conditions or to
make up for heat that is not dissipated. Heaters are used with
thermostats or solid-state controllers to provide exact
temperature control of a particular component. Another common
use for heaters is to warm up components to their minimal
operating temperatures before the components are turned on”
[Wikipedia].
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Polyimide (Kapton) thermofoil heaters are for use in applications with

space and weight limitations, or where the heater will be exposed to
vacuum, oil, or chemicals, such as in medical devices, aerospace,
aviation,… Image by Machine Design.
“The most common type of heater used on spacecraft is the

patch heater, which consists of an electrical-resistance element
sandwiched between two sheets of flexible electrically
insulating material, such as Kapton. The patch heater may
contain either a single circuit or multiple circuits, depending on
whether or not redundancy is required within it” [Wikipedia].
These heaters are typically mounted to surfaces of components
through a mounting adhesive or through some external adhesive
[ProHeatInc].
Standard cartridge heater anatomy. Image by Maoyt.
“The cartridge heater is often used to heat blocks of material or

high-temperature components such as propellants. This heater
consists of a coiled resistor enclosed in a cylindrical metallic
case. Typically a hole is drilled in the component to be heated,
and the cartridge is potted into the hole. Cartridge heaters are
usually a quarter-inch or less in diameter and up to a few inches
long” [Wikipedia].
Louvers
“Louvers are active thermal control elements that are used in

many different forms. Most commonly they are placed over
external radiators, louvers can also be used to control heat
transfer between internal spacecraft surfaces or be placed on
openings on the spacecraft walls. A louver in its fully open state
can reject six times as much heat as it does in its fully closed
state, with no power required to operate it. The most commonly
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used louver is the bimetallic, spring-actuated, rectangular blade

louver also known as venetian-blind louver. Louver radiator
assemblies consist of five main elements: baseplate, blades,
actuators, sensing elements, and structural elements”
[Wikipedia].
Louver Assembly. Image by Matt C. Bergman.
“Louvers are used to dissipate excess heat, typically from

running too many instruments. Louvers are located on the belly
side of the spacecraft. Resembling Venetian blinds, the louvers
will radiate heat when open, and reflect heat when closed. As a
rule of thumb, louvers reject six times as much heat in the open
position as it does in the closed position. These thermal louvers
actuate if the internal temperature exceeds 25°C” [Bergman].
New Horizons with MLI Installed with Louvers circled in red. Image by
Matt C. Bergman.
Pumped Fluid Loops
Suggested Reading: Mechanically Pumped Fluid Loops for

Spacecraft Thermal Control: Past, Present & Future Past,
Present & Future
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Pumped Fluid Loop. Mechanically Pumped Fluid Loops for Spacecraft

Thermal Control: Past, Present & Future by Pradeep Bhandari.
A pumped fluid loop is a system that circulates a working fluid,

via routed tubing, to any part of a spacecraft’s structure. “The
key difference between traditional means of T/C and the use of
mechanically pumped fluid loops lies in the connection between
the thermally controlled components and the heat loss surface
(radiator). The connection is convective instead of conductive
or radiative. Fluid flowing through tubes connected to the two
sets of surfaces (source/sink) convectively picks up heat (source)
and dissipates it (sink). A mechanical pump is the prime mover
of the fluid. This is the closest one comes to a true thermal bus
where we can both pick-up and reject heat simultaneously and
automatically at multiple locations” [Bhandari].
Radioisotope Power System Heat Rejection System for MSL

(Cruise).Mechanically Pumped Fluid Loops for Spacecraft Thermal
Control: Past, Present & Future Past, Present & Future Pradeep
Bhandari
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“Mechanically Pumped Fluid Loops (MPFL) are most useful for

spacecraft thermal control when heat pickup/rejection capacity,
control of this capacity, testability and/or mechanical integration
are driving factors. Advantages when compared with traditional
spacecraft thermal control technologies:
• Scalability of heat rejection capacity
• Ability to accept and reject heat at multiple locations
• Flexibility in locating heat dissipating equipment
• Adaptability to late changes in spacecraft design
Any of the following causes could lead to partial or complete

failure of the thermal control system. Possible cons and
preventive measures include:
• Leaks – Leaks through mechanical joints or corrosion

of tubing/components
◦ Use well qualified fittings

▪ Vibration/thermal
▪ Accumulator sized to
accommodate nominal leak rates
• Pump failure – Long term operation of pumps could

degrade their performance or lead to their complete
failure
◦ Use redundant pumps

• Clogged filter – Filters used to guard small passages
in pumps against particles could clog
◦ Use well qualified and sized filters
◦ Use check valves to automatically bypass

filter in flight
We’ve seen limited use in robotic space missions over the past
30 years due to reliability concerns, but are increasingly being
looked at to solve complex thermal control problems”
[Bhandari].
Cryocoolers
Cryocoolers are refrigerators that reach cryogenic temperatures,

typically used in conjunction with instrument payloads. For
example, by necessity JWST’s Mid-Infrared Instrument “MIRI’s
detectors are a different formulation (Arsenic-doped Silicon
(Si:As)), which need to be at a temperature of less than 7 kelvin
to operate properly. This temperature is not possible on Webb
by passive means alone, so Webb carries a “cryocooler” that is
dedicated to cooling MIRI’s detectors” [NASA].
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Schematic diagram of a split-pair Stirling refrigerator. The cooling

power is supplied to the heat exchanger of the cold finger. Usually the
heat flows are so small that there is no need for physical heat exchangers
around the split pipe. CC BY-SA 3.0. Image courtesy of Wikipedia.
“In most cases, cryocoolers use a cryogenic fluid as the working

substance and employ moving parts to cycle the fluid around a
thermodynamic cycle. The fluid is typically compressed at room
temperature, precooled in a heat exchanger, then expanded at
some low temperature. The returning low-pressure fluid passes
through the heat exchanger to precool the high-pressure fluid
before entering the compressor intake. The cycle is then
repeated” [Wikipedia]. The component that needs to be
cryogenically cooled is attached to the cold finger or cold space
to conduct heat away from the component.
The cooling device for the Mid-Infrared Instrument, or MIRI, one of the
James Webb Space Telescope’s four instruments. The MIRI requires a
lower operating temperature than Webb’s other instruments, the
cryocooler accommodates this requirement. Image: NASA/JPL-Caltech.
In recent years, cryocoolers have gotten smaller and smaller and

entered the COTS realm, making them exciting possibilities for
small satellite missions in the future. Northrop Grumman has
made a 900 gram pulse micro-cooler on ground for night vision
and a 3.8 kg space-qualified version [Raab and Tward]. “The
Thales Cryogenics LPT9310 pulse tube cooler has undergone
comprehensive characterization and flight qualification tests at
the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) to determine its suitability
for future cost-capped NASA flight missions” [Johnson et al.].
The Hawai’i Space Flight Laboratory is flying a AIM SF-070
cryocooler on their future Hyperspectral Thermal Imager (HyTI)
mission [WestCoastSolutions].
7.7 Thermal Analysis and Test
Finite Element Model and Analysis
Thermal system design strongly coupled with structures, orbit,

and any component that
generates heat or has strong thermal requirements. To create a

thermal model, you will need:
• An orbital dynamics model or propagator, like STK
• An attitude dynamics model
• A satellite geometry, typically in the form of a CAD

model, with proper material definitions
• Thermal modeling software, which usually

accompanies a structural analysis model, like ANSYS
or CAEplex
◦ Boundary conditions
570
Schematic of the thermal modeling approach dependencies: Databases:

yellow, models: orange, computations: blue, results: green Gulde, Max,
et al. “Reliable, Fast, and Flexible: A Thermal Modeling Approach for
Small Satellites.” (2018).
Just like the structural finite element model, the thermal finite
element model creates a mesh of nodes that interact with
neighboring nodes with first principles. Instead of passing strain
and loads through the nodes, the thermal model passes heat
through the nodes in the form of conduction, convection, and
radiation. We’ll talk briefly about the math underlying the
thermal model for you to gain intuition as to thermal analysis
results.
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Space
Volume element dV and heat fluxes through its surfaces. Finite Element
Solutions of Heat Conduction Problems in Complicated 3D Geometries
Using the Multigrid Method by Prof. Dr. Christoph Zenger and Prof. Dr.
Sergey Slavyanov.
“The finite element method creates a set of algebraic equations

by using an equivalent governing integral form that is integrated
over a mesh that approximates the volume and surface of the
body of interest. The mesh consists of elements connected to
nodes. In a thermal analysis, there will be one simultaneous
equation for each node. The unknown at each node is the
temperature. In finite element analysis, all surfaces default to
perfect insulators unless you give a specified temperature, a
known heat influx, a convection condition, or a radiation
condition” [Akin].
Terms of the 1D thermal‐structural analogy. Concepts of Thermal

Analysis by J.E. Akin.
Loads for steady state thermal analysis. Concepts of Thermal Analysis

by J.E. Akin
“The temperature often depends only on geometry. The heat

flux, and the thermal reaction, always depends on the material
thermal conductivity. Therefore, it is always necessary to
examine both the temperatures and heat flux to assure a correct
solution. The heat flux is determined by the gradient
(derivative) of the approximated temperatures. Therefore, it is
less accurate than the temperatures. The user must make the
mesh finer in regions where the heat flux vector is expected to
rapidly change its value or direction. The heat
flux should be plotted both as magnitude contours, and as

vectors” [Akin].
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Visualization of ISS temperatures and heat flows, temperature colorized

with units of Celsius.
Spatially, the simple analytical conduction model that dictates

the heat flowing from neighboring nodes in the x direction is
defined as:
Where i is the index of nodes. This equation can be iterated for

the other two directions, y and z. The heat going out of node i is
analogously:
The heat that remains in the node is the difference between

and . To find the temperature of this node over time

indexed by , the physics are dictated by:
To handle radiation spatially, the surface nodes are subject to

additional heat exchange defined by the Steffan Boltzmann
equation. Note that the nodes on the surface are the only nodes to
experience both conduction and radiation. The effect of radiation
is passed on to neighboring nodes in a “trickle-down” effect. The
numerical combination of conductive and radiative effects for
finite element models is a field of active study [Vueghs et al.]
and should be verified with a physical test as discussed in the
next section.
Time
To propagate the node temperatures throughout time indexed by

, we can use a time-marching solution:
Where the temperature difference d is
And is thermal diffusivity. To guarantee solution

stability, the time step size is limited by the spatial difference
and the thermal diffusivity through this relationship
[Akin]:
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Thermal Vacuum Testing
The structural and thermal model of the Euclid satellite in the

thermal-vacuum chamber at Thales Alenia Space in Cannes, France.
Credit: Thales Alenia Space/Airbus DS
Testing in a thermal vacuum chamber is the closest we can

get in simulating a space environment without actually testing
in space. A thermal vacuum chamber simulates high vacuum
and radiative/conductive heat transfer. High vacuum is achieved
through specific pumps and may require staged pumping to
transition from different categories of vacuum (rough > high).
Classification of vacuum pressures and the technologies available to

achieve vacuum. Image by Vacuum Science World.
Radiative heat transfer is achieved by covering the chamber’s

inner surfaces with a black shroud, mimicking black body
radiation. This shroud can be cooled to cryogenic temperatures
to simulate the ambient temperature of space. Certain surfaces
can be heated to or thermal lamps can be situated to simulate the
radiation from the sun or other planetary bodies.
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A thermal vacuum test chamber, with its door open, at NASA’s Johnson
Space Center. Image courtesy of Wikipedia.
Under vacuum and subject to extreme heat conditions, the

spacecraft and its embedded components will experience
outgassing, thermal expansion, thermal cycling, and realistic
heat transfer. Ideally, conditions are set such that the testbed
shrouds, lamps, and conductive plates reflect the temporal and
thermal profiles of the mission, which is affected by the orbit and
ADCS. The spacecraft embedded electronics should be running

as if the spacecraft were in space to replicate the internal power
generated throughout a mission. The spacecraft should be
littered with thermocouples and other temperature sensors at
targeted points within the volume to verify that physical testing
is similar to finite element results. The recorded temperatures
during the test are then compared to the finite element model
results to improve the predictive model’s accuracy/precision.
Artemis Thermal Profile
Suggested Activity
back of the envelope kind of calculation of thermal load -> FEA”

here:
8. Attitude Determination
Control Navigation
Attitude Determination, Control, and Sensing

We care about attitude determination and control because it
is one of the core disciplines within spacecraft engineering.
Attitude is intimately tied to all other spacecraft functions and
almost all spacecraft have to address the following questions:
• Where does it need to point?
• How well does it need to hold an attitude?
This chapter:
• defines the Attitude Determination, Control,

Navigation, and Sensing (ADCS) system,
• distinguishes the responsibilities,
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• describes the general design process,
• defines common requirements,

• reviews foundational math around attitude dynamics,
• surveys typical sensor and actuator technology, and
• conceptually explains determination and control

algorithms.
Learning Objectives
• understand role of ADCS subsystem in context of

spacecraft as a whole and between other subsystems
• understand the equations of motion for attitude

dynamics and different variations of attitude
representation
• identify the spacecraft parameters that affect attitude

dynamics and relate parameter change to dynamics
model
• classify which sensors measure which physical

phenomena with associated precision/accuracy,
limitations, and environments
• gather intuition as to attitude estimation and define

various estimation algorithms relative to sensors
available
• recommend different actuators for different desired

maneuvers by calculating magnitude and precision of
actuators
• identify external/environmental torques and calculate

magnitude of effect that actuators must overcome
• gather intuition as to the different control policies
used aboard spacecraft
Definition
This subsystem goes by many different names depending on the

desired capabilities of the spacecraft. The most comprehensive
definition includes attitude determination, control, and sensing.
• Sensing is measuring cues from the environment

using onboard sensors.
• Determination is a fixing or finding of the attitude

[Merriam-Webster].
• Control is the “process of controlling the orientation

of an aerospace vehicle with respect to an inertial
frame of reference or another entity such as the
celestial sphere, certain fields, and nearby objects,
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etc.” [Wikipedia].
8.1
585
8.2
586
8.3
587
8.4
588
8.5
589
8.6
590
8.7
591
8.8 Pointing Analysis and Budget
Suggested Readings: Theory: Pointing Error Engineering

Framework for High Pointing Accuracy Missions, Engineering
Practice: ESA Pointing Error Engineering, Case Study: Pointing
and Alignment of XMM
592
Breakdown of pointing errors. Tüfekci, Celal S., et al. “Attitude

performance requirements and budgeting for RASAT satellite.”
Proceedings of 5th International Conference on Recent Advances in
Space Technologies-RAST2011. IEEE, 2011.
Just as there are critical loads in the structures system that must
be designed around, there are “critical” payloads that the ADCS
system must be designed around. The payload with the most
demanding pointing or slewing requirements determines the
accuracy/precision of the sensors, the capacity and resolution of
actuators, and rigor of the determination and control algorithms.
This pointing analysis and budgeting is not very interesting if
you only have one instrument or component that needs to point
in the entire mission.
1. To get started in determining the “critical” payload,

list out all the instruments or components that need
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some kind of pointing. For example in the Artemis

CubeSat, we have our baseline visible-IR camera.
Some satellites have directional antennas and radios
but the Artemis CubeSat kit has omnidirectional
components. To make this a little more interesting
and illustrative, let’s say the radio does need some
kind of pointing.
Component
Camera
Radio
2. Now we have to generate pointing goals, which would

enable each component to achieve its ultimate performance. This
process could involve a scientist deriving physical limitations on
detecting an event or target, like what is the pointing accuracy
so that we can achieve sub-pixel resolution of a faraway star?
The scientist would have to account for diffraction limits if there
were lenses and the resolution of the charge-coupled device
array they chose for the camera.
Schematic of the NuSTAR pointing budget for source localization.Harp,

D. Isaiah, et al. “NuSTAR: system engineering and modeling challenges
in pointing reconstruction for a deployable x-ray telescope.” Modeling,
Systems Engineering, and Project Management for Astronomy IV. Vol.
7738. International Society for Optics and Photonics, 2010.
3. We could also include motion constraints here. Some

instruments may be sensitive to jitter so the control policies
would need to limit jitter.On Ke Ao, a variant of Artemis, the
process is very simple. We would like to take a picture of
Hawai’i and transmit this picture back. The camera must be
within 8 degrees of a straight-on orientation viewing Hawai’i.
Let’s say the radio requires nadir pointing at Earth but just within
that hemisphere. The painting requirement for the radio would
be within 90 degrees of nadir.
Pointing Rate, acceleration, or jitter

Component
Requirement limits
Camera 8 degrees
Radio 90 degrees
4. Once this chart of requirements and constraints is made, we

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can identify the most stringent requirements and constraints and

pick sensors/actuators around those numbers.
Pointing Rate, acceleration, or jitter

Component
Requirement limits
Camera 8 degrees
Radio 90 degrees
5. Referring to our sensor and actuator typical accuracies, we

can identify sensors and actuators that can at least meet our
most strict pointing requirement. Since the Ke Ao mission is not
demanding, all sensors and actuators meet the requirement.
Typical
Reference Remarks
Accuracy
1 Simple, reliable, low cost, note always

Sun
arcminute visible
0.1 Orbit dependent; usually requires scan;

Earth
degrees relatively expensive
Magnetic Economical; orbit dependent; low altitude

1 degree
Field only; low accuracy
0.001
Stars Heavy, complex, expensive, most accurate
degree
Inertial 0.01
Rate only; good short term reference; can
Space degree/
be heavy, power; cost
hour
Typical
Method Remarks
Accuracy
Spin 0.1 Passive, simple; single axis inertial, low

Stabilized degree cost, need slip rings
Gravity 1–3 Passive, simple; central body oriented;

Gradient degrees low cost
0.1
Jets Consumables required, fast; high cost
degree
Magnetorquer 1 degree Near Earth; slow; low weight, low cost
Reaction 0.01 Internal torque; requires other

Wheels degree momentum control; high power, cost
6. Now we identify which sensors and actuators are realistic

to integrate into our spacecraft. For a 1U CubeSat, we are
incredibly volume and mass limited. We can utilize coarse sun
sensors, magnetometers, and a magnetorquer. The other sensors
and actuators are too massive and their higher accuracy
performance is not necessary to fulfill the mission.
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Typical
Reference Remarks
Accuracy
1 Simple, reliable, low cost, note always

Sun
arcminute visible
Orbit dependent; usually requires scan;

Earth 0.1 degrees
relatively expensive
Magnetic Economical; orbit dependent; low altitude

1 degree
Field only; low accuracy
0.001
Stars Heavy, complex, expensive, most accurate
degree
0.01
Inertial Rate only; good short term reference; can
degree/
Space be heavy, power; cost
hour
Typical
Method Remarks
Accuracy
Spin 0.1 Passive, simple; single axis inertial, low

Stabilized degree cost, need slip rings
Gravity 1–3 Passive, simple; central body oriented;

Gradient degrees low cost
0.1
Jets Consumables required, fast; high cost
degree
Magnetorquer 1 degree Near Earth; slow; low weight, low cost
Reaction 0.01 Internal torque; requires other

Wheels degree momentum control; high power, cost
7. Given our choice of types of sensors and actuators, we go

out into the commercial wilderness and pick some real sensors
and actuators that meet our desired performance, as specified
above.
8. To ensure that these sensors and actuators meet the

requirement, we inject the sensor characteristics (noise) and
actuator capabilities into a dynamic simulation. The estimator
and controller must verify that the spacecraft ultimately points
within the pointing requirement, which for Ke Ao is 8 degrees.
a. If not, go back to step 6 to choose better sensors or

actuators.
b. If you’ve exhausted all commercial options, go back to step

5 and reconsider the types of sensors and actuators you’ll
consider incorporating into the spacecraft design.
c. If these sensors and actuators absolutely cannot fit within the

spacecraft, you’ll have to go all the way to step 2 and barter
with the principal investigator or chief scientist on relaxing the
pointing requirements.

here:
epet302/?p=1104
9. Command and Data
Handling
Command and Data Handling
This chapter defines the Command and Data Handling (CDH)

system, distinguishes the responsibilities, defines common
requirements, surveys common avionics and software, and
walks through how to create a data budget.
Learning Objectives
Learning Objectives
• understand role of command and data
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handling subsystem in context of

spacecraft as a whole and between other
subsystems
• survey different technologies and
software platforms
• understand typical software structure
and effects from mission operations
• identify radiation effects on avionics
Definition
The on-board computer is the brain of the spacecraft, managing

all commands and sensory input. The data storage holds the
memories of the spacecraft, waiting to be transmitted or
processed. The flight software contains the spacecraft’s thoughts
in the form of algorithms and scripts. The data electrical lines are
like the spacecraft’s nervous system, sending electrical impulses
from the sensors to the on-board computer. The formatting of
data packets is like the spacecraft’s language, encoding
grammatical structures to communicate with other spacecraft or
mission operators.
Image shows a block diagram of how other subsystems interact with the
on-board computer, where green text and arrows show the signal labels
and direction of data flow.
The Command and Data Handling (CDH) system is responsible

for all of the spacecraft’s data processing needs (flight software)
and the distribution of commands in hardware form (on-board
computer system). CDH interacts with every component that
outputs data (sensors, receiver) and receives commands
(actuators, transmitter). The on-board computer and software is
responsible for:
◦ ingesting data from the payload.
◦ storing payload data and spacecraft state of

health data.
◦ managing or coordinating the passing of

data through the software pipeline.
▪ This action may require on-board

time synchronization.
◦ receiving data from the receiver and

passing data to the transmitter.
◦ executing user commands and transition
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between user-dictated modes of operations

(event sequencing).
◦ monitoring health and performances of all
subsystems.
◦ handling mode transitions without user

intervention.
◦ detecting, isolating, and recovering from

spacecraft failures, commonly reverting to a
safe mode.
During the design process, the CDH specialist:
◦ is the owner and primary developer of the

spacecraft’s software architecture and on-
board computer design.
◦ is responsible for communicating with

spacecraft bus components, which includes
▪ converting raw data into sensible
information
▪ determining Input/Output
requirements for the avionics
subsystem with respect to the
other subsystems and payload
▪ standardizing data packet formats

across subsystems and across
communication channels
◦ coordinates with the systems engineer,
other subsystem specialists, and mission
operations to define the computer system’s

operational modes and states.
◦ manages the data budget and flow of data
during operations by developing block
diagrams that partition software scripts by
function.
◦ writes software to process, compress/

decompress, and manipulate data.
◦ strategizes with integration and test

engineers in testing and verification of the
spacecraft system.
◦ encodes robustness in single-event upsets

and information loss due to compression.
9.2 General Design Process
Modified from Dr. Daniel Selva’s lecture slides
1.Allocate mission and system requirements
◦ Establish functional requirements of the

avionics system based on mission phases,
payload requirements, and spacecraft bus
requirements, see Typical Requirements
and Design Considerations
◦ Evaluate candidate architectures: select

potential avionics components, see Typical
Avionics
◦ Partition by function: develop block

diagrams to make sure you meet your
functional requirements, see Integrated
Computer
◦ Determine feasibility: weigh risk vs

capabilities of candidate architectures, see
Avionics Reliability and Fault Tolerance
608
◦ Develop non-intrusive testing

methodologies: “black box” testing, see
System Integration and Testing chapter
2. Define the computer system’s operational modes and

states, see Flight Software Modes
◦ Develop state diagram consistent with

functional requirements
◦ Define power cycle and duty cycle for low

level computer and high level
◦ Model different operational stages as

different states
◦ Ensure degradation/failure states are

modeled
◦ Consider effects on ground/ops for all states
3.Functionally partition and allocate the

computational requirements, see Typical
Requirements and Design Considerations
◦ Consider the following areas to allocate
functions:
▪ Space or ground, payload,

spacecraft bus (avionics, other
subsystems)
▪ Distinguish between hardware

and software requirements
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4. Evaluate internal and external interfaces, see the I/O

interface section
◦ Determine Input/Output requirements for

the avionics subsystem with respect to the
other subsystems and payload
5. Select the baseline architecture and form the baseline

system specification
◦ Detailed design specifications
▪ i. Sensor list (type, location,

number, criticality)
▪ ii. Network strategy
▪ iii. Estimate of processing

throughput
▪ iv. Communications bandwidth

◦ Select critical components
▪ i. Data management units
▪ ii. Redundancy strategies
▪ iii. Communications frequencies
◦ Data budget and profile analysis based on

system design, see Data Budget and
Profiling section
◦ Integration, Assembly, & Testing strategy

For the spaceflight mission, the CDH system must be designed

to support the data and processing needs of the payload and
spacecraft bus. Requirements include technical specifications
for the:
◦ Throughput or number of channels is the

amount of information that can pass
primarily between the payload and flight
computer [Jeberson]. Number of channels
is typically dictated by payload instruments,
corresponding to the number of imagers or
cameras. More formally, throughput is
dictated by the frequency of the function
(execs/s) and instructions per execution and
cycles per instruction.
◦ The computer performance depends on all

the applications and functions the
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spacecraft mission requires. Typical

functions include [Selva]:
▪ Payload: pointing, on/off.
▪ TT&C: telemetry and command

processing, manage the downlink,
accept the uplink
▪ Attitude/Orbit sensor processing:

gyros, sun sensors, …
▪ ADCNS algorithms: Kalman

filter, integration, orbit
propagation
▪ Attitude control (actuator)

processing: thrusters, reaction
wheels…
▪ Fault detection: monitoring,

identification, and correction
▪ Power Management: charging,

solar array pointing
▪ Thermal Management: heaters,

louvers, coolers, pointing
▪ Momentum management:
momentum wheels
▪ Utilities: basic math functions,

matrix math, time management,
rotations
Flight computer performance requirements include Central

Processing Unit (CPU) capability, Graphic Processing Unit

(GPU) capability, and Field-Programmable Gate Array (FPGA)
capability.
◦ CPUs are evaluated upon their clock speed,

their processor, the number of cores,
caching, and ability to integrate with the
GPU [Patkar].
◦ GPU requirements could be formed around

clock speed, memory, and power
consumption [Walton].
◦ FPGAs requirements include number of

logic cells, clock speed, computation,
memory bandwidth, and Input/Output (IO)
bandwidth [Storaasli].
• The on-board clock drives the timing accuracy of the

whole system and must be chosen based on the timing
requirements from the payload or subject. Other time
related requirements include scheduling and
synchronization.
• Hardware interface requirements are driven by the

hardware selection in the other subsystems,
◦ such as the physical connectors that

communicate directly to the onboard
computer or indirectly through a
daughterboard. These interfaces come with
inherited communication formats, like
USB, I2C, or SPI.
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◦ The hardware outside CDH may come with

manufacturer-installed software in the form
of firmware or drivers that the flight
computer would have to interface with on
the software side.
• Software is evaluated on the basis of reliability and

the availability or ease of use of development tools,
COTS software, emulator or engineering models.
• Radiation hardened electronics are “resistant to

damage or malfunction caused by high levels of
ionizing radiation” relevant in space environments.
Radiation hardening can prevent ionizing particles
from switching a bit in a data line or memory registry
that sets off a chain of events that the software cannot
recover from. For more information, read up on
radiation effects on electronics.
Space Environment and Related Effects by Kenneth A

LaBel. Image courtesy of NASA.
• Single-Event Latchup (SEL)
◦ A radiation-induced event will inject charge

that activates the feedback loop and
connects VCC to GND
◦ High current density results in extremely

high, localized heat
Latent Damage from Single-Event Latchup. By Jet Propulsion Laboratory.

• Single-Event Upset (SEU)
◦ Flip the state of data by introducing enough

charge to overpower the transistors holding
the value of a data bit
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Illustration of SEU in SRAM-based FPGA affecting the device

configuration. (A) original circuit, (B) SEU affecting LUT equation, (C)
SEU affecting routing matrix. (Source: B. Pratt, “Analysis and

Mitigation of SEU-Induced Noise in FPGA-based DSP Systems”)
• Single-Event Transient (SET)
◦ transient pulses by momentarily turning on

driver transistors that should be off
Long duration transients observed on the OP293 operational amplifier.

More than 10% of OP293 transients are long duration transients. Figure
from Testing Guidelines for Single Event Transient (SET) Testing of
Linear Devices report. Image courtesy of NASA.
• Total Ionizing Dose (TID)
◦ Cumulative long term ionizing damage due

to protons and electrons can cause devices
can suffer threshold shifts, increased device
leakage (& power consumption), timing
changes, decreased functionality, etc.
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During manufacturing and assembly, the flight computer is the

only hardware you need to handle as the CDH specialist. Even
then, the integration specialist or electrical power system
specialist may assist you in assembling the hardware. The
handling for the flight computer is much like the handling of the
electrical power system components.
During testing, the software must be flexible to accommodate

various testing configurations, which is not a requirement but
a design consideration. Testing and verification is usually done
incrementally, from a single component to a conglomerate of
components as a subsystem, then to a conglomerate of
subsystems into the fully integrated system. In this way,
software scripts need to be compartmentalized and callable by
other higher-level scripts, like a main script. To verify that the
spacecraft functions as expected on ground, software must
accommodate the spoofing or emulation of data that makes the
satellite think it’s receiving data from a space environment. This
data is typically provided by a flight simulation that feeds the
flight computer all the sensor measurements; this test is called a
process-in-the-loop test. One step further is to spoof or emulate
space environment conditions with a physical testbed, which
receives simulated conditions and recreates lighting, magnetic,
and dynamic conditions; this test is called hardware-in-the-loop.
There exists an immense amount of software dedicated to testing
that will never be incorporated into the as-flown flight software.

here:
Jim Nicholson worked as the Chief Engineer for the Cygnus Spacecraft at
Orbital ATK for the Commercial Orbital Transportation Systems (COTS). Jim
describes the importance and reason to do processor in the loop tests. Spacecraft
and Payloads. Avionics and Software In the Loop Testing by Jim Nicholson.
Video courtesy of NASA.
During transport and handling, the flight computer is off and

self-contained within the satellite. There is no requirement the
CDH specialist needs to adhere to from this phase.
From the time of delivery through on-orbit deployment, the

CDH specialist may have the option to power up the flight
computer and upload new flight software if the previous version
is out of date. If the launch providers are kind enough to allow
for any testing during integration into a deployer or onto the
launch vehicle, the CDH specialist may remotely conduct
system checkouts and run a few test cases. The flight computer
and flight software should accommodate software updates and
remote testing.
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Artemis CDH Requirements

The CubeSat command and data handling

system shall store, process, and route all
data for the predefined kit components and
3.4
while providing margin for the data needs
of a variety of undergraduate payload
missions
The hard drive

memory shall
3.4.1
have at least 2
GB of storage.
The onboard
computer flash
3.4.2 memory shall
have at least
32kB
The onboard
computer CPU
3.4.3 shall have a
clock speed of at
least 16MHz
The onboard
computer shall
be the
3.4.4 centralized
computer
commanding all
daughterboards
The onboard
computer shall
3.4.5 have at least 1
USB port
available
The flight
software must
include a timer
3.4.6 that counts
down 30
minutes from
deployment
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Suggested Activity
What kind of CDH requirements must you impose on your
system to fulfill your science mission?
9.4 Typical Avionics
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Ferrite core memory as used in the Apollo Guidance Computer (MIT

sample for testing). Image courtesy of Wikipedia.
In spacecraft history, computers have come a long way from

core rope memory on the Apollo Guidance computer to millions
of transistors on a chip smaller than your fingernail. This section
will give an overview of the different modern hardware
components in an onboard computer.
Graphic overview of many commercial available onboard computers.

Image Courtesy of SatSearch.
The on-board processor, or flight computer, holds the clock,

Central Processing Unit (CPU), Graphic Processing Unit (GPU),
maybe a Field-Programmable Gate Array (FPGA), memory
storage, and other circuitry so that these components can
communicate with each other. If you are super ambitious, you
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may pick your own components and create your own on-board
computer, which is an immense feat. More likely, you will
survey available options and weigh the tradeoffs of the
components of this one flight computer to another flight
computer. This chapter will discuss the core components on a
flight computer that you should pay attention to when selecting.
The Hawai’i Space Flight Laboratory has been working with Unibap on
the Hyperspectral Thermal Imager (HyTI) mission. The flight computer
is physically form factor compatible with PC104 and configured as four
stacked PCB boards, a standard core processing module (standard
version iX5- CORE-1000) and an interface and storage extension board
(standard version iX5-EXT-100). https://www.moog.com/content/dam/
moog/literature/Space_Defense/spaceliterature/avionics/
moog-deep-delphi-datasheet.pdf Image Courtesy of Unibap
On the heterogeneous compute module, we can see the CPU, GPU,

FPGA, several clocks, DDR3 RAM with error correction code, and an
IO interface to communicate with the other components. Image
Courtesy of Unibap
On the user Input-Output and Machine Learning board, we have

memory storage, board interfaces, and avionics for specifying a serial
signaling standard (LVDS).
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Clocks
Crystal Oscillator
Crystal oscillation modes. Image

courtesy of Wikipedia
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Quartz crystal resonator (left) and quartz crystal oscillator (right) CC

BY 3.0
“A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses

the mechanical resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric
material to create an electrical signal with a constant frequency”
[Wikipedia]. The most common piezoelectric resonator is the
quartz crystal and when incorporated into an oscillator circuit is
called a crystal oscillator. The quartz crystal may be manipulated
to oscillate at a precise frequency by applying voltage on and
off. These oscillators operate from a few tens of kilohertz to
hundreds of megahertz. Quartz crystals are found in the majority
of timekeeping technology, like wristwatches, computers, and
wall clocks.
The stability of the crystal’s frequency depends on the crystal’s

Q factor or the degree of underdamped response. We want a
high Q factor where the vibration is not damped much or in
other words, energy is not lost. Environmental changes of
temperature, humidity, pressure, and vibration can change the
resonant frequency of a quartz crystal. Spurious frequencies
(undesired frequencies) can occur if the crystal is subject to
vibration (something to test for after conducting an
environmental vibration test on a shake table!). During
manufacturing and assembly, the crystal may experience

mechanical stress due to bonding and mounting or thermal
expansion throughout the crystal’s operational lifetime.
Permanent changes can occur if the crystal incurs mechanical
damage due to shock, which can tear crystals off their mountains
or crack the crystal. Due to the space environment, the
composition of the crystal may permanently change due to the
crystal itself outgassing or surrounding hardware outgassing
onto the crystal. Space radiation can affect the Q factor of the
clock, altering the natural frequency of the oscillator. “Crystals
have no inherent failure mechanisms; some have operated in
devices for decades. Failures may be, however, introduced by
faults in bonding, leaky enclosures, corrosion, frequency shift
by aging, breaking the crystal by too high mechanical shock,
or radiation-induced damage when non swept quartz is used.
Crystals can be also damaged by overdriving” [Wikipedia].
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Inside a modern DIP package quartz crystal oscillator module.It includes

a ceramic PCB base, oscillator, divider chip (/8), bypass capacitor, and
an AT cut crystal. CC BY-SA 4.0. Image courtesy of Wikipedia.
Schematic symbol and equivalent circuit for a quartz crystal in an

oscillator. Image courtesy of Wikipedia.
The important result of clock degradation is clock drift. “By

space navigation standards, quartz crystal clocks aren’t very
stable. After only an hour, even the best-performing quartz
oscillators can be off by a nanosecond (one billionth of a
second). After six weeks, they may be off by a full millisecond
(one-thousandth of a second), or a distance error of 185 miles
(300 kilometers). That would have a huge impact on measuring
the position of a fast-moving spacecraft” [NASA]. When the
spacecraft is not in communication with ground, the flight
computer relies on the on-board clock as the sole clock. A
crystal oscillator may be unstable and oscillate at an imprecise
frequency, which leads to clock drift. The spacecraft’s clock,
based off the crystal oscillator, may diverge from the mission
operator’s reference clock, potentially affecting time-sensitive
operations. Corrections can be made to the spacecraft’s clock
when mission operators contact the spacecraft or when the
spacecraft communicates with other spacecraft with more
precise clocks; GPS atomic clocks are a good reference but even
these satellites must be corrected twice a day from ground-based
clocks.
The Artemis CubeSat Kit has crystal circuity on the AM3358

processor from the Beaglebone Blackboard and an oscillator
from the TMS320F28031PAGT microprocessor on the PyCubed
board.
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Atomic Clock
Cesium, the “heart” of the National Bureau of Standards’ atomic clock,

is contained in a capsule before being put in the “oven” that will
vaporize it into a beam of atoms. The atomic clock counts the vibrations
of these cesium atoms, an incredible 9,192,631,770 per second. Source:
NIST. Image Courtesy of Wikimedia
Atomic clocks also use frequencies of natural phenomena, but

instead of mechanical vibration, atomic clocks measure the
electromagnetic signal of electrons as a radioactive element
decays. Atomic clocks are considered the “most accurate time
and frequency standards known” [Wikipedia]. In fact, the way
we keep time on Earth is by averaging measurements of various
atomic clocks around the world, called the International Atomic
Time (TAI), an international effort in which NIST and NASA
JPL are involved. This method is so precise that scientists have
defined the “SI unit of a second in terms of exactly 9 192 631

770 oscillations of the caesium atom” [Wikipedia].
Visual representation of how an atomic clock works. Image courtesy of

Watchers.
The most famous implementation of an atomic clock in space are

the GPS satellites. Because GPS receivers must measure time
delays of signals, having a precise clock is of utmost importance.
“GPS Time (GPST) is a continuous time scale and theoretically
accurate to about 14 ns” [Allan]. Other satellites that rely on
atomic clocks are the GLObal NAvigation Satellite System, the
Galileo Global Navigation Satellite System, and the Deep Space
Atomic Clock. Atomic clocks used to be reserved for missions
that specifically need nanosecond precision timekeeping as the
cost and development could be prohibitive. A single
microsecond of inaccuracy on a GPS satellite relates to 300 m
of error. A commercial atomic clock used to cost on the order of
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1,500 USD [PhysicsWorld]!

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An anatomical view of the world’s first commercially available chip-scale

atomic clock. Image courtesy of Symmetricom, Inc.)

here:
NIST Launches a New U.S. Time Standard: NIST-F2 Atomic Clock video
courtesy of YouTube
A variant of the atomic clock is the quantum clock that utilizes

“laser cooled single ions confined together in an electromagnetic
ion trap. Developed in 2010 by physicists as the U.S. National
Institute of Standards and Technology, the clock was 37 times
more precise than the then-existing international standard. NIST
have attributed the clock’s accuracy to the fact that it is
insensitive to background magnetic and electric fields, and
unaffected by temperature.” [Wikipedia]. These clocks have not
been demonstrated in space but are fun to think about for
potential technology demonstrations of the state of the art.
Watchdog Timer

here:
This video will describe the workings of the WatchDog Timer on the
ATmega328p microcontroller with a sweet little demo. Arduino Watch Dog
Timer AVR Video courtesy of 0033mer
“A watchdog timer (sometimes called a computer operating

properly or COP timer, or simply a watchdog) is an electronic or
software timer that is used to detect and recover from computer
malfunctions. During normal operation, the computer regularly
resets the watchdog timer to prevent it from elapsing, or “timing
out”. If due to a hardware fault or program error, the computer
fails to reset the watchdog, the timer will elapse and generate a
timeout signal. The timeout signal is used to initiate corrective
actions. The corrective actions typically include placing the
computer system in a safe state and restoring normal system
operation. Watchdog timers are commonly found in embedded
systems and other computer-controlled equipment where
humans cannot easily access the equipment or would be unable
to react to faults in a timely manner. In such systems, the
computer cannot depend on a human to invoke a reboot if it
hangs; it must be self-reliant. For example, remote embedded
systems such as space probes are not physically accessible to
human operators; these could become permanently disabled if
they were unable to autonomously recover from faults. A
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watchdog timer is usually employed in cases like these”

[Wikipedia]. The watchdog timer is critical for fault detection as
its only function is to serve as a reboot if something goes wrong.
The watchdog is typically connected directly to the CPU and fed
the same clock measurements.
Block diagram of a simple, single-stage watchdog timer. The common

clock is characteristic of basic watchdog circuits found in simple
microcontrollers. CC BY-SA 3.0 Image courtesy of Wikipedia.
Processors
CPU
Inside of an Intel CPU. Image courtesy of Wikimedia.
The CPU is the main computing unit of the brain, managing

high level processes in series like how our cerebrum manages
reading, thinking, learning, speech, emotions and planned
muscle movements. The CPU is made of millions of individual
transistors, “contained on a single metal-oxide-semiconductor
(MOS) integrated circuit (IC) chip” [Wikipedia]. Transistors
form the basis of integrated circuits, turning signals on or off,
which is the basis of binary data. “There are 2 parts of the
CPU: The ALU and Control Unit. The Arithmetic Logic Unit
(ALU) performs arithmetic operations (such as addition and
subtraction) and logical operations (such as comparing two
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values). The Control Unit deciphers and carries out instructions.

Different CPUs have different types of instructions, so software
made for one type of CPU will not run on other kinds” [Gusta].
CPUs are typically classified by the amount of cores onboard,
where each core is a computing unit that could focus on one
task. Today, multi-core (more than one core) processors can
handle multiple tasks simultaneously. When selecting a CPU,
pay attention to:
◦ Instructions per second – For spacecraft

missions, instructions per second relates to
the required throughput and processing
necessary to run executions in a software
environment. Clock speed is not everything
(see Megahertz Myth).
◦ FLOPS – The number of floating point

operations per second is often important in
selecting computers for scientific
computations.
◦ Performance per watt – For a power-

constrained system, this particular metric is
very important for spacecraft evaluating
relative or scaleable power consumption.
◦ Low power – For systems with limited

power sources like spacecraft, this metric
evaluates absolute maximum power
consumption.
◦ System designers building real-time

computing systems want to guarantee a
worst-case response. This metric relates to

handling faults during the spaceflight
mission.
Small size or low weight – Compact volume or low mass options

are encouraged for spacecraft systems.
Comparison of NVIDIA, Arm, Intel, and AMD revenue and enterprise

value. Image courtesy of Forrester.
The common manufacturers for CPUs on ground are Intel,

AMD, and ARM. The fundamental distinction between these
companies is their instruction set architectures. Intel holds the
patents to x86, AMD to x64, and ARM has created their own
ARM architecture. The general differences between the three
companies are summarized by Nachman Networks:
“Intel is the most popular and well-known maker of processors.

Manufacturers like Dell, Apple, Samsung and HP all use Intel
processors in their computers. Intel processors are the most
stable and offer the best all-round performance. The current
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i3, i5 and i7 models represent entry, middle and high level

hardware.
◦ AMD is Intel’s biggest competitor, offering

processors that are similar to Intel’s, but at
a, for the most part, cheaper price. The
majority of computer manufacturers, except
for Apple, also offer products with AMD
processors. AMD’s Athlon processors are
budget models while Phenom and FX are
mainstream and high level respectively.
◦ ARM processors are generally used in

smartphones, mobile devices and tablets.
Apple’s iPhone and iPad; Samsung’s
Galaxy line and HTC devices all use some
form of ARM processor in their mobile
devices. A rule of thumb is, if it doesn’t
have AMD or Intel in the name, it’s most
likely an ARM processor”.
In space, processing power lags far behind progress on ground

due to the need for radiation hardening and space radiation
testing. “The Intel 386SX that ran the so-called “glass cockpit”
in space shuttles was clocked roughly at 20MHz. As we near
2020, the RAD750 stands as the state-of-the-art, single-core
space-grade processor. Curiosity uses two BAE RAD750
processors clocked at up to 200MHz” [Krywko]. The RAD750
is based off of the PowerPC 750, created by IBM and Motorola
in 1997 to compete with Intel. The RAD750 costs $200k. “The
BAE RAD5545 is probably the most powerful radiation-
hardened processor available today”, clocking at 466MHz

[Krywko]. ESA has developed the LEON line of space-grade
processors working in SPARC architecture, which is open
source. The latest LEON processor is the quad-core GR740
clocked at roughly 250MHz. In the future, we can expect the
development of the High Performance Spaceflight Computing
(HPSC), based on the ARM Cortex A53 quad-core processor
and expected to clock between 1.2 to 1.8 GHz.
AM3358 microprocessor breakdown, used on the BeagleBone Black

board. This is the microprocessor the Artemis CubeSat uses. Image
courtesy of Texas Instruments.
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A few types of integrated processors include microcontrollers,

digital signal processors, and microprocessors. Microprocessors
(PP) are processors on an integrated circuit that are
“multipurpose, clock-driven, register-based, digital integrated
circuits that accept binary data as input, process it according to
instructions stored in its memory, and provides results (also in
binary form) as output” [Wikipedia]. Microprocessors are the
most powerful of the CPU integrated circuits and also consume
the most power, ranging from 50W – 200W. They provide >
1GIPS, 4GB+ RAM, ROM storage, HD’s, CD-ROM’s, etc.
Microprocessors use a general purpose instruction set. When
you think of the most advanced commercial processors, like
Intel’s latest Core i9 processors, these are microprocessors.
Microprocessors live in your laptop, your cellphone, your
desktop. They are the more general purpose, workhorse
computing unit. Microprocessors have been used increasingly
in spacecraft and are most likely the central computing unit of
modern spacecraft [Wikichip].
Different types of microcontrollers and composition of a

microcontroller. Courtesy of TheEngineeringKnowledge.com
Microcontrollers are small, dedicated processors to perform very

specific tasks with clock speeds of about 1-100MHz, <16MB

RAM, Read-Only Memory storage (no HD/Mass storage).
Microcontrollers are everywhere, in “computer keyboards,
monitors, printers, copiers, fax machines, microwave ovens,
washers and dryers, security systems, lawn sprinkler station
controllers, and music/video entertainment components”
[Farahman]. These products have specific, repetitive tasks and
do not have intelligence or adaptability. Specific subsystem
components may come with their own microcontrollers to offer
low level control for which the central onboard computer must
communicate with. These subsystems and applications may
include [ESA]:
◦ propulsion system control
◦ sensor bus control
◦ robotics applications
◦ simple motors control
◦ mechanisms control
◦ power control
◦ radiation environment monitors
◦ thermal control
◦ antenna pointing control
▪ In-situ ionospheric plasma

measurements [Haas et al.]
▪ Altimeter data [Perschy et al.]

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Terrestrial communications [Lefevre et al.]ACS/GNC sensors

(Gyroscope, IMU, Magnetometer)
A simple block diagram of a typical digital signal processing system.

CC BY-SA 3.0. Image courtesy of Wikipedia.
Digital signal processors (DSP) are specialized microprocessor

chips, specifically designed to manage embedded digital
systems and digital signal processing. “They are widely used
in audio signal processing, telecommunications, digital image
processing, radar, sonar and speech recognition systems, and in
common consumer electronic devices such as mobile phones,
disk drives and high-definition television (HDTV) products”,
with the goal to typically measure, filter, or compress continuous
real-world analog signals [Wikipedia]. DSPs have high
processing/power ratio (e.g., 1GMIPS @ <6W) with clock
speeds typical of 100MHz – 1GHz, 16MB to 2GB RAM, Read-
Only Memory storage, and FLASH storage. DSPs will most
likely be tied with the spacecraft payload for data-intensive
missions to process experiment data or with telecommunication
subsystems:
◦ In-situ ionospheric plasma measurements

[Haas et al.]
◦ Altimeter data [Perschy et al.]
◦ Terrestrial communications [Lefevre et al.]

Suggested Readings
Space Technology 8 – Dependable Multiprocessor

https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/nmp/st8/tech/eaftc_tech1.php
GPU
Underneath the GPU casing lies an exposed NVIDIA G80 GPU Core.
Image courtesy of Wikimedia.
GPUs are power efficient, computational workhorses that

specialize in processing image data, like our visual cortex.
“Energy efficiency is one of the most important factors that
will affect a broader adoption of GPUs in high-performance
computing” [Jiao]. GPUs have smaller cores than CPUs, which
means each core cannot accept the same relative quantity of
instructions. GPUs tend to have much longer pipelines, which
is advantageous if a computational task can be broken down
into several similar subtasks, processed, then combined upon
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completion. “While it does not decrease the processing time

for a single data instruction, it increases the throughput of the
system when processing that data” [Wyrwas].
GPUs have seen wide adoption on ground during the rise of

machine learning and data analytics, utilized for heavy data
processing [NVIDIA]. “The first satellite to include a GPU for
image compression was COROT. COROT is a French national
space agency (CNES)-led mission to detect exoplanets orbiting
other stars and to probe the mysteries of stellar interiors. GPUs
and other SoC/SiP devices are highly susceptible to radiation
effects. Many types of radiation may affect GPGPU logic in
operation due to Single Event Transients (SET)15, corrupting
the logic outcome and producing an erroneous result, and
eventually being placed into the memory, thus very similar to a
Single Event Upset (SEU). The radiation fault could be masked
or even propagate to the output generating single or multiple
silent data corruptions. The difference between both events is the
former affects logic circuits and the latter memory elements. In
either situation, the device can have functional interruptions or
even hang” [Wyrwas]. Despite the risks, the potential benefit of
high performance computation can be had with rigorous testing
and/or radiation protection (refer to the suggested reading or
read on to the Testing and Verification section in this chapter).
GPU devices depend on the application environment or purpose.

They include:
◦ Native GPU (i.e. Nvidia GeForce)
◦ Application Processor (i.e. TI OMAP)

◦ Accelerator Processing Unit (i.e. AMD’s

Fusion APU)
◦ ASIC/FPGA/PLD (i.e. Xilinx Zynq
UltraScale+ MPSoC)
Potential project vendors include: Intel, Nvidia, Apple, Arm,

Qualcomm, Marvell, Vivante, MediaTek, AMD, Texas
Instruments, Altera, Xilinx, PowerVR, STMicroelectronics-
Ericsson, IBM and ZiiLABS.
Suggested Reading
Body of Knowledge for Graphics Processing Units (GPUs)
https://nepp.nasa.gov/files/29564/NEPP-BOK-2018-Wyrwas-
GPU-TN60884.pdf
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FPGA
Xilinx XC3090-70 Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0

International. Image courtesy of Wikimedia.
FPGAs are reconfigurable integrated circuits that encode

processes directly into the hardware without input from the
CPU, like a spacecraft’s muscle memory. “One of the benefits
of FPGAs over processor-based systems is that the application
logic is implemented in hardware circuits rather than executing
on top of an OS, drivers, and application software. Modern
FPGAs contain components that are specialized for specific
functions as well as more general purpose configurable logic.
The combination of dedicated functionality components with the

configurable logic has allowed for architectures that consume
less power and perform more efficiently” [Eastland]. FPGAs
can be configured into a specific hardware configuration after
fabrication by loading compiled software “containing
information on how the components should be wired together”,
called Hardware Descriptor Language [NI]; you can liken this
ability to shapeshifting. This configuration can even happen
remotely while the FPGA is in space! FPGAs are generally fast,
reliable, and flexible but are susceptible to the effects of space
radiation.
The Different Parts of an FPGA. Image Courtesy of National

Instruments
“FPGAs are sensitive to both heavy ion and proton-induced

single event upsets (SEUs). Single-event upsets in the FPGA
affect the user design flip-flops, the FPGA configuration
bitstream, and any hidden FPGA registers, latches, or internal
state” [Wirthlin]. To mitigate these radiation effects, we can
resort to hardware redundancy or triple modular redundancy,
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which is implementing multiple circuits with the same

functionality voting on a process result. Another mitigation
technique could be to “scrub” the FPGA configuration and to
reconfigure the FPGA periodically.
“Historically, there have been two basic options for FPGAs

in space applications: high-density, re-programmable,
conventional SRAM-type FPGAs – repurposed and heavily
modified for space use; and lower-density, non-volatile, one-
time-programmable, antifuse devices designed specifically for
space applications. The former were usually supplied by Xilinx
and fit primarily into “payload” type applications. The latter
were usually supplied by Microsemi (formerly Actel) and were
suitable for mission-critical flight control and similar
applications” [Morris]. Specifically, “there are three FPGAs that
comprise the majority of current space-qualified FPGA needs:
the Xilinx Virtex-5QV (SRAM, 65nm), the Microsemi RTG4
(Flash, 65 nm), and the Microsemi RTAX (Anti-fuse, 150 nm)”
[Lee]. Most modern commercial FPGA systems tested so far
perform well in radiation and there is a potential path to flight,
but as of right now, these circuits are not readily adopted as they
are considered risky.
Rom left to right: the Xilinx Virtex-5QV (SRAM, 65nm), the Microsemi
RTG4 (Flash, 65 nm), and the Microsemi RTAX (Anti-fuse, 150 nm).
Image courtesy of Commercial Field-Programmable Gate Arrays for
Space Processing Applications David S. Lee
Memory
Memory stores information for immediate use in a computer.
This section will define different memory types, their functions,
and use cases. A defining characteristic of memory is its
volatility. Volatile memory is stored temporarily and is lost when
the divide is powered-off. Non-volatile memory is stored
permanently and the data remains stored even if it is powered-off
[geeksforgeeks.org]. Volatile memory has decreased capacity,
increased power dissipation, but comes with fast access times
and throughput. Applications include run-time memory and
buffering. Non-volatile memory has greater capacity, lower
power dissipation but comes with slower access time and
throughput. Applications include start-up memory and persistent
storage [Troxel].
Read-Only Memory (ROM)
Read-only memory is as the name suggests: read-only. This

type of non-volatile memory is defined by the manufacturer and
cannot be changed. ROM is typically advantageous for storing
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software that does not change through the system lifetime,

usually dedicated to firmware. Although ROM can be re-
programmed with special instructions and unusual voltage
settings, ROM can only be rewritten a limited number of times.
A famous use-case of ROM is the CD-ROM, clear in the naming
convention. A widely used case of ROM today includes USB
flash drives.
Rope memory from the Apollo Guidance Computer. Image courtesy of

Wikipedia.
Historically, core rope was used in NASA/MIT’s Apollo

Spacecraft Computers, DEC’s PDP-8 computers. Core rope is
a form of transformer matrix ROM, “programmed by hand
weaving ‘world line wires’ inside or outside of ferrite
transformer cores” [Lumen]. Today, electrically erasable
programmable read-only memory (EEPROM) is typically used
to store a small amount of data for startup, like device
configuration, calibration tables, boot code, and debug
information [Troxel]. The structure of an EEPROM consists of

arrays of floating gate transistors, providing data persistence and
relatively strong Total Ionizing Dose and Single Event Effect
performance. EEPROM includes control circuitry that is
susceptible to radiation. Typical device capabilities include:
◦ 32Kb to 256Kb options
◦ ~1,000,000 rewrite cycles
◦ ~10-year data retention or more
◦ 10K to 1M rad TID tolerance
Commercial options include Actel, Aeroflex, Atmel, Hitachi,

Infineon, Maxwell, Samsung, etc. EEPROM technology is used
for credit cards, SIM cards, and key-less entry.
A sample of EEPROM: Space Grade Radiation Tolerant Memory Stacks

by 3D Plus
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Random Access Memory (RAM)
Random-access memory (RAM) is computer memory that can

be read and change, typically used to store working data and
machine code [Wikipedia]. RAM is volatile memory, which is
lost when power is removed and/or after a reset. RAM is the
fast memory available, running at over 1000 MHz. There are
two types of RAM: static RAM (SRAM) and dynamic RAM
(DRAM).
4 NanoXplore’s NG-Medium space-grade SRAM FPGA contain an

internal scrubber. Image source: NanoXplore
SRAM is typically used for control processing applications, like

buffering between cache and storage and as the processor’s
“main memory”. SRAM cells use latching circuitry (flip-flop)
to store each bit. “Self-reinforcing nature improves SEE
performance and SEFI modes not as varied and often not as
complex” [Troxel]. Commercial options include: Aeroflex,
BAE, Honeywell, Maxwell, Samsung, etc. Typical device

capabilities include:
◦ 4Mb to 64Mb options typical
◦ “infinite” rewrite cycles
◦ No data retention
◦ 100K to 1M rad TID tolerance typical
~10ns access latency typical
Performance comparison of SRAM vs DRAM. Difference between

static RAM and dynamic RAM, Which is Faster? 2020 by
Windows101tricks
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DRAM is typically used for data processing applications, much

like SRAM but for data. Instead of latching circuitry, DRAM
consists of tiny capacitors and transistors to store memory.
Capacitors leak in charge so “DRAM requires an external
memory refresh circuit which periodically rewrites the data in
the capacitors, restoring them to their original charge. This
refresh process is the defining characteristic of dynamic random-
access memory, in contrast to static random-access memory
(SRAM) which does not require data to be refreshed”
[Wikipedia]. Complex addressing and refresh modes increase
Single Event Functional Interrupts. DRAM is extremely
common in personal computers. Flash memory eventually fails
given a high enough Total Ionizing Dose, up to 200 Krads
from a 2011 study [Oldham]. TID performance is continually
improving, due smaller feature size reduction “tricks”. Typical
device capabilities include [Troxel]:
◦ 2Gb to 8Gb options typical
◦ “infinite” rewrite cycles
◦ No data retention
◦ Variable TID tolerance
◦ ~50ns access latency typical
Commercial options include Hyundai, Micron, Samsung, etc.

Flash Memory or Non-Volatile Random Access Memory (NVRAM)
Radiation-hardened high-density NAND Flash memory for the Pearl

single-board computer they designed for the NASA BioSentinel
CubeSat spacecraft. They found their solution from Data Device Corp.
(DDC) in Bohemia, N.Y.Courtesy of Military and Aerospace Electronics
The best-known form of NVRAM and EEPROM is flash

memory. Flash memory is a type of non-volatile memory, based
upon Electrically Programmable Read-Only Memory (EPROM)
technology. Flash is between ROM & RAM mid-speed memory,
which can be easily read and written. Flash memory is typically
used to store large amounts of data for startup, like device
configuration, calibration tables, boot code, and debug
configuration. Flash usually stores “software/firmware” that is
expected to be updated, but otherwise does not change during
normal operations. Flash has been very common in recent space
applications. “Radiation removes (or masks) electrons from the
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floating gate which causes bits to be in error”, seen in Figure __

[Kay et al.]. Typical device capabilities include [Troxel]:
◦ 256Mb to 8Gb options typical
◦ ~5,000 to ~500,000 rewrite cycles
◦ ~20-year data retention or more
◦ 5K to hundreds of K rad TID tolerance

typical (ELDRS effects)
Commercial options include Hynix, Intel, Micron, Samsung,

Spansion, etc. Xilinx offers flash-based configuration memory
as well.
Radiation Effects in Flash Memory. Flash Memory in Extreme

Environments By: Matthew Kay, Matthew Gadlage, Adam Duncan,
Dave Ingalls, and Austin Roach NSWC Crane.
Artemis CubeSat Kit RAM
Mass Storage
Hard Disks/Drives

here:
Hard drive teardown. Bill tears down a hard drive to show how it stores data.
He explains how smooth the disk surface must be for the device to work, and he
outlines the mathematical technique used to increase data storage. Creative
Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported. Full video courtesy of
Wikipedia.
Hard disk drive (hard drive, hard disk, or fixed disk) is an

electromagnetic data storage device that relies on magnetic
storage to retrieve digital data. Hard disk drives (HDDs) are
a type of non-volatile storage that can store up to terabytes
of data. These hard drives are tremendously common within
personal computers and also as external storage devices. These
mass storage devices are susceptible to the vibrations of a harsh
launch environment. The angular momentum of the disk in the
hard drive could affect the angular momentum of the spacecraft.
The rotation rate of the disk also makes the hard drive
susceptible to mechanical failure, which would be critical to
the mission. Due to these reasons, HDDs are not preferred for
spacecraft missions.
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A disassembled and labeled 1997 HDD lying atop a mirror. Image

Solid-State Drives
Anatomy of a solid-state drive. 1. Controller – the brains of this

operation, and the device that controls the operations of the
flash modules. 2. Buffer – the unit that holds RAM data for
easy access. Like a hard drive, the bigger the buffer, the better
for data retrieval. 3. SATA Connector – this is where the cable
plugs in. If you have a hard disk drive that uses a SATA cable,
then you can replace that drive with an SSD and use the same
cable (assuming you’re using the write SATA interface—SATA
I, II or III). A SATA I drive will work in any SATA situation,
but you’ll only top out at 1.5 GB/s speed. A SATA II can only
work with a SATA II or SATA III controller, and data transfer
speed tops out at 3 GB/s. SATA III can only be used with a
SATA III controller. 4. Power connector – again, if you’re using
a SATA hard drive, this is the same power connector. 5. Flash
Memory Modules – these are the actual semiconductors that
hold your data. Image courtesy of B&H Photo.
Solid-state drives (SSDs) do not use mechanical parts, like the

hard drive, but use only electronic circuits to read and write
digital information. Solid-state storage is a type of non-volatile
memory that typically utilizes electrically-programmable non-
volatile flash memory. Radiation affects SSDs in the same way
that radiation affects flash memory. SSDs are faster than HDDs
because of the lack of mechanical parts but are much more
expensive. Still, they are the preferred storage device for space
missions, like the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. Types of flash-
based solid-state storage devices include the following
[Wikipedia]:
◦ MultiMediaCard (MMC) – a memory card

type used in portable devices
◦ Secure Digital (SD) – a memory card type
available in different variants, speeds and
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sizes, used extensively in portable devices
◦ Solid-state drive (SSD) – a computer

storage device available in various form
factors, with different interfaces, and in
various classes targeting different market
segments. The following components are
susceptible to radiation effects and should
be considered for radiation tolerance
[Lamorie and Ricci]:
▪ The core NAND flash

components
▪ The Flash Translation Layer

controller
▪ Configuration memory used for

the Flash Translation Layer
controller
USB flash drive – pocketable removable storage devices that

interface through USB, available in various shapes and sizes
Artemis CubeSat Kit Mass Storage

The Artemis CubeSat Kit uses a solid-state storage device,
specifically the SD card.
Input/Output Interfaces
Input/Output (I/O) interfaces exchange information between

avionics components, like storage, sensors, processors, and
memory. These interfaces include data buses, digital I/Os,

analog/digital converters, and port connectors.
Data Bus
Spacecraft data bus, displaying data and power interfaces. Dr. Daniel
Selva. Spacecraft Technologies and Architectures Lecture 22: avionics
A spacecraft’s data bus connects all subsystems that generate

and receive data/commands, similar to a power bus’
management of power to all subsystems. The data bus handles
all the internal communications and passes data to the
communications system for external communication. The data
bus is in charge of quick, in-succession data routing and
prioritization, like a switchboard operator. Data buses are
reserved for high-speed data transfers (>33Mhz or >500Mbps),
typically connecting the processor to peripheral subsystems to
communicate 16, 32 or 64 bit wide messages. There are
standards for data buses so that design teams don’t have to
reinvent the wheel every time the avionics must be designed.
These standards have a communication protocol, physical
interface, data rates, and primary applications. The most
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prevalent standard for spacecraft is the MIL-STD-1553 and for

cubesat, the CubeSat Space Protocol.
The MIL-STD-1553 is a standard for an avionics data bus used

in aerospace and military applications. There is 1 bus controller
that initiates all exchanges and up to 30 remote terminals. The
overall data bus architecture could include redundant MIL-
STD-1553B buses, a bus controller, a backup bus controller, a
bus monitor, a remote terminal, a subsystem embedded with a
remote terminal, and a subsystem communicating with a remote
terminal (see Figure __). The bus controller operates according
to a command list stored in its local memory, commands the
various remote terminals to send or receive messages, services
any requests that it receives from the remote terminals, detects
and recovers from errors, and keeps a history of errors. The bus
monitor’s primary role is to monitor and record bus transactions.
The remote terminal provides an interface between the MIL-
STD-1553B data bus and an attached subsystem, and a bridge
between a MIL-STD-1553B bus and another MIL-STD-1553B
bus. The hardware includes cabling, stubbing, bus couplers,
cable termination, and connectors. The bus operates at 1 MHz
and between 18 – 27 V.
A crude example of a simple network with computers (BC, RTs and/or

Monitor), bus cabling, transformer couplers, stub cables and bus
terminators. Image Courtesy of Alta Data Technologies LLC.
670 • FRANCES ZHU
An Airbus engineer inspecting a new spacecraft that incorporates the

CAN Bus for Space. Photo credit: Airbus DS.
“A Controller Area Network (CAN bus) is a robust vehicle

bus standard designed to allow microcontrollers and devices

to communicate with each other’s applications without a host
computer. It is a message-based protocol, designed originally
for multiplex electrical wiring within automobiles to save on
copper, but can also be used in many other contexts. For each
device the data in a frame is transmitted sequentially but in such
a way that if more than one device transmits at the same time
the highest priority device is able to continue while the others
back off. Frames are received by all devices, including by the
transmitting device” [Wikipedia]. “The controller area network
(CAN) protocol is a proven, highly reliable communication
system for harsh environments and has been used in automotive
and industrial applications for over 30 years. Below is a list of
the major features and benefits of the CAN protocol” [Renesas]:
◦ The simple two-wire bus topology reduces

wiring and saves space and cost by
eliminating bulky wiring harnesses.
◦ The ISO 11898 standards for the CAN

controller and CAN transceiver ensures
ECUs built by different manufacturers will
work together when put into a CAN
network.
◦ An ECU device can communicate with

multiple devices at the same time.
◦ High transceiver driver output current

drives double terminated cables and long
cables. Drives up to 120 devices at data
rates up to 1Mbps.
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◦ The CAN system of arbitration allows easy

connection of multiple devices to the bus
without any additional collision detection.
Arbitration occurs automatically, without
loss of data, and without increasing bus
latency.
◦ Wide CMR of at least -2V to +7V. CAN

allows networks to drive long cables in
harsh environments where nodes may have
large ground differences.
Error detection is built into the protocol for reliable

communications
CAN Networks Significantly Reduce Wiring
“The following outlines the advantages of employing a CAN

bus communications network for data handling in space systems
vs. the conventional MIL-STD-1553 and RS-485 point-to-point
interface solutions. Figure __ shows the comparison between the
present conventional topology vs. the CAN two-wire broadcast
topology. Several nodes can be added to a single bus. This
significantly reduces system/cable costs while providing a cost-
effective way to add functionality. According to ESA, a

satellite’s weight and mass can be reduced by
10% to 18%. Weight/mass is proportionate to overall satellite

and launch costs”:
◦ The CAN multi-master/multi-drop topology

significantly reduces the amount of wiring
and connectors.
◦ Replaces older, more costly communication

protocols.
◦ CAN has lower power consumption vs. the

conventional MIL-STD-1553 systems.
◦ Data prioritization and data contention is an

advantage over other protocols.
◦ Adds several million dollars of

functionality.
CAN enables scalable bus architectures with increased

reliability, observability and controllability.
674 • FRANCES ZHU
A PCI-104 single-board computer. Image courtesy of Wikipedia.
For smaller spacecraft, the CubeSat Kit Bus (CSKB) is a

stackable connector with 104 pins. The CSKB “utilizes the same
physical connectors as the industry-proven PC/104 bus”
[Pumpkin]. Of the 104 total pins, the CSKB offers 28 Input/
Output (I/O) pins to interface with the subsystems. “Additional
pins from the PPM processor to the CubeSat Kit Bus connector
include power and ground, Deployment Switch and Remove-
Before-Flight Switch direct bussed connections, transceiver data
and control signals, user signals, analog references and
miscellaneous control signals” [Pumpkin].
Two PC104 boards attached. CC BY-SA 3.0 Image courtesy of

Wikipedia.
The PC/104 standard allows modular stacking of boards that

can expand functionality. A common PC/104 system will stack
a CPU board, power supply board, and peripheral boards. For
spacecraft, these boards could include a payload board,
telecommunications board, ADCS board, etc. Most PC104
boards include standard PC interfaces like Serial Ports, USB,
Ethernet, and VGA. These Input/Output interfaces will be
expanded upon in a later section of this chapter. The PC/104,
coupled with an x86 instruction set architecture, can run
standard PC operating systems, like DOS, Linux, or Windows.
Artemis CubeSat Data Bus
The Artemis CubeSat Kit uses the PC/104 or CubeSat Kit Bus
architecture.
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Digital and Analog I/O
“The main purpose of I/O interfaces is to transmit and receive

data” [Smith]. To format the raw subsystem input data in a
digestible way for the processor or whatever end node, the data
must pass through an interface that modifies the data format.
These interfaces could manipulate digital or analog signals, can
be unidirectional or bidirectional. These interfaces can consist of
port connectors, circuitry, and wire harnessing.
Demonstration of analog to digital conversion and digital to analog

conversion. Image courtesy of Wikipedia.
The most basic interface is an analog-to-digital converter, or

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ADC, converts analog signals to digital signals. The conversion

involves quantization of the input, so it necessarily introduces a
small amount of error or noise. Additionally, the data product’s
bit size affects that accumulation of error; less bits, more error.
Sample functions of a digital I/O interface. Image courtesy of CONTEC.
“A digital I/O board is an interface board that adds the ability

to input and output digital signals in parallel to a computer”
[Contec]. There are various and many applications for digital I/
O interfaces and can be connected in series. A common series
connection could be a sensor outputting an analog signal,
connected to an analog-to-digital converter, then a digital I/O
interface, then the data bus, then finally to the processor.
Port Connectors
Comparison of parallel communication vs serial communication. Left:

parallel transmission of the letter “C” in binary (01000011), right: serial
transmission of the letter “C” in binary (01000011). BASICS OF THE
SPI COMMUNICATION PROTOCOL Posted by Scott CampbellImage
courtesy of circuit basics.
Port connectors allow electrical signals to pass through physical

connections, think of the end of a USB cable that goes into your
computer. There are many different types of connector types
that have their own communication standards. Different port
connectors are historically used for specific applications and
carry unique advantages/disadvantages. “The benefits of using
commercially based networking standards and protocols have
been widely discussed and are expected to include reduction
in overall mission cost, shortened integration and test (I&T)
schedules, increased operations flexibility, and hardware and
software upgradeability/scalability with developments ongoing
in the commercial world” [Webb and Day]. Characteristics
include baud rate, communication protocol, differential
configuration, directionality, synchronicity, etc. “Baud rate is
a measure of the speed of data transfer, expressed in bits per
second (bps). The bits of data can be transmitted either in
parallel or serial form. In parallel communication, the bits of
data are sent all at the same time, each through a separate wire.
In serial communication, the bits are sent one by one through a
single wire” [CircuitBasics]. This section will give an overview
of these various port connections.
680 • FRANCES ZHU
Network router with three GPIOs (Banana Pi R1) CC BY-SA 4.0. Image
“The general-purpose input/output (GPIO) is an uncommitted

digital signal pin on an integrated circuit or electronic circuit
board which may be used as an input or output, or both, and is
controllable by the user at runtime. GPIOs have no predefined
purpose and are unused by default. If used, the purpose and
behavior of a GPIO is defined and implemented by the designer
of higher assembly-level circuitry: the circuit board designer in
the case of integrated circuit GPIOs, or system integrator in the
case of board-level GPIOs. Many circuit boards expose board-
level GPIOs to external circuitry through integrated electrical
connectors. Usually, each such GPIO is accessible via a

dedicated connector pin. GPIOs are also found on embedded
controller boards such as Arduino, BeagleBone, and Raspberry
Pi” [Wikipedia]. The Artemis CubeSat Kit has a BeagleBone
Black board with GPIO pins.
Today, UART is being used in many applications like GPS Receivers,

Bluetooth Modules, GSM and GPRS Modems, Wireless
Communication Systems, RFID based applications etc. Basics of UART
Communication BY ANUSHA
A universal asynchronous receiver-transmitter (UART) is used

for asynchronous serial communication in which the data format
and transmission speeds are configurable. “The hardware for
UART can be a circuit integrated on the microcontroller or a
dedicated integrated circuit. Today, UART is being used in many
applications like GPS Receivers, Bluetooth Modules, GSM and
GPRS Modems, Wireless Communication Systems, RFID based
applications etc” [ElectronicsHub].
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Only two wires are needed to transmit data between two UARTs. Data
flows from the Tx pin of the transmitting UART to the Rx pin of the
receiving UART. BASICS OF UART COMMUNICATIONPosted by
Scott Campbell
UART transmitted data is organized into packets. Each packet contains 1

start bit, 5 to 9 data bits (depending on the UART), an optional parity
bit, and 1 or 2 stop bits. BASICS OF UART COMMUNICATIONPosted
by Scott Campbell
“UARTs transmit data asynchronously, which means there is

no clock signal to synchronize the output of bits from the
transmitting UART to the sampling of bits by the receiving

UART. Instead of a clock signal, the transmitting UART adds
start and stop bits to the data packet being transferred. These bits
define the beginning and end of the data packet so the receiving
UART knows when to start reading the bits. When the receiving
UART detects a start bit, it starts to read the incoming bits at a
specific frequency known as the baud rate” . UART can process
any speed up to 115,200 baud but typically processes at 9600
baud [CircuitBasics].
ADVANTAGES
• Only uses two wires
• No clock signal is necessary
• Has a parity bit to allow for error checking
• The structure of the data packet can be changed as

long as both sides are set up for it
• Well documented and widely used method
DISADVANTAGES
• The size of the data frame is limited to a maximum of

9 bits
• Doesn’t support multiple slave or multiple master

systems
• The baud rates of each UART must be within 10% of

each other
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Typical SPI bus: master and three independent slaves. CC BY-SA 3.0.
Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) is a synchronous serial

communication interface specification used for short-distance
communication, primarily in embedded systems. SPI devices
use a master-slave architecture, which means one device
controls one or more devices and serves as a central
communication hub. The SPI bus has four logic signals:
• SCLK: Serial Clock (output from master)
• MOSI: Master Out Slave In (data output from master)
• MISO: Master In Slave Out (data output from slave)
• SS: Slave Select (often active low, output from

master)
A simplified schematic is shown below for the connections

between an ATmega328P and an SD card. Image courtesy of
RJH Coding.
“SPI is a common communication protocol used by

many different devices. For example, SD card
modules, RFID card reader modules, and 2.4 GHz
wireless transmitter/receivers all use SPI to
communicate with microcontrollers. One unique
benefit of SPI is the fact that data can be transferred
without interruption. Any number of bits can be sent
or received in a continuous stream. With I2C and
UART, data is sent in packets, limited to a specific
number of bits. Start and stop conditions define the
beginning and end of each packet, so the data is
interrupted during transmission” [CircuitBasics]. SPI
can communicate up to 10 Mbps.
ADVANTAGES
◦ No start and stop bits, so the data can be

streamed continuously without interruption
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◦ No complicated slave addressing system

like I2C
◦ Higher data transfer rate than I2C (almost
twice as fast)
◦ Separate MISO and MOSI lines, so data

can be sent and received at the same time
DISADVANTAGES
◦ Uses four wires (I2C and UARTs use two)
◦ No acknowledgement that the data has been

successfully received (I2C has this)
◦ No form of error checking like the parity bit

in UART
Only allows for a single master

I2C is a serial communication protocol, so data is transferred bit by bit

along a single wire (the SDA line). SDA (Serial Data) – The line for the
master and slave to send and receive data. SCL (Serial Clock) – The line
that carries the clock signal. BASICS OF THE I2C
COMMUNICATION PROTOCOL Posted by Scott Campbell.
I2C (Inter-Integrated Circuit), pronounced I-squared-C, is a

synchronous, multi-master, multi-slave, packet switched, single-
ended, serial communication bus. “I2C combines the best
features of SPI and UARTs. With I2C, you can connect multiple
slaves to a single master (like SPI) and you can have multiple
masters controlling single, or multiple slaves. This is really
useful when you want to have more than one microcontroller
logging data to a single memory card or displaying text to a
single LCD” [CircuitBasics].
688 • FRANCES ZHU
Adafruit’s TSL2561 breakout board, a 3.3V device that uses I²C to

communicate with its host microcontroller. Image courtesy of
Electricimp.
“You’ll probably find yourself using I2C if you ever build

projects that use OLED displays, barometric pressure sensors,
or gyroscope/accelerometer modules. Like SPI, I2C is
synchronous, so the output of bits is synchronized to the
sampling of bits by a clock signal shared between the master and
the slave. The clock signal is always controlled by the master.
With I2C, data is transferred in messages. Messages are broken
up into frames of data. Each message has an address frame that
contains the binary address of the slave, and one or more data
frames that contain the data being transmitted” [CircuitBasics].
I2C can transmit at 4 speeds: standard mode (100 kbps), fast
mode (400 kbps), high speed mode (3.4 Mbps), and ultra fast
mode (5 Mbps).
I2C messages include start and stop conditions, read/write bits, and
ACK/NACK bits between each data frame. BASICS OF THE I2C
COMMUNICATION PROTOCOLPosted by Scott Campbell
ADVANTAGES
• Only uses two wires
• Supports multiple masters and multiple slaves
• ACK/NACK bit gives confirmation that each frame is

transferred successfully
• Hardware is less complicated than with UARTs
• Well known and widely used protocol
DISADVANTAGES
• Slower data transfer rate than SPI
• The size of the data frame is limited to 8 bits
More complicated hardware needed to implement than SPI

690 • FRANCES ZHU
PCI Express x1 card with one RS-232 port on 9-pin connector. Image
“RS-232, Recommended Standard 232, is a standard for serial

communication transmission of data. It formally defines signals
connecting between a DTE (data terminal equipment) such as
a computer terminal, and a DCE (data circuit-terminating
equipment or data communication equipment), such as a
modem. The standard defines the electrical characteristics and
timing of signals, the meaning of signals, and the physical size
and pinout of connectors. In RS-232, user data is sent as a time-
series of bits. Both synchronous and asynchronous transmissions
are supported by the standard” [Wikipedia]. “RS232 is without
doubt the best known interface, because this serial interface is

implemented on almost all computers available today” [Bies].
The RS-232 port connector, commonly around the D-
subminiature standard, assigns pins based on signals.
Other standards, like RS-422 and RS-485, are also serial

communication standards but vary by number of drivers,
network topology, differential interfaces, etc.
Characteristics of RS485 compared to RS232, RS422 and RS423. Image

courtesy of Lammertbies.
692 • FRANCES ZHU
USB endpoints reside on the connected device: the channels to the host
are referred to as pipes. Image courtesy of Wikipedia.
“Universal Serial Bus (USB) is an industry standard that

establishes specifications for cables and connectors and
protocols for connection, communication and power supply
(interfacing) between computers, peripherals and other
computers. There have been four generations of USB
specifications: USB 1.x, USB 2.0, USB 3.x, and USB4. USB
device communication is based on pipes (logical channels). A
pipe is a connection from the host controller to a logical entity
within a device, called an endpoint. Because pipes correspond to
endpoints, the terms are sometimes used interchangeably. Each
USB device can have up to 32 endpoints (16 in and 16 out),
though it is rare to have so many. Endpoints are defined and
numbered by the device during initialization (the period after
physical connection called “enumeration”) and so are relatively

permanent, whereas pipes may be opened and closed. There are
two types of pipe: stream and message. A message pipe is bi-
directional and is used for control transfers. Message pipes are
typically used for short, simple commands to the device, and for
status responses from the device, used, for example, by the bus
control pipe number 0. A stream pipe is a uni-directional pipe
connected to a uni-directional endpoint that transfers data using
an isochronous, interrupt, or bulk transfer” [Wikipedia].
Two USB 3.0 Standard-A receptacles (left) and two USB 2.0
Standard-A receptacles (right) on a computer’s front panel. CC BY-SA
3.0 Image courtesy of Wikipedia.
“USB supplies power at 5 V ± 5% to power USB downstream

devices. USB signals are transmitted using differential signaling
on a twisted-pair data cable with 90 Ω ± 15% characteristic
impedance. During USB communication, data is transmitted as
packets. Initially, all packets are sent from the host via the
root hub, and possibly more hubs, to devices. Some of those
packets direct a device to send some packets in reply. The basic
transactions of USB are: OUT transaction, IN transaction,
694 • FRANCES ZHU
SETUP transaction, and Control transfer exchange”

[Wikipedia].
Suggested Reading: Use of USB interfaces in Space Programs
USB connectors have 4 pinouts: two for power (+5v and GND) and two
for differential data signals (labelled as D+ and D- in pinout. Copyright
© 2000-2020 by pinouts.ru team, except user uploaded images
A twisted pair cable with an 8P8C modular connector attached to a

laptop computer, used for Ethernet CC BY-SA 3.0. Image courtesy of
Wikipedia.
The Ethernet standard came from the IEEE 802.3 Carrier Sense
Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) Access
Method and Physical Layer Specifications, inspired by
ALOHAnet from University of Hawai’i. “The original
10BASE5 Ethernet uses coaxial cable as a shared medium, while
the newer Ethernet variants use twisted pair and fiber optic links
in conjunction with switches. Over the course of its history,
Ethernet data transfer rates have been increased from the
original 2.94 megabits per second (Mbit/s) to the latest 400
gigabits per second (Gbit/s). The Ethernet standards comprise
several wiring and signaling variants of the OSI physical layer in
use with Ethernet. Systems communicating over Ethernet divide
a stream of data into shorter pieces called frames. Each frame
contains source and destination addresses, and error-checking
data so that damaged frames can be detected and discarded;
most often, higher-layer protocols trigger retransmission of lost
frames. As per the OSI model, Ethernet provides services up
to and including the data link layer. The 48-bit MAC address
was adopted by other IEEE 802 networking standards, including
IEEE 802.11 Wi-Fi, as well as by FDDI, and EtherType values
are also used in Subnetwork Access Protocol (SNAP) headers.
Ethernet is widely used in homes and industry, and interworks
well with Wi-Fi. The Internet Protocol is commonly carried over
Ethernet and so it is considered one of the key technologies that
make up the Internet” [Wikipedia].
696 • FRANCES ZHU
Pinout of Ethernet 10 / 100 / 1000 Mbit (cat 5, cat 5e and cat 6) network
cable wiring. Image courtesy of Pinouts Guide.
“In IEEE 802.3, a datagram is called a packet or frame. Packet

is used to describe the overall transmission unit and includes the
preamble, start frame delimiter (SFD) and carrier extension (if
present). The frame begins after the start frame delimiter with
a frame header featuring source and destination MAC addresses
and the EtherType field giving either the protocol type for the
payload protocol or the length of the payload. The middle
section of the frame consists of payload data including any
headers for other protocols (for example, Internet Protocol)
carried in the frame. The frame ends with a 32-bit cyclic
redundancy check, which is used to detect corruption of data in
transit” [Wikipedia].
Suggested Reading: Ethernet for Space Flight Applications
MicroMach® connectors are able to reach far lower Crosstalk levels

than previous connectors – on average 25dB lower. By providing better
signal integrity, MicroMach links are also able to reach far higher data
rates (up to 3 GB/s). Image courtesy of European Space Agency.
“SpaceWire is a spacecraft communication network based in

part on the IEEE 1355 standard of communications. It is
coordinated by the European Space Agency (ESA) in
collaboration with international space agencies including
NASA, JAXA, and RKA. Within a SpaceWire network the
nodes are connected through low-cost, low-latency, full-duplex,
point-to-point serial links, and packet switching wormhole
routing routers. SpaceWire covers two (physical and data-link)
of the seven layers of the OSI model for communications.
SpaceWire’s modulation and data formats generally follow the
data strobe encoding – differential ended signaling (DS-DE) part
of the IEEE Std 1355-1995. SpaceWire utilizes asynchronous
communication and allows speeds between 2 Mbit/s and 400
Mbit/s, with an initial signalling rate of 10Mbit/s. DS-DE is
698 • FRANCES ZHU
well-favored because it describes modulation, bit formats,

routing, flow control, and error detection in hardware, with little
need for software. SpaceWire also has very low error rates,
deterministic system behavior, and relatively simple digital
electronics. SpaceWire replaced old PECL differential drivers
in the physical layer of IEEE 1355 DS-DE by low-voltage
differential signaling (LVDS). SpaceWire also proposes the use
of space-qualified 9-pin connectors. SpaceWire and IEEE 1355
DS-DE allows for a wider set of speeds for data transmission,
and some new features for automatic failover. The fail-over
features let data find alternate routes, so a spacecraft can have
multiple data buses, and be made fault-tolerant. SpaceWire also
allows the propagation of time interrupts over SpaceWire links,
eliminating the need for separate time discretes.
SpaceWire Connector Pin-Out: The SpaceWire connector has eight

signal contacts plus a screen termination contact. A nine pin
micro-miniature D-type is specified as the SpaceWire connector. This
type of connector is available qualified for space use.Image courtesy of
Stardundee.
SpaceWire is used all around the globe. Its use began primarily
in ESA projects, but it is currently used by NASA, JAXA, RKA,
and many other organizations and companies. Some NASA
projects using it include the James Webb Space Telescope,
Swift’s Burst Alert Telescope, the Lunar Reconnaissance
Orbiter, LCROSS, the Geostationary Operational
Environmental Satellite (GOES-R), and the SCaN Testbed,
previously known as the Communications, Navigation, and
Networking Reconfigurable Testbed (CoNNeCT). It has also
been selected by the United States Department of Defense for
Operationally Responsive Space. SpaceWire initiatives are
being coordinated between several Space Agencies in the frame
of CCSDS in order to extend its communication model to the
Network and Transport Layers of the OSI model. SpaceWire
supports highly fault-tolerant networks and systems, which is
one reason for its popularity” [Wikipedia].
700 • FRANCES ZHU
TacSat-4 SES chassis w/ PMC Spacewire Card. Lessons Learned From

Implementing Non Standard Spacewire Cabling For Tacsat-4 by Derek
Schierlmann, Eric Rossland and Paul Jaffe.
Suggested Reading: SpaceWire’s User Guide

A 1.8-inch (46 mm) micro SATA hard drive with numbered data and
power pins on the connector. CC BY-SA 3.0. Image courtesy of
Wikipedia.
Serial ATA (SATA, abbreviated from Serial AT Attachment) is a

computer bus interface that connects host bus adapters to mass
storage devices and has become the predominant interface for
storage devices, such as hard disk drives, optical drives, and
solid-state drives. SATA data transfer rates range from 1.5 Gbit/
s to 6 Gbit/s. Since these connectors are rarely seen outside the
context of mass storage devices, we won’t delve further into
SATA descriptions.
702 • FRANCES ZHU
SATA (left) and eSATA (right) connectorsCC BY-SA 2.0. Image

Integrated Computers
Detailed functional block diagram of the ESS processor (nominal

unit).Performance of the Mission critical Electrical Support System
(ESS) which handled communications and data Transfer between the
Rosetta Orbiter and ist Lander Philae while en route to and at comet
67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko by Acta Astronautica
Now that we are familiar with all the parts that go into an
onboard computer, we can talk about how these discrete
components are integrated onto a single or multiple boards. An
onboard computer is an embedded computer, a computer that is
integrated in a product, the spacecraft. Embedded computers do
not usually have a keyboard, mouse, or monitor interface.
The detailed functional block diagram above in Figure __ is

an example of an onboard computer that has many of the
components we have surveyed. The crystal oscillator in the top
left acts as the clock and there is a watchdog timer to detect
faults lower in that first column. To the right of the clock, the
CPU is downstream of clock and watchdog signals and upstream
of commands sent to the system bus. The CPU also interacts
704 • FRANCES ZHU
with a direct memory access (DMA) controller, a type of RAM,

and a local bus, which funnels data from the data bus. To the
far right, we have ROM and RAM, receiving data through the
data bus from the system bus. Everything above the system
bus dividing line consists of the guts of an onboard computer.
Everything below the system bus dividing line are interfaces to
peripheral systems, like power, telecommunications, payloads,
etc. Working from the left to the right and from the bottom
towards the system bus, the J12 connector communicates
bidirectional signals from a subsystem to CMOS drivers through
a UART interface through a data bus to finally reach the system
bus. The J12 connector also interfaces with a telecommunication
interface through the radio frequency (RF) interface through a
data bus to finally reach the system bus. You can work down
the line of how the other subsystem components communicate to
the system bus; the take-home message is that the interfaces are
specific to the subsystem it must accommodate and must funnel
the signals into the system bus in a uniform manner.
Artemis CubeSat Onboard Computer

BeagleBone Black board components labeled. Image courtesy of JK

Pack.
9.5 Data Budget and Profiling
A data budget assists the CDH specialist in choosing

components that satisfy the mission. The payload and other
subsystem components must generally have their memory,
throughput, update rate/frequency, connector, and
communication protocols. The task now is if you put all of
these components together, what would the spacecraft need in
the way of processing power, memory, timing accuracy, data
bus connections and protocols? Just like the power budget and
profiling exercise, we will step through the process step by step
to analyze the accumulation of data, the necessary computation
or throughput, and the timing accuracy in each mission
operational mode. In the power budget, we’ve already defined
time in each mission operation phase and components that are
on/off in each mode, so we will start the data budget process by:
Defining the subsystem components’ throughput, CPU

utilization, non-volatile memory, volatile memory, update
frequency, and required timing synchronization.
706
2. Summarize the computer characteristics for each mode by

summing the individual characteristics of each component in
each mode and determine which mode will drive the computer
design. Typically, the science operations and communications
drives the computer component characteristics
708 • FRANCES ZHU
3. Derive the data generation and downlink profile over time of

an orbit using your payload throughput, compression estimate,
communication downlink rate, and ground pass characteristics.
An analogy to the power generation profile is that your mass
storage is like your battery: you want to pay attention to the
total capacity of your mass storage and make sure you are
downlinking at about an equal rate as you are generating payload
or housekeeping data.
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From this analysis, we see that the non-volatile memory capacity

over the orbit returns back to empty, verifying that the mission
is sufficiently supported by the mass storage system. If the mass
storage slowly fills up every orbit,
• the CDH specialist must find a larger mass storage

system, or
• the systems engineer must modify the mission

712 • FRANCES ZHU
operations timeline to spend longer periods in

downlink mode or make more frequent passes over
ground stations, or
• the communications specialist must find a radio that

is more capable of downlinking data.
If the data budget reveals a large surplus of mass storage that’s

just sitting there, the systems engineer may decide to utilize that
mass storage by modifying the mission operations to downlink
less, save on the power consumption to conduct more science.
Artemis CubeSat Kit Data Profile

Based on our basic payload and radio, the Artemis CubeSat Kit
needs at least 8 MB of dedicated mass storage in order to avoid
running negative over time.
Suggested Activity
Produce a data budget and profile with your payload, ground
stations, and radio specifications.
9.6 Avionics Reliability and Fault
Tolerance
We would like for all these hardware components to be reliable

until the end of the spacecraft mission. Unfortunately, each
hardware component is susceptible to radiation effects in single
events or accumulated as a total ionizing dose. The result of
radiation effects is faulting in two types: “permanent
faults—that is, faults that break computer components—and soft
errors, which cause an error but do not cause permanent damage.
Techniques have been developed to deal with both types of
faults. Unfortunately, these techniques, especially those for
fixing soft errors, rob the computer of much of its efficiency”
[NASA]. Solution include:
• Redundant processors that combine or replicate

results or vote on the final result.
714
Example of triple modular redundancy where the same

inputs go to three separate processors, that go through a
voting process before producing an output
https://slideplayer.com/slide/3943663/13/images/7/
Fault+Tolerance+Usually+involves+some+form+of+redunda
ncy.jpg NSF Center for High-Performance Reconfigurable
Computing
◦ Distributing processing across multiple

processors to distribute risk of failure.
◦ Liberal use of watchdogs in multiple places

to monitor critical components.
◦ Make use of reconfigurable hardware

elements, i.e., sets of digital hardware
elements whose wiring could be
“programmed” as needed, like FPGAs, we
could use these reconfigurable logic parts to
implement the required algorithms on an
as-need basis.
◦ Keep a replica of startup software in non-

volatile memory for times when the system
needs to reset.
◦ Encode intelligence in the software to

detect and correct errors but are limited in
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their application—that is, they cannot cover

all machine operations.
Enable spacecraft to accept software updates during missions to

mitigate, prevent, or correct soft errors.
Fault tolerance techniques for scientific applications in cloud By Suruchi

Talwani, I. Chana. Image courtesy of Semantic Scholar
Basic Concepts and Taxonomy of Dependable and Secure Computin By

Brian Randall, Algirdas Avizienis, J.-C. Laprie and Carl Landwehr.
Image courtesy ofResearch Gate.
9.7 Typical Software
Software has many roles in a spacecraft’s lifetime. In

chronological order, the spacecraft must have ground test
software, embedded flight software, and mission operations
software. During testing and verification, the spacecraft will
need software to communicate and verify functionality of the
spacecraft sensors and actuators. During the space mission, the
spacecraft will rely on embedded flight software to fulfill the
mission. During the space mission, the mission operators will
need software to monitor the spacecraft’s status and send the
spacecraft commands. This section will primarily focus on the
flight software but will also conceptually review ground test
software and mission operations software.
Flight Software
Software Architecture
Flight software is software that runs on the spacecraft during

the mission. For spacecraft that use an embedded computer
718
(computer with no mouse, keyboard or monitor), the flight

software is a type of embedded software. Fundamentally, the
software must receive, transmit, manipulate, and store data from
hardware.
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Interfaces between hardware, flight software, and the user (mission

operator).Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported.
Flight software consists of an operating system and application

software. Most of these general functions are handled by an
operating system (OS), “a system software that manages

computer hardware, software resources, and provides common
services for computer programs” [Wikipedia]. The operating
system keeps track of time to schedule tasks, processor time, and
mass storage. The OS interacts with embedded hardware, like
memory, and peripheral devices through input/output interfaces,
like the payload. An embedded operating system utilizes real-
time preemptive multi-tasking and is typically smaller than
Windows, Mac OS X, or Linux, like VxWorks, RTEMS, and
FreeRTOS.
A kernel connects the application software to the hardware of a

computer. CC BY-SA 3.0. Image courtesy of Wikipedia.
The components of an OS that make a computer work together

include a kernel, networking, security, and an user interface;
although, networking and an user interface is less prevalent
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in space. “With the aid of the firmware and device drivers,

the kernel provides the most basic level of control over all of
the computer’s hardware devices. It manages memory access
for programs in the RAM, it determines which programs get
access to which hardware resources, it sets up or resets the
CPU’s operating states for optimal operation at all times, and it
organizes the data for long-term non-volatile storage with file
systems on such media as disks, tapes, flash memory, etc. The
operating system provides an interface between an application
program and the computer hardware, so that an application
program can interact with the hardware only by obeying rules
and procedures programmed into the operating system”
[Wikipedia]. Networking on ground refers to “computers
running dissimilar operating systems can participate in a
common network for sharing resources such as computing, files,
printers, and scanners using either wired or wireless
connections” [Wikipedia].
Star link phase one and two. Image courtesy of SpaceX

In space, the spacecraft typically only communicates with

ground but recent advances in constellations, like SpaceX
Starlink, and decentralized intelligence may force us to think
about networking in space more deeply.
For security, “the operating system must be capable of

distinguishing between requests which should be allowed to
be processed, and others which should not be processed”
[Wikipedia]. “Hackers could pull off a cyberattack by taking
remote control of a satellite or by spoofing or jamming its
signals. With spoofing, a hacker can send out fake signals to
disguise their activity. Jamming is designed to flood a server
with so much traffic it causes an interruption” [Newcomb]. As
satellite communication frequencies are regulated, a hacker can
transmit a fake signals with a strong enough antenna. “For
example, an attacker could access the systems on the Hubble
Telescope and open its camera hatch while pointed at the sun,
destroying the sensitive optics. They could also use the solar
panels to blow out the batteries. Many satellites are also
vulnerable to jamming attacks that could disrupt important
commands from ground control. Malik suggests using frequency
hops to make it harder for attackers to jam signals. In the case
of GPS, ground systems should make greater use of GPS
authentication to ensure the signals are authentic and not
manipulated by a third-party. Thankfully, newer satellites are
using encryption, but Malik stresses that is not a silver bullet.
Operators still need to carefully monitor and log satellite traffic”
[Whitwam].
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An embedded operating system will not need a user interface but

will need a way to ingest user commands.
Key differences between operation system and application software

Image courtesy of Lithmee
Application software includes mission-specific software which

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does work required by the user or the mission rather than in

support of the computer. We can think of application software
as one level of abstraction closer to the user, higher level
intelligence that has to do with the mission. The following table
contrasts the duties of an operating system vs. application
software.
Aspects of flight software include real-time processing and

centralization. Real-time processing or computing is the ability
of a program to guarantee response within specified time
constraints in the order of milliseconds, and sometimes
microseconds [Wikipedia]. The stringency of real-time
processing may be characterized by “hard” or “soft” real-time
processing. Hard real-time requires precise timing to achieve
correct results, where absolute deadlines must be me and

missing at time boundary has severe consequences, like entry,
descent, and landing (EDL) operations, some critical orbit
maneuvers, and observation of fast-moving or transient
phenomena. These mission components are tied to fast
dynamical systems for which the system must react. Soft real-
time requires that the tasks be performed in a timely manner,
where missing a time boundary results in degraded but
continuous performance, like coarse pointing maneuvers to
transmit to ground station and orientation of solar panels.
Breakdown of hard vs soft real-time systems by Kanaka Juvva. Image

courtesy of Carnegie Mellon University
Centralization refers to the degree that computing happens on

one or multiple processors. A centralized system has one
processor designated as the master unit, which provides all
housekeeping and data handling. All commands are processed
and routed through this central unit. Distributed (multi-
processor) architectures use multiple processors to divide the
avionics tasks for two possible configurations: distributed
computing and/or redundant processing. In distributed
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computing, executive tasks are shared by all processors,

dedicated processors are assigned to each sub-system, and
processors communicate through the spacecraft bus. Redundant
processing utilizes multiple processors for which any can
assume the role of master. This architecture tolerates faults well
as redundant systems can implement voting logic.
Visual depiction of the differences between centralized, distributed, and

decentralized computing. By Nonveiller and Larouche. Image courtesy
of Nebula Ai
Flight software falls under the categorization of embedded

software. “Embedded software needs to include all needed
device drivers at manufacturing time, and the device drivers
are written for the specific hardware. The software is highly
dependent on the CPU and specific chips chosen” [Wikipedia].
For example, operating systems run on microprocessors and not
microcontrollers, so the hardware dictates the ability to boot an
operating system. “Most embedded software engineers have at
least a passing knowledge of reading schematics, and reading
data sheets for components to determine usage of registers and
communication system. Web applications are rarely used,
although XML files and other output may be passed to a
computer for display. File systems with folders are typically
absent as are SQL databases. Software development requires use
of a cross compiler, which runs on a computer but produces
executable code for the target device. Debugging requires use

of an in-circuit emulator, JTAG or SWD. Software developers
often have access to the complete kernel (OS) source code”
[Wikipedia].
Cross compiling files on a development machine and transferring to an

embedded system for operations.By David Mandala. Image courtesy of
96 Boards.
To develop flight software, we typically use a process called

cross development. We write code on a Windows, Mac, or Linux
computer, cross-compile for target processors, transfer object
code to embedded computers, and control embedded systems
with a ground system. Cross compilers create executable code
for a platform other than the one on which the compiler is
running [Wikipedia]. The object code is the product of a
compiler. The source code that creates the object code is
typically in C, C++, Assembly Language, sometimes Ada and
runs on real-time operating systems like Linux, VxWorks,
RTEMS, and FreeRTOS. The control of the embedded system
comes from the mission operators that pass through a ground
station and through the spacecraft communications systems.
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Core Flight system (cFS) Background and Overview. The architecture

Layers. Image courtesy of NASA.
Core Flight Systems. Background and Overview. Cfs Overview Of

applications. Image courtesy of NASA.
Examples of flight software architectures include HSFL’s

Comprehensive Open-architecture Solution for Mission

Operations Systems (COSMOS) and NASA’s core Flight
System. The cFS is a re-usable spacecraft flight software
architecture that provides flight software services, applications,
and operating environment [NASA]. cFS is a layered
architecture that supports a variety of hardware platforms,
provides standardized Application Programmer Interfaces
(API), supports and hosts flight software (FSW) applications,
supports software development for on-board FSW, desktop FSW
development, and simulators, and contains platform and mission
configuration parameters that are used to tailor to a specific
platform and mission. Applications can be added and removed
at run-time (eases system integration and FSW maintenance).

here:
Cosmos Agents Demo with MOST. Video courtesy of You Tube.
For the Artemis CubeSat Kit, the flight software runs on a Linux
operating system in a framework called COSMOS. COSMOS
is an open-software framework designed to primarily support
the development, mission operations, and flight software of one
or more small spacecraft. If you are developing the software in
Linux, the flight software does not need to be cross compiled.
COSMOS is a suite of software tools (including external
modules) that enables the operations team to interface with the
spacecraft, ground control network, payload and other customers
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in order to perform the mission operations functions including

mission planning and scheduling; contact operations; data
management and analysis; simulations (including the
operational testbed); ground network control; payload
operations; flight dynamics; and system management. COSMOS
is also being designed to be easily adapted for new spacecraft or
installation in new mission operations centers (MOCs).
Communication Architecture
Example of composition of flight software and how cFS applications,

mission applications, and core services/applications interact with a
software bus. Image courtesy of NASA.
Communications between processors and between one processor

and other components are essential. This communication
typically occurs across a software bus or pipeline in which all
telemetry and commands pass through the same bus/pipeline.
The applications that need certain telemetry or commands can
subscribe and unsubscribe to any and all messages that travel
across the bus. The software bus is used for data and control
flow. All messages on the software bus or between hardware
have messages formatted in command and telemetry packet
standards, defined by communication protocols in a protocol
stack or Open Systems Interconnection Model. There are
different protocol stacks so we will explore the most common
and minimal layers necessary for spacecraft. The OSI Model
is commonly used to describe computing on ground and has
language we would associate with the Internet of Things. The
SpaceFibre Protocol has multiple lower-level layers, lane layers,
and a management layer between layers that are specific to this
framework.
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model in which each of these

layers speaks only to a layer above or below it. Each of these layers
executes a specific function. Network layers and protocol By
Router-Switch. Image courtesy of Router-Switch.
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SpaceFibre Protocol Stack. Image courtesy of Star-Dundee.
Communication protocols occur between different levels or

layers, typically: physical, data link, network, and user layers.
The physical layer is responsible for the serialization and de-
serialization, electrical driver and receiver, connectors and
cables, in short, the individual bits. Common physical and lane
layer protocols interfacing with hardware include I²C, SPI, serial
ports, and USB. The common physical layer protocols specific
to spacecraft include MIL-STD-1553 bus protocol and
SpaceWire Protocol, which will be discussed in a later section.
Device Interface Software Design Pattern. General control/data

conceptual flow: Each communication bus has a specific protocol.
Architectural role: Read device data and publish on software bus;
Receive software bus messages and send to the device
Device drivers provide a software interface to a hardware device
Data-link protocols specify how devices detect and recover from

such collisions, and may provide mechanisms to reduce or
prevent them. This layer is the protocol layer that transfers data,
called frames, between nodes on a network segment across the
physical layer. Examples of data link protocols are Ethernet for
local area networks (multi-node), the Point-to-Point Protocol
(PPP), HDLC, and ADCCP for point-to-point (dual-node)
connections. In the figure below, the Ethernet protocol attaches
a header and trailer that acts to direct the flow of data with the
ability to detect, recover from, reduce, or prevent collisions in
this frame stream.
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The TCP/IP protocol stack is at the heart of the Internet. It can be

represented using the OSI seven-layer reference model, as illustrated
below. The top three layers are grouped together, which simplifies the
model. People Internet vs. Device Internet. Image courtesy of Micrium
Embedded Software.
The network layer is responsible for packet forwarding

including routing through intermediate routers. Network layer
protocols include the CubeSat Space Protocol and Internet
Protocols, like IPv4.
Satellites Communications Modulation. Image courtesy of Springer

Nature.
The transport layer ensures the data reaches without errors. The
SpaceFibre communication protocol doesn’t have a transport
layer but terminates at the User Application, which is application
software embedded onto the spacecraft. This software encodes
spacecraft autonomy or mission operator control. The layer
beyond the spacecraft’s embedded software is the
communication link with ground, which is the Space
Development Agency’s interpretation of the transport layer. This
communication link depends on digital modulation schemes,
like amplitude-shift keying (ASK), phase-shift keying (PSK),
frequency-shift keying (FSK), and quadrature amplitude
modulation (QAM), which we talk about in the communications
chapter [Hsu].
Open Mission Control / Pocket Mission Control Center Monitor View.

Image courtesy of Open Mission Control.
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The last layers (session, presentation, and application) are the

layers going from the ground station to the mission operator’s
monitor. Generally, “the application layer is the scope within
which applications, or processes, create user data and
communicate this data to other applications on another or the
same host” [Wikipedia]. This final layer strips away all the
headers and we are left with the actual data, which can be
displayed, interpreted, and acted upon in the mission control
center.
A selected list of features to consider when selecting a

communication architecture include [Gwaltney and Briscoe]:
◦ Communication Control Event-

/TimeTriggered, etc.
◦ Maximum Data Rate (MB/s)
◦ Message Size
◦ Message CRC (Yes/No)
◦ Provide All Nodes With Data Transmitted

by Other Nodes for Local Node Use as
Required
◦ Duplex
◦ Media Access
◦ Media Access Without Arbitration (Yes/No)
◦ Clock Synchronization
◦ Global Time Base (Yes/No)
◦ Latency Jitter
Suggested Reading
Comparison of Communication Architectures for

Spacecraft Modular Avionics Systems
Comparison matrix for the features of various communication

architectures. Image courtesy of European Space Agency and NASA.
Comparison of Communication Architectures for Spacecraft Modular
Avionics Systems D.A. Gwaltney and J.M. Briscoe Marshall Space
Flight Center, Marshall Space Flight Center, Alabama.
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Communication Protocols
Physical Layer
At the physical layer, the MIL-STD-1553 bus protocol is a

specific format for messages that consists of 16-bit words in
Manchester code. All communication on the bus is under the
control of the bus controller using commands from the bus
controller to the remote terminals to receive or transmit.
Messages include command words, status words, and data
words. The bus controller can pursue a transaction with a
specific remote terminal or broadcast to all capable remote
terminals. The information transfer formats for the specific
transactions are in Figure __. A visualization of the electric
signal from a transaction is shown in Figure __.
Information transfer formats. Image courtesy of Wikipedia.

This image shows a MIL-STD-1553 signal. The signal carries the

information of a Remote Terminal (RT) to Bus Controller (BC), with 1
Data Word (DW). The difference in amplitude between the Transmit
Command Word and the Status and Data Words is due to the different
attenuation during the transmission.CC BY-SA 3.0. Image courtesy of
Wikipedia.
As discussed previously in I/O interfaces, SpaceWire not only

has a physical architecture but also has multiple communication
protocols. SpaceWire’s modulation and data formats generally
follow the data strobe encoding – differential ended signaling
(DS-DE) part of the IEEE Std 1355-1995. SpaceWire utilizes
asynchronous communication and allows speeds between 2
Mbit/s and 400 Mbit/s, with the initial signaling rate of 10Mbit/
s, through the use of space-qualified 9-pin connectors.
Data Link Layer
The Ethernet II frame, the most common Ethernet Frame format,

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“preceded by destination and source MAC addresses, that

identifies an upper layer protocol encapsulated by the frame
data. Since the recipient still needs to know how to interpret the
frame, the standard required an IEEE 802.2 header to follow the
length and specify the type” [Wikipedia].
The most common Ethernet Frame format, type II. Image courtesy of
Wikimedia.
The SpaceFibre data link layer “sends packet information in

frames of up to 256 bytes” [STAR-Dundee]. “Each transferred
character starts with a Parity bit and a Data-Control Flag bit.
If Data-Control Flag is a 0-bit, an 8-bit LSB character follows.
Otherwise one of the control codes, including end of packet
(EOP)” [Wikipedia].
Network Layer. Data and Control Characters and Control Codes. Space
wire character. Image courtesy of Star-Dundee.
Decomposition of the quad-dotted IPv4 address representation to its

binary value. Image courtesy of Wikipedia.
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Ports 0 to 7 are used for general services such as ping and buffer status,
and are implemented by the CSP service handler. The ports from 8 to 47
are used for subsystem specific services. All remaining ports, from 48 to
63, are ephemeral ports used for outgoing connections. The bits from 28
to 31 are used for marking packets with HMAC, XTEA encryption,
RDP header and CRC32 checksum. Image courtesy of Wikipedia.
“Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) is the fourth version of the

Internet Protocol (IP). It is one of the core protocols of
standards-based internetworking methods in the Internet and
other packet-switched networks. IPv4 uses a 32-bit address
space which provides 4,294,967,296 (232) unique addresses, but
large blocks are reserved for special networking methods. An
IP packet consists of a header section and a data section. An
IP packet has no data checksum or any other footer after the
data section. Typically the link layer encapsulates IP packets
in frames with a CRC footer that detects most errors, many
transport-layer protocols carried by IP also have their own error
checking. The IPv4 packet header consists of 14 fields, of which
13 are required. The 14th field is optional and aptly named:
options. The fields in the header are packed with the most
significant byte first (big endian), and for the diagram and
discussion, the most significant bits are considered to come
first (MSB 0 bit numbering)” [Wikipedia]. The CubeSat Space
Protocol was created as a small network-layer delivery protocol
specifically for CubeSats. “The protocol is based on a 32-bit
header containing both network and transport layer information.
The implementation is written in C and is ported to run on

FreeRTOS and POSIX and pthreads-based operating systems
such as Linux. The protocol and the implementation is actively
maintained by the students at Aalborg University and the spin-
off company GomSpace. The source code is available under an
LGPL license and hosted on GitHub” [Wikipedia].
Ports 0 to 7 are used for general services such as ping and buffer status,
and are implemented by the CSP service handler. The ports from 8 to 47
are used for subsystem specific services. All remaining ports, from 48 to
63, are ephemeral ports used for outgoing connections. The bits from 28
to 31 are used for marking packets with HMAC, XTEA encryption,
RDP header and CRC32 checksum. Image courtesy of Wikipedia.
SpaceWire’s network layer has the following data frame format:
“One or
more address bytes are used for the routing. Addresses are either
physical ones (0-31) or logical ones. The difference is that the
physical addresses are deleted from the frame header during
routing – which is used for hop-based routing (based on path
specified in the frame itself). Logical addresses may be deleted
as well, depending on the router configuration” [Wikipedia].
The ESA has a draft specification in place for the Protocol
ID. The following Protocol ID’s have been assigned in ECSS-
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E-ST-50-11 [SpaceWire Handbook]:
Artemis CubeSat Kit Communication Protocol
general overview of COSMOS functional elements. Image courtesy of

Hawaii Space Flight Laboratory.
The Artemis CubeSat Kit uses a variety of physical layer

communication protocols, like SPI, I2C, UART, Camera
Software Interface (CSI), seen in Figure __. For Ethernet
connections, a SLIP protocol with a 16bit CRC appended to each

packet is used for any Serial interactions. At the data link and
network layers, standard IP protocols are used for all Ethernet
interactions; only UDP based protocols are used for Earth/Space
communications. The application layer displays information
through the COSMOS mission operations support tool (MOST).
General overview of COSMOS functional elements. Image courtesy of

Hawaii Space Flight Laboratory.
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Modes
Like the idea of modes in the power chapter, the command and
data handling system dictates and transitions between software
modes. The CDH system coordinates with the power
management system to dictate which components to supply
power to, the components to collect information from, and the
components to command. Each software mode has a series of
functions to perform and conditional gates to pass to
autonomously transition to the next mode. Mode transitions can
also be commanded by the ground from mission operators.
Common operating modes will be discussed in the mission
operations chapter but briefly include [Pasetti]:
• Stand-By Mode generates basic housekeeping

telemetry and listens for incoming telemetry but takes
no action to control the spacecraft. The satellite is
typically in this mode before it separates from the
launcher and in the first seconds after separation.
◦ Housekeeping telemetry includes

temperatures, pressures, voltages, currents
of critical components like pressure vessels
and batteries.
Software considerations could be the frequency at which we

ping the subsystems for this information, likened to the heartbeat
of the spacecraft.
NASA Uses Stateflow and Simulink Coder to Generate Fault-Protection

Code for Deep Space 1. NASA Uses Stateflow and Simulink Coder to
Generate Fault-Protection Code for Deep Space 1. By Dr. Wesley
Huntress Image courtesy of NASA and Mathworks.
• Initial Checkouts is typically entered after the satellite

has separated from the launcher. In this mode, the
satellite must perform its initialization, acquire a
nominal attitude, and communicate with ground as
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soon as possible. Initial checkouts may also be

entered as part of the recovery sequence after a
failure. The onboard computer must
◦ collect attitude and orbit information, then

calculate an initial estimate of attitude,
position, and rate
▪ Software considerations could be

the computational intensity of
processing the attitude and orbit
determination algorithms
onboard, the amount of sensor
measurements to keep post-
calculation, and the precision of
the attitude and orbit estimate.
◦ ensure that each subsystem can

communicate and reads sensible data, or
passes on housekeeping information from
all subsystem components to send to
mission operators to interpret state of health

the level to which we check the
functionality of each subsystem.
For passive components, a simple
measurement of the gyroscope
could be compared to the
expected tip-off rate from
deployment, encoded in an in
statement: if the gyroscope reads
an angular rate value within this

expected range, then the
gyroscope sensor is healthy and
the spacecraft is behaving as
expected. For active components,
a functionality check could be
spinning up reaction wheels,
ensuring that the wheels are
operating at the right current /
voltage, and measuring the
angular rate as a result of this
spin-up.
◦ must compress, store, and wait to transmit

this information to ground

the maximum size of data able to
transmit to ground, the necessary
information to transmit to ground,
and the degree to which we
compress the data to fit the
information in one ground pass.
• Normal Mode (NM): in NM the satellite performs the

tasks for which it was designed. Most of a mission is
to be spent in this mode if everything goes nominally.
This set of modes has functional modes for a nominal
mission but also has modes to catch failures. This set
of modes can be thought of as a state machine where
the spacecraft always occupies a specific mode but is
always checking to see if it should transition to
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another mode with conditional statements (if, then).
System level state-machine of the Flying Laptop mission.

Image courtesy of Researchgate by Jens Eickhoff.
▪ Science Operations – given

enough charge in the battery, the
onboard computer needs to
coordinate with the payload,
attitude control, and other
subsystems to conduct science
operations. The onboard
computer must
▪ calculate or be told
from mission operators
the relative orientation
of the subject to
observe for the payload
to point at
▪ coordinate with the

attitude control system
to point at that subject,

refer to the attitude
control function
▪ collect data from the

payload
▪ Software
consideration
s could be the
payload
throughput to
the flight
computer, the
total mass
storage on
board to hold
all the
payload data,
and the need
to compress
the payload
data.
▪ compress and store the

data in mass storage,
then wait to transmit
this information to
ground
▪ Data uplink and downlink – given

enough charge in the battery, the
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onboard computer needs to

coordinate with the
telecommunications, attitude
control, and other subsystems to
transmit and receive data. The
onboard computer must
▪ calculate the relative

orientation of a ground
station
▪ coordinate with the

attitude control system
to point toward and
track the ground station
during a ground pass,
refer to the attitude
control function
▪ transmit data to ground

station
▪ Software
consideration
s could be the
degree of
compression/
loss or
encryption
for the
transmitted
data packets.
▪ receive confirmation of
receipt and delete
redundant data from
mass storage
▪ rece
ive
co
mm
and
s or
oth
er
data
fro
m
gro
und
stati
on
▪ Spacecraft
charging / sun
pointing – if
the spacecraft
is not actively
in another
mode or the
battery needs
more charge,
the onboard
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computer
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coordinate
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758 • FRANCES ZHU
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764 • FRANCES ZHU
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▪ calc
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rela
tive
orie
766 • FRANCES ZHU
ntat
ion
of
the
sun
▪ coo
rdin
ate
wit
h
the
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ude
con
trol
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em
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and
trac
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refe
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attit
ude
con
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fun
ctio
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▪ exit
this
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bef
ore
the
batt
ery
ente
rs a
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ma
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and
uns
afe
cha
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g
768 • FRANCES ZHU
poi
nt
▪ Attitude
Control
Function –
the onboard
computer
must track,
point, or slew
at a desired
orientation or
angular rate
• Software considerations could be the processing rate

at which the estimation and control algorithms can
update (real-time operations) and the precision to
which the estimation algorithm can generate an
estimate / the control algorithm can point.
Master simulation including guidance, slew & tracking, thrust control, detumble
control, and mode logic. Image courtesy of Science Direct. Licensing made
available under Elsevier.
◦ Orbit Control Function – the onboard

computer must control the spacecraft’s
orbit, whether that be maintaining the same
orbit or transferring to a new orbit

the criticality of timing to achieve
the desired orbit.
◦ Failure Detection and Isolation – the

onboard computer must detect when a fault
or failure has occurred. A hardware failure
could manifest as sensor measurements that
are outside of expected bounds and persists
even after software reset. A software failure
due to radiation effects could manifest as
garbled data packets. A software failure due
to bad code could manifest as the spacecraft
getting stuck in modes or not handling
sensor measurements outside of expected
ranges. This mode must encode
autonomous transition to a safe mode in
which these discrepancies can be parsed out
or a software reset can happen safely.

how often we ping the
subsystems for state of health,
how often to evaluate if a failure
770 • FRANCES ZHU
has happened, to what degree we

explicitly encode fault detection
(amount of code), and where to
put conditional gates in other
mode’s code to detect failure.
◦ Failure Recovery – the onboard computer

must autonomously recover from a failure
when detected. Typically, failure recovery
comes out of a safe mode. This recovery
process could include reaching out to
mission operators for help if the spacecraft
is functional enough to transition between
modes. If the spacecraft is stuck in failure,
the last option could be rebooting the
system.

what software to keep in non-
volatile memory upon reboot and
the condition statements to
encode to lead to and from failure
recovery.
◦ Reconfigurations – the onboard computer

can accept software updates from ground to
improve performance, fix damaging code,
or finish unfinished code! In NASA’s Mars
rover Curiosity, the “software for Mars
surface operations was uploaded to the
rover’s memory during the Mars Science
Laboratory spacecraft’s flight from Earth”
[NASA].
• Safe Mode (SM): SM is entered after a very serious

anomaly has been detected. The objective of SM is to
keep the satellite in a safe state (ie. a state where no
permanent damage is done to it or its instruments)
and to keep the radio link with the ground open (to
allow the ground to identify the cause of the anomaly
and if possible to take remedial action).
Suggested Activity
Produce a script for your payload
Simulation/Emulators
Block diagram describing the interconnections between each module of

the StarBox spacecraft simulator by Henri Christian Kjellberg.
772 • FRANCES ZHU
We’d like to test our spacecraft on ground before we send it to

space and can’t change the design anymore. Testing rigorously
and comprehensively on ground can flesh out software glitches,
like being stuck in an unsafe mode or not being able to get out
of safe mode. To replicate the space environment and physics in
microgravity, we need to create or use a simulation that:
• replicates what the spacecraft would feel or see from

the environment
◦ Atmospheric density, pressure, temperature
◦ Magnetic field
◦ Sun position yields solar pressure,

irradiance
▪ Temperature distribution of
spacecraft
▪ Power generation from solar

panels
◦ Earth albedo or other planetary albedo
▪ Optical brightness
◦ Star map
• spoofs measurements that the sensors would read

within the spacecraft
◦ Pressure transducer based upon

atmospheric density, pressure
◦ Thermistor or temperature sensor from

atmospheric temperature and sun solar
irradiance
◦ Magnetometer based on magnetic field and

electromagnetic interference noise
◦ Attitude based upon stars in field of view
• propagates orbital mechanics and attitude dynamics
◦ Atmospheric density, pressure, temperature

leads to atmospheric drag
◦ Sun position leads to solar pressure
◦ Magnetic field leads to magnetic torque
◦ thruster and momentum control

contribution
◦ integral to developing attitude and orbit

control algorithms
Simulation software is written in MATLAB, C, C++, Python,

Java, Ruby, etc.:
• 42 is a comprehensive general-purpose simulation of

spacecraft attitude and orbit dynamics. Its primary
purpose is to support design and validation of attitude
control systems, from concept studies through
integration and test.
GMAT is designed to model, optimize, and estimate spacecraft

trajectories in flight regimes ranging from low Earth orbit to
lunar applications, interplanetary trajectories, and other deep
space missions. Analysts model space missions in GMAT by
774 • FRANCES ZHU
first creating resources such as spacecraft, propagators,

estimators, and optimizers.
GMAT solution is shown that uses a low thrust propulsion system and a
cube-sat for a lunar mission. Image courtesy of GMAT Wiki.
• Orekit, a low level space dynamics library written in

Java, has gained widespread recognition since it was
released under an open source license in 2008.
• Basilisk astrodynamics software architecture is being

designed to be capable of both faster-than realtime
simulations, including repeatable Monte-Carlo
simulation options, as well as providing real-time
options for hardware-in-the-loop simulations.
• Poliastro is an open source (MIT) collection of

Python functions useful in Astrodynamics and Orbital
Mechanics, focusing on interplanetary applications. It
provides a simple and intuitive API and handles
physical quantities with units.
• STK SOLIS is a commercial plug-in to the Analytical

Graphics, Inc (AGI) Systems ToolKit (STK™)
mission analysis software, providing integrated end-
to-end spacecraft simulation.
COSMOS architecture includes the visualization tools, support

tools, and underlying programs that produce and manipulate
the data needed by the rest of the tool sets. It combines both
the software and unique hardware needed to support mission
operations, including an operations test bed (OTB) and
simulators. The simulators are all software applications, and
the OTB combines simulators with spacecraft hardware where
possible to mimic as closely as possible the reaction of the
spacecraft to commands and operational states.
The functional flow block diagram of COSMOS to show interaction

between major processes. Image courtesy of COSMOS
To select a simulation, consider:

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• Capabilities to :
◦ Define a parameters of body

◦ Simulate attitude dynamics
◦ Orbit modeling and simulation
◦ Control policy design
◦ Availability of constants and coordinates
◦ Integrators
• Extensive documentation and tutorials found on this

website.
• 3-D Visualization for orbits and trajectories
• Time to set up for concept studies
• Extrapolation to the entire CubeSat design and

mission lifetime
• Programming Language
• Maintenance and Support

Mission Operations Interface
MOST Overview Display for 3-U CubeSat.Created by Miguel A Nunes
Mission operators need to monitor various critical aspects of

the spacecraft (the state of health, orbit, attitude) and be able
to command the spacecraft (desired mode, attitude, orbit). A
graphical user interface (GUI) is a visually intuitive interface
for mission operators to be able to monitor and command the
spacecraft, although we weren’t always able to get such high
definition or visual aids in our monitors. The number of
monitors necessary to view critical information depends on the
complexity of the mission. The Apollo missions were huge
projects and the technology for monitor displays were much
coarser in the amount of pixels that could display information.
The mission operations team resorted to many monitors (and
physical buttons for commands), typically one or monitor per
subsystem, to be able to support the flagship mission
[Hutchinson]. Today, we can have a single mission operator in
front of one LCD display monitoring all of the subsystems and
778 • FRANCES ZHU
speak directly to the spacecraft, which is a reasonable task for

small spacecraft like cubesats.
View of the Apollo Mission Control Center. Space Center Houston.

The CDH specialist will collaborate with the mission operations

specialist to help create an intuitive and informative interface.
Outside of making sure the spacecraft data reaches the mission
control center, the data must be intuitively displayed on the
monitors. For values that are changing with time, like orbital
trajectories or power draw, time series are intuitive displays. For
attitude or angular rate for tumbling or pointing, an updating,
rotating CAD could be the most intuitive way to display this
information. Precise numbers could display values like latitude
and longitude of a ground track. This process also helps the
CDH specialist know what information the spacecraft should

transmit back to ground.
Close up view of a mission operator’s monitor and buttons at the Apollo

mission control center.Space Center Houston. Image courtesy of NASA.

here:
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Standalone TBD
781
3.2 ITAR/EAR
International Traffic in Arms logo. Image courtesy of Curbell Plastics.
• understand ITAR/EAR restrictions,
• identify which common spacecraft components fall

under each category, and
• how these restrictions affect the spacecraft design
783
784 • FRANCES ZHU
process.
• a brief history on how ITAR/EAR came about,

• what the intentions are, and
• stories about how our engineers have dealt with

ITAR/EAR (lessons learned/best practices).
Aliie’s quoted text about GPS:
(d) Guidance and navigation systems or end items, as follows:
(1) Guidance or navigation systems (e.g., inertial navigation

systems, inertial reference units, attitude and heading reference
systems) having any of the following:
(I) A circular error probability at fifty percent (CEP50)

of position error rate less (better) than 0.28 nautical miles
per hour, without the use of positional aiding references;
(II) A heading error or true north determination of less

(better) than 0.28 mrad secant (latitude) (0.016043
degrees secant (latitude)), without the use of positional
aiding references;
(III) A CEP50 of position error rate less than 0.2 nautical

miles in an 8 hour period, without the use of positional
aiding references; or
(IV) Meeting or exceeding specified performance at

linear acceleration levels exceeding 25g (MT if designed
or modified for rockets, missiles, SLVs, drones, or
unmanned aerial vehicle systems capable of a range
greater than or equal to 300 km or incorporating

accelerometers specified in paragraph (e)(11) or
gyroscopes or angular rate sensors specified in paragraph
(e)(12) of this category that are designated MT);
Note 1 to paragraph (D)(1):
For a rocket, SLV, or missile flight control and guidance systems

(including guidance sets), see Category IV(h).
Inertial measurement units are described in paragraph (e) of this

category.
(2) Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) receiving

equipment, as follows:
(I) GNSS receiving equipment specially designed for

military applications (MT if designed or modified for
airborne applications and capable of providing navigation
information at speeds in excess of 600 m/s);
(II) Global Positioning System (GPS) receiving

equipment specially designed for encryption or
decryption (e.g., Y-Code, M-Code) of GPS precise
positioning service (PPS) signals (MT if designed or
modified for airborne applications);
(III) GNSS receiving equipment specially designed for

use with an antenna described in Category XI(c)(10) (MT
if designed or modified for airborne applications); or
786 • FRANCES ZHU
(IV) GNSS receiving equipment specially designed for

use with rockets, missiles, SLVs, drones, or unmanned air
vehicle systems capable of delivering at least a 500 kg
payload to a range of at least 300 km (MT);
Note to paragraph (D)(2)(IV):
“Payload” is the total mass that can be carried or delivered by the

specified rocket, missile, SLV, drone, or unmanned aerial vehicle
that is not used to maintain flight. For definition of “range” as it
pertains to rocket systems, see Note 1 to paragraph (a) of USML
Category IV. For definition of “range” as it pertains to aircraft
systems, see Note 2 to paragraph (a) of USML Category VIII.
(3) GNSS anti-jam systems specially designed for use with an

antenna described in Category XI(c)(10);
(4) Mobile relative gravimeters having automatic motion

compensation with an in-service accuracy of less (better) than
0.4 mGal (MT if designed or modified for airborne or marine use
and having a time to steady-state registration of two minutes or
less);
(5) Mobile gravity gradiometers having an accuracy of less

(better) than 10 Eotvos squared per radian per second for any
component of the gravity gradient tensor, and having a spatial
gravity wavelength resolution of 50 m or less (MT if designed or
modified for airborne or marine use);
Note to paragraph (D)(5):
“Eotvos” is a unit of acceleration divided by distance that was

used in conjunction with the older centimeter-gram-second

system of units. The Eotvos is defined as 1/1,000,000,000
Galileo (Gal) per centimeter.
(6) Developmental guidance or navigation systems funded by

the Department of Defense (MT if designed or modified for
rockets, missiles, SLVs, drones, or unmanned aerial vehicle
systems capable of a range equal to or greater than 300 km).
This paragraph does not control guidance or navigation systems:

(a) in production, (b) determined to be subject to the EAR via
a Commodity Jurisdiction determination (see § 120.4 of this
subchapter), or (c) identified in the relevant Department of
Defense contract or other funding authorization as being
developed for both civil and military applications.
Note 1 does not apply to defense articles enumerated on the U.S.

Munitions List, whether in production or development.
This provision is applicable to those contracts or other funding

authorizations that are dated October 12, 2017, or later.
For a definition of “range” as it pertains to rocket systems, see

Note 1 to paragraph (a) of USML Category IV. For a definition
788 • FRANCES ZHU
of “range” as it pertains to aircraft systems, see Note 2 to

paragraph (a) of USML Category VIII.
Suggested Activity
Search for ITAR/EAR and COTS versions (at least 5) of the

same component (non and space qualified) and describe the
different controls on these components. What restrictions are on
most of the units? Why is there this distinction? “
3.5 Orbits
Orbits may be classified by centric (the orbit center), altitude

for geocentric orbits, inclination, directional, eccentricity, and
synchronicity. To signify which planetary body the spacecraft
orbits about, various prefixes are concatenated to the word
centric, like Jovicentric for Jupiter, but it is sufficient to say
Jupter orbit to imply a Jovicentric orbit. The most common
centric orbit is geocentric or Earth orbit.
As of April 2020, we have 2,666 operational satellites currently

orbiting Earth (check out this very cool open source database
of all operational satellites around Earth!) [UCS]. Geocentric
orbits may be broken down by altitude: Low Earth orbit (altitude
< 2,000 km), Geosynchronous orbit (altitude of 35,786 km),
Medium Earth orbit (between LEO and GEO, altitude from
2,000 km to 35,786 km), and High Earth orbit (above GEO,
altitude above 35,786 km). Geosynchronous orbits are unique
in that the satellite’s orbit matches the rotation of the Earth,
enabling the same view of the Earth 24/7. The most common
geocentric orbit is LEO.
789
790 • FRANCES ZHU
Inclination, or i, is the angle of the orbital plane from the

equatorial plane, where 0 degrees is the equatorial orbit.
Inclination can range from 0 to 180 degrees, where a 90 degree
inclination is called a polar orbit. 180 degrees of inclination is
also an equatorial orbit but the satellite orbital direction is the
opposite of the 0 degree equatorial orbit. As 0 to 90 degree
inclination looks symmetric to the 90 to 180 degree inclination,
the inclination of orbits may be broken further down into the
direction of orbit: prograde (0 to 90) and retrograde (90 to
180). “The satellite’s inclination depends on what the satellite
was launched to monitor. Many of the satellites in NASA’s
Earth Observing System have a nearly polar orbit. In this highly
inclined orbit, the satellite moves around the Earth from pole to
pole, taking about 99 minutes to complete an orbit. During one
half of the orbit, the satellite views the daytime side of the Earth.
At the pole, the satellite crosses over to the nighttime side of
Earth” [NASA Earth Observatory].
Eccentricity is another orbital element that is commonly defined

in spacecraft missions. There are closed orbits (periodic) orbits
and open (escape) orbits. We commonly see orbiters in closed
orbits, tracing out a circular or elliptical path in the orbital plane,
seen in Fig _left_. Circular orbits are cases of 0 eccentricity.
A common circular orbit is the geosynchronous orbit. Elliptic
orbits range in eccentricity greater than 0 but less than 1. A
common elliptic orbit is the geosynchronous transfer orbit from
LEO. An elliptic orbit has a semi-major axis (longest distance
from geometric center to edge) and a semi-minor axis (shortest
distance from geometric center to edge), seen in Figure _right_.
The planetary body does not reside at the geometric center in
an elliptical orbit but closer to an extreme point. Of the escape

orbits, the parabolic orbit has an eccentricity of exactly 1. The
spacecraft retains precisely the velocity to escape (or stay
within) the gravitational pull of the planet. Motion away from
the planet yields an escape orbit, and motion directly toward
yields a capture orbit. For many of our orbiters around other
planets, like Juno, the orbiter must burn propellant to adjust its
velocity from preceding orbits to achieve orbit insertion into a
capture orbit. For sending spacecraft to these distant planets, the
rockets had to supply more than enough momentum to escape
Earth, entering the hyperbolic orbit. Hyperbolic orbits have an
eccentricity greater than 1 and can characterize nearly every
spacecraft’s trajectory we send to fly by planets or into deep
space.
For the sake of simplicity, the satellite’s height, eccentricity,

and inclination are the minimal parameters a mission designer
must know to determine the satellite’s path and what view it
will have of Earth [NASA Earth Observatory]. The other orbital
parameters are important for detailed propagation and trajectory
analysis. There are other special classifications of orbits but
for the Artemis CubeSat kit, the cubesat is known to function
around LEO so we will focus on LEO.
Orbital Mechanics
◦ dynamics of spaceflight; concept of

gravitational well; orbital motion; Kepler’s
Laws; the case of circular orbits
◦ elliptical orbits; reference frames; orbital

792 • FRANCES ZHU
maneuvers; perturbations of orbital motion;

peculiar orbits
◦ Rendezvous in Low Earth Orbit (LEO);
relative motion of the chaser vs. the target.
Strategy to successfully achieve a
rendezvous in LEO
◦ Interplanetary trajectories; Gravity Assist or

Slingshot maneuvers
◦ Propulsion in space – law of propulsion;

concept of specific impulse; types of
thrusters; electric propulsion; ascent into
space, and re-entry
Understand the different types of Earth-centric orbits (tie in from

previous lecture)
• LEO
• SSO
• MEO
• GEO
• Planetary Surfaces
• Deep Space
– Understand how choice of orbits drives system and subsystem

requirements
– Design orbits for a given Earth-centric mission

Orbital Mechanics Demonstration
Toggle altitude, eccentricity, and inclination
Map out coverage of Earth

3.6 The Space Environment
Image source: A close-up of an erupting prominence with Earth

inset at the approximate scale of the image. Taken on July 1,
2002. Credits: ESA&NASA/SOHO
The environment on Earth’s surface has commonalities and

differences from the space environment, past Earth’s
atmosphere; this boundary is defined by the Karman line. The
Earth’s atmosphere protects us ground dwellers from an
immense amount of cosmic radiation, plasma, and
micrometeoroids. Earth’s magnetic field protects us from solar
wind particles, part of the phenomena of space weather [NASA].
In the space environment and common to our surface
environment, spacecraft have to interact with gravity,
electromagnetic radiation (in differing doses), atmospheric
particles (in differing density). Although the spacecraft does
technically interact with atmosphere particles past the Karman
line, the spacecraft functions in a near-vacuum, approaching a
truer vacuum farther into space. In this section, we will define
794
each physical phenomena (with equations!), discuss how each

physical phenomena affects the spacecraft subsystems, and
explore the dominance of each phenomena in orbital regimes.
Similarities to our environment Unique to space environment
Gravity Cosmic radiation
Electromagnetic radiation Plasma
Atmospheric particles Micrometeoroids
Vacuum
Planetary surface albedo
Gravity
Full video can be found at: File:Apollo 15 feather and hammer

drop
All things with mass or energy experience gravity, the

phenomenon that brings objects or light toward (or gravitate
toward) one another. For objects in space with a large enough
796 • FRANCES ZHU
mass, proximal smaller mass will be brought toward the larger

mass, like the sun attracting planets and like an apple falling
toward Earth. The larger mass moves toward the smaller mass
too but if the mass difference is large, the large mass’ movement
is imperceivable. Discovered in 1687, Newton’s law of
gravitation related the “forces which keep the planets in their
orbs must [be] reciprocally as the squares of their distances from
the centers about which they revolve: and thereby compared the
force requisite to keep the Moon in her Orb with the force of
gravity at the surface of the Earth; and found them answer pretty
nearly.”
F = Gm1m2r2
Where F is the force, m1 and m2 are the masses of the objects

interacting, r is the distance between the centers of the masses
and G is the gravitational constant. For our interest in satellites,
the force of gravity on a spacecraft from orbiting a planet is
related to the mass of the spacecraft, the mass of the planet, the
gravitational constant, and the distance between the center of
the spacecraft and the center of the planet. The mass to force
relationship is straightforward: the more massive the satellite,
the more gravitational force, and vice versa. The interesting
relationship in this equation is the inverse squared relationship
between force and distance. As the satellite moves farther away,
the force of gravity steeply drops off, which explains why we
need a rocket to get off the Earth’s surface but we only need
spacecraft thrusters once we’re in orbit.
Distance in relation to gravitational field.
We care about gravity in spacecraft design because we want to

know how fast the spacecraft is moving in its orbit or how fast
the spacecraft needs to move to be captured or escape a planet’s
gravity. Let’s assume for all cases, the mass of our satellite is
significantly less than the planet we’re orbiting, which is a very
reasonable assumption.
For the simplest circular orbit of very little eccentricity, the

velocity may be approximated as
Where v_o is the orbit velocity, M is the planet’s mass, and the
other variables carry over from the gravity equation.
798 • FRANCES ZHU
calculate the orbital velocity of an object orbiting the moon at 20

km above the Moon’s surface
R_moon = 1738.1 km
R = 1,758,100 m
V_o = 1,669.5 m/s
For closed orbits, the spacecraft’s orbital period is given by the

formula
T = 2r3GM
A direct analogy may be made to the satellite revisit period, is

the time elapsed between observations of the same point on earth
by a satellite.
Fun history: astronomers couldn’t directly measure how far

away the other planets were but they could observe the time it
took for the same planet to complete an orbit around the sun by
observing the sky. Astronomers would use a reorganized version
of the orbital period formula
r = (GMT242 )1/3 to calculate the distance of the planet from the

sun.
If we were to calculate the escape velocity of a spacecraft

leaving a planet’s surface, the escape velocity for that body, at a
given distance, is calculated by the formula
If we were to shoot a cubesat from the Moon’s surface into outer

space, how fast would it need to go to escape Moon’s gravity?
G = 6.67430×10−11 m3⋅kg–1⋅s–2
M = 7.342×10^22 kg
R_moon = 1738.1 km
R = 1,738,100 m
V_o = \sqrt(2GM/r) = \sqrt(2 * 6.67430×10−11 *7.342×10^22 /

1,738,100)
V_o = 2374.58 m/s
For comparison, the escape velocity from Earth’s surface is

about 11,186 m/s!
800 • FRANCES ZHU
More generally for orbits of any eccentricity, the instantaneous

orbital speed of a body at any given point in its trajectory takes
both the mean distance and the instantaneous distance into
account:
where μ is the standard gravitational parameter of the orbited

body, r is the distance at which the speed is to be calculated, and
a is the length of the semi-major axis of the elliptical orbit.
Now that we know how to calculate instantaneous velocity of

a spacecraft, we can calculate satellite revisit time, apply basic
knowledge of orbits to propulsive systems, and calculate effects
of other environment phenomena that depend on spacecraft
velocity.
Relevant parameters: altitude, eccentricity, planet mass
Outputs: orbit velocity, orbital period
Atmosphere
Our atmosphere consists of a rich abundance of nitrogen,

oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide, etc. [Wikipedia]. While we
humans may appreciate this fluid as a medium for life,
spacecraft view our atmosphere as more of a burden of particles
to push through (producing aerodynamic forces); think of
capsules, space shuttles, or rockets that must re-enter our
atmosphere.

here:
Full Video at LDSD: Supersonic Test Flight

here:
Full Video at Space Shuttle Heat Protection – Last Flight of Spaceshuttle

Columbia – BBC

here:
Full Video at Falcon 9 First Stage Reentry Footage from Plane

802 • FRANCES ZHU
Significant heat builds up from the spacecraft hitting many,

many, many atmospheric particles at high speed.
The atmosphere varies in air pressure and density, decreasing

with altitude. The atmosphere may be broken into different
layers corresponding to temperature behavior [Wikipedia]:
804 • FRANCES ZHU
Earths Atmosphere. Image courtesy of Wikimedia.
Earth’s atmosphere Lower 4 layers of the atmosphere in 3

dimensions as seen diagonally from above the exobase. Layers
drawn to scale, objects within the layers are not to scale. Aurorae
shown here at the bottom of the thermosphere can actually form
at any altitude in this atmospheric layer.
• Exosphere: 700 to 10,000 km (440 to 6,200 miles)
• Thermosphere: 80 to 700 km (50 to 440 miles)
• Mesosphere: 50 to 80 km (31 to 50 miles)
• Stratosphere: 12 to 50 km (7 to 31 miles)
• Troposphere: 0 to 12 km (0 to 7 miles)
We care about the region past the Karaman line, starting at

100 km, which includes the Thermosphere and Exosphere. Past
the Exosphere’s altitude of influence at about 10,000 km, “the
influence of solar radiation pressure on atomic hydrogen
exceeds that of Earth’s gravitational pull” [Wikipedia]; solar
winds start stripping away the exosphere. As this layer’s atoms
and molecules are so far apart, the spacecraft experiences near
vacuum and is not significantly affected by atmospheric drag.
This layer is very cold, affecting the spacecraft bus subsystem
survivability.
In the majority of the thermosphere, spacecraft in LEO

experience increased drag that causes orbital velocities to
increase, altitude to decrease, and eventual reentry into Earth’s

atmosphere.
https://ccmc.gsfc.nasa.gov/RoR_WWW/SWREDI/2015/
SatDrag_YZheng_060415.pdf
Relevant parameters: pressure, density, temperature, orbital

velocity, spacecraft area
Outputs: orbital velocity
Solar pressure
Solar energy
Space radiation https://www.nasa.gov/analogs/nsrl/why-space-

radiation-matters
Cosmic rays
Solar flares https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/sunearth/

spaceweather/index.html
Relevant parameters:
Micrometeoroids/Orbital debris
High velocity impacts

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Plasma
Spacecraft charging, arcing
http://assets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9500.pdf
https://www.spenvis.oma.be/help/background/charging/
charging.html#SPI
Interstellar Medium
Particles that slow you down
Near Vacuum
Outgassing
Less signal loss
From Akin:
Planetary environments – deep space? temp
Electromagnetic radiation
Gravitation
Atmospheric particles
Newtonian flow
Ionizing radiation
Micrometeoroids/orbital debris
Spacecraft charging
From space environment implications for spacecraft design:
I like these photos but we can’t use them directly. Use the
information inside
define and mathematical expressions
relevant parameters
definition effects at different regimes:
Suborbital – < Karman line of 100 km
LEO – > Karman line of 100 km < 2,000 km)
MEO – from 2,000 km to 35,786 km
GEO – altitude of 35,786 km

808 • FRANCES ZHU
HEO – altitude above 35,786 km
Sun Synchronous
Planetary Surfaces
Deep Space
percent dominance of each physical phenomena
Atmosphere drag:
“•Track and identify active payloads and debris
• Collision avoidance and re-entry prediction
• Attitude Dynamics
• Constellation control
• “Drag Make-Up” maneuvers to keep satellite in

control box
• Delayed acquisition of SATCOM links for

commanding /data transmission
• Mission design and lifetime
• Study the atmosphereʼs density (and temperature)

profiles”
This is where you can add appendices or other back matter.
809

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EPET 400: Spacecraft Mission Design

EPET 400: Spacecraft Mission

• online resources in the public domain; fun fact, all

◦ Many smart people publish quality work

◦ In the realm of academic tradition, some

◦ You’ll gain direct access to the sources that

• beautiful graphics that would otherwise be too big on

• video lectures that you would get in a lecture on a

• interactive content assessments through the

• lab modules and tutorials around the Artemis CubeSat

• best practices and lessons learned from experienced

You may still download the textbook in static forms, like as

Comparison with Other Courses and References

With respect to other online courses, this online course includes

You’ll notice that this course/textbook is a hybrid of an in-

person course, a textbook, and an online course. The educational

Programming languages: Python, C++, C, JSON

Software Applications: Web Browser, Microsoft Excel,

• Algebra, Trigonometry, Pre-Calculus (vectors,

• Calculus (derivatives, integrals, differentials)

• Linear algebra (matrices and operations)

• Mechanics & Motion, Newton’s Laws, Energy,

• Waves and Light

• Thermodynamics, thermal properties, heat transfer

• Electrical Engineering (circuitry, current, voltage,

• Static Systems, Dynamical Systems

• Control Systems & Algorithms, propagation

• Scale of the universe

• Characteristics of the solar system, Sun, and Earth

• Conditions in space (gravitation, orbit, motion,

• conduct finite element analysis and stress/loading

• reading part drawings and specification sheets,

• navigating file directories through terminal,

• prototyping using 3d printing methods,

• using basic shop/lab tools (such as measurement

• using COSMOS or COSMOS-web to receive and

• handling basic circuitry, wires, and delicate

• using safety precautions, culture, and PPE as

• seeking help amongst peers, mentors, on online

• teamwork and communication

• (see surveys, development side — not too familiar

Amber Imai-Hong is an Avionics Engineer and Outreach

13 years, Amber has worked on eight satellite projects, three

Dr. Trevor Sorensen is a specialist professor and project

Achievement. Dr. Sorensen was the program manager for the

collaborative scholarship in higher education. He lives in

LynleyShimat Lys is a nonbinary queer disabled poet,

Katlynn Vicuna was born and raised in Boston Massachusetts.

be in the Ka ‘ie ‘ie program, which is a degree pathway program.

Lee Danielle Young

1.1 When? (Past, Present, Future)

1.2 Who? (Major Players)

1.3 Why? (Applications)

1.4 What? (Spacecraft Definition)

1.5 How? (The General Design Process)

• Answer key questions of who, what,

Spacecraft design is riddled with space heritage: (1) heritage

spacecraft engineers, a brief history of how aerospace became a

Hypatia of Alexandria: A Classical Age Female Scholar by Mark Miller.

We, as a human species, have long dreamed of going to the

members or mentors with little public recognition include

Destination Moon: A 70th Anniversary Appreciation by Paul Gilster.

A golden age of science fiction played a huge role in

inspiring and proposing innovative, sometimes scientifically