Steel Structures - II

CIE 4115, 2021, Lecture 1

Introduction
M.Veljkovic, Dep.: Engineering Structures
Group: Steel and Composite Structures

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2021: Lecture 1- short version, in addition to 2017 video lecture
Manufacturing of steel, basic material
properties, products

Content
• Manufacturing of steel
• Basic material properties.
• Steel products.
• Sustainability aspects of design by steel.

Learning objective
• Explain the basic material properties and how
production/fabrication routes influence characteristics of
the steel material/products relevant for design and its
sustainable use in construction. 2
WHAT IS STEEL?

1. Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon containing less

than 2% carbon and 1% manganese and small amounts
of silicon, phosphorus, sulphur and oxygen.

2. 3,500 different grades of steel with many different

physical, chemical, and environmental properties, 75%
of which developed in the last 20 years.

3. Steel is 100% recyclable with no downgrading in

quality, which makes steel the most recycled material in
the world.

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MANUFACTURING OF STEEL- IMPACT

Electrical
furnace can
use only
steel scrap.

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FOSSIL FREE STEEL (2030-2050)

Hydrogen
economy

• An effective process to use 100% hydrogen on an

industrial scale.
• •To produce hydrogen in a competitive way.
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MANUFACTURING OF STEEL
PRODUCTS

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APPLICATION OF STEEL

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 BASIC MATERIAL PROPERTIES
THE MOST COMMON GRADE OF MATERIALS
Material Property Steel Concrete Timber
Strength fy, fu [MPa] 355, 490 25-60 25-40
Elastic modulus [GPa] 210 30 10

Nominal values of yield strength fy and ultimate tensile strength fu for structural
steels conforming to the following standards: EN 10025, EN 10210 and EN 10219
Nominal thickness of the element t [mm]
Steel grade a) t ≤ 40 mm 40 mm < t ≤ 80 mm
fy [N/mm2] fu [N/mm2] fy [N/mm2] fu [N/mm2]
Draft of
S 235 235 360 215 360
EN1993-1-1
S 275 275 390 245 370
S 355 355 490 325 470
(v.2022)
S 420 420 510 390 490
S 460 460 540 410 510
S 500 500 580 450 580
S 550 550 600 500 600
S 600 600 650 550 650
S 620 620 700 560 660
S 690 690 770 630 710
a) Principal symbols in EN 10027-1. 8
 MATERIAL PROPERTIES: TYPICAL
COUPON TEST RESULTS

Design model:
1.Elastic
2.elastic-plastic
3.Elastic-plastic-
hardening

EN 10002: Metallic materials – Tensile testing

EN 10002-1: Method of testing (at ambient temperature, 54 p.)
EN 10002-5: Method of testing at the elevated temperature

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MATERIAL PROPERTIES

• EN 1993-1-1

E=210 GPa

E=210 GPa

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BASIC MATERIAL PROPERTIES

Nominal values of yield strength fy and

ultimate tensile strength fu for hot rolled
structural steel
EN 1993-1-1: 2005 (E)
Table 3.1. values depending
on the thickness t ≤ 40 mm
and 40 mm < t ≤ 80 mm,
p. 27-28
Nominal values of yield strength fy and
ultimate tensile strength fu for structural
hollow sections

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EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

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MILD STEEL VS HSS

S690/6mm
S235/? mm

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 TENSILE TESTS
• Advanced testing in hydraulic jack using cameras for
DIC (Digital Image Correlation) method

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TENSILE TEST (COUPON SPECIMEN)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D8U4G5kcpcM

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 TENSILE TESTS

• Original images
(inverted)

• Digital Image
Correlation
method

a) initial b) at necking point c) before fracture f) after fracture

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 TENSILE TESTS

• Cross sections - longitudinal

80

70

60
True longitudinal strain (%)

50
0.5p
p - yield point
40
0.5n
n - necking point
30 0.1r
0.2r
20
0.4r
0.6r
0.8r
10 r - rapture point

0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55

Path along specimen (mm)

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ENGINEERING VS. TRUE STRESS-
STRAIN DIAGRAM

• Mild steel (low carbon steel)- S275/S355

• High Strength Steel - S700

s T = s ( 1 + e ) eT = ln( 1 + e )
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TRUE STRESS VS. TRUE STRAIN

• True stresses, the stress at the actual area,

• Material volume is constant

• Trues strain, increase of the deformation related to

actual gage length,

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3D PRINTED STEEL
3D PRINTING A STAINLESS STEEL PEDESTRIAN BRIDGE
SAFE DESIGN BY EXPERIMENTS
MSc thesis, T.H.C. Tebbens, 04-09-2018

Anisotropic:
Preliminary results from
Vittoria Laghi, UniBo
f y,long = 305 MPa
f y ,trans = 350 MPa
f y,diag = 320 MPa

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3D PRINTED BRIDGE, AMSTERDAM
2021

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3D PRINTED CARBON STEEL
ELECTRODES, TUD 2020-2022

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REDUCTION OF STEEL STRENGTH AND
STIFFNESS C IE51
Reduction factor
Reduktionsfaktor 31, Q
Effective yield strength 3
1 k y, q = f y, q / f y

0.8

0.6

Slope of linear elastic range

0.4 k E, q = E a, q /E a

Proportional limit
k p, q = f p, q / f y
0.2

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

Temperatur [°C]

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STEEL PRODUCTS IN CONSTRUCTION

Steel products:
Hot rolled sections H, I, U, L about 60%
Plates about 20%
Coated sheets, Cold rolled sections, pipes about 20%.

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 STEEL PRODUCTS IN CONSTRUCTION -
LONG PRODUCTS

• IPE is the least expensive solution for beams, depths

ranging from 80 to 600 mm.
• HE range from 100 to 1000 mm, the most economic to use
because it has the smallest thickness of the flanges and the
web.

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STEEL PRODUCTS - FLAT PRODUCTS

Width 750 mm Width 750 mm

Width 880 mm Width 720 mm

Width 880 mm
Width 800 mm

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GEOMETRIC DATA

• Dimensions, shapes
• Nominal values, characteristic values

• EN 1090 (and product standards) establishes two types of

tolerances:
• Fundamental tolerances – required to ensure resistance
and stability of the structure;
• Functional tolerances – required to ensure aesthetical
appearance of the structure.

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GEOMETRIC CHARACTERISTICS AND
TOLERANCES

• Quality of execution
EN 1990-2
• Contractual element
To give the requirements that are
needed to secure that the
assumptions made during design
are fulfilled through the execution.
• Technical element
To give rules which secure that
the components of the structure
have a mechanical resistance that
comply with the CPD, CE-mark.

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GEOMETRIC CHARACTERISTICS AND
TOLERANCES, EN 10034- PRODUCT STANDARD
• EN 1090-2, Essential
erection tolerances –
Single storey columns

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LONGITUDINAL RESIDUAL STRESSES

Cold formed sections, higher tensile strength in the corners

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LONGITUDINAL RESIDUAL STRESSES
ROLLED AND WELDED SECTIONS
(SCHEMATIC)

70
120 120
+ +
- - - -

70
+ +
• - • -
< 1,2 > 1,2
•

• •
+ +
70 70
• 120 120

1,5tf 1,5t
fyk

fyk
+ + +
- - -
3tf
1,5tw
sc

3t

sc
+
t
tf

3tw

tw - t
+
sc fyk

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 LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS

• Modular information for the different stages of

building assessment (EN15978:2011)

Impacts specific to building and site

MODULE D
Impacts specific to building in operation

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CRADLE TO GATE: HOT FINISHED
CRADLE TO GRAVE: COLD FORMED

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 STEEL INTENSIVE STRUCTURES IN
FUTURE

Expectations:
- Lower costs for maintenance
- Lower costs for investment

4R approach in design:
- Reduce (energy and resources)
- Reuse (multiple lives)
- Remanufacture (restoring) 14
.4
m
m
- Recycle (change in physical form) 5.2

https://www.tudelft.nl/citg/over-faculteit/afdelingen/engineering-
structures/sections-labs/steel-and-composite-structures/research/research-
lines/design-for-reuse/reduce/ 34
2021 Lecture 1
Material properties, products, fabrication,
design and verification
Questions

• What are production routes for steel?

• What is an impact of steel products on our environment?
• What are basic material properties of steel and how are
they defined?
• What is influence of elevated temperatures on yield
strength [ f y ] and modulus of elasticity [E]?
• Which are the most common products used in the
construction?

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