CATTLE PRODUCTION LECTURE NOTES

Instructor: DR MUHORO-0700158947

Course Description: An overview of the cattle industry and systems of production, growth and
development of cattle breeds; detailed application of principles of breeding and selection, nutrition,
reproductive physiology, herd health, carcass evaluation and marketing in beef production. Includes a
visit to a slaughter house, ranch and feed lot.

While no one course can be expected to deal in comprehensive detail with all aspects of the cattle
industry, this course provides a detailed overview of the necessary subject matter for students who are
already in the industry or those who are new to the industry. Elements such as nutrition, production,
reproduction, and carcass evaluation and marketing are dealt with in details.

Course Aim: To help students to analyse and make informed decisions about the management
requirements of cattle.

Course Objectives: Students will demonstrate an understanding of nutrition, genetics, reproduction,

health, marketing, and carcass evaluation. Students will know the segments of the cattle production
value chain.

At the end of presentations, Cattle Production class should be able to acquire an acceptable level of
competence and confidence in the application of theoretical principles and in the demonstration of
practical skills for production of cattle. Students should also be able to describe and explain the
principles and practices of beef cattle husbandry and management.

The objectives of the course therefore are;

i. To help students to analyze and make informed decisions about the management requirements
of cattle.
ii. To provide students through practical lessons and demonstrations, an opportunity to develop
skills required for successful rearing of cattle either at homestead level or on commercial scale
iii. To arouse the interest of students in cattle production as an economically viable and sustainable
enterprise in Kenya.

Course Topics and Schedule

WEEK LECTURE PRACTICAL NOTES LAB

1 Introduction to cattle Unit
cattle/Industry Overview

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2 cattle production Systems
3 breeding and Genetics Breeds of cattle branding

4 reproductive physiology Calf

management,dehorning,castratio
n
5 growth and Livestock handling Unit
development/compensator
y growth
6 Herd health processing
7 Structures and Equipment
for Cattle Production
8 nutrition and body Feed lot
condition scoring
9 Commercial Herd evaluation and pricing
Management -breeding
herd management,cow-
calf,back grounder, feed
lot
10 New technologies in
production
11 cattle transport and
Marketing
12 Carcass evaluation, Meat quality and yield grades
grading/beef cuts/ meat
standards
13 Visit to a slaughter house, beef
ranch and feed lot
Reading List
1. Barrett, M. A. and P. J. Larkin (1974). Milk and Meat Production in the Tropics. pp. 1-20. Oxford
University Press, London. pp. ISBN 0-19-859440-2
2. Hill, D. H. (1988). Cattle and Buffalo Meat Production in the Tropics. (W. J. A. Payne edition). pp.
510. Intermediate Agriculture Series. Longman Scientific & technical. Longman Group UK Ltd.,
London. ISBN 0-582-60895-3
3. Maule, J. P. (1990). The Cattle of the Tropics. pp. 23-31. University of Edinburgh Centre for
Tropical Veterinary Medicine. pp. ISBN 0-907146-05-8.
4. Aklilu, Yacob 2008. Livestock Marketing in Kenya and Ethiopia: a Review of Policies and Practice.
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Feinstein International Center.
5. Aklilu, Yacob and Mike Wekesa 2002. Drought, Livestock and Livelihoods: Lessons from the 1999-
2001 Emergency Response in the Pastoral Sector in Kenya. London, UK, Overseas Development
Institute, Humanitarian Practice Network Paper 40.

LECTURE ONE: INTODUCTION TO BEEF CATTLE

Definition of Beef cattle

 Beef cattle are cattle raised for meat production (as distinguished from dairy cattle).
 The meat of cattle is known as beef.

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 Beef cattle production is a strong animal industry throughout the world.

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  They are blocky, rapid growth rate, more aggressive than the dairy.
 The best known Africa beef cattle are the Boran found in East Africa.
 An important feature of this is a low skeletal proportion relative to the muscle.
 This ensures a high killing out of percentage.

Beef Cattle Terminology

i. Adjusted Weaning Weight (adj 205 day wt)- Weight of a calf at weaning, adjusted to a standard 205 days
of age and adjusted for the age of the dam.
ii. Adjusted Yearling Weight (adj 365 day wt) - Weight of a calf as a yearling adjusted to a standard 365
days of age and adjusted for the age of the dam.
iii. Average Daily Gain (ADG) - Calculation of post-weaning gain, figured by dividing the weight gain by
the days on feed.
iv. Bulling - a cow in heat.
v. Bull - Uncastrated or intact male cattle of any age.
vi. Calf Crop Percent -The percent of cows exposed to breeding which subsequently wean a calf.
vii. Calving - Giving birth, also called “dropping a calf” or parturition
viii. Conformation - The form of an animal as determined by structure, shape and muscling
ix. Contemporary group - A group of cattle that are of the same breed and sex and have been raised in the
same management group (same location on the same feed and pasture).
x. Cull - to eliminate an animal of low quality from a herd.
xi. Cutability - Carcass cutout value or yield of saleable meat; sometimes designated as yield grade by meat
graders.
xii. Expected Progeny Difference (EPD) - An estimate of the expected performance of an animal’s offspring,
expressed in actual pounds. EPDs can be positive or negative, depending on whether a sire or dam will
increase or decrease the measurement in question in its offspring.
xiii. Feed Conversion - The amount of feed required to achieve one unit of production (usually a pound of
weight gain).
xiv. Feed Efficiency - The product (usually weight gain) produced per unit of feed consumed.
xv. Finish - The degree of fatness
xvi. Founder - A nutritional ailment from overeating; foundered animals become lame with sore feet and
excessive hoof growth
xvii. Generation Interval - The average length of time between the birth of an animal and the birth of the
progeny replacing that animal in the breeding herd.
xviii. Genetic Merit - The genetic worth of an animal for a given trait
xix. Heritability - The proportion of the differences among cattle, measured or observed, that is transmitted to
the offspring and varies from zero to one.
xx. Marbling - The small white flecks of fat distributed throughout a cut of beef
xxi. Springer - Heifer or cow showing signs of advanced pregnancy; near calving.
xxii. Stag- Male bovine castrated after sex characteristics are developed.
xxiii. Steers - Male cattle that were castrated at an early age before any sex characteristics developed

An overview of Beef production in Kenya

 Most of Kenya (80%) is classified as arid and semi-arid.
 The climatic conditions in these regions are so harsh for crops that only livestock production can thrive.
 These regions provide the bulk of beef consumed in the country through pasture based production.
 The animals kept are the highly adapted indigenous zebu (small East African zebu and Boran) or exotic beef
(for example, Hereford, Simmental, Charolais, Angus) breeds and their crosses.
 Development of the beef industry in Kenya has lagged behind other agricultural enterprises due to policies
that were unfavorable towards arid and semi-arid lands.
 There is potential for beef production in Kenya, given the available genetic and physical resources.

1.3 Domestic Beef Market

 Kenyans consume an average of 15-16 kg of red meat (meat and offal from cattle, sheep, goats and camels)
per capita annually, for a national total of approximately 600,000 MT of red meat per year.

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 Cattle are the most important source of red meat, accounting for 77 percent of Kenya’s ruminant off-take for
slaughter.
 Approximately 80 to 90 percent of the red meat consumed in Kenya comes from livestock that are raised by
pastoralists, with the remainder coming from highland cattle.
 While Kenyan pastoralists account for the majority of Kenya’s meat supply (approximately 60 to 65 percent
of the total), a significant portion (20 to 25 percent) comes from livestock raised in neighboring countries
with significant livestock populations (Ethiopia, Somalia, Tanzania and Uganda), making Kenya a meat
deficit country.
Estimated Off-Take Rates and Corresponding Meat Supply
Product Source Total Est. Total Est. Meat Offal Total (MT)
livestock off- annual dressing production production &
head take off-take weight contribution
rate (head) to red meat
consumption
Beef Kenyan 11,915,973 15% 1,787,396 125 kg 223,425 55,856 279,281 MT
pastoralists MT MT (47%)
Neighboring N/A N/A 632,649 125 kg 79,081 19,770 98,851 MT
pastoralists MT MT (17%)
Dairy 5,311,800 7.9% 419,632 125 kg 52,454 13,114 65,568 MT
producers & MT MT (11%)
other
highland
Commercial 240,000 15% 36,000 240 kg 8,640 MT 2,160 MT 10,800 MT
ranches (2%)
TOTAL 2,875,677 454,500
BEEF (head) MT (77%)

Adapted from Behnke and Muthami(2011)

Export markets:
 Only 1 percent of Kenya’s meat production is exported
 Following the reopening Kenya meat commission (kmc) abattoir as an export-licensed facility for use by
private exporters, the country has experienced an important increase in meat exports since 2005 to the
following countries.
• Tanzania and UAE are Kenya’s most consistent markets for meat exports in recent years.
• Qatar
• Oman
• Kuwait
• Somalia and Egypt.
-Kenya is also a minor exporter of live livestock, although the number of head exported never exceeding 7,500 in
a given year.
-The significant markets are Mauritius and Burundi.

The Role and purpose of Beef Cattle industry

Beef cattle form a useful and necessary role in agricultural production for the following reasons:
(a) Protein supply: Beef provides protein and some minerals and vitamins which are necessary to human health
and which balance other nutrients that are obtained from plant foods.
(b) Satisfaction of human appetite: Beef is always in demand to satisfy human appetites. People like the taste of
beef and as the standard of living and incomes rise throughout the world, the demand for animal products also
rises.
(c) Grass utilization into protein: Cattle are ruminants that convert non-human foods into protein. Beef cattle
convert grass and roughage (which can't be eaten by humans) into high quality human food.
(d) Utilization of crops waste and food by-product: Ruminants use native pastures and by-products from arable
crops such as straw. These products are available on farms but have little resale value. They are converted into
salable products by processing them through the ruminant animal.
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(e) Beef cattle produce manure which feeds the soil and maintains soil structure. This increases the production
of the arable crops on the farm.
(f) Beef cattle can make use of marginal land. Marginal land which is unsuitable for high value cropping can
used efficiently used for beef production.

Advantages of beef cattle

- They are rugged and adaptable
- They can be fed excess grain

Food safety issues in beef production

-Food borne illnesses
-Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE-mad cow disease) and other zoonotic diseases
-Hormone implants and feed additives
-Antibiotics

Scientific classification of beef cattle

Kingdom -Animal
Phylum -Chordata
Class -Mammalia
Order -Artiodactyla
Family -Bovidae
Genus -Bos
Species -indicus (Asian humped cattle)
-taurus (European non-humped cattle)

Bos Taurus vs. Bos Indicus

BosTaurus: A subspecies of cattle of western Asian origin but often referred to as “European” or “Continental”
breeds.
-Most beef breeds commonly found in the U.S. and Canada belong to this group. (Angus, Charolais, Hereford,
Simmental).

Bos Indicus: A subspecies of cattle of south Asian origin.

-Often known as Zebu, they have prominent humps forward of the shoulder.
-The Brahman breed is one example in the U.S and the Boran and Sahiwal in east Africa.

History
-In prehistoric times man hunted a cow like creature known as an auroch, which had large horns and huge fore-
quarters.
-Cave paintings depict early man hunting these large animals with spears and arrows.
-The aurochs gave rise to the wild cattle found in the Middle East some 8,000 to 10,000 years ago when
domestication of these wild cattle began and they were used for the production of meat and milk as well as a
source of draught power.
-Along with early domestication, cattle also became a religious symbol in many parts of the Middle East.
-The Egyptians especially worshipped cattle as they were seen to represent fertility, strength and aggression.
-As the Hebrew culture changed from being warriors to becoming farmers the image of the bull changed from
aggressive to virility.
-In India the cow became a major religious significance and was used only for draught animals and never eaten.

Statistics
Lifespan (yrs) -15-20
Body weight -Adult female 400-800 kg
-Adult male 600-1000kg
-Newborn 50-80 kg
Body temperature -38.5 C0
Heart rate -50-70 beats/ min
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Respiration rate -15-30 breaths/ min

Behavior
• Cattle like sheep, are a gregarious-they like to live and form groups with others of their own kind.
• Most herds of cattle have a social hierarchy that is structured by age, weight, presence of horns, sex and
breed.
• The older cows (larger) will occupy the top of the hierarchy while the younger (smaller) cows will fill in the
lower positions.
• Once the hierarchy is established it will remain stable until new cows are added.
• The younger bulls or steers will form their own smaller and unstable herds.
• Cattle seem to have very good memories and quickly become creatures of habit.
• Milking cows very quickly learn the routine of entering the milking parlor and going through the milking
process.
• Range cattle can learn to recognize certain vehicles or certain sounds if they relate it to food or threats.
• The cows’ good memory makes it much easier to handle these large animals in experimental studies.
• The cow can be trained to become accustomed to the manipulations and do not become stressed during the
experiment.
• The flight zone of cattle varies quite a lot depending on how much interaction the animal has had with people.
-Cattle that live on the range most of the time will probably be very wary of people and have a very large flight
zone, you don’t have to get very close to make the animal move.
-Dairy cattle that have contact with people every day will likely have a very small flight zone and you will have to
be very close to the animal to make it move.
-Bulls can be protective of their females and you should always be aware of where the bull is in the pen or out in a
pasture.
-Cows may also be protective of their newborn calf for the first few days and should be given extra space during
this time.
-Both bulls and protective cows will lower their head and paw the ground as they try to demonstrate dominance
over the perceived threat.

Desirable Characteristics in Beef Cattle

• High adaptability
• A thick hide, thick hair
• High efficiency of feed utilization(or great forage convertibility)
• Desirable carcass quality
• Beefy with ample muscle and bone structure
• Greater weight for age and rate of gain either at pasture or yard or on yard feeding
• The ability to command top prices in the markets as finished beef
• A higher percentage of calf crops
• Lower labor cost
• A higher selling price for breeding stock
• Good fertility
• Docility and ease of management
• Early maturity and longevity

An Analysis of Beef Cattle Conformation and Structural Soundness

 Conformation and structural soundness are performance traits to the extent that they contribute to functionality
and longevity, feed efficiency and carcass merit.
 The following Conformation and structural soundness of beef animals should be visually appraised and then
combined with production records and pedigree analysis to do an effective job in selecting and judging beef
animals.
a) Body Structure
b) Muscling and Muscle Structure
c) Soundness of Feet and Legs
d) Frame or Skeletal Size
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 e) Reproductive Soundness
f) Predisposition to Waste

A) Body Structure
 The neck of a beef animal should be moderately long-an indicator of growth.
 The loin and rump should be long, wide and level-makes the animal to be long and strong in its top.
 Extremely short-bodied and short-legged cattle are associated with excessive fat and inefficient growth rates.
 Excessively long-legged and long-bodied cattle are associated with late maturity and low quality grades.
 The round of beef cattle should be deep and wide when viewed from the rear, with the widest portion about
midway between the tail head and hock.
 The shoulder should be well muscled and free of coarseness.
 A beef animal should be moderately trim in its rear flank, underline and brisket to prevent excessive waste.
 It should show good depth of body, indicating body capacity.
 The chest floor, as well as spring of ribs, should exhibit width, indicating body capacity and overall
productiveness.
 Adequate width between front and hindlegs also indicates good body capacity and muscling.

B) Muscling and Muscle

Structure Bulls
 Thick, heavy and long muscling is desired and indicated by length and size of muscling in the forearm and
gaskin areas and width and bulge of muscling in the stifle area as viewed from the rear and side.
 Width between the hindlegs, both standing and walking, is also a muscling indicator.
 Thickness, length and bulge of muscling in the back, loin and round indicate muscling from the anatomical
regions which contain the highest priced wholesale cuts.
 Length of muscling is largely determined by length of bone.
 Animals with extreme muscling, to the point of being impaired in movement or appearing double-muscled
should not be selected.

Females
 Muscling in females should be long, smooth and of moderate thickness.
 Short, coarse and bulky muscling is usually a sign of poor reproductive efficiency and low milking ability.

C) Soundness of Feet and Legs

 Legs should be squarely set under the four corners of a beef animal and be reasonably straight.
 The shoulders should not be too straight; a steep shoulder is a good indicator of leg problems

D) Frame or Skeletal Size

 Frame size indicates growth and is an indirect indicator of the composition, or fat-to-lean ratio, of beef
animals. -Large-framed animals are leaner at a given weight than are small-framed individuals.
 Frame size is related to slaughter weights at which cattle should attain a given amount of fat thickness.
 Medium-sized cows (1,000–1,200 lbs. after weaning of calf) are the most desirable because they offer the best
combination of efficiency and marketability in the calves they produce.
 Small-sized cows (less than 1,000 lbs.) are usually efficient (calf weaning weight/cow weight), but they
produce calves with less growth potential.
 Large-sized cows (greater than 1,200 lbs.) are not as economical because of higher body maintenance
requirements.

E) Reproductive Soundness Bulls

Mature bulls
 Should show masculinity with a burly, masculine head with coarse hair and a heavy jaw.
 They should show a crest or heavy muscling in the neck and shoulders indicating effects of the male hormone,
testosterone.
 The testicles should be well-developed and properly balanced in relation to the age and size of the bull.

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 The scrotum and testicles should be a minimum of 30 centimeters in circumference on a 12-month-old bull to
i indicate adequate reproductive ability.
 the sheath in bulls should be as clean and tight as possible

Cows and Heifers

 Females should show femininity with lean refined heads and long, narrow and clean necks.
 Their overall body shape should be slightly angular, with a slight skin fold shown by the dewlap down the
throat and in the brisket area.
 The shoulder blades will extend to the top of the vertebrae, giving a lean appearance to the top of the
shoulders. -The shoulders will be moderately muscled and clean.
 A productive cow will have a broad chest and large spring of ribs, indicating adequate body capacity.
 Females should be wide and long from hips to pins and deep from pins to the stifle joint, indicating calving
ease.
 The widest portion of the fertile cow should be in the midrib.
 A fertile female will have a level top line as opposed to a high tail head.
 The udder should be strongly attached with a level floor, and teats should be proportional to body size


F) Predisposition to Waste
 Bulls should naturally show an even, thin distribution of fat, even when being fed heavily or during the
nonbreeding season.
 Excessively fat bulls will usually lack libido.
 Indications of predisposition to excessive waste are large amounts of loose hide in the dewlap or brisket,
excessive depth in the flank and loose hide in the twist.
 Females will normally deposit more fat in the brisket, along the underline and over the ribs and back than
bulls, especially during their dry season.
 This is an advantage, if not excessive, because these cattle will require less feed during the period of feed
scarcity as opposed to poor-doing or hard-fleshing cattle

LECTUR TWO: BEEF PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

 A full description of a production system includes the age, mass and carcass class at which animals are
marketed, as well as the breeding, management and feeding practices followed
 The production unit could be a farm or one of the enterprises in a larger undertaking.

Factors to Consider In Deciding on a Beef Production System Include

1. Profitability:
 Controversy exists as to which is the most profitable beef production system.
 profitability is mainly influenced by beef price which fluctuate seasonaly
 When the circumstances under which a system is functioning change, profitability changes
 Cost benefit analyses is necessary to facilitate decision making.

2. Available feed resources

 The variations in beef production systems are largely determined by the feeding regime that the cattle are
reared under.
 The diets that the majority of beef cattle are reared and fattened on can be classified into two groups:
a. Predominately grass-based diets: These types of diets are the most common in areas with the ease of
growing high quality grass forage as a result of generally good soil types and reasonable annual rainfall.
b. Cereal-based diets: These are often used for bull beef production or where a rapid turnover of livestock is
required but in addition to this, a certain amount of roughage may also be required in the diet to prevent
metabolic disorders from hindering production

3. Climate
 In very hot or excessively cold climates, breeds adapted to the relevant environments have an advantage over
cattle not accustomed to extremes of temperature
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  Weaner systems contain a high percentage of breeding cows.
 This makes weaner systems relatively inflexible and poorly suited to areas prone to periodic droughts
 Where rainfall is very low and erratic, it could be advisable to commit a part of the farm to a buying and
selling system

4. Available Markets And Transport

 Market prices and distance to market must be taken into account when deciding on a beef production system
for a specific farm
 transporting cattle over long distances to markets increases input costs

5. Efficiency of production
 Conception rates are often taken by farmers as an indicator of efficiency; however conception rates are based
on pregnancy diagnosis, which can be inaccurate
 Weaner systems are known to be very prone to depressed profit margins when the number of weaners
produced per annum is low
 Unless at least a 75% weaning rate is achieved without excessive feeding, weaner systems should not be
contemplated

6. Other enterprises on the farm

 Where the beef unit is a secondary enterprise, efficient management of the cattle could be limited by a lack
of time.
 A weaner system would then be inadvisable.
 On the other hand, where grain crops are produced, the grain could be a source of cheap feed for a
feedlotting enterprise, time permitting.
 When feedlot rations are relatively expensive, field finishing older cattle would be advisable.

7. Size of farm and extent of development

 Ox systems comprise more herds than weaner systems and usually need more paddocks and watering points
to run efficiently.
 Where a farmer is starting a beef enterprise, weaner systems are often used because paddocks are still in the
process of development, and because livestock sales can commence earlier, funds to develop and run the
enterprise are available sooner.
 A weaner system could be favoured on smaller farms which are not intensively cultivated because a lower
work load allows better supervision, especially when cattle numbers are small

8. Personal choice
 Personal preference must not override sound economic considerations or limitations of a farm.
 However, people are motivated to work harder for systems they like and prefer.

Types of production systems

1. Extensive System or Range Feeding
 The animals are produced solely on ranges using grass and herbage usually in areas where land is cheap and
is not used for any other form of profitable agricultural production
 the system is characterized by fluctuating growth of pasture and body weight
 This makes it impossible for the animal to reach slaughter weight until they are 4-6 years old
 Meat quality is inferior due to protracted period of fluctuating growing before reaching the attainment of
mature weight.
Advantages of Extensive System
a. It is cheap-does not involve such investments like buildings, feeds and other sophisticated management
practices.
b. Low disease build up since the animals are not permanent in any place and are constantly on the move.

Disadvantages
a. Require large land area which does not find alternative agricultural use and Such lands are normally
inaccessible to the market
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b. The dependence of the animals on seasonal forage and water supply results in such fluctuations and
irregularly in the growth pattern that the genetic potential of the animal is never fully expressed.
c. Period from birth to slaughter is unnecessarily prolonged due to slow growth rate.
d. It is practically impossible to have a meaningful appraisal of the enterprise since no records are kept of vital
cost factors such as feed consumption, growth and efficiency of feed utilization.
e. The animals are exposed on the range to rustling
f. Breeding is also unorganized and calving is irregular and sometimes characterized by high
mortality. Example of extensive beef production includes nomadic pastoralism and agro-pastoralism

Nomadic Pastoralism
 Nomadic pastoralism involves a seasonal pattern of movement around a more or less regular pattern.
 This is the most environmentally sustainable livelihood in the arid and semi-arid areas.
 It is practiced predominantly in Kenya Northern and southern rangelands.

Agro-Pastoralism
 A system practiced in semi- arid parts of the country where beef farming is practiced alongside crop farming.
 Beef farming and crop farming complement each other through livestock feeding on crop residues and crop
farming benefiting from manure and animal draught power.

2. Ranching system
 A system practiced within a defined unit of land.
 In a ranch it is possible to maintain optimal stocking rates conserve, and preserve pasture and develop
livestock support facilities such as dips and water points.
 This system is practiced in both arid and semi-arid areas.

3. Intensive System
 This is a system involving complete confinement of the animal and movement is restricted.
 All feed is carried to the animal.
 It is aimed at producing high quality beef by allowing the calf to express its full growth potential.
 Adequate nutrients are provided to satisfy requirement for efficient feed conversion and growth.
 Intensive beef production system involves:
a. Veal Production
b. Baby Beef Production
c. the fattening or finishing up of other animals which might have been earlier reared extensively on
pastures

Veal Production:
 Meat from a calf less than three months old that has been fed only milk or milk substitutes from birth to
slaughter weight
 Veal calves are marketed from 6-8 weeks of age weighing approximately 90-100kg and their meat is of good
flavor and commands high price.
 Growth period affects the palatability of the meat and the aim should be to create a slightly anaemic condition
resulting in the production of white muscle.
 Milk replaces e.g. dried skim milk is normally used to reduce the cost of production and the cost of end
product.
 Antibiotics, such as, aureomycin or terramycin (100 – 200 mg/kg of milk) are given to the calf to stimulate
growth.
 The feeding programme below is generally followed:-
 Colostrum - 1st 3 days

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  Skim milk - 6pts/d to 7th day
 Skim milk - ad libitum to slaughter weight
 No concentrate or grass is fed and the calves are kept in small pens to reduce movement to the minimum.
Baby beef production
 Baby beef comes from 8 – 12 months old calf weighing over 250kg.
 The calf after weaning is intensively fed with the aim of attaining slaughter weight faster.
 They have dark-red colour in the lean meat which is extremely tender and of very high quality.
 They are cattle with excellent beef conformation and are sold at a relatively young age
 Calves may be allowed to have as much concentrate and forage as they want
 They may also be creep-fed on a good grain mixture from 3-5 weeks old and marketed at 12-15 months of
age.
Advantages of Intensive System
1. Growth is controlled and uniform, maturity is rapid.
2. Proper records can be kept and economic evaluation of the enterprise is possible.
3. It is not wasteful in term of land
4. Mechanization of farm operations is possible e.g. feeding, drinking etc.
5. Dangers from wild animals eliminated
Disadvantages
1. Needs high capital investment e.g feeds, labour and building
2. The chances of disease spread are great
3. There is need for large quantities of grain, milk, etc which are also demanded by man.

Feedlot system
 These are units where immature cattle are intensively put on a feeding regime purposely for fattening to attain
a specific market weight prior to selling.
 The animals are confined like in the zero grazing units in dairy production and are fed on high-energy
concentrates.
 This system is not in use in the arid lands of Kenya.

Beef Production-Marketing Chain

 The beef production-marketing chain encompasses all segments from conception of the animal to the delivery
of food to the consumer's table. T
 The typical beef cattle production cycle can be described as in the following phases:

i. Cow-calf phase
 Most beef calves are born on cow-calf operations.
 The cow-calf operation involves breeding of cows with bulls or artificial insemination, conception, gestation,
birth of the calf and lactation periods until weaning of the calf from the cow.
 Calves remain with their mothers for the first several months of life on farms or ranches.
 During this stage, cattle graze in herds on large pastures within sight of their mothers.
 As calves reach 6-10 months of age, they are weaned from their mothers.
 After weaning, bull calves are typically castrated.
 Weaned male calves (steers) may graze until about one year old (yearlings) and then be sold to a cattle feeder
or a stocker/backgrounder who will prepare the animal for the finishing/feedlot.
 Genetically superior bull calves are separated out for use in breeding programs.
 Heifers that will be kept in the herd reach sexual maturity by 15months of age and are bred to deliver their
first calf when they are 24-months of age.
 The cow-calf operation involves maintaining a breeding herd to produce the heaviest weight of weaned calves
possible.
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  Breeding-herd size varies considerably, from a few cows on small mixed farms to several hundred in large
range herds.
 The average cow will stay productive in a breeding herd for 7 to 9 years if no disease or physical problems
develop.
 The female side of the breeding herd usually consists of cows and heifers of a single breed, or the female
crosses of breeds that are likely to produce hybrid vigour in the various maternal characteristics such as
milking and mothering ability.
 Performance tested, purebred bulls from breeds noted for their post-weaning growth and carcass
characteristics make up the male side of the herd.

ii. Stocker/Backgrounding Phase

 Once beef young stocks have been weaned, rearing is carried out within a system that best suits the
breed/genetic make-up of the animals.
 From this age, the calves are usually fed on grassland until they weigh approximately 750 to 800 lbs.live
weight when they are called stocker cattle.
 On some farms, depending on the availability of feed, weaned calves may be placed directly into a
confinement feedlot for growing and finishing, skipping this grassland phase
 The stocker operation is normally attached to the cow-calf or the finishing enterprises, being essentially a
period of growth between weaning and the finishing phase for slaughter (6-12 months).
 It is roughage- and pasture-based, aimed at getting as much efficient youthful growth of skeleton and muscle
as possible.
 As a single enterprise, it is highly speculative and is usually a "grasser" operation for individuals with ample
pasture but no winter feed.
 These farmers buy wintered steer and heifer calves in spring, and then resell them in late summer or fall to
feedlot operators.

iii. Finishing phase

 One of the most important stages in beef production is gaining the desired ‘finish’ to the animal - i.e. the
condition of the animal as it is presented at slaughter.
 The correct finish will enable the animal to provide a beef carcass that meets the market specifications in
terms of weight, conformation, fat class etc.
 The diet in the latter stages of the production period (typically the last few months) has a profound effect on
the eventual finish of an animal.
 While some cow-calf operators may carry out this enterprise after a stocker phase for their own calves, most
finishing is now done in specially designed units, holding several hundred or thousands of animals.
 Some farmers traditionally used the feedlot to enhance the value of their home-grown crops and to provide a
winter occupation.
 A feedlot or feed yard is a type of Confined Animal Feeding Operation (CAFO) (also known as "factory
farming") which is used for finishing livestock, notably beef cattle, prior to slaughter.
 Stocker calves are placed in a confinement feedlot for approximately 90 to 120 days.
 Feedlot diets are usually very dense in energy, to encourage the deposition of fat, or marbling, in the animal's
muscles; Some consider this fat desirable as it leads to 'juiciness' in the resulting meat.
 The animal may gain an additional 400 pounds (180 kg) during its 3-4 months in the feedlot.

Typical Slaughter Ages of Beef Cattle Depending on Diet Type, Breed and Sex

Diet Type Breed Type / Sex Age At Slaughter

Intensive cereal beef Continental & Dairy 12 months
breeds / bulls
Intensive grass silage beef Dairy cross & Beef 16 months
breeds / bulls &
steers
Mixed grass/concentrate fed Dairy cross / Steers 18-20 months
beef & Heifer

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 Mixed grass/concentrate fed Dairy cross & beef / 22-26 months
beef Steer
Forage based suckler beef Beef breeds / Steers 18-20 months
and Heifers

Packer Phase (Slaughtering and Processing)

 Once cattle are considered “finished” they are transported to packing plants to be slaughtered and processed.
 Precautions during transportation minimize stress and injury to the animals.
 Cattle are carefully loaded and unloaded into trailers that are specially designed to avoid injury and strain.
 When cattle arrive at packing plants, they are moved inside in a quiet and orderly manner.
 There is little excess movement or unnecessary noise so cattle are not unduly stressed.
 Packing plant technicians then use a mechanical stunning device to quickly and effectively render animals
unconscious before slaughtering.
 When beef leaves the packing plant, it is in the form of large sections, either primals, like the chuck, round rib
and loin, or sub-primals which are smaller cuts of meat such as the bottom round, top round, eye round and
round tip.
 Some plants sell subprimals to meat processing facilities where workers skillfully break them down into
individual steaks and roasts that are sent to supermarkets and restaurants.

iv. Retailer Phase (Supermarkets And Restaurants)

 Retailers and foodservice operators sell beef products in supermarkets and restaurants, where steps are taken
to ensure the final safety and quality of the products.

v. Consumers
 Ultimately, consumers dictate the actions of the beef production chain, from pasture to plate, by determining
what kinds of beef they will buy and at what price.
 Beef producers read demand signals from the meat case and customers throughout the production chain.
 For instance, beef cattle are now much leaner than just a decade ago as a result of the consumer demand for
products with less fat.

3. BEEF BREEDS, SELECTION AND BREEDING

What is a breed?
 Animals of common origin with certain distinguishing characteristics passed uniformly from parent to
offspring or animals with a common origin and selection history.
 For beef cattle production, breeds are only part of a genetic strategy that should include:
 Matching applicable performance or functional levels to environmental, management, and marketing
conditions
 Choosing a breeding system, either continuous (in which replacement females are produced within the herd)
or terminal (in which replacements are introduced externally); and
 Selecting genetic types, breeds and individuals within the breeds that are compatible with the performance
level needed and breeding system chosen.

Genetic Classifications and Beef Breeds

 Some beef breeds were created by combining established breeds.
 A “composite” or “synthetic” breed is formed from two or more breeds, usually in exact percentages that
vary depending on the goals of the breed and their characteristics are those of the constituent breeds
Terminology
a. Heredity: Transmission of genetic or physical traits of parents to their offspring.
b. Heritability: Describes what fraction of the differences in a trait is due to differences in genetic value rather
than environmental factors.
c. Hereditary variation: variation caused by the heredity
d. Environment: The sum total of all external conditions which affect the life of the animal

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15
 e. Environmental variation: variation caused by the environment.

Heritability Estimate
• Heritability estimate is hereditary variation due to additive gene action.
• It effects the rate of improvement i.e. low heritability lends to slow rates of improvement and high heritability
estimates yields faster rates of improvement
Table Indicating Heritability Estimates For some Important beef Traits
Trait Heritability Estimate
Rate of Gain (feedlot cattle) 40-68%
Birth weight 40%
Weaning Weight 30 %
Calving Interval (Fertility) 10 %
Ribeye Area 50-70%
Cancer-eye Susceptibility 30 %
Pasture Gain 30 %
Fat Thickness 45 %

Description of Important Functional Traits of Beef

The major functional traits important in beef production include: body size, milking potential, age at puberty, hot
climate adaptability, fleshing ability, muscle expression, cutability and marbling.

i. Body Size,
 Cattle heavier at birth tend to be heavier throughout life
 Genetically larger animals usually gain weight faster, and weight and nutritional requirements for body
maintenance are closely related
ii. Milking potential
 This is the genetic capability to produce milk.
 To characterize milking potential accurately, evaluate it relative to body size.
 Higher-milking females need more nutrients for body maintenance and require higher-quality diets, even
when not lactating
iii. Age at puberty
 Smaller individuals and higher milking types usually mature earlier, whereas Bos indicus mature relatively
late.
 Higher-milking females, even large ones, often reach puberty and conceive when relatively young
 Although Bos indicus types reach puberty relatively late, their productive life usually is longer.
iv. Hot climate adaptability
 This is highest in cattle with Bos indicus inheritance, but some Bos taurus are reasonably heat tolerant or
tropically adapted.
 Animals with lighter colored, short hair coats and dark skin are most adapted.
v. Fleshing ability
 This is the body’s capacity to fatten and retain fat.
 Fleshing ability tends to drop with increases in genetic body size, maintenance requirements relative to size,
milking level, and inherent muscularity.
 Animals poorly adapted to their environment generally are low in fleshing ability.
 Bos indicus often flesh easier than other types on low-quality forage and roughage.
 Easy-fleshing cattle tolerate periods of nutritional energy deficiency more easily and therefore may reproduce
more consistently, but they also over fatten more readily in the feed yard unless properly managed.
vi. Muscle expression
 This is inherent muscularity, independent of other body tissues.
 Muscling is the second most important factor in cutability.

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  Heavy-muscled types often are low in fleshing ability, so reproductive efficiency may be reduced
vii. Cutability
 Also called percentage of lean, is usually evaluated in slaughter cattle
 Cutability depends on relative amounts of fat (which varies greatly), muscle, and bone (which varies least)
viii. Marbling
 This is intramuscular fat and is the primary factor determining quality grade
 It’s an indicator of the palatability factors of tenderness, juiciness, and flavor.
 Marbling increases with age up to physiological maturity and generally is higher in earlier-maturing and
higher-milking types.
 Bos indicus and most heavy-muscled, low-milking types have relatively low marbling.

Beef Breeds and their Functional Types

Using genetic classification and levels of functional traits, breeds can be grouped into 7 functional types:
i. British Beef: British-originated breeds and combinations used for beef production only.
 British Beef are widely applicable, in tropical and subtropical climates.
 are suitable for general-purpose production as well as both the dam side and, to a lesser extent, sire side of a
terminal cross
 These breeds are the foundation of the U.S. beef herd
General characteristics: good maternal ability, early maturing and adapt well to cold climates
Examples: Angus, Hereford, Red Angus, Shorthorn, Galloway, Red Poll, Sussex, Welsh, Black, White Park
ii. Continental Beef: Continental European breeds and derivatives developed exclusively for beef production
and these countries are part of what are sometimes called “exotics.”
 Because of weight-gaining ability and cutability, continental beef breeds are most effective as terminal sires,
especially on smaller cows containing higher marbling genetics.
 use caution because of potentially heavy birth weights and associated calving problems
General characteristics: growthy, fast gaining and later maturing
Examples: Charolais,Chianina,Limousin
iii. Dual Purpose: These are breeds selected for both beef and dairy production in their native areas, mostly
continental Europe and combinations of beef and dairy breeds
 Dual Purpose can be used as terminal sires similar to Continental beef.
 Maternal use is appropriate for the major breeds of this type, when nutrition is adequate, to create females that
are larger, more muscular, leaner, and heavier milking.
Examples: Braunvieh, Gelbvieh,Maine-Anjou,Salers,Simmental,sahiwal
iv. Dairy: Originating in Western Europe and selected in the United States for dairy purposes only, with beef
production as a byproduct.
 Dairy for beef production are used primarily to create early-maturing, high-milking females without
increasing muscle
Example of dairy breed: Holstein,Jersey
v. Bos Indicus/zebu: these are breeds of pure or very high-percentage Bos indicus background and used only
for beef production
 Bos Indicus are used primarily to create hot climate adapted crossbred females with highest levels of hybrid
vigor and calving ease.
 Generally, these females are best used in terminal crossing systems.
 Do not straight breed or cross these breeds with other cattle containing Bos indicus unless climatic conditions
are persistently hot and humid
General Characteristics: heat tolerant, disease resistant, loose skin and thrive in harsh conditions
Example Bos indicus: Brahman, Boran,Gir,Indu-Brazil, Nellore,Zebu, Africander
vi. American beef breeds: These are larger, faster-gaining beef breeds created in the United States from
combinations of about one-fourth to one-half tropically adapted inheritance, such as the Bos indicus derived
Brahman, along with British Beef, Continental Beef, or Dual Purpose.
 American breeds are widely applicable, especially for, but not limited to, hot climates.
 They can be straight bred or crossed with all other types except purebred or high-percentage Bos indicus.
 American breeds can be used effectively in either general-purpose production or in terminal systems.
Example of American Breed: Beefmaster,Braford,Brangus,Red Brangus,Santa Gertrudis,Simbrah

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vii. Specialty beef breeds: these are breeds that cannot be placed logically in any of these groups, often
characterized by particular emphasis on certain traits
Example of specialty: Texas Longhorn,
Ankole,Watusi,Beefalo,Corriente,Dexter,Geltex,Salorn,Senepol,Texon,Tuli, Wagyu

British Breeds
They include:
i. Angus
• Origin - Scotland
• black color, polled and moderate in size
Positive traits
• Early Maturing
• Maternal-Good mothering and calf-rearing abilities with good milk production
• Calving Ease-Lower birth weights maximize calving ease
• Growth -Vigorous growth from birth to harvest
• Carcass Merit-Produce a quality carcass; recognized as high quality beef breed, excellent marbling
Negative traits
• Adaptation-Not well adapted to hot, humid climate
• Black cattle may not do well in areas of high solar radiation
• Limits grazing time during hot parts of the day
ii. Red Angus
• Origin - U.S.
• Red Color – Red, Polled ,Moderate size
• Developed from recessive Gene
iii. Hereford
• Origin - England
• Red color with white markings, horned and thick hair coat
Positive traits
• Fertility & Reproductive performance -Early maturing
• Feed efficiency & growth -High rate of gain in feedlot
• Good carcass quality
• Milk production-Calf growth and health
• Disposition-Calm
• Crossbreeding advantages-Used in many crossbreds and composites

Negative traits
• Adaptation-Not well adapted to hot, humid climate
• White face can lead to high incidence of pink eye
iv. Polled Hereford
• Origin - Iowa, Warren Gammon
• Color - Same as Hereford ,Polled and Early Maturing
v. Shorthorn
• Origin - England
• Color - Red, White, Red and White, Roan
• Polled or Horned
• Good disposition and excellent milk production
vi.Senepol
Positive traits
• Heat Tolerance- Ideal for tropical climates; graze throughout heat of day
• Disease and Insect Resistance -Greater immune response when compared to other beef breeds
• Calving Ease / Calf Vigor -Senepol are similar to Angus in calving and light birth weight with good calf vigor
• Maternal Efficiency-Fleshing and foraging ability of the Senepol cow.
• Longevity-Cows can stay in production upwards of 15-20 years
• Naturally polled
• Hybrid Vigor -Complement many breeds and bring heat tolerance to the crosses
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 • Tenderness
Negative traits
• Maturity-Puberty and maturity fall between Bos Taurus and Bos indicus
• Disposition-Mild disposition can make them hard to work –no flight zone

Continental breeds
i. Charolais
• Origin - France
• Color - Cream White with pink skin, Horned and Large size
• Marbling can be a Problem
Positive traits
• Growth-fast growing,mascular and efficient feedlot gains and carcass cut-out values
• Coat color-Light color is good for heat management
Negative traits
• Size-May be too large
• Risk of double muscling –undesirable trait
• High birth weights –don't breed to heifers
• Forage based diet may not sustain full growth potential
• Color-Light color may lead to higher incidence of pink eye
ii. Chianina
• Origin - Italy
• Color - white or black hair with dark skin, horned and has large frame with lean muscular carcass
• Not Maternal Breed
• Largest Breed in World
iii. Limousin
• Origin – France
• Color - wheat to rust red and horned
• Ease of Calving
• High Carcass Cutability
iv. Simmental
• Origin - Switzerland
• Color - yellow to red and white, horned with large frame
Positive traits
• Growth-Rapid growth and development, High rate of gain
• Maternal breed-High level of milk production
• Multi-purpose-Meat,Milk,Draft
Negative traits
• Adaptation-Not well adapted to hot, humid climate
• Color-Not selected for any particular color ,Black cattle may not do well in areas of high solar radiation
• Size-Large size may not be supported on forage diet

Bos Indicus breeds

 Bos indicus beef breeds Are adapted to harsh tropical environment through;
i. Long legs, for walking long distance and to increase height from ground to avoid heat contact of the ground.
ii. Loose skin: pendulous dewlap (below necks) and sheath around the penis for increased surface areas against
heat accumulation and to dissipate excess heat.
iii. Disproportionately bigger extremities to dissipate heat e.g. large ears, etc.
iv. Hump in Zebu breeds for storage of fat and perhaps for sweating (The fat could provide energy during the
lean feed period).
v. Less subcutaneous fat to enhance sweating
vi. Sweat glands – bigger, dense and more voluminous
vii. Short hair – to assist heat loss by evaporation
viii. Shinny coat – to reflect heat and sun rays
ix. Thick skin – against ecto-parasites
x. Long and large tails – to whip flies and provide large surface area for cooling
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 xi. Horns for defense and for heat loss
xii. Digestive power – greater to handle fibrous feeds
xiii. Water requirement – can go without water for 1 or 2 days-Less faecal moisture content and urine output to
conserve water e.g. Boran cattle
xiv. Thyroid gland activity increases the rate of metabolism and released thyroxin when an animal is exposed to
cold- In hot weather, thyroxin activity is reduced.

i. Brahman
• Origin – India
• Color - gray, red, brown, black, white,horned,drooping ears with hump over shoulders and loose skin
• Thrive in Hot, Humid Climates
Positive traits
• Heat tolerance-Well adapted to high heat and humidity
• Crossbreeding advantages-Maximum hybrid vigor when crossing with Bos Taurus breeds,F-1 females are
great maternal cows, Enhances milk production for use in crossbred milk cows, Enhances growth and gain,
Brings heat tolerance to the crosses
• Used as base for many composite breeds
Negative traits
• Maturity-Late maturing , males and females
• Carcass quality-Purebreds are not know for carcass quality
• Disposition -Not known for mild disposition; strong “maternal instincts”
• Horns
ii. Africander
• Native to South Africa
• Usually red with long horns
• Used for meat and as a draft animal
• Mature cows weigh 1150-1350 lbs.
• Mature bulls weigh 1650-2200 lbs

iii. Boran Cattle

• The Boran is a medium framed animal with good muscling and weight for age
• The body composition is in perfect balance
• Bulls are large and masculine while cows are smaller and very feminine
• Both sexes display typical Boran Traits (Hump, capacity, skin, muscling, head, mouth, skin fold under
the neck, condition, tail,etc
• Excellent Crossbreeding results
• Even under harsh conditions the Boran cow will continue to breed and rear calves and do this without
punishing herself
• A loose but very motile skin with a very short covering of hair and a high secretion of an oily substance
makes the Boran a less desirable host for ticks and flies
• Good converter of roughage into good quality beef

American Breeds
i. Beef master (Hereford, Shorthorn and Brahman)
• Origin - Lasater Ranch, Texas, 1908
• 1/2 Brahman, 1/4 Shorthorn, 1/4 Hereford
• Color – Various
• Hardy, Rapid Growth
• Heavy Weaning Weights
• Good on Range Conditions
Positive traits
• Growth -Gain well
• Conformation-Selected for moderate conformation
• Milk Production-Cows produce milk for good calf growth

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 • Heat tolerance –Bos indicus breeding helps with heat tolerance
• Hardiness-Developed to survive and thrive in the harsh environment
Negative traits
• Bos indicus breeding-May bring some of the negatives of Bos indicus cattle to the breed
• Horns-Management and safety

ii. Brangus (3/8 Brahman,5/8 Angus)

• Origin - Oklahoma
• Color - black, polled and moderate in size
• Show brahman influence
Positive traits
• Crossbreed-Brings advantages of Angus to Brahman
• Heat tolerance-Heat tolerant black cattle
• Carcass traits -Carcass better than straight Bos indicus
Negative traits
• Disposition-Not the most calm cattle
• Coat color -Black cattle may not be best for tropical environment

iii. Red Brangus

• Origin - Texas
• Brahman X Angus
• color – red, polled and with drooping ears
• Males have Crest

iv. Santa Gertrudis (5/8 Shorthorn,3/8 Brahman)

• Origin - Texas, King Ranch
• Color - Red
Positive traits
• Crossbreed -Brings advantages of Angus to Brahman
• Heat tolerance-Heat tolerant black cattle
• Carcass traits -Carcass better than straight Bos indicus
• Hardiness -Selected for performance in hot, humid climate
• Good Mothering Ability

Negative traits
i. Maturity -Late maturing similar to Bos indicus
ii. Carcass quality -Carcass traits and growth similar to Bos indicus
iii. Horned
iv. Disposition -May not be the calmest cattle

Beef Cattle Selection

 The goal of beef cattle production is to provide highly desirable beef for consumption in the most efficient
manner.
 Knowledge of breeding, feeding, management, disease control and the beef market is fundamental to the
economical production of desirable beef

Major beef Performance Traits to select

-The major traits influencing productive efficiency of desirable beef are:
i. Reproductive performance or fertility
ii. Maternal ability
iii. Growth rate
iv. Feed efficiency
v. Body measurements
vi. Longevity
vii. Carcass merit, and
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 viii. Conformation or structural soundness
ix. Heat tolerance –coat color
x. Disposition
xi. Carcass quality
xii. Availability

i. Fertility
 A high level of fertility, or reproductive performance, is fundamental to an efficient beef cattle enterprise.
 Fertility is commonly measured in terms of calf crop percentage
 The percentage calf crop can easily range from 70 to 95 percent.
 The heritability of calving interval or fertility is low (10 percent) and most of the variation in calving
percentage results from environmental factors such as feeding, management or herd health.
 The association between fertility and other performance traits, both positive and negative, should be
recognized.
 Example: selection for heavy weaning weight can result in increased milk production or larger cow size in the
herd or both and necessitate a higher nutritional level for the cow herd to maintain a satisfactory fertility level.
ii. Maternal Ability
 The ability of a cow to wean a healthy, vigorous calf is vital to efficient beef production.
 Increased milk production increases weaning weight per calf, and heavier weaning weights can increase
efficiency of production in relation to fixed costs for the total herd.
 Feed requirements and costs per cow are closely related to cow size and level of milk production and hence
milk production must be matched with feed resources to maximize efficiency of production.
iii. Growth Rate
 Growth rate is important because of its high association with economy of gain in relation to fixed costs.
 Selection for rapid rate of gain in post-weaning feeding tests usually increases both birth weight and mature
size.
 Increases in birth weight contribute to increased calving difficulty.
 Increased mature size decreases carcass quality when slaughtered at normal market weights and increases the
nutrient requirements for maintenance of the cow herd.
 Ideally, the beef animal should be of moderate weight at birth, grow rapidly, but mature and finish for
slaughter early.
iv. Feed Efficiency
 Feed efficiency is a trait of great economic importance in beef cattle.
 Increased weight is associated with higher feed requirements per unit of gain.
 Some bull testing stations obtain individual feed consumption information to measure the pounds of feed
required per pound of animal gain.
v. Body Measurement
 Some common measurements of cattle include backfat, height at the shoulder, height at the hips, length of
body, depth of body, scrotal circumference and pelvic size.
 Linear body measurements are helpful in matching mature animal size to production resources.
 Hip height measurement is the most commonly used body measurement in selection programs.
 The recommended point for measurement of height is directly over the hip bones, or hooks
vi. Longevity
 The longer animals remain productive in a herd, the fewer replacements will be needed.
 Thus, the cost of growing replacements to productive age is reduced.
 The major factors affecting longevity of cows are infertility, unsoundness of feet and legs, udder troubles and
unsound mouth.
 However, animals retained in the herds to an old age increase the generation interval which reduces the
possible rate of genetic improvement from selection.
 Selection for longevity should be confined primarily to such indicators as structural soundness
vii. Carcass Merit (beef cutability and quality)
 The desirability of the beef product determines the price consumers are willing to pay and the amount they are
willing to purchase at that price.
 Consumers desire beef with a high percentage of lean as compared to fat and bone, and the lean must be
tender, flavorful and juicy.
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  The difference in the percentage of lean, often called cutability, is a major factor influencing differences in
carcass value.
 Beef quality is determined by marbling, texture, color, firmness and maturity.
 The genetic association between cutability and quality is negative.
 Selection for high quality will usually diminish cutability, and selection for high cutability will often lower
beef quality.
 Also, selection for rate of gain or mature size often will diminish carcass quality.
viii. Conformation and Structural Soundness
 Conformation and structural soundness are performance traits to the extent that they contribute to
functionality and longevity, feed efficiency and carcass merit.
 Conformation in live cattle is normally a subjective evaluation of thickness of natural fleshing or muscling
 Differences in conformation or muscling can be used to reflect potential differences in carcass cutability
without having to obtain carcass data.
 Structural soundness is particularly important for productive grazing and pasture breeding.
 Sound hips, hocks, shoulders and feet are valuable for longevity in the herd

Beef Selection Methods

Three approaches to selection are:
(1) Tandem selection (single trait selection)
(2) Selection based on independent culling levels
(3) Selection based on an index of net merit.

i. Tandem
 This is selection for one trait at a time e.g. fertility and when the desired level of performance is reached in
this trait, a second trait is given primary emphasis, etc.
 This is the least effective of the three types of selection.
 Its major disadvantage is that by selecting for only one trait at a time, some animals extremely poor in other
traits will be retained as replacements.
 This method of single trait selection is not recommended
ii. Selection based on independent culling levels
 Requires that specific levels of performance be obtained in each trait before an animal is kept for
replacement.
 This is the second most effective type of selection.
 However, selecting for specific levels of performance in all traits does not allow for slightly substandard
performance in one trait to be offset by superior performance in another.
iii. Selection based on an index of net merit
 This method gives weight to the traits in proportion to their relative economic importance and their
heritability and recognizes the genetic association among traits.
 This can be the most effective type of selection, but the importance of each individual trait in the index
should vary depending upon the needs and desires of each individual producer.
 This balanced selection approach considers multiple economically relevant traits at one time.
 many breeder associations adopt this selection principle-involve the calculation of the dollar ($) EPDs

Sire Selection
 Choices of herd sires not only have an impact on the resulting calf crops, but these choices also affect the
performance of the cow herd if daughters of the sires are kept as replacement heifers
 Beef producers should select sires of desirable genetics for genetic improvement in economically important
traits
 the concept of breeding value provides beef producers an avenue to make useful selection decisions

Buying a Herd Bull

 Purchasing the next herd sire is one of the most important decisions that a beef cattle producer makes.

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  Because every calf in the herd gets half of its genetic makeup from the sire and half from its dam, the sire is
said to be half the herd.
 The sire influences the herd in two ways.
i. he changes the current calf crop
ii. He influences later calf crops through daughters that are retained for use as brood cows.
 The sire’s influence may be either in a positive or negative direction.

Questions a commercial beef cattle producer should consider when buying a bull.
i. Should I buy a performance-tested bull?
• Performance testing is involve keeping a record of performance on the traits of interest and using these
records to make selection decisions.
ii. Do I buy a young bull or an older proven bull?
• Usually more weanling and yearling bulls are available to select from than older, proven bulls however,more
performance information is available on an older bull; but in some cases, the older bull is for sale because of
poor performance.
• Use of virgin bulls is helpful in limiting the introduction of diseases into the breeding herd.
iii. What performance information should I expect?
• Record keeping system should ensure basic performance information include birth date, birth weight,
weaning weight, yearling weight and number in the contemporary group on all bulls.
• Always conduct a breeding soundness evaluation on yearling or older bulls.
iv. What performance levels should I require in the bull?
• When selecting a herd sire, buy bulls that are above average of the respective breed in the traits of interest.
v. What about performance by the bull’s sire and dam?
• The herd sire should come from a cow that has been a regular producer, has consistently weaned calves
heavier than the herd average and is strong structurally.
• The sire should be an outstanding individual in the desired performance traits and should have proven ability
to transmit his characteristics to his offspring.
vi. How much is a bull worth?
• Using Performance information, educated purchasing decisions can be made regarding the purchase price
differences that can be justified when comparing bulls.
vii. What is the reputation of the herd from which selection is made?
• The honesty and integrity of the owner and manager, the overall performance of the herd and the
management practices under which the bull has been developed are extremely important to the prospective
bull buyer.

Selecting Replacement Heifers

These traits should be considered when s electing heifers from the herd for brood cow replacements:
a) Reproductive performance in the heifer’s dam,
b) Maternal ability of the heifer’s dam,
c) Weaning weight and yearling weight of the heifer,
d) Conformation and
e) Soundness.
 The first selection is made at weaning and when the heaviest heifers are selected at weaning, the results are
improved maternal ability and growthiness in the herd.
 Heifers which fail to grow and develop after weaning should be culled at breeding time.
 Conformation is best evaluated after the heifer has reached yearling age.
 The third selection can be made after the heifers wean their first calves.
 Remove heifers that either fail to calve or produce poor calves.
 For a 100-cow herd, about 16 heifers will usually be needed for replacements each year to maintain numbers.
 More than 16 may be needed if considerable culling is done at breeding time and after the first calf.

Performance Records
 Success in breeding superior beef cattle depends on the ability of the breeder to make accurate decisions
while working toward his objectives.

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  The more a breeder knows about the individuals in his herd and the more clearly he understands his
objectives, the more likely he is to make correct decisions.
 Records from a complete improvement program provide the basis for making accurate decisions
 When performance data are maintained, they can be a valuable aid in:
a) Measuring progress in herd improvement,
b) Evaluating performance of herd sires,
c) Culling poor-producing cows,
d) Selecting replacement females,
e) Selecting bull calves for testing,
f) Selecting future herd sires and
g) Determining structural soundness under standardized conditions.

Selection Differential, Estimated Breeding Value and Expected Progeny Differences

Selection Differential (S.D)
 Definition of S.D.= the difference between animals selected to be parents and the average of all animals in the
herd for selection for a specific trait
Breeding Value
 The concept of breeding value provides beef producers an avenue to make useful selection decisions.
 Breeding value is defined as the value of an individual as a parent.
 Parents transfer a random sample of their genes to their offspring.
 Estimated breeding value (EBV) gives an estimate of the transmitting ability of the parent
 EBV = average of animals selected minus the average of all animals X heritability

Expected Progeny Difference

 Throughout history, geneticists have studied methods for use in identifying superior individuals in beef
cattle populations.
 Sire selection has tremendous value to the beef cow-calf operation and choices of herd sires not only have
an impact on the resulting calf crops, but these choices also affect the performance of the cow herd if
daughters of the sires are kept as replacement heifers.
 The word “difference” implies a comparison and EPD is the expected performance of an individual’s
offspring relative to the average individual of the entire breed.
 Examples – birth weight, weaning weight, yearling weight, scrotal circumference, ribeye area, etc.
 One-half the estimated breeding value is equal to the Expected Progeny Difference (EPD).
 EPD = EBV X 0.5
 Thus, EPDs let us compare or rank the superiority of individual animals.
 The use of EPDs allows producers to make selection decisions for beef cattle traits of economic importance
 EPDs provide a prediction of future progeny performance of one individual compared to another individual
within a breed for a specific trait.
 The EPDs are reported in plus or minus values in the units of measurement for the trait.i.e, birth, weaning
and yearling weight EPDs are reported in pounds
 The EPD values may be used to compare only those animals within a breed.

Types of Expected Progeny Difference (EPDs)

i. Growth Trait EPDs
ii. Maternal Trait EPDs: Maternal effects are an important consideration when evaluating beef cattle
performance
 Maternal effects are important during the nursing period with diminishing effects through post weaning
iii. Milk EPD: Weaning weight can be determined by the genes for growth in the calf and genes for milk
(mothering ability) in the cow.
 The Weaning Weight EPD evaluates gen etic merit for growth, and the Milk EPD evaluates genetic merit for
mothering ability

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iv. Combined Maternal EPD: Combined Maternal EPD (sometimes called maternal weaning weight or total
maternal) reflects both the milking ability transmitted to daughters and direct weaning growth transmitted
through daughters to their calves
v. Calving Ease EPDs: Calving ease heritability have been reported to be small (0.00 to 0.13) for beef cattle.
The magnitude of the estimates indicates that little genetic progress can be made on selecting directly for
calving ease.
 Some breed associations report Calving Ease EPDs along with Birth Weight EPDs while other associations’
reports do not include Calving Case EPDs.
 Breed associations that report Calving Case EPDs may present them in different formats.
 At this time, Calving Ease EPDs are available only for the Simmental and Gelbvieh breeds.
 When comparing the EPDs of two animals, a larger EPD represents a higher percent of unassisted births.

Beef Breeding
Types of Breeding Systems
a) Pure breeding systems:
 Outcrossing: the mating of relatively unrelated animals within the same breed.
 Inbreeding: production of offspring from parents more closely related than the average of a population
 Line breeding: a form of inbreeding in which an attempt is made to concentrate the inheritance of some
ancestor in the pedigree.
b) Crossbreeding Systems: the mating of animals of different breeds and include the following systems
 two-breed cross
 two-breed backcross
 three-breed rotational cross
 three-breed terminal cross

Genetic/Reproductive Problems in Beef Cattle

 Freemartins-hormonal influence
 Dwarfism – genetic influence
 Dark cutters / more environment
 muscular hypertrophy (double muscling)
 increase in size of muscle fibers
 Quality vs quantity vs performance

4. REPRODUCTION IN THE BEEF COW HERD

 A major factor determining the productivity and profitability of beef cow herds is their reproductive
performance.
 The efficiency of a beef cow enterprise depends on the cow's lifetime output (total live weight of calves
weaned/cow).
 A live calf born and weaned to each breeding female each year is the primary objective for successful
reproduction

Useful Definitions of Reproductive Efficiency

 Pregnancy rate - the number of cows pregnant per 100 cows joined with the bull
 Calving rate - the number of cows calving per 100 cows joined with the bull
 Calf survival - number of calves weaned per 100 calves born
 Calf weaning % (rate) - number of calves weaned per 100 cows joined with the bull

Potential Reproductive Rate/targets

 Some useful reproductive targets for an adult beef cow herd includes:
a) 12 month (365 day) mean calving interval
b) A 63 day (3 cycles) mating period for cows
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 c) A pregnancy rate of at least 95% for adult cows
d) A calf weaning percentage of at least 90% in adult cows (some do better than this)
e) Less than 3% abortion rate
f) At least 60% of cows calving in the first 21 days of calving
g) Less than 5% incidence of calving difficulty (difficult birth)
h) Mate heifers for only 42-45 days (2 cycles) with a target 85% in calf-rate
i) less than 10% incidence of calving difficulty among the replacement heifers

Reproductive Management of Beef Cattle

Management and age at first calving of heifers
 It is usually more profitable to calve heifers first at two years of age than 3 years and the main reasons for this
are:
a) Lifetime output is increased by about 10% (an extra 0.7 calves or 150kg of calf weaned)
b) Land use for heifer rearing is reduced by nearly 50%
c) Information for selecting replacements is available much earlier in a female’s life.
d) This information is particularly useful if more heifers are mated than are required as replacements
e) Increased rate of genetic gain (especially for bull breeding herds).

The main reasons for failure to adopt the practice of 2 year-old calving in beef are:
a) Poor performance at the next mating (often one of the costs of 2 year-old calving is a 5-10% lower
pregnancy rate in the next breeding period)
b) Fear of increased incidence of calving difficulty (dystocia) and associated increase in calf mortality and
possibly heifer mortality
c) A failure to achieve target live weights during rearing and at mating, thereby jeopardizing subsequent
reproduction performance
d) Concern that the heifer’s mature size and productivity will be reduced.
e) Stage of farm development – in less developed country (in terms of pasture production and quality), heifers
may fail to reach the required mating live weights
f) Reduced management flexibility (pregnant heifers require extra feed and there is an extra mob to manage)
g) Overall increased management skills are required

Note:
 A prerequisite to mating heifers at 15 months to calve at 2 years of age is that the heifer has attained puberty.
 All heifers should reach puberty well before the planned start of mating, so each has exhibited at least one
"heat" before the start of mating.
 This will ensure there is a high probability that all will be mated and conceive during the first 6 weeks of
mating.

Critical Minimum Weight for heifers

a. Heifers mated as yearlings have a requirement for high quality feed if they are to reach a critical minimum
weight (defined as the weight at which 85% or more heifers get pregnant in a 42 day mating period) and
rebreed successful).

Table: Target live weights for mating Angus or Friesian x Hereford/Angus cross heifers first at 15 months of age
Age (months) Weight (kg)
Weaning 6 200-220
1st mating 15 270-300
Pre-calving 24 440-480
2nd mating 27 420-450

Checklist for Successfully Mating Heifers at 15 Months

a. Set a growth pathway from weaning to a minimum joining live weight at 15 months i.e. minimum target
might be 270 kg for Angus and 300 kg for later maturing breeds
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b. Mate heifers for 42 days – aim for a target pregnancy rate of 85%
c. Mate heifers at the same time as older cows as earlier mating can result in below target pregnancy rates at the
next mating due to delayed returns to oestrus
d. Mate more heifers than are required as replacements and cull empty heifers following pregnancy testing.
e. Non pregnant at yearling breeding is highly repeatable
f. Cull late calvers to ensure that 70% calve in the first 21 days
g. Understand the concept of Expected Breeding Values (EBVs) and select service sires from easy calving
breeds/herds and with a high direct calving ease EBV.
h. If these EBVs are not available select sires with below breed average birth weight EBVs, below breed
average gestation length EBVs but with above breed average
i. Use sires from the same or smaller breeds.
j. Provide assistance at calving where necessary
k. Run as separate group until second calving
l. Strive for 90% calf survival to weaning
m. At least 90% of heifers should be pregnant again as R-3 year olds

Age of Cow and Reproductive Performance

 Young cows often have a lower average reproductive performance than older cows, although the extent of
the difference can depend on breed type.
 Pregnancy rate increases up to at least 6 years of age, then remains stable until about 9 or 10 years of age,
after which it starts to decline

Calving
• Normal parturition has three stages:
1) Cervical dilation,
2) Expulsion of the fetus, and
3) Involves expulsion of the fetal membranes
Stage 1: labor begins with initial contraction of the uterus and ends when the cervix is dilated and fetal parts
(normally front feet and nose) enter the birth canal (usually lasts 2-6 hours)
Stage 2: Labor (30 Minutes To 4 Hours):
 Begins when the fetal parts enter the birth canal and stimulate the abdominal press.
 First water bag (chorioallantoic sac) ruptures early stage 2
 The second water bag (amniotic sac) is forced through the vulva.
 Delivery should be completed within 2 hours after the appearance of the amniotic sac at the vulva.
Stage 3 labor: This is the expulsion of the fetal membranes, usually within 8-12 hours following delivery of the
fetus.

Calving Difficulty (Dystocia)

 Assistance should be provided if the cow or heifer has been in stage 1 for more than 6 hours, or more than 4
hours for stage 2 labor.
 Usually use chains, nylon straps, or cotton ropes for pulling calves when needed
 Calving difficulty or dystocia has a major effect on the subsequent production and reproductive performance
of the affected cow.
 The incidence of calving difficulty varies and is probably responsible for up to two thirds of calf deaths in
beef cow herds (average calf mortality in herds is 0 - 15%).
 The incidence can be much higher in first calving heifers and can be quite low <2% in adult cows.
 When mating heifers at 15 months to calf first at 2 years of age, managing for a low incidence of calving
difficulty is important
Factors That Influence the Incidence of Calving Difficulty:
a) Calf size - calf birth weight is the most important factor affecting calving difficulty hence controlling calf
birth weight will eliminate calving difficulty from the herd.
b) Breed of sire of calf - some breeds especially the Continental breeds have high incidences of calving
difficulty whereas Jersey sires have low to negligible calving difficulty.
c) Sire within breed - selecting the correct bull will also reduce calving difficulty hence Choose bulls with
below average estimated breeding value (EBV) for birth weight.
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 d) Sexes of calf - male calves are about 1-2 kg heavier than female calves and tend to have a 1-2 day longer
gestation than heifers.
e) Plane of nutrition - excessive growth or live weight gain in late pregnancy can affect the size of the calf and
the amount of fat laid down in the pelvis region-This is important in heifers, since their birth canal is small -
heifers need to be well grown to have developed a sufficiently large birth canal to be able to deliver a calf.
f) Breed of dam - the British beef breeds (Angus and Hereford) tend to have less incidence of calving
difficulty than dairy or continental beef crosses.
g) Gestation length - an extended gestation length will increase birth weight.

Post-Partum Anoestrus Interval

 The post-partum anoestrous interval (PPAI) is the time between calving and the first oestrus after calving.
 Post-partum intervals are of prime importance in cattle where gestation takes up to 282, days thereby leaving
only 83 days to re-commence oestrous cycles and to establish pregnancy if calving date is to be maintained.
The duration of the post-partum interval in beef cows is determined by:
1) Season of calving: Cows which calve earlier in the dry season tend to take longer to experience their first
post-calving oestrus than cows that calve during the peak pasture period season.
2) Age of cow: Research indicates that the range in PPAI is as shown:
a) 2 year old heifers 72 to 111 days
b) mixed aged cows 57 to 71 days
3) Breed of cow: research indicates dairy cross heifers (Friesian) had an average PPAI of 90 days vs. 81 days
for beef (Angus) heifers. This breed difference is likely to be related to increased milk production and lighter
condition (nutritional stress) in beef x dairy animals.
4) Plane of nutrition: A high level of feeding after calving does not fully compensate for an early calving date.
In contrast a medium-nutrition regime is adequate for later calving cows
5) Length of day: Photoperiod has some influence on PPAI with increasing day length tending to reduce PPAI.
6) Cow condition, liveweight and liveweight gain post-calving are major determinants of the post-calving
interval in beef cows.

Bull Management
 Most beef cows are mated using natural mating and actors that contribute to the outcome of natural mating
include bull age, bull soundness and fertility, breed of bull and bull to cow ratio.
a) Age of the bull: Puberty is dependent on nutrition, age, breed and this occurs in males breeds at around
one year of age (older in some continental breeds).
 Yearling bulls make satisfactory herd sires if they are adequately grown (>350kg) and run with no more than
25-30 cows each.
 Scrotal circumference is a good indicator of puberty and bulls with a scrotal circumference less than 30 cm
should not be used
b) Bull-to-cow ratio: It is normal practice for one bull to be joined with to 30-50 cows
 In practice, most bulls are used in syndicate matings (i.e. more than one bull per mating mob) with 2 to 3 bulls
per 100 cows
c) Soundness and fertility: Every bull used needs to have a yearly breeding soundness evaluation 30-60 days
before the start of the breeding
Bulls need to be in good condition (CS 3.5 (6 to 7)) but not over-fat prior to the mating season and
bull soundness examination could include the items shown below:
i. Inspection for structural and inheritable faults
ii. Examination/palpation of reproductive organs
iii. Temperament, locomotory system assessment
iv. Serving ability test
v. Diagnostic tests for Camplyobacter, Trichomonas etc
vi. Semen evaluation (gross and morphology)

Pregnancy Diagnosis

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  Determining pregnancy in cattle is an important management tool and the advantages of knowing the
pregnancy status of a beef cow herd are:
a) Allocation of feed
b) Saving feed by culling non-pregnant animals before period of abundant forage
c) It allows for prediction of calving dates
d) assist in more efficient use of labour during calving especially if calves are tagged and weighed at birth

Methods of Pregnancy Diagnosis

i. Palpation of the uterus and its contents: this involves inserting a gloved and lubricated arm into the rectum
and feeling the reproductive tract and is performed 6 weeks (for heifers) and 8 weeks (for cows) after the bull
is removed from the herd.
ii. Ultrasonic detection of the foetus and its membranes using a portable scanner where scanning is done with a
rectal probe.
 Scanning is faster and less demanding physically than rectal palpation and is becoming the preferred
technique.
 The technique is often performed between 6 to 8 weeks after mating and allows for manual checking of cows
where either a foetus or an empty uterus cannot be visualised.
 Pregnancies can be detected as early as 35 days.

Fetal Aging and Sexing

 Fetal ageing can also be performed but requires training and practice. The most practical time for foetal
ageing is when pregnancies are between 6 to 12 weeks of age
 Foetal sexing is possible using ultrasound but is technical and specialized and It is best performed at 60 to 80
days of conception and requires a high resolution scanner

New Reproductive Technologies for Use in Beef Breeding Cows

 A reproductive technology can be defined as any technology that impacts on the reproductive performance of
breeding cow or a herd of breeding cows.
 This definition includes technologies which impact on the number of calves produced as well as the weight of
the calves at weaning time.
 Reproductive technologies can impact on cows or herds in a variety of ways.
i. They can improve calf productivity (number and weight of calves weaned)
ii. Herd management and genetic gain.
 Some technologies are:
a) Oestrus synchronization
b) Artificial insemination (AI)
c) Producing twin pregnancies
d) Changing average calf sex ratio
e) Cloning
f) DNA parenting

Oestrus synchronization
• This is often a prerequisite to the use of AI and embryo transfer.
• In addition it may be used to facilitate appropriate feeding and calving management since cows will all be at
the same stage of pregnancy

Artificial insemination (AI)

• This can be used to obtain access to bulls which would otherwise not be available (e.g. bulls from overseas).
• AI is used to improve rates of genetic gain, or to limit sexually transmitted diseases.

Problems of AI
a) The intensive labour input required for the identification, isolation and handling of cows on heat is not
available in most commercial extensively run beef cow herds.
b) It is also difficult to maintain an adequate feed supply for cows and calves close to cattle yards for the
duration of the AI programme.
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 c) Another potential problem that limits the increased use of AI in beef cow herds is lack of suitable progeny
tested bulls. Unlike the dairy industry, where there are industry wide progeny test schemes run by artificial
breeding companies, there are no such schemes in the beef industry and it is up to individual breeders or
groups of breeders to progeny test sires.

Producing Twin Pregnancies

 In cattle the natural twinning rate is 1% although Simmental herds may have up to 2.1% twinning rate.
 Twinning can be induced by embryo transfer using either two transferred embryos, or one transferred embryo
to supplement the natural one produced by the cow.
 Researchers are also working on a vaccine to produce twinning in cattle.
 Selection is also possible but slow

Twinning Problems
Even if twin pregnancies have been achieved, twinning in cattle is not straightforward.
Calf losses at twin calving can be as high as 40%, mostly due to foetal malpresentation in the birth canal (causing
calves to be born dead) and mis-mothering and poor colostrum feeding immediately after calving
High level of supervision at calving is required to ensure high twin calf survival.

Changing Average Calf Sex Ratio

• Sperm sexing occurs where the populations of x (female) and y (male) chromosome bearing sperm in a
semen sample are separated.
• At present they can be separated with about 90% accuracy, using a fluorescent dye where the x chromosome
absorbs more of the dye than the y chromosome.
• The dyed sperm are then passed through a laser beam in a sorter one by one.
• This gives them a charge, either positive or negative and they then pass through an "electric gate" which
sorts them into x and y groups based on their electric charge.
• Sexed sperm is more likely to be used in laboratory based in vitro fertilisation (IVF) and embryo production
(IVP) to generate sex selected calves.

Advantages
• Changing the average calf sex ratio could influence the economics and genetics of livestock production i.e. a
beef farmer could breed 80 steers and 20 replacement heifers from the 100 cows, thus increasing the value of
their weaners (steers or bulls are more valuable than heifers).

Problem
• The heavier birth weights of males can lead to increased mortality rates from calving difficulty, especially in
calving heifers, so this would need to be allowed for.
• The technique is available commercially but its adoption rate is still low due to technical difficulties and
cost.
• This method is relatively slow sorting only 100 sperm per second (Note that one insemination dose for a
cow, using frozen semen, requires 10 million sperm).

Cloning
• Nuclear transfer (NT) cloning is an assisted reproductive technology which creates an animal that is a genetic
copy of the donor cell genome used in the procedure.
• Simply, it involves microsurgery under the microscope to introduce the nucleus of a donor cell into the
cytoplasm of a mature cow’s egg that has had its own nuclear DNA removed.
• This reconstructed 1-cell embryo is then artificially activated to commence development and is grown in the
laboratory for 7 days until it reaches the blastocyst stage (around 120 cells) and can be transferred to the
uterus of a recipient cow.
• Nuclear transfer technology has the potential to replicate cloned animals from outstanding embryonic or adult
genotypes, including resurrecting animals for breeding after post-slaughter carcass assessment.

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• Cloning would be an attractive alternative to artificial insemination, which is not widely adopted on extensive
beef farms

Problems of cloning
• Although improvements have been made, the NT process remains inefficient. Presently, in cattle, about 10%
of NT embryos transferred to recipient cows result in viable calves.
• High pregnancy losses throughout gestation and after calving reduce the acceptability of this technology.
• The integration of cloning into beef farming systems remains a future prospect dependent upon overcoming
existing technical and biological barriers, in addition to gaining widespread international regulatory and
consumer acceptance.

DNA parenting
• Technologies using DNA parenting are used, albeit sparingly.
• Some breed societies require mandatory DNA parentage verification for breed registration purposes
• In future this DNA testing could be extended to allow whole genome scans or single gene tests to be run

5. BEEF CALF REARING

Well-managed calf rearing should aim for:
a. Good animal performance with minimal losses from disease and death.
b. Optimum growth rate and feed efficiency.
c. Optimal cost inputs such as feed (milk, concentrates and roughage), animal health (veterinary fees and
medicines) and other operating costs (milk feeding equipment, transport, bedding material, etc.) to achieve
well-reared calves.
d. Minimum labour requirements.
e. Maximum utilisation of existing facilities such as sheds for rearing and pastures for grazing.

5.1 Sources of Beef Calves

Calves for beef production are derived from two sources:
1. Artificially reared calves: Calves reared ‘artificially’ on whole or reconstituted milk and meal from 4 days of
age and weaned at approximately 8 to 10 weeks of age.
 These calves are sourced almost entirely from the dairy industry and are, typically, Friesian or Friesian cross
bull calves weighing about 100kg.
2. Suckled calves: Calves reared on breeding cows or other suckling cows and typically weaned at 150 to 250
days of age, weighing 200-300kg.

Requirements of the Calf from Birth to Weaning

a. The newly born calf and colostrum: The newborn calf must drink at least 2 litres of colostrum from its dam,
or from another freshly calved cow, within 48 hours of birth and preferably within 24 hours.
 This is because it has a “naive” immune system which lasts for the first 6 to 7 weeks of the calf’s life
 Colostrum provides passive immunity for the calf for the above 6 to 7 week period until the calf’s own
immune system becomes fully functional.
 For the first 48 hours of a calf’s life, its digestive tract is able to absorb protein antibodies (large protein
molecules) delivered from the cow to the calf via colostrum undigested
 Calves which do not drink enough colostrum at this stage, will be much more susceptible to infectious
diseases, such as scours and pneumonia, and are less likely to survive, or grow rapidly, than normal calves.
 Never assume that purchased newborn dairy calves will have had adequate colostrum
 The calf’s requirements for liquid feed after these first one to two days of life can be satisfied by various
other feeds including fresh whole-milk, stored colostrum, acidified milk or milk substitutes, or reconstituted
milk powders.

b. The rumen of the new calf

 The newborn calf has only a very small rumen of approximately 1 to 2 litres capacity compared to the 25 to
30 litres capacity that it will have in later life.
 Rumen development, is the key to successful calf rearing

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 the calf’s rumen can enlarge very rapidly in the first few weeks of its life given the correct feeding
management
 The sooner the calf is able to graze forage rather than needing expensive milk and meal, the cheaper it will be
to rear.

Critical Factors Governing Rumen Development

a. The calf must start using and developing its rumen at as young an age as possible
b. What the calf eats when it is starting to use its rumen must be easily digested.
c. Roughage is the key to establishing a large rumen as quickly as possible
d. Roughage should be offered along with high quality, readily digestible concentrates, which should have at
least 20% protein content in them and have an available energy density of more than 12 to 13 MJ ME/kg DM.

Essential Nutrients for Calf Growth

 Most essential nutrients for calf growth and development are water, energy and protein.
 Fibre, minerals and vitamins are also important but play a smaller role.

Energy:
 Energy is needed to maintain body temperature and support normal body functions otherwise known as
maintenance energy requirements
 Any energy consumed which is surplus to the basic need of the animal, is available for the laying down of
muscle, bone and fat and expressed as live weight gain (growth).

Proteins
 Protein is required by the calf to maintain biological processes on a daily basis, as well as repairing tissues
and forming blood.
 Due to the calve’s high demand for protein, there is need for high protein concentrates in their diet, if
adequate protein is not available from restricted milk.

Water
 Calves should be provided with as much fresh water as they need
 When calves start eating solid feeds such as concentrates or dry feeds like hay or straw, they require
continuous or regular access to fresh water.
 This helps increase their intake of solid feeds, which further speeds up rumen development.
 Calves will drink 3 to 6 litres of water for every kg of dry feed consumed

A Recommended Programme for Feeding Milk Replacer (Litres) To Calve

• A cost effective calf rearing system involves feeding concentrated milk-replacer once a day for five weeks
• High protein calf pellets fed to appetite up to a maximum of 1.5kg per calf per day at 12 weeks of
age.
• Calves should not be weaned off milk until they are consuming at least 1 kg DM/day of calf pellets.
• Calves must be allowed access to pasture from a minimum of 4 weeks of age
• Calves should have access to clean water and barley straw or similar roughage at all times.
• High protein concentrates should be fed to young calves on restricted milk.
• These concentrates should have a crude protein content of at least 18%.
• The provision of shelter is critical once the young calves move out onto pasture at 1 to 2 weeks of age.

A recommended programme for feeding milk replacer in the table below:

Table : A recommended programme for feeding milk replacer (litres) to calves. Note: 2 x 1 = 2 feeds per
day each of 1 litre; 1.5 = 1 feed per day of 1.5 litres. The milk replacer is mixed at 200g/litre.
Age (days after arrival) Calf size weight range at 4 days old
Small (<37kg) Medium (37-43kg) Large (>43kg)
1-2 2 x1 2 x1 2 x1
3-5 2 x1 1.5 2.0
6-9 2 x1 1.75 2.25

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10-12 1.5 2 2.5
13-16 1.75 2.25 2.5
17-20 2.0 2.5 2.5
21-24 2.25 2.5 2.5
25-35 2.5 2.5 2.5
36-42 2.5 2.5 Weaned
43-49 2.5 Weaned Weaned
Total milk replacer per 21.8 19.1 16.8
calf
(Based on results from Poukawa Research Centre).

Weaning
• Calf live weight is a better indicator than age or meal consumption as to when to wean a calf off
milk.
• Calves can be weaned from milk at 63kg, irrespective of age, and will then be able to achieve a
target live weight of 100kg at 12 weeks of age.
• Heavier crossbred calves tend to perform just as well as Friesian bull calves of similar live weight.

Calves Purchase and Transport

• Transporting 4-day-old calves a long distance prior to arrival at the rearing site can cost the calf up
to 1.5kg live weight on average due to stress.
• Only those calves that weigh more than 40kgshould be purchased if possible as calf weaning weight
is influenced by birth weight.

Calf health
a. Scouring
Causes
 stress and or lack of colostrum in the first 48 hours after birth
 Stress – Transport, change of diet, overcrowding
 Milk volume – an excessive volume of milk can over-fill the fourth stomach (or abomasum), and be
pushed through into the intestine before it has clotted-Scouring will result.
 Quality of feed – poor milk powders which is either too low in fat, or overheated during production.
 Bacteria – These are not considered a major cause of calf scours but once a calf begins scouring, the
conditions in the intestines are “ripe” for an invasion by harmful bacteria such as salmonella and
certain strains of E. coli, causing damage to the intestine walls and therefore preventing the calf from
absorbing nutrients and fluids. This causes fluids to be passed from the body into the intestines and
out in the scour causing dehydration, which can kill the calf.
 Naval infection – Bacteria entering through the naval into the bloodstream cause problems

6. ANIMAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

 Growth is an increase in mass of tissues i.e. Bone, internal organs, muscle and fat
 True growth is increase in mass of tissues of bone, internal organs, muscle except fat

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 Growth and development have important implications for beef animal production because they
significantly influence the value of the animal being produced.
 The aim is to make animal growth and development processes more efficient.
 Animal growth and development are controlled by genes and hormones.
 growth and development are influenced by:
1. nutrition
2. efficiency of metabolism and respiration
3. hormonal regulation
4. immune responses
5. physiological status of the animal
6. diseases and parasites
7. maintenance of homeostasis
 Animal growth and development can be separated into processes occurring before birth (prenatal)
and those occurring after birth (post-natal).
Types of Growth:
1. Hyperplasia: Increase in cell number
 Occurs during Prenatal growth
 Research indicates that cell number is set
2. Hypertrophy: Increase in cell size after birth

Pre-Natal growth and development

 Broken down into two stages, embryogenesis and organogenesis.
Embryogenesis: the zygote (a single cell that is repeatedly cleaved) develops into the morula (multi-
celled ball), which becomes the blastula (a hollow sphere filled with fluid) and then the gastrula.
 The morula is the same size as the original zygote, even though it is made up of numerous cells,
called blastomeres.
 Up to the blastula stage cell division has occurred but the blastomeres (cells) have not increased in
size.
 The embryo is in the gastrula stage when cell growth occurs at the same time as cell division.
Organogenesis: The blastula under goes gastrulation in which the blastomeres on one side of the
blastula move inward and form a two-layered embryo.
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 The two layers formed are the ectoderm (outer layer) and the endoderm (inner layer).
 A third cell layer known as the mesoderm is formed between the ectoderm and the endoderm.
 The cavity that forms within the gastrula is known as the primitive gut, which later develops into the
animal’s digestive system.
 All tissues and organs form from one of the three layers of cells in the gastrula.
 After the germ layers are established, the cells rearrange and develop into tissues and organs.
 During this phase, known as organogenesis, cells grow and differentiate.
Table: Organs and tissues that form from the three germ layers
Ectoderm Mesoderm Endoderm
Nervous system including the Bones and muscle Lining of the digestive tract
brain, spinal cord, and nerve Reproductive and excretory Liver and pancreas
systems
Lining of the mouth, nostrils, Blood and blood vessels Lining of the trachea, bronchi,
and anus and lungs
Epidermis of the skin, sweat Inner layer (dermis) of the skin Thyroid, parathyroid, thymus,
glands, hair, and nail and bladder
 In the first few weeks after conception, cells differentiate into organs and body structures.
 The embryo is then referred to as a fetus and the body structures continue to grow and develop until
birth
Body tissues and organs formation:
 Body tissues and organs are formed in a specific sequence:
1. The head is formed before the tail and the spinal cord is formed before other organs.
2. Some highly differentiated cells, such as brain and nerve cells, cannot be replaced if they are
destroyed after the original number is fixed during the fetal stage.
3. Muscle cell numbers are also fixed during the fetal stage and can only increase in size, not in
number.
4. Bone, and therefore skeletal size, can be increased to a degree by environmental conditions, but not
beyond the genetic potential of the animal.

Post-Natal Growth
 Post-natal growth extends from birth until death, and the length of this period depends greatly on
species. The average life span of sheep and cattle tend to live to be around 15 and 30 years of age,
respectively.
 Muscle, bone, and fat are the three main types of tissues that develop as an animal grows.
 The rate of deposition depends on the age of the animal and the type of tissue being deposited.
Muscle tissues: Muscle fibers are formed from multiple cells called myoblasts.
 As a result, one muscle fiber has multiple nuclei.
 Because no new fibers are formed after birth, postnatal growth of muscle is characterized by
increases in length and diameter.
 Muscle fibers are predominantly protein, and therefore fiber size is determined by the rate of protein
synthesis minus the rate of degradation.
 The majority of muscle tissue develops between birth and maturity after which muscle growth then
slows down, but it is not physiologically halted as is bone growth.
 Protein deposition declines markedly with age hence fattening is more apparent in mature animals.

Bone tissues: Bone tissue grows both before and after birth.
 A bone grows in length through the ossification or hardening of the cartilage at each end.
 After the cartilage on the ends of a bone has completely hardened, the bone stops growing.
 Bones have the capability of increasing in width and can repair themselves if broken.

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 Although individual bones reach a mature length and stop elongating after the animal reaches a
mature body size, bone tissue is constantly being deposited and resorbed until the animal dies

Fat tissue:
 Fat Tissue Depots: (order)
i. Internal Fat ~ (1st)
ii. Intermuscular Fat ~ Seam fat (2nd)
iii. Subcutaneous Fat ~ Backfat (3rd)
iv. Intramuscular Fat ~ Marbling (4th)
 Fat tissue is comprised of fat cells and connective tissue.
 Fat cells increase or decrease in size depending on the nutritional status of the animal.
 Two types of fat tissue include white fat, which stores energy, and brown fat, which maintains a
constant body temperature.
 Fat deposition occurs mainly after the bulk of the muscle has been deposited.
 Fat is deposited in four different areas throughout the body or carcass.
 Fat that is deposited in the abdominal cavity around the kidneys and pelvic area is called intra-
abdominal fat; it is usually the first fat deposited.
 Fat deposited just under the skin is referred to as subcutaneous fat, or backfat, and is usually the
largest amount of fat deposited.

 Fat deposited between the muscles of animals is called intermuscular fat

 Fat deposited within the muscle is called intramuscular fat.
 The level of intramuscular fat deposited is referred to as the degree of marbling and affects the
quality and taste of meat.
 Beef carcass quality is determined by the degree of marbling in the carcass and manipulation of this
process is very important in meat production systems.
 Intramuscular fat is the last type of fat to be deposited, so animals with high degrees of marbling
also have large amounts of fat deposited in other areas of the carcass.

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Hormonal Control of growth
 Deposition of different tissues and partitioning of energy for various processes involved in growth
and development are regulated by hormones.
 Some of the more important hormones involved in muscle growth and development are :
1. Insulin
2. growth hormone
3. Insulin-like Growth Factor 1 (IGF-1)
4. thyroid hormones
5. glucocorticoids, and
6. The sex steroids.
Insulin:
 It stimulates the transport of certain amino acids into muscle tissue and is active in reducing the rate
of protein degradation.
 It is also a key hormone in the regulation of food intake, nutrient storage, and nutrient partitioning.
Growth hormone
 Stimulates protein anabolism in many tissues.
 This effect reflects increased amino acid uptake, increased protein synthesis, and decreased
oxidation of proteins.
 It also enhances the utilization of fat by stimulating triglyceride breakdown and oxidation in
adipocytes.
 It has a direct effect on bone growth by stimulating the differentiation of chondrocytes.
IGF-1:
 Produced in the liver and Stimulates proliferation of chondrocytes (cartilage cells), thus resulting in
bone growth.
 It is also important in protein, fat, and carbohydrate metabolism.
 FuIGF-1 stimulates the differentiation and proliferation of myoblasts and the amino acid uptake and
protein synthesis in muscle and other tissues.

Thyroid hormones:
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 Animals require thyroid hormones for normal growth.
 Deficiencies of T4 or thyroxine and T3 (Triiodothyronine) cause reduced growth as a result of
decreased muscle synthesis and increased proteolysis.
 Alterations in thyroid status require several days to take effect, and they are associated with changes
in the ribonucleic acid (RNA)/protein ratio in skeletal muscle.
 Thyroid hormones have an important influence on the prenatal development of muscle.
Glucocorticoids:
 Restrict growth and induce muscle wasting
 they have different effects on different types of muscle
 Glucocorticoids also affect metabolic rate and energy balance.

The sex steroids:

 Androgens (male sex hormones) have an obvious effect on muscle development and growth in
general because male animals grow faster and develop more muscle than do females.
 Estrogens (female sex hormones) also have significant roles in maximizing growth and are
commonly used in artificial growth promotants for both male and female cattle.

Homeostasis
 This refers to the maintenance of an internal equilibrium
 Homeostasis is closely integrated with the growth and development of an animal.
 Normal growth patterns are affected if homeostasis is not maintained at all times.
 Homeostasis is controlled by the nervous system (nervous regulation) and the endocrine system
(chemical regulation).
 Homeostasis is maintained at all levels, from individual cells to the whole animal.
 Example, cells must maintain suitable salt and water levels while tissues and organs require specific
blood glucose levels.
 Also, temperate must be kept within a certain range for an animal to remain alive and grow and
function normally.
 Many processes and functions, both voluntary and involuntary, contribute to maintaining this state of
internal balance, which is controlled by the nervous system (nervous regulation) and the endocrine
system (chemical regulation).

Genetic Control
 Most processes involved in growth and development are occurring at a cellular level.
 Managers of livestock systems must manipulate growth and development to optimize production and
the knowledge of what is happening at a cellular level must be applied at a whole animal level so
that growth and development can be managed.
 Manipulation of genetics is an important factor in the management of livestock operations because
the genetic composition of an animal determines its potential for growth and development.
 All animals have a set genotype that determines their potential for growth but their phenotype is
affected by environmental factors, such as nutrition, disease, parasites and injuries.
 Rate of growth is a trait influenced by many genes controlling things such as appetite, tissue
deposition, skeletal development, energy expenditure, and body composition.
 some growth-related traits include: Weaning weight, Post weaning gain efficiency, Post weaning rate
of gain, Feed efficiency and Loin eye area
 Growth from birth to weaning is affected significantly by the amount of milk produced by the dam
 The mature size of animals is directly related to their rate of gain and feed efficiency.
 Large and late maturing animals are still growing when they reach conventional market weights and
are carrying less fat and waste.
 These larger framed animals are more suitable for markets requiring lean meat.

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 Small and early maturing animals have just about finished growing when they reach desirable
market weights and are frequently carrying much higher proportions of fat.
 So, in markets where marbling is a desired feature, this is a good characteristic.
 Cattle that produce high-yielding carcasses possessing sufficient marbling also have high feed
efficiencies; they are considered most valuable.
 Greater emphasis is placed on growth rates in male animals and calving percentages in females.
 Selecting for increased growth rates ultimately result in a line of larger framed animals.
 The negative results of this can be decreased marbling and feed efficiency, increased feed costs,
higher birth weights, and higher rates of dystocia.
 This has led some producers to consider feed efficiency a more suitable selection trait; however, the
heritability of feed efficiency is low and genetic improvement is slow.

The Influence of External Factors on Growth and Development

1. Nutrition:
 An animal never reaches its genetic potential for growth, fattening, milk production and other
developmental processes if diet and environmental conditions are not optimal or at least favorable.
 Nutrition is the variable that managers of livestock production systems have the most control over in
the short-term.
 An animal requires a certain level of nutrition for the normal development and functioning of its
body systems.
 This is commonly referred to as the maintenance requirements of an animal.
 Additional nutrients are then required if the optimal growth of muscle and fat is to occur.
 Poor nutrition can have multiple consequences such as stunted growth, malformed organs, disease,
brittle skeletons, increased susceptibility to parasites, and poor reproductive performance.
 Nutrition affects all stages of growth and development.
 Nutrition is used to manipulate the growth patterns of animals.
 For example, in feedlots, high-energy diets are commonly fed in the finishing phase to encourage
deposition of fat (marbling).
 Cattle that experience a period of poor nutrition as young calves never meet their genetic potential to
marble but structural development continues as normal if the period of poor nutrition is relatively
short in duration.

Compensatory Growth:
 Poor nutrition even provides a benefit in the form of compensatory growth.
 Compensatory growth is a phenomenon that has been identified in animals that go through a short
period of malnutrition but then return to an adequate or high plane of nutrition.
 Animals lose weight or their development is temporarily slowed but then as the animal’s nutritional
status improves, they start utilizing nutrients more efficiently.
 Thus, the resulting weight gain occurs more quickly and more efficiently.

Disease and parasites

 Any form of disease negatively impacts the growth and development of an animal.
 Sickness usually requires nutrients to be repartitioned and commonly causes reductions in intake.
 Some diseases also create long-term consequences that impair the animal’s ability to harvest, digest,
or absorb nutrients causing long-term impairment of growth and development.
 Both internal and external parasites decrease appetite and therefore the intake of food, depress wool
production, inhibit normal digestive functions, cause permanent internal tissue damage, and make
the animal physically sick (for example, blood poisoning caused by ticks).

Altering Growth

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Benefits:
 Increase in the amount of product to sell
 Change composition of saleable product

Methods to alter growth:

1. Natural: natural methods of altering growth includes genetics and nutrition
A) Genetics i.e. British vs European/Continental Breeds
Example:
a. British breeds are earlier rate of maturity and less muscle more fat and are the main
“Maternal”breeds
b. Continental breeds are rate of maturity, More muscle and less fat and the “Terminal”

2. Administered Growth Promoting Agents

a. Implants
b. Beta agonists

Beta Agonists:
i. Ractopamine HCl - Cattle ~ Optaflex
 Fed last 28-42 days 100 – 300 mg / day
 Improvement:
a) Performance-F/G, ADG same DMI
b) Dressing Percent
c) Carcass wt
d) No adverse affect on Marbling
e) Tenderness affected at 300 mg
ii. Zilpaterol HCl –
 g/ton to provide 60-90 mg/hd/day
 Fed as Show maxx via layman OR
 Fed in feedlots in concentrate form supervised by a DVM

Growth-Promoting Implants for Beef Cattle

Importance of growth promotants
1. Improved feed efficiency by 15%
2. Increased average daily gain by 10%
3. Increased dry matter intake by 5-10%

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4. Increase in body mass by 15-20%
 Growth-promoting implants contain active ingredients that are classified
as anabolic or tissue building

Reasons for Use “Hormones” Or “Growth Promotants” In Modern Beef Farming?

1. Most of the beef in the in the developed countries today is “grain-fed” or “grain-finished.”
2. Consumers of beef in the traditionally have preferred the tender beef from young steers and heifers.
3. These cattle spend most of their lives grazing on grass in pastures but are “finished” for the last 120-
200 days in a feeding operation where they are fed a balanced diet of grains, harvested forages, and
nutrient supplements (vitamins and minerals).
4. Bulls produce natural male hormones that cause them to grow faster, produce more muscle and
protein and deposit less fat than steers.
5. Heifers also produce hormones, but young heifers produce much less than older or pregnant heifers.
6. Providing small amounts of these or similar hormones to young steers and heifers allows them to
regain some of the growth rate of bulls and older heifers.

Growth promotants and how are they given?

 The active ingredients, most of which are naturally occurring hormones are either estrogens or
androgens.
 The estrogens can be natural, synthetic or plant-based.
 The androgens may be either natural or synthetic.
 The synthetic androgen used in implants (trenbolone acetate) has less of the negative aggressive
male behavior effects and more of the muscle enhancing effects compared to natural androgens.
 Depending on the implant, and the age and sex of the animal, implants will improve growth rate
from 10 to 20 percent and decrease the cost of beef production by 5 to 10 percent.
 Growth promotants are primarily given to cattle in the form of small pellets placed under the skin in
the animal’s ear.
 These ear implants dissolve slowly over a 100-120 day period.
 The ear is used because ears do not enter the food supply.
 More efficient beef production requires less feed and land resources.

How do growth promotants work?

 Implants work by changing what happens to the nutrients that cattle eat.
 Muscle growth is enhanced at the expense of fat deposition.
 Because muscle is more efficient for the animal to produce compared to fat, the animal grows faster
with less feed consumed.
 One benefit for the consumer is that at the same weights, implanted cattle will be leaner and the beef
will have fewer calories than non-implanted beef.
 Since the quality grades are based on marbling, which is internal fat in the ribeye muscle, implanted
cattle need to be fed to heavier weights or they will have a lower quality grade.

Are Growth Promotants Safe

 Hormone implants are regulated by the Food and Drug Administration of the USA and extensive
toxicological testing is conducted prior to the approval of any new growth promotant.
 Residues of the synthetic hormones are routinely monitored by the Food Safety Inspection Service
of the USDA to ensure safety of the beef.
 The natural hormones are not tested since they are not different than those naturally produced by the
animal and the quantities are a small percentage of what is normally produced.
 The natural human production of both androgens and estrogens is several thousand times the content
of a generous serving of beef produced with hormone implants.
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 Also other common foods are naturally much higher in estrogen than implanted beef including eggs
and milk.
 Soybean flour can contain several thousand times the estrogen activity as the same quantity of
implanted beef.
 Common consumer questions about hormones in beef often relate to cancer and early puberty in
children.
 Exposure to high levels of hormones through implanted beef has never been implicated in early
puberty in young girls
Table: Estrogenic activity of common foods (ng/500g)
Food Food Estrogenic Activity
Soy flour defatted 755,000,000
Pinto beans 900,000
White bread 300,000
Peanuts 100,000
Eggs 555
Butter 310
Milk 32
Beef from implanted steer 7
Beef from non-implanted steer 5
Estrogen production in humans, and potential estrogen intake from implanted beef
Item Estrogen Amount
Pregnant woman 19,600,000 ng/day
Non-pregnant woman 513,000 ng/day
Adult man 136,000 ng/day
Pre-puberal children 41,000 ng/day
500 g of beef from implanted cattle 7 ng
Hoffman and Eversol (1986), Hartman et al (1998), Shore and Shemesh (2003), USDA-ARS (2002). Units are nanograms of estrone plus estradiol for
animal products and isoflavones for plant products per 500 grams of food

Natural Beef
 Beef marketed under the label of “naturally raised” must be grown without growth promotants and
verified by enrollment in process verification.
 These cattle must also have been fed without antibiotics and animal by-products.
 Beef marketed as organic beef also is not implanted and must adhere to strict organic guidelines
including the feeding of organically grown feeds.
 Consumers who are concerned about the use of implants can find beef through labeling which
verifies that implants have not been used.
 However, since implants reduce the cost and resources used in the production of beef, consumers
should be prepared to pay a premium for these products.

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