ovuM ~ The ovum is the female sex cell or gamete. = It is regularly release by the ovary through the Process of ovulation. = Ithas 2 layers of protective covering, the corona ‘radiata and the zona pellucida. * The egg cell has lifespan of 24 hours, thus it an. ‘only be fertilized within this period. After 24 hrs. , ‘SPERM CELL, ~ Sperm are immobile and incapable of fertilization as they pass through or are stored at the epididymis level. Ht takes at least 12-20 days for them to travel the length of the tube and a total of 65 to 75 days for them to reach maturity. This is one reason aspermia absence of sperm) and oligospermia( fewer than 20 million sperm per milliliter) are problems that do not appear to respond immediately to therapy,but do respond after 2 months of treatment, = The sperm cell has 3 parts: a head that contains ‘the chromatin materials, a neck or mid-piece that provides energy for movement, and a tail that is responsible for its motility. - The sperm cell has lifespan of 48 to 72 hours or 2 103 days after ejaculation. 2 kinds of sperm cell > Gynosperm- This is the X carrying sperm cell. Ie hhas a large oval head, are lesser in number than androsperms and thrive better in acidic environment. > Androsperm- The sperm cell which carries the Y chromosomes, with the small head, and thrive beter in alkaline environment. * millions of sperm cells are deposited in the vagina only a few reach the uterus because many of them are immobilized by the acidic vaginal environment. * Spermatozoa swims so fast that within 90 seconds. [tis in the uterus and reach the fallopian tube within $ mins. after deposition. + Normally, an ejaculation of semen averages 2.5 ml of fluid containing 50 t 200 million spermatozoa per milliliter, or an average of 400 million sperm per ejaculation. Normal. sperm densities range from 1Smillion to grater than 200 million sperm per milliliter of semen. FERTILIZATION = When the sperm cell reach the uterus, its head undergoes structural changes called capacitation, the outer covering at the head of the sperm cell disappears and a tiny holes appear on it. = When it meets the ovum in the fallopian tube, it seeretes the enzymes hyalurunidase through the holes in its head which dissolves the outermost ‘covering of the egg cell, the corona radiata. Once corona radiata has disintegrated, the sperm cell will secrete another enzyme called acrosin Which will dissolve the portion of zona pellucida.* Once the sperm cell has entered the ovum and their nucleus has fused together, fertilization is completed. * Both the tail and the head of the sperm cell enter ‘the ovum but the tail degenerates right after. * After the sperm cell has entered the ovum the plasma membrane ofthe latter will undergo certain Structural changes to prevent polyspermy or other cells from entering the ovum. * Immediately after penetration of the ovum, the chromosomal material of the ovum and ‘spermatozoa fused, the resulting structure is called zygote. * Because the spermatozoon and ovum each carried 23 chromosomes ( 22 autosomes and 1 sex chromosomes), the fertilized ovum has 46 chromosomes. If an x carrying spermatozoon entered the ovum, the resulting child will have 2 x chromosomes and will be female (xx). * ICY carrying spermatozoon fertilized the ovum the resulting child will have an X and Y and will be male, IMPLANTATION + Once the fertilization is complete, the zygote migrates over the next 3-4 days towards the body of the uterus, aided by the currents initiated by the ‘muscular contraction of the fallopian tubes. During this time mitotic cell division or cleavage, begins. ‘By the time the zygote reaches the body of the Uterus, it consists of 16-50 cells. ~ At this stage, because of the bumpy outward appearance it is termed a morula.( from the latin word morus, meaning mulberry). From ov jation to implantation BLASTOCYST + Is a ball like structure composed of an inner cell mass called embryonic disc or blastococle, ‘occupying one of its poles and an outer layer of rapidly developing. cells called trophoblasts ‘or tropoderm, = The trophoderm layer gives rise to the placenta,fetal membranes, umbilical cord and amniotic fluid. - The important functions of the trophoblasts are: > to absorb nutrients from the endometrium and > to seerete the hormone human chorionic ‘gonadotropin necessary in prolonging the life of corpus luteum, ~ Blastocoele or embryonic disc gives rise to the 3 primary germ layers which are: ectoderm gives tae tothe akin, ba, rail, sense organs, central nervous system, mucous membrane of the mouth and anus, and first germ layer to develop. b. mesoderm- gives rise to the kidney, musculoskeletal system( bones and muscles), reproductive system and cardiovascular system( heart and blood vessels, last germ layer to develop. . entoderm- gives rise to the bladder , inning of the gastro intestinal tract, tonsils, thyroid gland and respiratory system, ‘TROPHOBLAST = At about 3 weeks gestation, the trophoblast cell kidneys fail to develop > Urine exeretion is blocked > Inadequate placental blood flow Complications: > cord compression, fetal hypoxia, prolonged labor Composition: > 99% water and 1% particles , early in pregnancy itis chiefly composed of maternal serum, when the fetus begins to urinate after the 10th week of pregnancy, fetal urine contributes to the volume of amniotic fluid. Appearance: > Clear and colorless to straw colored > green tinged or meconium stained amniotic fluid signifies fetal distress. > Golden colored amniotic fluid signifies hemolytic disease. > Gray colored amniotic fluid indicates infection. ph- 7.0 to 7.25, reaction is neutral to alkaline. Functions: > Protects the fetus from trauma, blows and pressure, > Allows freedom of movement, which permit symmetrical growth and development of, musculoskeletal system. > Acts as an excretion and secretion system. > Maintain a constant temperature. > Source of oral fluid for the fetus who swallows it. > Aids in diagnosis in maternal and fetal complications. > Aids fetal descent during labor by providinglubrication in the birth canal > During labor as long as the membrane are intact, the amniotic fluid protects the fetus from uterine contractions. > It aids in effacement and dilatation of the cervix. > Prevents pressure on the cord. UMBILICAL CORD. ~ The umbilical cord or funis is the structure that ‘connects the fetus to the placenta. Its main function is to carry oxygen and nutrients from the placenta to the fetus and returned unoxygenated blood and fetal waste products to the placenta, BLOOD VESSELS + Itis composed of 2 arteries which carry the most ‘unoxygenated blood to the placenta and 1 vein which carries the most oxygenated blood to the fetus + Itis about 50-60 cm long and 2 cm in diameter. = It appears dull white, moist and covered by amnion, ~ Umbilical cord less than 40 em is considered short, @ short cord can be a factor to uterine inversion and abruptio placenta. ~A long umbilical cord can be a factor to nuchal cord and cord prolapse. > Wharton's jelly- a gelatinous substance, found inside the cord. > Cord insertion ~ normally the cord is inserted at the center of the fetal surface of the placenta. > Lateral insertion- when the cord is inserted away from the center of the placenta but not at its edges. > Velamentous/ velamentosa insertion- when the cord is inserted about 5-10 em away from the edge of the placenta. > Battledore insertion- when the cord is inserted at the edge of the placenta. CORD ABNORMALITIES > Knots of the cord- fetal movements may cause knots in the cord which could lead to perinatal loss. > Loops of the cord- the cord may coil around the fetal body and neck. When the cord coil is in the neck itis called nuchal cord. > Torsion of the cord- caused by deficiency of wharton’s jelly, infants seen with cord torsion are ‘mostly stillborn. > Hematoma of the cord- results from rupture of vessels with effusion of blood into the cord, > Edema of the cord is associated With edema of the fetus which is common in dead macerated fetus. PLACENTA, (Latin for pancake which is descriptive of its size ‘and appearance at term) formed from the chorionic Villi and decidua basalis. = It reaches: maturity at 12 weeks gestation and continue to function effectively until the 40-41st ‘week. It begins to degenerate after the 42nd week, ~ Weight- the placenta is a discoid organ weighing approximately 400-600 grams at terms, with a diameter of 15-20 em and about 2-3 em thick. + Itoccupies about % ofthe uterine eavit Maternal and fetal side: it faces the mother ‘matemnal portion consists of decidua basalis and its Circulation. Its surface is rough, red and segmented irregular convex areas referred to as cotyledon is supplied with 1 artery and I vein. The lobe is collection is collection of many villi, called rami. Amnon Placenta ip crdas-section “se umbitcal cord ADAM * Fetal side- It faves the fetus. Consists of chorionic villi and the surface is covered by amnion which ives it shiny gray appearance. Mechanism by which nutrients cross the placenta. 1. Diffusion: when there is greater concentration of a substance on one side of a semipermeable membrane than one on the other, substances of correet molecular weight eross the membrane from the area of higher concentration to the area of lower concentratio. Oxygen, carbon dioxide, sodium, and, chloride cross the placenta by this method. 2. Facilitated diffusion- some substances cross the Placenta more rapidly , used in the passage of3. Active transfort- used by amino acidwater soluble, vitamins iron, calcium and iodine. 4. Pinocytosis- at the end of pregnancy antibodies such as IgG, that provides natural passive immunity during the Ist 3 months efter birth cross the placenta. FUNCTION OF PLACENTA > Respiratory system- exchange of gases takes place in the placenta through the process of diffusion and not in fetal lungs. > Renal system- waste product of the fetus are excreted through the placenta and detoxified in the mother's liver. > Gastrointestinal system- nutrients pass from the placenta to the fetus via active transfort and diffusion. The food eaten by the mother is already broken down in its simplest form by the time it reaches the placenta, The placenta selects the nutrients needed by the fetus, sometimes even depleting maternal stores of glucose and iron. > Circulatory system- Feto-placental circulation is functional 12 days after fertilization. > Endocrine system- the placenta produces the following hormone: > Human Chorionic Gonadotropin- the first hormone produce,hGC, can be found in the maternal blood and urine as early as Ist missed ‘menstrual period through about the 100th day of pregnancy. hCG ensure that the corpus luteum of the ovary continues to produce estrogen and progesterone. > Estrogen- is produced as a second product of the syncytial cells of the placenta. Estrogen contribute to the mother’s mammary gland development in preparation for lactation and stimulate uterine growth to accommodate the developing fetus. > Progesterone- necessary in pregnancy to maintain the endometrial lining of the uterus. It reduces the contractility of the uterine musculature during pregnancy which prevents premature labor. > Human Placental Lactogen(Human Chorionic Somatomammotropin)- growth promoting and lactogenic properties. It promotes mammary gland growth in preparation for lactationin mother, it also regulate maternal glucose, protein and fat level so that adequate amount of these nutrients are always available to the fetus. ABNORMALTIES 1. Placenta Succenturiata- Has an accessory lobe of placental tissue in the fetal sac membrane with blood vessels running to the main placenta. 2. Placenta circumvallata- with a double layer of ‘amnion and chorion. 3, Placenta bipartita- has 2 complte or almost ‘complete lobe. 4. Battledore placenta- cord is situated at the very edge of the placenta. 5. Placenta increta- placenta penetrates to the uterine muscle. 6. Placenta percreta- all the way through the uterus. 7. Placenta accreta- placenta that invades the uterine muscle. Making separation from the muscle difficult.