Journal of Food

Engineering
Volume 63, Issue 2, June 2004, Pages 177-184

Effect of fermented/germinated cowpea flour addition on the

rheological and baking properties of wheat flour
Elin Hallén a, Şenol İbanoğlu b , Paul Ainsworth c

Show more

Share Cite

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0260-8774(03)00298-X
Get rights and content

Abstract

There is a growing interest in fortifying wheat flour with high lysine material, such as cowpea flour, to
improve the essential amino acid balance of baked food products. The use of cowpeas as a food source has
not been utilised fully, especially in developed countries. In this research, wheat flour in a standard bread
formulation was partially replaced with cowpea flour, germinated cowpea flour and fermented cowpea
flour at levels of 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% (wt/wt). Composite flours were analysed for ash, protein, gluten
contents and α-amylase activity as well as colour, farinograph and extensograph characteristics. Bread baked
from composite flours was analysed for loaf volume and weight, texture, crumb-grain structure and colour.

Increasing levels of cowpea flour in the blends resulted in changed flour characteristics such as ash and
protein contents and colour. It also changed farinograph and extensograph characteristics, mainly by
increased water absorption. Incorporation of cowpea flour exerted a certain volume depressing effect on the
bread and gave a compact structure at higher substitution levels. Overall acceptable results were obtained
based on characteristics of control bread.

Introduction

Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata or V. sinensis), also known as black-eyed pea, is a leguminous crop of many
tropical and subtropical areas and is an important grain legume in developing countries. It contains 24–26%
crude protein and is rich in glutamic acid, aspartic acid and lysine, but low in sulphur amino acids. Cowpeas
are low in fat and contain no cholesterol. The lipid content ranges from 0.7% to 3.5% and unsaturated fatty
acids constitute more than two thirds of the total fatty acids (Prinyawiwatkul, McWatters, Beuchat, &
Phillips, 1996).

Considerable interest has been generated in fortifying wheat flour with high protein, high lysine material to
:
 increase the protein content and improve the essential amino acid balance of baked products, especially
bread. The high lysine content (486 mg/g nitrogen) makes cowpeas an excellent enhancer of protein quality
when combined with cereal grain proteins, which are low in lysine but rich in sulphur amino acids
(Prinyawiwatkul et al., 1996). Also, the low crude fat content of cowpeas removes the need for a defattening
step at flour production (McWatters, 1990).

Despite its high protein content, the use of cowpeas as a food source has not been utilised to its full
potential, particularly in the industrialised countries, mainly due to preparatory difficulties (Sharma, Bajwa,
& Nagi, 1999). The constraint has also been the presence of indigestible oligosaccharides in cowpeas
(Sosulski, Elkowiez, & Reichert, 1989), particularly raffinose and stachyose. They can be hydrolysed by
intestinal anaerobic micro-organisms to produce flatulence or intestinal gas (Prinyawiwatkul et al., 1996). In
addition to these, anti-nutritional factors such as trypsin and chemotrypsin inhibitors, responsible for
reducing the digestibility of protein by inhibiting protease activity, and haemagglutinins, have been
detected (Liener, 1979). Research has shown that germination (Sathe, Deshpande, Reddy, Gell, & Salunkhe,
1983) and fermentation (Zamora & Fields, 1979) of cowpeas can not only improve nutritional quality by
increasing protein content but also reduce these undesirable factors. Fermentation of cereals improves
amino acid composition and vitamin content, increases protein and starch availabilities and lowers levels of
anti-nutrients such as trypsin inhibitor (Chavan & Kadam, 1989). Changes in the proximate composition of
germinated seeds are expected effects of germination (Ologhogbo & Fetuga, 1986) and the nutritional
benefit of legumes can be improved before incorporation into legume supplemented products by utilising
this (Fernandez & Berry, 1989). Germination induces an increase in free limiting amino acids and available
vitamins with modified functional properties of seed components. Germination has been shown to decrease
anti-nutritional factors like those mentioned above and also increase the fat, protein and crude fibre
contents (Uwaegbute, Iroegbu, & Eke, 2000).

The maximum nutritional benefits can be achieved by complementing cereals with cowpeas at the ratio of
45:15 (cereal:cowpea, wt/wt), which yield amino acid scores closer to the FAO/WHO/UNU standard
(Prinyawiwatkul et al., 1996). However, nonglutenous protein adjuncts exert a volume depressing effect on
bread when used at the relatively high levels necessary to accomplish the desired amount of fortification.
They also change the absorption, mixing tolerance and other physical properties of doughs. Only small
amounts of flour or isolates have been found to give acceptable volume in the end products.

Fermented or unfermented cowpea flour can be used in breads, baby/weaning foods, chips, and extruded
snacks. Cowpea and peanut flour have been reported to successfully replace up to 20% wheat flour in
cookies (McWatters, 1978) and doughnuts (McWatters, 1982a, McWatters, 1982b), at least 43% in muffins
and up to 20% in bread (Mustafa, Al-Wessali, Al-Basha, & Al-Amir, 1986).

The purpose of this research is to partially replace wheat flour in a standard bread formulation with
germinated, fermented and unfermented (control) cowpea flour to improve protein quality and quantity
without affecting loaf volume and overall acceptability.

Section snippets

Cowpea flour production

:
 Cowpeas were subjected to natural lactic acid fermentation and germination followed by grinding to a fine
flour. Flour from untreated cowpeas was produced as control to compare any changed properties that might
occur due to the two pre-treatments. Wheat flour was partially substituted with these flours at levels of 5%,
10%, 15% and 20% by weight. Properties of the resulting composite flours were determined, as well as
properties of the bread produced from composite flours.…

Results on composite flours

Fig. 1 shows the ash content of the flours studied. The white wheat flour used in this study had an ash
content of 0.55% (dry basis). Values for the composite flours ranged from 1.0% to 1.4% and the more wheat
flour that was substituted for cowpea flour in the mixes, the higher was the ash content. Beans were not
dehulled or decorticated before milling; therefore, as expected, a higher content of ash in the more
substituted flours was obtained. The differently treated flours were not notably…

Conclusions

Adding dry bean flours to wheat flour does affect most dough properties as measured by farinograph
(p>0.05). These effects seem to increase as the level of bean flour in the blends is increased. Increased water
absorption of wheat–bean composite flours may provide more water for starch gelatinisation in the doughs
during baking and may prevent stretching and tearing of gluten strands. Results show that substituting
wheat flour for cowpea flour up to a level of 20% produces bread with…

References (21)

A.C. Uwaegbute et al.

Chemical and sensory evaluation of germinated cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata) and their
products
Food Chemistry (2000)

E.N.T. Akobundu et al.

Studies on the baking potential of non-wheat composite flours
Journal of Food Science and Technology (1988)

Approved methods of the American association of cereal chemists. (2000). 10th ed., methods 38-10, 54-10,
54-21, 56-81B....

J.K. Chavan et al.

Nutritional improvement of cereals by fermentation
Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition (1989)

M.L. Fernandez et al.

Rheological properties of flour and sensory characteristics of bread made from germinated
chickpea
International Journal of Food Science and Technology (1989)
:
 S.S. Deshpande et al.
Functional properties of wheat–bean composite flours
Journal of Food Science (1983)

R.F. Hurrell
Influence of the Maillard reaction on the nutritional value of foods

Köksel, H., Sivri, D., Özboy, Ö., Başman, A., & Karacan, H. (2000). Hububat laboratuvar el kitabı (pp. 35–56).
Ankara:...

I.E. Liener
The nutritional significance of plant protease inhibitors
Proceedings of the National Society (1979)

K.H. McWatters
Cookie baking properties of defatted peanut, soybean and field pea flours
Cereal Chemistry (1978)

There are more references available in the full text version of this article.

Cited by (159)

Effect of soaking and extrusion on functional and pasting properties of cowpeas

flour
2023, Scientific African

Citation Excerpt :
…Due to the growing market for baked products, confectioneries, and flours for different applications, interest in the use
of locally available raw materials like traditional root crops, legumes and cereals is increasing [20]. Although cowpeas
have high protein content, they have not been used to their full potential as a food and ingredient source, particularly in
developed countries [11]. Cowpea flours are primarily made up of starch (35.0–52.0 percent), which has distinct
properties [19].…

Show abstract

The use of red lentil flour in bakery products: How do particle size and substitution level affect
rheological properties of wheat bread dough?
2021, LWT

Show abstract

Sprouting as a pre-processing for producing quinoa-enriched bread

2020, Journal of Cereal Science

Show abstract
:
 Utilization of Intermediate Wheatgrass (Thinopyrum intermedium) as an Innovative Ingredient
in Bread Making
2023, Foods

Physical, structural and sensory characteristics of gluten-free madeleines made from colored
flours
2023, Journal of Food Measurement and Characterization

Evaluation of functional characteristics of roselle seed and its use as a partial replacement of
wheat flour in soft bread making
2023, Journal of Applied Biology and Biotechnology

View all citing articles on Scopus

Recommended articles (6)

Research article

Impact of germination and enzymatic hydrolysis of cowpea bean (Vigna unguiculata) on the
generation of peptides capable of inhibiting dipeptidyl peptidase IV
Food Research International, Volume 64, 2014, pp. 799-809

Show abstract

Research article

Molecular features of fermented and sprouted sorghum flours relate to their suitability as
components of enriched gluten-free pasta
LWT - Food Science and Technology, Volume 63, Issue 1, 2015, pp. 511-518

Show abstract

Research article

Bioactive polyphenols and peptides in cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) and their health promoting
properties: A review
Journal of Functional Foods, Volume 38, Part B, 2017, pp. 686-697

Show abstract

Research article

Combined effects of fermentation and germination on nutritional compositions, functional

properties and volatiles of maize seeds
Journal of Cereal Science, Volume 71, 2016, pp. 207-216

Show abstract
:
 Research article

Effect of extrusion cooking of sorghum flour on rheology, morphology and heating rate of
sorghum–wheat composite dough
Journal of Cereal Science, Volume 77, 2017, pp. 49-57

Show abstract

Research article

Effect of germination on the physicochemical, nutritional, functional, thermal properties and in

vitro digestibility of Bambara groundnut flours
LWT, Volume 140, 2021, Article 110749

Show abstract

View full text

Copyright © 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2023 Elsevier B.V. or its licensors or contributors.

ScienceDirect® is a registered trademark of Elsevier B.V.
: