Syntax, Grammar, and Punctuation
●
Syntax
● Subject, verb, and object
● proposed arrangement of words
sentences
Examples
Legend: subject, answer
1. The chair (is/are) in the room.
2. The chair surrounded by boxes (is/are) in
the room.
3. The complainant, as well as the witnesses,
(was/were) present.
4. The complainants, as well as the judge, were
present.
5. To settle for less than the victim’s
hospitalization expenses (is/are) not
possible.
6. Your granting our requests (is/are) most
appreciated.
Grammar
Subject-Verb Agreement
● Agreement in Number
○ A singular subject takes a singular
verb
○ A plural subject takes a plural verb
a. Singular
● Each, either, neither, one, much,
someone, anyone, everyone,
somebody, anybody, everybody,
nobody,
b. Plural
● Both, few, many, several
c. Either Plural or Singular
● All, most, some, every, none, any,
half, more, each
● depends on meaning intended
● Singular = taken as a unit
● Plural = taken separately
d. Conjunctive-Compound Subject
● Usually plural
● The plaintiff and the defendant
agree to refer the matter to
mediation.
What my boss wants and what
the advertising agency wants are
very different.
e. Adjectives used as a noun
in ● The beautiful are a class by
themselves.
● The coward die before they die.
Examples
1. One of my friends is attending the party.
2. A panel consisting of three doctors, two
university professors, and four lawyers is
going to conduct the interview.
3. Only one in the three is expected to oppose
the motion.
4. A faction of the 14-member board is
questioning the report.
Prepositional Phrases
● Those that come in between the subject
and the verb do not affect the SV
agreement rule
a. Singular compounds that appear plural
● As well as, along with, together
with, but not
● Examples:
○ The dean, along with other
faculty members, continues
to encourage students to
study alternative dispute
resolution.
○ The school president, not to
mention the other members
of the board, is of the
opinion that law students
should all have law office
internships.
Single measurements but plural in appearance
● Three blocks is great for exercise.
● Fifteen days is the company’s annual
vacation leave.
● Paramount Pictures is my favorite studio.
● Three hundred pesos is all I ask.
Name of Science or Practical Application
● Singular = Name of Science
Collated by: Angel Mendoza; Sources: Atty. Perez’s PPTs, Fundamentals of Legal Writing by Abad, Legal Writing by Tabucanon | 1
 ○ Economics is his favorite subject.
● Plural = Practical Application
○ The economics of studying abroad
force Filipino students to be frugal.
Examples
1. The news this morning (is/are) depressing.
2. Her bestfriend and lover of 20 years (has,
have) proposed to her.
3. Despite the forecast of rain, Martha, along
with the twins, John and Julian, (was, were)
busy setting up for the garden party she
had planned.
4. The demand for changes to the college’s
outreach programs (is, are) going to be
addressed at the next meeting.
Pronouns
● Words used to substitute nouns or noun
phrases
● Avoid the ambiguous pronouns reference
● Pronouns not placed properly can point to
the wrong noun thereby changing the
meaning of the sentence.
a. Robert’s father will use his car for
the picnic.
i. Robert’s father will use
Robert’s car for the picnic.
ii. Robert’s father will use the
latter’s car for the picnic.
● “This, that, these, those, them” should only
be used when the antecedent is definitely
established.
a. Repressed jealousy and hatred
among brothers and sisters is
counterproductive. You must get rid
of them.
i. Repressed jealousy and
hatred among brothers and
sisters is counterproductive.
You must get rid of these
feelings.
b. That is what I have been waiting to
hear from you.
i. That phrase “love thy neighbor”
is what I have been waiting
to hear from you.
Collated by: Angel Mendoza; Sources: Atty. Perez’s PPTs, Fundamentals of Legal Writing by Abad, Legal Writing by Tabucanon
Punctuations
● More prominent in written materials
○ Not needed in verbal materials
● Used to help the reader understand the
material
● Makes the writing more comprehensive
Apostrophe
● Punctuates the word rather than the
sentence
● Purposes:
○ Possessive case
○ Omission of a letter or figure
■ not really used in legal
memoranda and in office
memoranda (business)
○ To form the plural of letters,
numbers, words, or abbreviations
1. When letters or words (used as they are)
are pluralized, the apostrophe is used
● Cross your t’s and dot your i’s.
● He writes his leyte’s uncapitalized.
2. The plural of single-digit numbers written
in figures is formed by adding ‘s.
● We must walk in 2’s.
● We must walk in twos.
3. Multiple-digit numbers in figures, dates,
and single-digit numbers which are
spelled-out are pluralized by adding a
simple s, no need to put an apostrophe.
● Segregate the bills by 50s.
● That was done in the 1970s.
4. Uncapitalized abbreviations are pluralized
with ‘s.
● Bring your cd’s to the picnic
5. The plural of capitalized abbreviation is
formed by adding an s.
● He has a string of PHDs, yet
remains humble.
Comma
● The defendant, who looked apologetic, was
found guilty.
○ The defendant who looked
apologetic was found guilty.
| 2
 (unclear since it pertains that there
may be more than one defendant)
● Woman, without her man, is lost.
○ Woman, without her, man is lost.
(completely different meaning)
Introductory of Element Phrase
● Comma shall be used after these words
○ However, fortunately, first, soon,
obviously
○ Being blood relatives, in fact, very
soon
○ At the time of the incident, with the
preparations all geared up for a
warm welcome, speaking to the
defendant
Transitional Words
● Comma shall be used after these words
○ Moreover, therefore, thus,
furthermore
Interrogatory Tags
● Questions follow a declaratory statement
● The subject of both the statement and the
question is the same person/thing
○ The judge is the Rotary president of
the district, is he not?
Coordinate Adjectives
● Two or more adjectives that equally modify
a noun
○ The defendant chose to wear his
most colorful, traditional clothes in
court.
Double Commas
● Here are your documents, Mr. Cruz, and be
sure to read them all tonight.
Parenthetic Expressions
● Words and phrases that give additional
meaning but are only incidental to the
main thought of the sentence
○ Judges, just like any human, may
be tempted to overlook facts out of
pity.
Collated by: Angel Mendoza; Sources: Atty. Perez’s PPTs, Fundamentals of Legal Writing by Abad, Legal Writing by Tabucanon
Contrasting Expressions
● Introduced by not, but, but not, although not,
though not usually, and the like
○ The plaintiff, but not his wife, is
predisposed to settle.
Appositives
● word/phrase beside another to add to or
explain the first
● Sometimes, they are preceded by such as,
or, especially, particularly, most notably, etc.
○ Jose, Mario’s older brother, is here.
○ The bus, old and dilapidated, still
transports passengers.
Non-Restrictive Sentence
● Modifies a part of the sentence but is not
essential to the overall meaning of the
sentence
○ The class, which meets at the 3rd
floor, has invited Atty. Perez.
Interrupting Words/Phrases
● Sir, madam, my dear cousin, etc.
○ The proposal, Your Honor, aims to
give housing to the landless.
Quotation Marks
● May be double “...”
● May be single ‘...’
○ Useful for nested quotations,
quotations within quotations
○ Dag Hammershjold said: “Your
responsibility is a ‘to-’; you can
never save yourself by a ‘not-to.’”
1. Punctuation before quotation marks
● The witness sighed, “I still do not
understand why I was asked to
testify.”
2. End punctuation of the quoted sentence
● Usually a part of the quoted
sentence
● The witness sighed, “I still do not
understand why I was asked to
testify.”
3. Other uses of quotation marks
| 3
 ● Words used ironically or with a
different shade of meaning
○ His “wife” will attend the
funeral.
■ May pertain to a
live-in partner, but
not a legal wife
● Nickname written between a
person’s first name and surname
○ Juancho “Pakito” Ramos
e.g. vs i.e.
● Exempli gratia (Latin)
○ For example, such as
○ Used to introduce one or more
examples of something mentioned
previously in the sentence
○ Implies that there are other
examples not included in the list
○ No need to use “, etc.”
○ “Example given”
■ The Summer Olympics is
composed of a variety of
sports (e.g., gymnastics,
swimming, and tennis).
■ Many genes are involved in
neural tube development,
e.g., Sonic Hedgehog, BMPs,
and the Hox genes.
● Id est (Latin)
○ That is, specifically, namely
○ When you want to specify
something previously mentioned
○ “in ether (other) words”
■ Only one city, i.e., London,
has hosted the Summer
Olympics three times.
■ Every genetics student
learns the two basic
methodologies in the field,
i.e., forward genetics and
revers genetics.
○ Can be used for emphasis
■ The heinous crime was only
witnessed by two witnesses,
i.e., the accused and the
victim.
Collated by: Angel Mendoza; Sources: Atty. Perez’s PPTs, Fundamentals of Legal Writing by Abad, Legal Writing by Tabucanon | 4
■ In exchange of the
commission of the crime,
the accused were granted
incentives, i.e., plane tickets,
P2 Million, and a brand new
car.
■ Only one (1) member of the
board, i.e., Juana Change,
attended the Board meeting
Modifiers
Past Participle
● Typically ending in -ed in English
● Form of a verb used in forming perfect &
passive tenses and sometimes as an
adjective
● Compound verb
PAST TENSE PAST PARTICIPLE
I lived in the United I had lived in the United
States for seven years. States for seven years.
I listened to this song I have listened to this
five times. song five times.
We talked about this The book has been
book. talked about.
I ate breakfast at 10 I had eaten breakfast by
o’clock yesterday. 10 o’clock yesterday.
Conditionals
● Describe the result of a certain action
○ If clause = tells the condition
○ Main clause = tells the result
● Order of the clauses does not change the
meaning
● If you study hard, you will pass the exam.
● You will pass the exam if you study hard.
Zero Conditional
● Used when talking about things which are
generally true, especially for laws and rules
● if/when + present simple >> present simple
○ If I drink too much coffee, I cannot
sleep at night.
○ Ice melts if you heat it.
 ● Generally, the writer is free to decide where
First Conditional to place the modifier
● Used when talking about future situations ● Why? When? Where? How? On what
we believe are real or possible conditions?
● if/when + present simple >> will + infinitive ● Maria edited the letter quickly. (end)
○ If you do not attend the hearing, the ● Maria quickly edited the letter. (middle)
judge will issue a warrant of arrest. ● Quickly, Maria edited the letter. (front)
○ If you fail to attend the board
meeting, you will not be able to cast Placement of Modifiers
your vote. 1. Dangling Modifiers
● Words that can be used instead of if: ● Attempts to describe a word that is
unless, as long as, as soon as, or in case not clearly referred to in the
○ The judge will issue a warrant of sentence
arrest unless you attend the ● Can lead to absurdity
hearing. 2. Single-Word Modifiers
○ You will not be able to cast your ● Placed near the word/phrases they
vote unless you attend the board modify
meeting.
Modifying Phrase or Clause
Second Conditional ● I head that the Mr. Si intends to share fifty
● Used to imagine present/future situations percent (50%) of his shares to Mrs. Rubina
that are impossible/unlikely in reality while I was outside his office.
● If + past simple >> would + infinitive ○ While I was outside his office, I
○ “If” is followed by verb “be” → if I heard that the Mr. Si intends to
were, if she were, if he were, if it share fifty percent (50%) of his
were shares to Mrs. Rubina.
○ If I won the lottery, I would resign. ● Three television sets were reported stolen
○ He would travel more if he was by the Manila Police yesterday.
younger. ○ The Manila Police reported that
three television sets were stolen
Syntax yesterday.
SUBJECT VERB OBJECT ● Having finished the scheduled
presentations, the meeting was concluded.
The lawyer shouted at the witness ○ Having finished the scheduled
The general met the representative of the presentations, the Chairman of the
manager advertising agency Board concluded the meeting.
The investor attended the stockholder’s meeting
Active Voice
Modifiers ● Watch out for statements beginning with:
● Words, phrases, clauses that affect and ○ There is/are/was/were
often enhance the meaning of a sentence ○ It is/was
● Offer detail that can make a sentence
more engaging and specific ACTIVE PASSIVE
● words/phrases which act as adjectives or
Courts can modify its Interlocutory orders may
adverbs interlocutory orders. still be modified by the
courts.

Collated by: Angel Mendoza; Sources: Atty. Perez’s PPTs, Fundamentals of Legal Writing by Abad, Legal Writing by Tabucanon | 5
The court failed to cite There were no authorities ● Active voice is more definite
authorities in its cited by the court in its ○ More categorical, i.e., the identity of
judgment. judgment. the actor is always present
Engr. Perez suggested It was suggested by Engr.
that Julia ask the Perez that the Exceptions
contractor to submit the submission of the new ● When to use passive voice
new bid. bid by the contractor be
requested by Julia.
More important to know the thing done than to
know who the doer was
Active Voice ● The subpoena was served on January 4,
● Engages reader with movement & action 2007.
● Sentences should sound & feel like the ● My mother was bitten by a dog.
subject produces the action ● My grandmother was hurt in that bus
● Subject of the sentences does the action collision.

Active Sentence When the actor is unknown

● Subjects produce the action ● The pawnshop was robbed last week.
ACTIVE PASSIVE ● The plants were cut last night.

I got interested in A sudden interest in For emphasis

psychology. psychology dawned on
me. ● The cheating incident was reported to the
Dean’s office.
Mario saw the ‘Sound of The ‘Sound of Music’ was ● The murder was perpetrated by his father.
Music’. seen by Mario.
● The robbery was committed by his
David drives the Lexus. The Lexus is driven by classmate.
David. ● The mistake was carried out by the General
Manager.
I shall always remember My first visit to Boston
my first visit to Boston. will always be ● The excellent report was prepared by
remembered by me. Section K33.
● The villain character in the movie was
Active Description excellently portrayed by Ton Cruise.
● Verbs activate the description ● The exceptional movie was produced by
Marvel Studios.
ACTIVE PASSIVE

Jen’s anger filled the The room was filled by Prefer the Positive Form
room. Jen’s anger.
NEGATIVE POSITIVE
He stuttered. He was overcome by fear.
Did not follow disobeyed

NOTE: Active voices may be expressed in various Was not present absent
tenses (past, present, future, etc.)
Not guilty innocent

Why Active Voice is Preferred Could not remember forgot

● Active voice is more forceful and concise
Not too many few
○ Direct and vigorous
○ Regular use of the active voice Not un-Christian Christian
makes for a more forceful writing
Collated by: Angel Mendoza; Sources: Atty. Perez’s PPTs, Fundamentals of Legal Writing by Abad, Legal Writing by Tabucanon | 6
Not invalid valid ○ Something from which one is
delivered
Not unlike like ■ Eased of her worries
Did not show dissatisfaction satisfied
Differences in Meaning

NEGATIVE POSITIVE Between and Among

May be indirect Direct and definite BETWEEN AMONG

Entails the use of more More concise and easier Only two persons/things More than two are
words, can be distracting to understand are considered considered

Preferably used when Preferably used when

denying asserting
Beside and Besides
BESIDE BESIDES

Prepositions At the side of In addition to or except for

● Links words in the statement and
Sitting beside you No one besides you and Alexa
indicates the relationship of its object in
terms of time, space, or meaning to the
rest of the sentence In and At
● Difficult to master because one might IN AT
have multiple meanings
Building or Refers to the interior Pertains to site itself
Structure (In the dean’s office) (at the Faculty Center)
Example
● Of Place Countries, cities, Particular streets,
and other places structures, places
○ By (in Manila) (at DLSU)
■ Novels of Rizal
○ On the part of
In and On (Place)
■ It is thoughtful of you
○ Component part IN ON
■ Bowl of soup Inside a defined space Touching the surface of
○ Status something
■ A man of means
There is water in the There is someone on my
○ Reference glass. bed.
■ South of the border
○ Personal quality The quote appeared in a The quote appeared on
news article. the website Reddit.
■ A woman of character &
strength
○ Belonging the class of indicated by Exceptions for In and On
the preceding noun IN ON
■ Province of Leyte
○ Part of the whole as indicated by Cars (van, taxi, Larger vehicles (planes,
helicopter) trains, buses)
the preceding word
■ Few of the clerks Written document Websites
○ Someone whose means were (regardless of format)
diminished
■ Robbed of his savings
Collated by: Angel Mendoza; Sources: Atty. Perez’s PPTs, Fundamentals of Legal Writing by Abad, Legal Writing by Tabucanon | 7
In and On (Date) The driver was accused of
○
IN ON reckless imprudence.
6. Acquiesced (in)
Date is within a period Specific date ● To accept something reluctantly
but without protest
In January 2022, the On January 16, 2022, the
second trimester will second trimester will ○ Toni acquiesced in the
start. start. ruling of the court.
7. Acquit (of, by)
Get in/out and Get on/off ● free (someone) from a criminal
charge by a verdict of not guilty.
GET IN/OUT GET ON/OFF
○ acquitted of the crime
Small vehicles, buildings Big vehicles ○ acquitted by the RTC judge
8. Addiction (to)
Get in the car Get on the plane
9. Bar (from)
Get off the taxi Get off the train
● Prevent, forbit, prohibit
○ bar them from forming a
Legal Prepositions fraternity
1. Abate (by, in) 10. Bribe (with)
● lessen, reduce, or remove ● The act of giving or promising
○ abate surrounding noise by money or favor given to influence
putting on a headset the judgment or conduct of a
2. Abscond (from, with) person in a position of trust
● To leave hurriedly & secretly; to run ○ He bribed officials with
away; to escape money.
○ abscond from the city 11. Brief (by, on)
penitentiary 12. Commensurate (with)
○ absconded with items from ● Corresponding in size/degree; in
the museum proportion
3. Accede (to) ○ Justice call for a penalty
● To agree to something that is commensurate with
○ The Philippines acceded to the gravity of the offense.
the treaty. 13. Convicted (of)
● To assume an office/position 14. Contempt (of, for)
○ The daughter acceded to the ● Contempt of court
throne. ● Contempt for racism is undeniable
4. Accessory (after, to) 15. Disadvantageous (to)
● person who assists in, but does not 16. Divest (of)
actually participate in, the ● To deprive someone of something
commission of a crime ○ Convicted of his crimes, he
○ One who conceals a crime is was divested of all his
an accessory after the fact. wealth.
○ Please consider her an 17. Furnish (to, with)
accessory to the crime. ● to provide with what is needed
5. Accuse (of) ○ We will furnish the copy to
● charge (someone) with an offense you tomorrow.
or crime. ○ They us with copies of their
exhibits.
Collated by: Angel Mendoza; Sources: Atty. Perez’s PPTs, Fundamentals of Legal Writing by Abad, Legal Writing by Tabucanon | 8
 18. Guilty (of) 18. De facto - actual; fact; real
19. Legislate (on) 19. De facto – In fact
● to make or enact laws 20. De jure – By law
○ Congress legislated on the 21. De son tort - by his/her own wrongdoing
national issue. 22. Et. al - and more; and others
20. Motive (for, behind) 23. Ibid - in the same source
21. Prosecute (for, into, with) 24. In haec verba - verbatim; in these words
● For -> arraign 25. Inter alia - among other things
○ My client is being 26. Inter alios - among other people
prosecuted for libel. 27. Inter vivos - between the living; while alive
● Into -> carry on 28. In toto - as a whole
○ The city treasurer is 29. Ipso jure - by the law itself; by operation of
prosecuting an inquiry into law
the conduct of his staff. 30. Jurat - to swear
● With -> wage/campaign 31. Jus - a right
○ The BIR prosecuted its 32. Prima facie - at first impression
campaign with eagerness. 33. Pro rata - proportionally allocated
22. Punishable (by) 34. Res nova - case of first impression
23. Vest (in, with) 35. Sui generic - one of a kind; unique
● to give somebody the legal right or 36. Sui juris - legally competent
power to do something 37. Tabual rasa - clean slate
○ The power to decide the case 38. To wit - as follows; namely
is vested in the Regional 39. Viz - namely; that is
Trial Court of Makati.
○ The RTC of Makati is vested Writing Forms and Style
with the power to decide.
Use Familiar and Concrete Words
Latin Terms ● Clarity and precision
1. Ab extra - From outside
She sustained bereavement Her father died.
2. Ab Initio - From the beginning of her paternal relative.
3. Ab intra - From within
4. Actiones legis – Law suits Her counsel failed to come to Her counsel was
the hearing because of the absent during the
5. Actus reus - A guilty deed or act onset of the inclement hearing due to the
6. Ad eundem gradum – To the same degree weather. storm.
7. Ad hoc – For this purpose
8. Affidavit – A sworn written statement You need agricultural You need a garden
implements to do the job of spade to plant trees.
usable as evidence in court planting trees.
9. Alibi - At another place, elsewhere
10. A quo - From which
11. At bar - before the court Avoid using highfalutin words
12. Bona fide – In good faith ● May be an indication to cover one’s
13. Bona vacantia – Goods without an owner inability to be definite or specific
14. Case at bar/Case sub judice - this case Member of the feline family cat
15. Contra - To the contrary
Rendered a negative response on Denied my
16. Corpus - Body
the subject of my solicitations request
17. Damnum sine injuria – damage without
injury
Collated by: Angel Mendoza; Sources: Atty. Perez’s PPTs, Fundamentals of Legal Writing by Abad, Legal Writing by Tabucanon | 9
Clear Writing protected from the moment of their
● Know what you want to say creation.
● Be persuasive ● Section 172
○ Cite sources ○ Works are protected by the sole fact
○ In legal writing: cite jurisprudence, of their creation, irrespective of
laws their mode or form of expression,
● Be clear and logical as well as of their content, quality,
● Go direct to the point and purpose
● Have a structure
○ ALAC (Answer, Law, Application, Who owns the copyright
Conclusion) ● Author
○ Write an outline ● Employee
● Observe grammatical rules (consistency) ● Commissioned work
● Fix the form ● Letters

Copyright Author
● In copyrighting books, the purpose is to ● Natural person who has created the work
give protection to the intellectual product ○ Natural person - a human being
of an author. (Section 184.1) (G.R. No. L-770)
● Should be deemed as one who fixed an
abstract idea into something tangible (G.R.
According to Republic vs. Heirs of Tupaz
No. 197335)
IV (G.R. No. 197335, September 7, 2020)
● “The right granted by statute to the
TYPE OF WORK WHO OWNS COPYRIGHT
proprietor of an intellectual production to
its exclusive use and enjoyment” Literary & artistic Author
● Is a purely statutory right
○ Only classes of works falling under Joint ownership Co-authors; if agreement is
absent, rights shall be governed
the statutory enumeration are by rules on co-ownership
entitled to protection
○ “May be obtained and enjoyed only If the author of each part can be
identified, the author shall be
with respect to the subjects and by
owner of copyright in the part
the persons, and on terms and he created
conditions specified in the statute”
Created during Employee; if not part of his
and in the course regular duties
Works protected by copyright of employment
● Sections 172 and 173 of the IP Code Employer; if part of regular
1. Literary and Artistic Works duties, unless there is an
agreement (express or implied)
2. Derivative Works to the contrary
3. Published Edition of Works
Commissioned Author owns copyright, unless
work there is a written stipulation to
When are works protected the contrary
● Section 172.1
○ Literary and artistic works… are Person who commissioned has
ownership over work
original intellectual creations in the
literary and artistic domain Letters Author owns copyright; cannot

Collated by: Angel Mendoza; Sources: Atty. Perez’s PPTs, Fundamentals of Legal Writing by Abad, Legal Writing by Tabucanon | 10
(Article 723 of the be published or disseminated
b. Possesses some minimal
Civil Code) without his/his heir’s consent degree of creativity
- Court can authorize if public 2. Expression
good or interest of justice so
requires
Plagiarism
Receiver of letter has ownership ● “Deliberate and knowing presentation of
another person’s original ideas or creative
Collective Work expressions as one’s own”
● Section 171.2 ○ Presentation of another’s ideas as
○ A work which has been created by one’s own must be deliberate or
two (2) or more natural persons at premeditated (a taking with ill
the initiative and under the intent)
direction of another with the ● Objective act of falsely attributing to one’s
understanding that it will be self what is not one’s work, whether
disclosed by the latter under his intentional or out of neglect
own name and that contributing ● Act of appropriating the literary
natural persons will not be composition of another, or parts or
identified. passages of his writings, or the ideas or
language of the same, and passing them
Works not protected by copyright off as the product of one’s mind
● Section 175 and 176 of the IP Code
What are the benefits of and rights
Are ideas protected by copyright created by copyright
● An idea or event must be distinguished Rights granted by copyright
from the expression of that idea or event. ● Economic Right
● Moral Right
Idea
● “must be spoken to a little before it will NOTE: Check Section 177 and 184 of the IP Code.
explain itself”
● a concept that has eluded exact legal What is the essence of copyright
definition infringement
● Similarity or at least substantial similarity
Expression of the purported pirated works to the
● Concrete ideas copyrighted work (G.R. Nos. 76649-51)
● “Concrete” tangible embodiments of these
abstractions Substantial Reproduction of a Book
○ Concrete ● Does not necessarily require that the
■ Referring to a particular; entire copyrighted work, or even a large
specific, not general or portion of it, be copied
abstract ● Copyright infringement occurs when so
much is taken that the value of the
Elements of Copyright original work is substantially diminished,
1. Originality or the labors of the original author are
● Elements substantially and to an injurious extent
a. Independently created by appropriated by another
the author

Collated by: Angel Mendoza; Sources: Atty. Perez’s PPTs, Fundamentals of Legal Writing by Abad, Legal Writing by Tabucanon | 11
 ○ Sufficient in point of law to
constitute piracy
Lack of Intent to Plagiarize
● It is no defense that the pirate did not
know whether or not he was infringing any
copyright; he at least knew that what he
was copying was not his, and he copied at
his peril (G.R. No. 131522)
Quotations
● Quotations from a published work if they
are compatible with fair use and only to
the extent justified by the purpose are
allowed provided that the source and the
name of the author, if appearing on the
work, are mentioned
Fair Use of a Copyrighted Work
● Section 185 of the IP Code
○ The fair use of a copyrighted work
for criticism, comment, news
reporting, teaching including
limited number of copies for
classroom use, scholarship,
research, and similar purposes is
not infringement of a copyright
Factors to be considered to determine whether
the use of a work falls under fair use
1. The purpose and character of the use,
including whether such use is of
commercial nature or is for non-profit
educational purposes
2. Nature of the copyrighted work
3. The amount and substantiality of the
portion used in relation to the copyrighted
work as a whole
4. The effect of the use upon the potential
market for or value of the copyrighted work
Legal Writing
(Fundamentals of Legal Writing by Abad; Atty. Perez PPT)
Legal Writing
● when a lawyer writes back to a client about
the former’s views regarding his probable
Collated by: Angel Mendoza; Sources: Atty. Perez’s PPTs, Fundamentals of Legal Writing by Abad, Legal Writing by Tabucanon
liability based on the facts the latter tells
him
● when a lawyer files a number of pleadings,
motions, oppositions, replies, rejoinders,
memoranda, and other papers when the
case gets to court
● when a judge, who is also a lawyer, puts
the decision in writing, announce its
results, and reveal to the parties the
reasons for the decisions
○ strength of decision lies in validity
and persuasiveness of the opinion
supporting it
Process of Legal Writing
1. Put together facts
2. Find the applicable statute
3. Identify the issues
4. Strengthen your arguments
5. Proofread
6. Write better
Legal Dispute
● When one part complains of a violation of
his right by another who, on the other
hand, denies such violation
● the right claimed to have been violated
must be a legal right since courts will
uphold and vindicate only those rights
that are established or recognized by law
● Akin to a cause of action in a civil suit in
which the defendant denies the claim
against him
Elements of a Legal Dispute
1. A right protected by law
2. An alleged violation of such right
3. Denial of the allegation
Significance of knowing what the Legal Dispute
Is
● legal dispute involves a violation of a right
protected by law or which violation the law
punishes —> can only be properly ended by
resolution of such dispute
| 12
 ● if legal dispute is not correctly identified i.
State’s charge that accused
and addressed —> nothing will happen and defrauded the complainant
such dispute would not be terminated by selling a fake Rolex watch
to him for the price of a
Legal Dispute and the Principal Issue genuine one
● legal dispute, recast/rewritten in the ii. accused’s denial of the
format of an issue, provides the principal charge
issue in every case b. Principal Issue
i. “whether or not the accused
Examples defrauded the complainant
Civil Cases: by selling a fake Rolex watch
1. When a person renting an apartment to him for the price of a
allegedly could not pay the agreed monthly genuine one”
rents yet refuses to leave his unit 2. Building official issues to the owner an
a. Legal Dispute occupancy permit for a building with
i. apartment owner’s claim inadequate fire exits
that tenant fails to pay the a. Legal Dispute
agreed monthly rents and i. complainant’s claim that
must leave his unit respondent building official
ii. tenant’s denial of the claim issued to the owner an
and insistence to retain unit occupancy permit for a
b. Principal Issue building with inadequate
i. “whether or not the tenant fire exits in violation of
who fails to pay the monthly Section3(b) of RA 3019
rents must leave the ii. respondent’s denial of that
apartment unit” claim
2. When a person allegedly refuses to pay his b. Principal Issue
debt i. “whether or not respondent
a. Legal Dispute building official issued to
i. creditor’s claim that debtor the owner an occupancy
unjustly refuses to pay his permit covering a building
debt under a promissory that has inadequate fire
note that he issued in favor exits in violation of Section
of the creditor 3(b) of RA 3019”
ii. debtor’s denial of such a
claim Legal Issue
b. Principal Issue ● Your case will be decided for or against you
i. “whether or not the debtor based on that issue
unjustly refuses to pay his ● The significance of every argument you
debt under a promissory want to use to persuade your reader will
note that he issued in favor depend upon the argument’s relevance to
of the creditor” the principal issue
Criminal Cases: ● Avoid useless arguments
1. Person defrauds another by selling a fake
Rolex watch to him for the price of a Whether or Not
genuine one ● You automatically incorporate the
a. Legal Dispute opposing views, the positive and the
Collated by: Angel Mendoza; Sources: Atty. Perez’s PPTs, Fundamentals of Legal Writing by Abad, Legal Writing by Tabucanon | 13
 negative, into one statement of the issue. Value of Pre-Work
It, therefore, makes for a fair statement of ● haphazardly finished legal writing
that issue. can be traced to lack of pre-work or
pre-work hastily done
NOTE: Plaintiff or accuser always bears the burden of ● pre-work helps the lawyer make a
proving his/her claims convincing presentation of his case
in the limited time that he is able
Stages of Writing to hold his audience’s attention
1. Pre-Work
● beginning the writing assignment 2. Write-Up
and looking at facts and evidence ● as you already have all the ideas
of the case as they are made you need concerning the legal
available writing assignment, your task now
● new case: is to put flesh, color, and shape to
○ facts might come from them
interviews of persons ● transform the sketches and
involved or from related outlines your produced during
documents that require pre-work into a full draft of the
sorting; paper required of you
○ materials would be ● editing and rewriting will complete
absolutely raw this stage
○ dates when important
events took place are mixed Getting at the Facts of the Case
up ● legal writing stands on two legs: (1) the
○ case that has undergone facts and (2) the laws involved in the case
trial ● pre-work always starts with getting the
○ looking at the transcript of facts right
the testimonies of
witnesses and the Facts of a Case
documentary exhibits ● Must have complete understanding of
presented in the case what the case is about from every angle,
● is a process including that of the opposition
● must go through at least five levels ● Preliminary determination of the issue is
of efforts: important
1. Establishing where the legal
dispute lies in the case Random Notes
2. Discovering its relevant ● one way to study case materials
facts ● taking note of random facts of the case
3. Identifying the issue/s that you consider important as you go over
you would address them
4. Knowing the laws or rules ● good practice but does not give you
that apply to it complete picture
5. Roughing out the ● often uncorrelated and are useful only for
arguments that you would work done in one sitting
use

Collated by: Angel Mendoza; Sources: Atty. Perez’s PPTs, Fundamentals of Legal Writing by Abad, Legal Writing by Tabucanon | 14
Summary
● systematically prepared notes that
adequately capture the entire factual
terrain of the case, with important points
properly marked out
● serves as a detailed map, able to guide you
in negotiating your way through the
dispute involved
● forces you to search materials for what is
important
● compels you to toss an item of fact over in
your mind, assess its importance and
relevance to the issues in the case, and
decide whether to keep it in or omit it from
your summary
Arrange the facts in proper order/sequence
● Easier to understand because you get to
see the natural order or flow
● Avoids confusion
● When facts are arranged in the proper
order, you would clearly see how each fact
relates to or connects with others. When
the factual versions of either side are put
in order and matched, you would also be
able to see clearly the areas where the
respective versions agree and disagree.
○ Will furnish you with a balanced
appreciation of each opposing
claim
Knowing the Applicable Rule or Law
Statute Law
● Laws and rules enacted by
duly-constituted rule-making authorities
○ Congress (Republic Acts, Batas
Pambansa)
○ President (Presidential Decrees,
Executive Orders)
○ Supreme Court (Rules of Court)
○ Local government councils (city or
municipal ordinances)
○ Administrative regulatory agencies
(implementing rules and
regulations)
Collated by: Angel Mendoza; Sources: Atty. Perez’s PPTs, Fundamentals of Legal Writing by Abad, Legal Writing by Tabucanon
Case Law
● Decisions of courts & persons or agencies
performing judicial functions
● These decisions interpret and apply
statute law to specific situations
● Rulings in these cases become legal
precedents that, when invariably affirmed
and used, become part of the law itself
NOTE: Legal Writing consists of (1) facts and laws, (2)
getting into the issue
Getting Into the Issues
Issue
● Exists when the contending parties do not
agree on a given point
Spotting the Issue/s
● (1) compare the facts and laws that the two
sides claim and (2) identify the areas of
their disagreement
● Also take note of what the parties agree on
Kinds of issues that may arise in Legal Dispute
1. Factual
● Contending parties cannot agree
that a thing exists or has actually
happened
2. Legal
● Contending parties assume a thing
exists or has actually happened but
disagree on its legal significance or
effect on their rights
Cases that have multiple legal & factual issues
● Especially true in civil cases
○ There could be as many legal
disputes as there are claims of
violations of separate rights of the
parties
● Principal issues must all be addressed
One controlling issue in multiple legal disputes
Example: In a lawsuit, Rudy Solis, a music
composer, claims that his friend Sergio Gomez
appropriated as his own and sold to a record
| 15
company a song that he (Solis) had created.
Gomez claims that is was Solis who stole the Roughing Up the Argument
song fro him (Gomez).
● Legal Disputes Argument
○ Gomez’s denial of this claim ● A reason you offer to prove your thesis or
○ Solis’ claim that Gomez maligned proposition
him as a thief of intellectual
property and Gomez’s denial of this Structure of Argument
additional claim a. A clear statement of your thesis or where
○ Solis’ denial of the claim of Gomez you stand on the issue to be resolved
that it was Solis who tried to steal b. Arguments that can be made against your
the song from him position but with explanation that those
○ Solis’ denial of the claim of Gomez arguments do not doom such position
that the lawsuit was malicious c. Arguments in favor of your position
● Controlling Issue d. Appeal to the good sense of the person/s
○ Whether or not Solis or Gomez who will resolve the issue
created the song
NOTE: Argument must have a balanced presentation.
NOTE: if you do not know the “specific right protected
by law”, integrate “violated the laws” in your issue How to guard against the mindless approach
that characterizes many legal writings
NOTE: Issue must be fair. ● Complete your pre-work
● Wrong: WON Zeno and Primo employed ● Plan and rough out a balanced approach to
treachery and evident premeditation in your arguments before writing them up
killing Andy
● Wrong: WON Zeno and Primo murdered Classical Categorical Syllogism
Andy ● Major premise
● Correct: WON Zeno and Primo killed Andy ○ Generally accepted truth
● Minor premise
Threshold Issues ○ a particular thing/individual within
● Those that could slam the door to any the class/situation covered by the
judicial consideration of the case on the generally accepted rule/truth
merits ● Conclusion
● Court cannot decide a case falling outside ○ Statement that follows after the
the scope of its authority, a case filed in major and minor premises,
the wrong place, a case filed by the wrong deducing that the generally
party, or a case filed after too many years accepted rule/truth applies to the
● Brought out by a motion to dismiss in a particular thing/individual
civil action or a motion to quash in a
criminal action, filed before the issues on Example
the merit of the case are joined by the ● Major premise: All men are mortal.
filing of an answer in the first or a plea of ● Minor premise: Jose is a man.
not guilty in the second ● Conclusion: Jose is mortal.

NOTE: Cases filed in the ph are filed under diff courts Arguments that Build Up
● Metropolitan Trial Court → Regional Trial Court ● Favorable testimony comes from a
→ Court of Appeals → Supreme Court credible witness
Collated by: Angel Mendoza; Sources: Atty. Perez’s PPTs, Fundamentals of Legal Writing by Abad, Legal Writing by Tabucanon | 16
 ● Party’s version is inherently credible and of the facts. In this way, you would have no
consistent with common experience misunderstanding with him.
● All the elements/requisites of a valid claim ● Do not assume that the judge or reader
or defense have been proved listened to/read everything. The attention
span of human beings is quite limited.
Arguments that Destroy ● It is possible that the judge had gotten the
● Argument raised is irrelevant facts wrong from past pleadings or during
● Argument has little weight given the other the hearing. You may have to correct those
considerations in the case impressions by recalling the facts as they
● Argument is baseless were.
○ A claim made with no fact to ● Hearings in the Philippine system are
support it is baseless piecemeal. The judge hears the
● Argument is contrary to common testimonies of the various witnesses over
experience some period of time, from one to five years
○ As a rule, claims that go against in certain cases. Consequently, when some
ordinary human experience are facts make up the issue in the case or its
bizarre and cannot be believed incident, you need to restate those facts to
● Argument is inconsistent with undeniable the judge.
facts ● Generally, no trials are held in the Supreme
○ No assertion can defeat facts that Court and the Court of Appeals; only
cannot lie important cases
● Argument is inconsistent with a prior ● In the case of the justices of an appellate
claim court, you need to apprise them of the
facts of the case simply because they did
not hear the evidence and they rely on the
WHERE YOU STAND ON THE ISSUE
lawyer’s summaries of them.
ARGUMENTS AGAINST ARGUMENTS IN YOUR
YOU FAVOR The Build-up in Write Up
APPEAL TO YOUR READER’S GOOD SENSE ● flow of thoughts (chronological order of
the facts) to build up your facts to enable
your reader or the court to have a full grasp
Write-Up of the issue or issues that you intend to
argue
CYA (Cover Your Ass/Bases) ● Only by fairly showing the conflicting
● get concrete evidence; send an email to claims of the parties can the court or your
confirm statements with the client reader truly understand the issues that
● always try to drive the meeting your way divide them
● statements of your facts should always be ● understand the arguments of the
delivered yourself opponent to address it or counter it
properly
Pointers
● Even if your own client supplied the facts
STATEMENT OF THE CASE
on which he seeks your opinion regarding
an issue arising from them, you still need STATEMENT OF FACTS
to restate those facts to him to insure that
PLAINTIFF’S VERSION OF DEFENDANT’S VERSION
he and you have a shared understanding
THE FACTS OF THE FACTS

Collated by: Angel Mendoza; Sources: Atty. Perez’s PPTs, Fundamentals of Legal Writing by Abad, Legal Writing by Tabucanon | 17
 THE ISSUE OR ISSUES
you want him to resolve & the arguments
that you adduce on those issues.
BODY OF ARGUMENTS
Where to source
RELIEF
● Documents
● Witnesses
Introduction
● sufficiency of introduction Writing the Argument
● only as much background facts as are
needed for an understanding of the issue Building Blocks of an Argument (Conventional)
or issues that the parties present 1. Rule Statement
● Statement of a rule that applies to
Statement of the Case a given fact or set of facts
● clear and concise statement of the nature 2. Case Fact Statement
of the action ● Statement of the fact of a particular
● a summary of the proceedings so far had case that opens up such case or
● any challenged order or decision issued in closes it to the application of the
the case rule
● other matters necessary to an 3. Conclusion Statement
understanding of the controversy ● Conclusion that the rule applies or
● example: Peter Banag Case does not apply to the particular
○ Letter reply from Arthur Sison case
regarding his refusal to pay for
damages Persuasive Arguments
● Effectiveness of your argument depends
Statement of Facts on how ably you write up each statement
● narrates the transaction or event that of your argument into a convincing part
created the legal dispute and led to the ● Recourse to statute and case laws to
filing of the suit reinforce the validity of that view
● you do yourself and the court the favor of ● Rule → Case Fact → Conclusion
better understanding the issue and the ● Court: Case Fact → Thesis/Proposition →
arguments you present when you show the Conclusion → Reinforcement of Rule
conflicting claims of the parties Statement in Court’s argument →
Conclusion (different POV)
STATEMENT OF THE CASE STATEMENT OF FACTS
Convincing Fact Statement
- events that - chronological narration
happened before the of events which led to the ● Parties to the dispute could agree that a
courts filing of the case specific rule governs a case but they are
- summary of - provide a background of unable to agree whether the key fact to
proceedings before event involved to enable which it applies is similar to or different
the courts reader to see the issues
in their proper context from the fact of the case
○ Statement of case fact needs
How much details
building up
● The test of sufficiency of the statement of
○ Can cluster arguments for one
facts of your pleading is its ability to
major point
enable the judge/reader to understand,
● Rule → Case Fact 1 → Case Fact 2 →Case
with minimum words, the issue/s that
Fact 3 → Conclusion
Collated by: Angel Mendoza; Sources: Atty. Perez’s PPTs, Fundamentals of Legal Writing by Abad, Legal Writing by Tabucanon | 18
 ● Rule → Statement of opposing claim → Any word that applies to a large
○
Conclusion class of things rather than to any
single, concrete object or idea
Correct Conclusion Statement ○ Too many abstract words make for
● When stating conclusion, simply draw an vagueness, even meaninglessness
inference that the fact of a particular case ● Concrete
opens it up or closes it to the application ○ Words that stand for real things
of the rule that governs such case ○ Things that appeal in one way or
● Conclusion → Rule → Case Fact another to the senses
● Case Fact → Rule → Conclusion
Reading Comprehension and
Omitted Stateent
Vocabulary
● At times, you could omit from your
argument one of its essential statements
Relationship between reading and writing
if it is so evident that it goes without
● Writing benefits student’s reading skills,
saying
improves reading comprehension
● Can also omit stating conclusion when it
● Improves reading fluency
is already obvious based on how you
● When you write, you are forced to
clearly discussed rule & case fact
intuitively understand the choices authors
● Dangers
make as they create a work that moves a
○ Can misread how the average
reader
readers think
○ In case of doubt, it will be best to
completely deploy all the essential Reading Comprehension
statements of your argument
Reading
Prayer ● A critical, life-long skill that presents itself
● Clear and short; what is your end goal in everyday tasks
● Critical for long-term learning
● An interactive process in which the reader
Tigtening Your Work
gives sense and meaning to the issues
● Editing is essential to excellent writing
he/she gets in touch with
● Legal garbage is prohibited
● Jimenez, 2000: “the learners’ ability to
● Delete unnecessary words
interpret or work out the meaning of a
○ There is no doubt but that the law
written text & react towards it as a result”
must be obeyed. → No doubt the
○ Comprehension is involved in the
law must be obeyed.
process
● Nuttall, 1996: “the process of getting out of
Substitute names
the text as nearly as possible the message
● Better to use these names throughout your
the writer put into it”
discussions especially when the case
○ Involves not only looking at
reaches a higher court and the parties
sentences and words and going
begin to assume cumbersome &
through them at random, but also
confusing descriptions like “the
recognizing and understanding
plaintiff-appellant”, etc.
them intellectually
Abstract vs Concrete Writing
● Abstraction
Collated by: Angel Mendoza; Sources: Atty. Perez’s PPTs, Fundamentals of Legal Writing by Abad, Legal Writing by Tabucanon | 19
 ● Will ensure learners’ active involvement
Reading Strategies and make reading easier to practice

Skimming Stages of Reading

● Deals with getting main ideas of the text
without reading every single word Pre-Reading Stage
● Also referred to as gist reading ● Introduced to the topic for reading
● Gives you a basic idea of what the text is ● Aims to increase reader’s interest and
all about motivation
● Generally followed for reading newspaper 1. Motivation
or magazine ● Strongest single factor predicting
● Saves a lot of time for the reader the amount of reading done by
● Not very helpful for comprehension students
● Applicable in following instances 2. Background Knowledge
○ Looking at the table of contents 3. Preparation of Tools
○ Reviewing the subheadings in each ● Note-taking
chapter ○ Systematically prepared
notes which capture the
Scanning entirety of the reading
● Quickly scan through sentences and try to
get a simple piece of information Reading Stage
● For comprehension, more conducive than ● Focuses on text structure, and
skimming organization of reading passage, text
● Involves the technique of rejecting or content, & general information of the text
ignoring irrelevant information to locate a ● Looking up unfamiliar words/concepts,
specific piece of information recording definitions or relevant
information found
Intensive and Deep Reading ● The use of dictionaries or other sources of
● Best technique if you are trying to list the knowledge may be resorted to
chronology of events in a long passage
● Deduce the meaning of the word in context Passive Reading
● Helps in the retention of information ● Reading too quickly or too slowly to
understand and retain information
Extensive Reading ● Forgetting the material
● Involves decoding or assimilation of immediately after reading
content ● Falling asleep while reading
● While reading, whenever you feel that the ● Trying to multi-task while reading
content is becoming difficult to ● Overuse of highlighting on a text
comprehend then you stop and look up the
meaning of the word in the dictionary Active Reading
● Process of deliberately engaging
Making Predictions with the ideas & information in a
● Has to do with making assumptions text and often transforming that
regarding what the text is about based on informatio into notes or other
the title, images, pictures, or charts and artifacts that record one’s
then reading to confirm expectations understanding of and response of
the text
Collated by: Angel Mendoza; Sources: Atty. Perez’s PPTs, Fundamentals of Legal Writing by Abad, Legal Writing by Tabucanon | 20
 ● Chunking Communication
○ Breaking the text into ● An exchange of facts, ideas, opinions, or
sections and identifying the emotions by two or more persons
main idea of each ● Transmission and reception of ideas,
● Underlining/highlighting key feeling, and attitudes both verbally and
information non-verbally
● Note-taking ● Objective: to have people understand what
● Visualizing concepts or ideas in the you are trying to convey
text
● Drawing pictures/diagrams to Why do we communicate?
show how ideas connect within or ● Communication is the act of conveying
between texts information for the purpose of creating a
● Reflecting on the relevance of the shared understanding
reading for course context and ● Connects people or places
making connections between ideas ● In business: communication is a key
● Carefully examining figures, tables, function of management — an
and other visuals within a text and organization cannot operate without
aking connections between them communication between levels,
departments, employees, and third parties
Post-Reading Stage
● Test comprehension of the reading Types of Communicarion
● Quizzes, exams, recitations
● Client meetings Verbal Communication
● Spoken words are used
Levels of Reading Comprehension ● Face to face conversations
● Telephone conversations
Literal Level ● Business meetings and corporate
● Foundation of comprehension presentations
● Focuses on essential information
● Involves the plain reading of the text Advantages
and/or the story ● Brings quick feedback
● In face-to-face conversations, by
Inferential Level reading facial expression and body
● Understanding what the text says language, one can guess whether
● Combination of pieces of information to be he/she should trust what is being
able to make inferences about the intent said
and message of the author
Disadvantages
Critical Level ● Difficult to refer back to messages
● Analyzing or synthesizing information and ● Due to the hierarchical chain of
applying it to other information command, there can be distortions
● Asking situational/hypothetical questions ● Lengthy and isolated
are aimed at improving reading communication cannot be
comprehension efficiently conveyed verbally and
the receiver may receive the
Effective Business Communication message in his own discernment

Collated by: Angel Mendoza; Sources: Atty. Perez’s PPTs, Fundamentals of Legal Writing by Abad, Legal Writing by Tabucanon | 21
 and thus misunderstand the 8. Make it plain and simple
purpose of the message 9. Reduce abbreviations; leave the symbols
and abbreviations on your phone
Written Communication 10. Use gender-sensitive language
● Most common form of communication 11. Get active
being used in business 12. Proofread
● Considered a core among business skills
● Written signs or symbols are used to Business Writing and Verbal
communicate
Communication
● May be printed or handwritten
● Influenced by the vocabulary and grammar
used, writing style, precision, and clarity of
Business Writing
the language used ● Purposeful piece of writing that conveys
● Internal Communication relevant information to the reader in a
clear, concise, and effective manner
○ memos, reports, bulletins, job
descriptions, employee manuals,
Relevant Everyday
and electronic mail
● All kinds of office workers are expected to
● External Communication
have the skills needed for everyday
○ electronic mail, Internet Web sites,
communications
letters, proposals, telegrams, faxes,
● Emails, memos, records, letters, reports,
postcards, contracts,
and forms — even when they’re not part of
advertisements, brochure, and
your job description — are routine in any
news releases
workday and must be completed correctly
Advantages
Types of Business Writing
● Messages can be revised or edited
prior to sending
Instructional
● Provides for a record of every
● Directional and aims to guide the reader
message sent and can be saved for
through the steps of completing a task
later study
● Ex: user manual or memo issued to all
● Enables reader to fully understand
employees outlining the method of
it and appropriate feedback
completing a certain task in the future
Disadvantages
Informational
● Does not bring instant feedback
● Recording business information
● Takes more time to compose
accurately and consistently
● May be a struggle for a number of
● Comprises documents essential to the
people
core functions of the business for tracking
growth, outlining plans, and complying
Tips for Effective Business Writing
with legal obligations
1. Know your audience
● Ex: financial statements of a company,
2. Know your message
minutes of the meeting, report writing
3. Think like a reporter
4. Speak formally
Persuasive
5. Banish buzzwords and cliches
● Goal: to impress the reader and influence
6. Junk the jargon
their decision
7. Keep it short/tight
Collated by: Angel Mendoza; Sources: Atty. Perez’s PPTs, Fundamentals of Legal Writing by Abad, Legal Writing by Tabucanon | 22
 ● Conveys relevant information to convince
them that a specific product, service,
company, or relationship offers the best
value
● Often associated with marketing and sales
● Ex: proposals, bulk sales emails, press
releases
Transactional
● Day-to-day communication at the
workplace
● Bulk of such communication is by email,
but also includes official letters, forms,
and invoices
Successful Business Writing
● Professional in tone
● Positive reflection of your company
● Efficient and effective in completing the
task at hand
● Do not use emoticons
Principles of Letter Writing
Clarity
Conciseness
● Omit unnecessary information
● Avoid lengthy, repetitious, explanations, or
phrases
Completeness
● You must never leave information out of a
letter just to make the letter shorter
● Make a checklist of each ite that should be
discussed in the letter, and make sure that
all of the important items are included
● Once the letter is written, read through it
to make sure that you’ve included each of
the items you’ve listed and haven’t
included extra items which aren’t external
Courtesy
● Success of a business office depends on
the courteous relationship maintained
with clients, patients, business colleagues,
and other businesses
Collated by: Angel Mendoza; Sources: Atty. Perez’s PPTs, Fundamentals of Legal Writing by Abad, Legal Writing by Tabucanon
Correctness
Basic Principles of Wriitng Style
Unity
● The communication has a main point’s
and that everything in it relates to,
develops, and supports that point
● In business communication: it’s a good
idea to state your main point at the
beginning
Coherence
● Express your ideas n an orderly manner,
ideas must be tied together logically
● Create an outline
Emphasis
● Omit unnecessary words
● Arrange each sentence so that the most
prominent idea occupies the most
prominent position
● Ex:
○ They’re today the biggest sellers in
the field of low-priced books. → In
the field of low-priced books,
they’re the biggest sellers today.
○ Concerning the offer you amde to
me, I desire to state that it appeals
to me strongly. → I am interested in
your offer.
Netiquette
● Check the electronic address carefully
● Use standard capitalization
● Be professional
○ Avoid from using keyboard
emoticons or animated pictures in
business emails
● Don’t send anything you wouldn’t want
published.
○ What you write and how you write it
will be judged by the recipient and.
for all you know, by people checking
stored emails for years into the
future.
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 ● an analytical mind is one of truth’s allies,
Memorandum and falsehood’s foes
● To provide a record of communication
● To be sure a number of people receive Main Types
precisely the same information
● General rule: one main point/one specific Formal Fallacy
purpose per memo ● an invalid argument, an erroneous
● Most common type of business document inference
● Usual format: ● an error in deductive reasoning where the
conclusion does not necessarily follow
TO : All Office Personnel
from the premises
FROM : Jo-Anne Perez
Informal Fallacy
DATE : March 28, 2023 ● inductive fallacy
● an error in reasoning in a form which does
SUBJECT : Early Dismissal on April 12,
2023 for Disinfection not follow the traditional formal structures
of logic

Case DIgest Deduction

● Facts, issue, ruling
● to reason from general principles (or truth)
● Write the case title (inclusing all the to particular instances of that truth
names of the parties)
● example:
● G.R. Number and date of promulgation
○ Major Premise: All cats are mortal.
● Limit to one to two pages
○ Minor Premise: Smila is a cat.
○ Conclusion: Therefore, Smila is
Facts mortal.
● Brief statement of facts ○ For a deductive argument to be
● What happened in the case? valid, it must be absolutely
established that both major and
Issue minor premises are true. If the
● Legal issue in the whether or not format premises are true, the conclusion is
● Is the ruling of the CA or RTC correct? valid.

Ruling Formal (Deductive) Fallacy

● How did the Supreme Court decide the ● formal or logical fallacy
case? ● presents an error in deductive reasoning,
in that the conclusion arrived at is
Fallacies logically flawed or absurd

Fallacy Informal Fallacy

● an error in reasoning
● vital for a lawyer to know the principles of
sound reasoning to avoid fallacies, as well
as be able to spot fallacy in others
● errors in reasoning keeps us from arriving
at the truth
● inductive, semiformal, or quasi-formal
fallacies
● error in reasoning occurring within
non-traditional forms of inference
*Check Notion for comprehensive notes on Fallacies.

Collated by: Angel Mendoza; Sources: Atty. Perez’s PPTs, Fundamentals of Legal Writing by Abad, Legal Writing by Tabucanon | 24