Test Bank for Macroeconomics, 11th Edition : Arnold

Chapter 1—What Economics Is About

Test Bank for Macroeconomics, 11th Edition : Ar-

nold
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MULTIPLE CHOICE

1. The author of the text defines economics as the

a. science of efficiency.
b. science of scarcity.
c. study of markets.
d. study of human activity.
ANS: B PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy
NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic
LOC: DISC: The study of economics and definitions of economics
KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

2. When economists speak of scarcity, they are referring to the

a. condition in which society is not employing all its resources in an efficient way.
b. condition in which people's wants outstrip the limited resources available to satisfy those
wants.
c. economic condition that exists in only very poor countries of the world.
d. condition in which society produces too many frivolous goods and not enough socially
desirable goods.
ANS: B PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Moderate
NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic LOC: DISC: Scarcity, tradeoffs, and opportunity cost
KEY: Bloom's: Comprehension

3. Which of the following is not one of the four broad categories of resources?
a. labor
b. government
c. capital
d. entrepreneurship
e. land
ANS: B PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Moderate
NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic
LOC: DISC: The study of economics and definitions of economics
KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

4. Produced goods used as inputs for the production of other goods comprise the resource known as
a. natural resources.
b. services.
c. capital.
d. entrepreneurship.
ANS: C PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy
© 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated,
or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

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 NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic
LOC: DISC: The study of economics and definitions of economics
KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

5. Entrepreneurship is
a. the talent for organizing the use of land, labor and capital, among other things.
b. skill in influencing government regulators and legislators.
c. accumulated technical knowledge in using labor and capital.
d. knowledge of the particular natural resources to be found in a given area.
ANS: A PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy
NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic
LOC: DISC: The study of economics and definitions of economics
KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

6. Some years ago, chemists at 3M Corporation were trying to create a super-strong glue. Somehow they
got their molecules twisted and came up with one of the weakest glues ever made. But, rather than
pouring it down the drain, they tried coating some paper with it, and the "Post-It Note" was born. In
this case, 3M was acting as a(n)
a. utility.
b. rationer.
c. entrepreneur.
d. abstraction.
ANS: C PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Moderate
NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic
LOC: DISC: The study of economics and definitions of economics
KEY: Bloom's: Application

7. The physical and mental talents people bring to production processes comprise the resource called
a. entrepreneurship.
b. natural resources.
c. capital.
d. labor.
ANS: D PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy
NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic
LOC: DISC: The study of economics and definitions of economics
KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

8. The headline in the newspaper reads "County Supervisors Debate Building New Schools." The
headline relates closest to which economic concept?
a. goods and bads
b. utility
c. choice
d. efficiency
ANS: C PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Moderate
NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic LOC: DISC: Scarcity, tradeoffs, and opportunity cost
KEY: Bloom's: Comprehension

9. The opportunity cost of attending college is

a. the money one spends on college tuition, books, and so forth.
© 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated,
or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 b. the highest valued alternative one forfeits to attend college.
c. the least valued alternative one forfeits to attend college.
d. equal to the salary one will earn when one graduates from college.
ANS: B PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Moderate
NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic LOC: DISC: Scarcity, tradeoffs, and opportunity cost
KEY: Bloom's: Comprehension

10. Here are three things you could do if you do not attend your neighbor's barbecue: watch television with
some friends (you value this at $17), read a good novel (you value this at $14), or go in to work (you
could earn $16 during the barbecue). The opportunity cost of going to your neighbor's barbecue is
a. $16, because this is the only alternative of the three where you actually receive a monetary
payment.
b. $14, because this is the lowest valued alternative forfeited.
c. $17, because this is the highest valued alternative forfeited.
d. $47, because this is the total dollar sum of the alternatives forfeited.
ANS: C PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Moderate
NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic LOC: DISC: Scarcity, tradeoffs, and opportunity cost
KEY: Bloom's: Application

11. It usually takes less time to buy a six-pack of 7-Up, a loaf of bread, and a half-gallon of ice cream at a
small convenience store (such as a 7-Eleven) than at a large, full-service grocery store. Which of the
following persons is most likely to buy these items at a convenience store?
a. a person with high opportunity cost of time
b. a person with low opportunity cost of time
c. a person who is out of work
d. There is not enough information to answer the question.
ANS: A PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy
NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic LOC: DISC: Scarcity, tradeoffs, and opportunity cost
KEY: Bloom's: Comprehension

12. Minerals, animals, water and forests are all considered to be the resource known as
a. capital
b. entrepreneurship
c. labor
d. land
e. none of the above
ANS: D PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy
NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic
LOC: DISC: The study of economics and definitions of economics
KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge

13. The higher the opportunity cost of attending college,

a. the more likely an individual will go to college.
b. the more economics classes an individual will take at college.
c. the fewer economics classes an individual will take at college.
d. the less likely an individual will go to college.
ANS: D PTS: 1 DIF: Difficulty: Easy
NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic LOC: DISC: Scarcity, tradeoffs, and opportunity cost
© 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated,
or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
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tree; and in like manner laserwort, or the juice thereof, with common wine
or must; and sweet wine drunk alone answers well.

C . Theophrastus seems to have been acquainted with the

sedative properties of hemlock, for he recommends pepper and rosemary as
antidotes to it. (H. P. ix, 24); and Athen. (Deip. ii, 73.) The operation of this
poison in the case of Socrates is well described by Plato in his ‘Phædo.’
Socrates, after swallowing the poisoned cup, walked about for a short time
as he was directed by the executioner: when he felt a sense of heaviness in
his limbs he lay down on his back; his feet and legs first lost their
sensibility, and became stiff and cold; and this state gradually extended
upwards to the heart, when he died convulsed.
The symptoms, according to Nicander, are dimness of sight, vertigo, a
sense of suffocation, coldness of the extremities, impeded respiration, and
death. His remedies are emetics of oil, or undiluted wine, clysters of the
same, and undiluted wine taken by the mouth, with pepper, nettle,
assafœtida, and the like. Dioscorides, and all the other authorities,
recommend much the same treatment. Pliny and Aëtius mention lividity,
after death, as a symptom of poisoning by cicuta.
Theophrastus (H. P. vi, 2) and Pliny (H. N. xxv, 95) have described the
conium. Schulze is satisfied that it is the conium maculatum, L., and in this
opinion we fully agree with him. He adds, that the ancients have made no
mention of the cicuta virosa.
Dioscorides and most of the others enumerate convulsions among the
symptoms. It will be remarked, that in the abstract given above of the
symptoms of poisoning by hemlock in the case of Socrates, we have stated
that the great philosopher died convulsed. This we think the true
interpretation of the term used by Plato (ἐκινήθη), although it has not been
so understood by most of his interpreters. Dioscorides, in another place,
states somnolency, coma, stertor, lividity, torpor, coldness, stupor,
insensibility, and pruritus of the whole body, as the common symptoms of
poisoning by opium, mandragora, or conium.
Schulze ranks, among ancient mistakes, the assertion of Galen, that
narcotic substances may, in some instances, become digested and prove
nutritive. But Dr. Christison says, that both vegetable and animal poisons
may become digested, of which he gives an interesting example with regard
to opium (On Poisons, p. 52.)

SECT. XLII.—ON THE JUICE OF THE POPPY.

When one has drunk of the juice of the poppy drowsiness comes on, with
coldness and intense itching, so that often when the medicine takes effect
such an itching comes on that the person is roused from sleep thereby. The
smell of the medicine too is emitted from the whole body. The remedies in
such cases, after rejecting the substance taken by vomiting with oil, and
evacuating downwards by a stimulant clyster, are oxymel drank with salts,
or honey with warm rose-oil, and much undiluted wine with wormwood
and cinnamon, and warm vinegar by itself, and natron with water, and
marjoram with lye, the seed of rue and pepper given with castor, and
oxymel, savory, or the decoction of marjoram with wine. We must also
rouse by aromatics, put the person into a hot bath, and foment on account of
the pruritus which supervenes; and after the bath we may use fat broths,
with wine or must. Marrow also drunk with oil is useful.

C . According to Nicander, the symptoms of poisoning by

poppy-juice are coldness of the extremities, eyes fixed, heaviness of the
eyelids, profuse and fetid perspiration, paleness, swelling of the lip,
relaxation of the under jaw, slow respiration, cold breath, and the usual
precursors of dissolution, namely, distortion of the nostrils, lividity of the
nails, and hollow eyes. His remedies are emetics, such as the oil of iris or of
roses, wine and honey; hot drink and rousing the patient by cries, striking
his body in different places, and wrapping it in cloths smeared with oil and
hot wine, and the hot bath as a restorative.
The symptoms mentioned by Dioscorides are lethargy, violent pruritus,
and the perspiration smelling of opium. His remedies are the same as those
of our author, namely, emetics at first, then clysters, and afterwards wine
and vinegar, with various stimulant and strong-scented things; such as
pepper, cinnamon, castor, marjoram, &c. The patient is to be roused as
directed by Nicander; and baths and fomentations are to be used to relieve
the pruritus.
Galen relates the case of a person reduced to the last stage of coldness,
whom he saved by administering freely a strong, light-coloured, and
fragrant wine. Yet, he remarks correctly, a small quantity of weak wine
operates unfavorably by promoting the distribution of the poison over the
system. He, in particular, recommends vomiting at first with wine and oil,
and afterwards strong clysters.
Aëtius mentions, among the symptoms, violent pruritus and convulsions.
None of the other Greek writers mention convulsions, but, among the
Arabians, Avicenna, Rhases, and Alsaharavius, have mentioned them.
Modern experience has determined that they are an occasional, but not a
frequent symptom produced by the immoderate administration of opium.
Scribonius Largus directs us, after repeated vomiting, to apply
embrocations of vinegar and roses to the head, to rub the feet, and to put
sinapisms to them and the thighs. Simeon Seth strongly recommends
vinegar.
Haly Abbas and Alsaharavius, and, in short, all the Arabians recommend
nearly the same treatment; namely, emetics of oil and water, or oil and
wine, hot clysters, acrid and strong-scented things, such as castor,
assafœtida, savin, &c., and the warm bath, friction, sternutatories, and every
means calculated to arouse, and to prevent sleep.
Serapion, Rhases, Avicenna, Haly Abbas, and Alsaharavius, agree in
stating that the smallest dose of opium which will prove destructive to
human life is two drachms. Modern authors are not agreed as to the smallest
quantity which may prove fatal, but surely, as Dr. Christison remarks, Dr.
Paris has fixed the minimum dose too low, when he affirms that four grains
may be sufficient to produce this effect. On the other hand, we should think
that a smaller dose than that mentioned by the Arabians might be sufficient
to destroy life. Perhaps the ancient opium may have been weaker than that
now in use.
It is worthy of remark, that most of the ancient authorities recommend
vinegar in cases of poisoning by opium, but we are inclined to think that
none of them administered it at the commencement, nor until the poison had
been removed from the bowels. This practice agrees very well with the rule
of treatment laid down by Orfila, Paris, and Christison, who state that
vinegar is prejudicial, if given at first, by favouring the solution of the
poison, but proves useful afterwards by acting as a restorative to the system.
None of the ancient authorities recommend venesection.
In another work we have thus explained the ancient theory of the action
of opium upon the human frame. “In order to understand properly the ideas
entertained by the ancients respecting the modus operandi of opium, it will
be necessary to say a few words in explanation of their opinions upon
certain points of physiology. Aristotle taught that the prime cause of all the
operations of life is mind, and that the prime instrument by which it
performs them is heat, which, therefore, he denominates the co-cause
(συνάιτιον). He illustrates his meaning by comparing the mind to the
artificer, and heat to the wimble or saw by which he performs his work.
Having remarked, no doubt, that the heart is the warmest part of the body,
he appears to have considered it as the spring which turns the whole
machinery of the animal frame, the brain and nerves deriving their origin
and influence from it. (I need scarcely mention how well these ideas accord
with the ingenious hypothesis lately advanced by M. Serres.) Many facts,
indeed, seem to point out the supreme importance of the heart. It is, as the
ancients remarked, the primum movens et ultimum moriens; and, along with
its accessory organ, the lungs, it is evidently the part which, in the higher
classes of animals, renders them independent of the many variations of heat
and cold to which they are subjected. It is this wonderful organ which,
under the guidance of the principle of life, preserves the heat of the body
unaltered in all the different gradations of temperature, from more than 100
degrees above the boiling, to as many below the freezing point of the
thermometer. It seems, in fact, a real Prometheus that steals the fire from
heaven. The connexion between heat and the vital actions is very apparent
also in the inferior animals, who are not provided with such an apparatus
for preserving an equability of temperature. Thus the zoophyta, insecta, et
vermes, with the loss of heat, lose also sensibility and muscular energy,
which they recover again when their heat is restored. In this case it is
evident that heat is the cause (or at least the co-cause) of the vital actions,
and not the vital actions of heat. It has always appeared to me a striking
fact, illustrative of the great influence of heat over the vital actions, that the
strength of all animals is, bulk to bulk, proportionate to the degree of their
animal heat.
“This doctrine of the supreme authority of the heart, as being the focus of
heat, thus maintained by Aristotle, was eagerly defended by the great
Arabian commentator, Averrhoes, and by his countryman, Avenzoar, who
keenly attacked Galen for having questioned its truth, and taught, as they
represent, that the brain is the leading organ in the animal frame. After
having, however, carefully ransacked every part of Galen’s works, in which
I could suppose it likely to meet with any allusion to this doctrine, I am led
to believe that these Arabians, in the heat of controversy, have
misrepresented the real opinion of their master’s rival. Galen appears
decidedly to have maintained with Hippocrates—‘that there is in the body
no one beginning, but that all parts are alike, beginning and end: for a circle
has no beginning.’ Agreeably to this idea, Galen remarks, that the brain
cannot properly be said to derive its powers from the heart, since an animal
will run, breathe, and cry after its heart has been taken out; nor can the heart
be said properly to derive its powers from the brain, since it will palpitate
and contract, after all communication with the brain is cut off, nay, after it
has been removed from the body. In so far, then, the functions of the brain
and the heart are independent of one another. But the brain is dependent
upon the heart and its appendages for vital heat, without which it would be
unable to continue its functions; and the heart, on the other hand, is
dependent upon the brain for imparting nervous influence to the respiratory
organs, without which it could not preserve its vital heat unaltered. Hence
the mutual connexion and sympathy of important organs—a doctrine much
insisted upon by ancient authors, and which bears some resemblance to the
theory lately advanced by Mr. Morgan and Dr. Addison.
“We shall now have no difficulty in understanding the ideas of the
ancients regarding the operation of opium. Galen and Avicenna believed
that the poison exerts its primary influence upon the heart, and impairs its
vital heat. Of course they considered its operation on the brain as secondary.
They called the action of narcotics frigorific or congealing, no doubt
because they remarked that it was attended with a diminution of vital heat,
and to this they attributed the loss of sensibility and muscular energy. I
leave it to the reader to judge whether this theory or the modification of it
lately proposed by Messrs. Morgan and Addison be the more plausible.”
(Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal, No. 103.)
But although the ancient physiologists maintained that the prime organs
of the animal frame suffer sympathetically in cases of poisoning, they did
not hold, it will be remarked, that all poisons exert their primary action on
the nervous system. This is the hypothesis lately advocated by Messrs.
Morgan and Addison, but which is, in fact, only a revival of that maintained
by Schulze in his ‘Toxicologia Veterum.’ He thus states his theory of the
action of poisons,—“Omnia symptomata et lethales venenorum effectus hoc
unum quam luculentissimè demonstrant, ab omnibus venenis nervos ipsos
graviter affligi. Nervea igitur vis seu vitalis, a veneni stimulis commota, aut
majori impetu agit, aut prævalente veneni vehementia prorsus silet,
nexusque omnes sensorii communis cum reliquis nervis turbantur, vitâ
animali aut graviter periclitante, aut prorsus interiturâ.” (Toxic. Vet. vii.) Dr.
Mead also, in his last edition of his work on Poisons, advocates this
hypothesis.
It appears to us, however, that this theory, although very simple and
plausible, is somewhat too exclusive. And that there are other modes by
which poisons operate than through the brain and nerves appears to be
demonstrated by the fact now clearly established, that poisons act upon
vegetables as well as upon animals. (V. Annales de Chimie, t. xxix.) Now as
vegetables are possessed of neither sensibility nor motion, it seems
preposterous to suppose that they have any nervous system.
Perhaps, then, we cannot do better than revert to the old doctrine
delivered by Alsaharavius. Sometimes, he says, poisons act upon the heart,
and thereby prove instantly fatal; sometimes upon the liver, producing
jaundice and phthisis; sometimes upon the brain, when they occasion
delirium; and sometimes their action is local, giving rise to corruption and
lividity of the part. (Pract. xxx. 2, 18.)
That the primary action of narcotics is upon the heart appears to us, upon
the whole, the most probable theory hitherto advanced upon the subject.

SECT. XLIII—ON THE JUICE OF THE CARPESIA.

 When the juice of carpesia is drunk it brings on heavy sleep and acute
suffocation. These are relieved by the same remedies as those given to
persons who have drunk hemlock.

C . This section is taken, almost word for word, from

Dioscorides. Matthiolus confesses that he was quite unable to determine
what substance it was. (Comment. in Dioscor. vi, 13.) It is doubtful whether
the καρπήσιον of Galen and the κάρπασον of Dioscorides be the same
substance, and whether either be the same as the ὀποκάρπασον. Sprengel
can arrive at no certain conclusion respecting it. Valerius Cordus supposed
it to be the piper longum.

SECT. XLIV.—ON MANDRAGORA OR MANDRAKE.

When mandragora has been drunk, stupor immediately comes on, with
loss of strength, and a strong inclination to sleep, so that the affection
differs in nothing from that which is called lethargy. Before any of these
symptoms come on, vomiting will be proper in this case; and afterwards
honied water, or natron and wormwood with must, or taken in a dulcified
wine, embrocations to the head with rose-oil and vinegar, rousing by
shaking the body, and by strong-smelling things, pepper, mustard, castor,
and rue pounded with vinegar, liquid pitch, and the wicks of lamps lighted
and extinguished, will be proper. When they are difficult to rouse we may
also apply sternutatories, and have recourse to the general remedies in such
cases.

C . Our author, as usual, follows Dioscorides. Matthiolus, by

the way, in his commentary, questions the propriety of applying rose-oil and
vinegar to the head, as these things are of a cold nature, whereas stimulants
and calefacients are indicated. Perhaps these things, when poured from a
height upon the head, might prove restorative and stimulant. The other
Greek authorities however, as, for example, Aëtius and Actuarius, approve
of the practice. Alsaharavius recommends emetics, and also directs us to
pour vinegar and rose-oil on the head, and to take vinegar in which hyssop
and the like have been boiled.
Rhases recommends vomiting by means of water, honey, and fossil salt;
after which sweet wine is to be given, and vinegar and rose-oil poured upon
the head; castor, pepper, and rue are to be administered, along with
sternutatories. He mentions, however, that he knew an old medical man
who cured a young woman, who had fallen into a state of syncope, with
flushing of the face, after swallowing the apples of mandragora, by the
affusion of snow-water on her head. Avicenna properly directs everything
to be done to prevent sleep.
Schulze is satisfied that it is the atropa mandragora of Linnæus. There
seems no doubt, however, that the mandragora of Theophrastus is the
atropa belladonna; while the mandragora mas of Dioscorides is the
mandragora vernalis, Bertol.; and the M. femina of the same, the
mandragora autumnalis.
Theophrastus, Dioscorides, Galen, Athenæus, Aëtius, Suidas, Hesychius,
Apuleius, Pollux, and Frontinus, have made mention of the hypnotic
property of mandragora. It is singular that it should now have fallen into
neglect. It appears to have been used as a medicine in the days of
Shakespeare. Iago says:
 “Not poppy nor mandragora
Nor all the drowsy syrups of the world,
Shall ever medicine thee to that sweet sleep
Which thou owed’st yesterday.”

Othello.

We will have occasion to treat of it in the Seventh Book.

SECT. XLV.—ON ACONITUM OR WOLFSBANE.

Wolfsbane immediately after being drunk occasions a sensation of

sweetness on the tongue, with a little astringency; vertigo supervenes, more
especially when the person attempts to rise up, and it brings on a watering
of the eyes; there is heaviness of the chest and abdomen, with eructation of
much flatus. In these cases the medicine must be brought up by vomits, and
the contents of the bowels evacuated by a clyster. We must also give
draughts from marjoram and rue, or from horehound with wine, or from
wormwood, or from rocket, or from southernwood, or mezereon, or ground-
pine. Opobalsam, too, taken to the amount of one drachm, with wine, will
likewise answer with them; also the rennet of a kid, or of a hare, or of a
fawn, with vinegar, and the dross of iron, or iron itself, or gold, or silver,
may be dissolved in wine, and the liquid taken, and lye with wine, and the
broth of a boiled cock, or the broth of fat flesh taken with wine. The
ground-pine, which is said to be a specific in Heraclea of Pontus, where
wolfsbane grows, is called holocleron, but ionia in Athens, and sideritis in
Eubœa.

C . The symptoms, as described by Nicander, are astringency

of the lips, palate, and gums, gnawing pains at the stomach, singultus,
flatulence, running from the eyes, double vision, as from intoxication. His
remedies seem to have been principally emetics and calefacients. Thus he
recommends a handful of quicklime to be drunk with a hemina of wine,
also southernwood, spurge, ground-pine, marjoram, opobalsam, the metallic
preparations mentioned by our author, and the like. The accounts of the
treatment given by Dioscorides, Aëtius, and Actuarius agree exactly with
our author’s. Avicenna, Rhases, and Haly Abbas, in like manner,
recommend emetics, clysters, and calefacient medicines internally.
Diogenes Laertius states, upon the authority of Eumelus the historian,
that Aristotle the philosopher despatched himself with a draught of aconite.
(Vita Aristot.) Pliny relates that this poison proves fatal when applied to the
genital organs of women. (H. N. xxvii, 2.)
The ancients have described several varieties of aconite. See
Theophrastus (H. P. ix, 19); Pliny (H. N. xxv, 75); Schulze (Toxicol, vet.);
Schneider (in Nicand. Alexiphar.); and Sprengel (Rei. Herb. Hist.) These
modern authors in general are disposed to think that it was the iris tuberosa.
Sprengel, however, in the notes to his edition of Dioscorides, is decided that
the second species of Dioscorides (Mat. Med. iv, 78) is the aconitum
napellus; but respecting the first species, he is in great doubts. All agree that
the aconitum of Theophrastus is different from the A. of Dioscorides and
the other toxicologists. We may be permitted to add, that the symptoms of
poisoning by aconitum, as given by Nicander, agree so well with those
reported lately of cases of poisoning by the aconitum napellus, that we
cannot doubt their identity.

SECT. XLVI.—ON IXIA.

Ixia, which is also called ulophonon, when drunk has some resemblance
both in taste and smell to basil-royal. It brings on strong inflammation of
the tongue, and disorder of the mind; it suppresses all the secretions,
occasioning borborygmi and rumbling, with deliquium animi; but there are
no alvine evacuations. After the greater part of the poison has been brought
up by vomiting, or evacuated by the bowels, they will experience relief
from drinking the decoction of wormwood, with much wine, vinegar, or
oxymel, or the seed of wild rue, or the root of laserwort, and in the like
manner the decoction of tragoriganum with some of the aforementioned, or
with milk; or of turpentine, of nard, of castor, of laserwort, of each an
obolus in wine. The fruit also of the walnut triturated with wine will be
proper; or of rosin, of castor, and of rue, of each dr. j; and in like manner of
mezereon, dr. ij; of the juice of thapsia, dr. ij, with honied water; and hot
vinegar may be drunk by itself.

C . Nicander’s description of the symptoms is very similar to

that given by our author, and his treatment seems to have been conducted
upon the same principles; namely, by administering emetics and purgatives
at first, and, afterwards, discutient and detergent medicines, to overcome the
viscid nature of the poison. Our author’s plan of treatment differs in no
material respect from that recommended by Dioscorides, Aëtius, Actuarius,
Avicenna, and Alsaharavius. Avicenna described it by the name of
aldabach; Alsaharavius, by those of alfos, aldolia, i. e. arbor risi.
Apuleius make ixias, ulophonon, chamæleon, ocymoides, and various
cardui synonymes (109.) The ixias, according to Gorræus, is a species of
chamæleon, but what species cannot be determined. (See, also, Schneider’s
note on Nicander.) Matthiolus calls it a glutinous substance, found in the
root of the chamæleon, or carline thistle. Schulze is decided that it was a
species of carlina (Toxicol. vet., 22.) See Harduin’s note on Pliny (H. N.
xxii, 21.) After mature consideration, we have no difficulty in referring it to
the carlina acaulis, or carline thistle.

SECT. XLVII.—ON EPHEMERON, OR MEADOW

SAFFRON.

When one swallows ephemeron (which some call colchicum, because it

grows in Colchis, or bulbus silvestris), pruritus takes place over the whole
body, as if stung by nettle or squill; there is a gnawing pain within, and
great heat of the stomach, with considerable heaviness; but when the
affection gains strength, blood is discharged from the bowels, mixed with
the scrapings thereof. The same remedies are to be applied as to those who
have drunk salamander, in vomits and clysters. But before the medicine
gain ground we must give a decoction of oak-leaves, or of acorns, or of the
rind of pomegranate, or of wild thyme with milk, or the juice of bloodwort,
or of vine-tops, or of brambles, or of the medulla of fennel-giant, or of
myrtle berries, with wine; and when levigated myrtles themselves are
pounded and macerated in water, the liquor thereof may be taken with
advantage. And, in like manner, the middle pellicle of the chesnuts, called
Sardian, may be taken with the aforesaid juices, and marjoram may be
drunk with lye. Those affected are manifestly relieved by drinking hot
cow’s milk, and retaining it in the mouth, so that they who have plenty of it
do not stand in need of any other remedy.

C . Our author’s detail of the symptoms is taken entirely from

Nicander, and his treatment also is mostly derived from the same source.
They seem to have depended principally upon vegetable astringents, such as
oak-bark, pomegranate-rind, and chesnuts, for checking the hypercatharsis.
Pliny, like our author, strongly commends milk (H. N. xxvii, 33.)
Dioscorides recommends emetics, clysters, vegetable astringents, and
demulcents. Alsaharavius says, that hermodactylus occasions pruritus of the
whole body, swelling of the palate, pains of the stomach, and the like. He
recommends emetics, clysters, cows’ milk, and vegetable astringents, such
as acorns with wine. This, it will be remarked, is similar to the account
which the Greeks give of the symptoms and treatment of ephemeron, which
is undoubtedly the colchicum autumnale; and this circumstance tends
strongly to prove the identity of the ephemeron and the hermodactylus. We
agree with Schulze, Prosper Alpinus, and Humelbergius, that they were
unquestionably the same plant, notwithstanding that Sprengel, Matthiolus,
and Dr. Murray are of a different opinion. Dr. Paris considers that there is
no doubt of their identity. (See a learned dissertation on the Ephemeron in a
note by Schneider, on Nicander’s Alexipharmics.) We shall only further
add, in this place, that the learned Ardoyn, in his elaborate work on Poisons,
contends, that there is no doubt of the identity of the colchicum and the
hermodactylus. We, in fact, are surprised that this should have been ever
questioned.

SECT. XLVIII.—ON THE SMILAX OR YEW.

 The tree called smilax is named thymium by some, and taxus by the
Romans. When drunk it brings on coldness of the whole body, suffocation,
and speedy death; the remedies for which are all those things which are
given to those who have drunk of hemlock.

C . The description of the symptoms and the plan of treatment

are borrowed from Nicander, or, rather, copied direct from Dioscorides.
Different opinions have been entertained respecting the poisonous nature
of the yew. Haller, Bulliard, and others, deny that it is poisonous; while
Berkley, Ray, Matthiolus, and others, affirm that it is. Orfila holds it to be a
narcotic poison (chap. iv, cl. 4.) We have known instances of its proving
fatal to cattle. The newspapers lately contained a melancholy case of a boy
poisoned by yew-berries at Winchester. Matthiolus is not pleased with
Dioscorides for making it to be a frigorific medicine; but Orfila, it appears,
gives it the same character; that is to say, he holds it to be narcotic. Virgil
alludes to its poisonous qualities:

Sic tua Cyrnæas fugiant examina taxos.

See, also, Theophrastus (H. P. i, 5, and iii, 9); and Schulze (Tox. vet. 17).

SECT. XLIX.—ON THE STRYCHNOS FURIOSA, CALLED

DORYCNIUM, BY SOME.

When one drinks of dorycnium, which some call strychnos furiosa, there
follows a sensation, as it were, of milk to the taste; constant hiccough,
watering of the tongue, and frequent ejection of blood; and there are
mucous discharges by the bowels, as in dysenterical cases. They are to be
remedied before any of these symptoms supervene, by those things which
are taken for ephemeron, I mean emetics and clysters, and whatever else
can evacuate the substance which had been taken. Honied water is a
particularly good remedy; or the milk of asses or of goats and sweet wine,
in a tepid state, may be drunk with a small quantity of anise. Bitter almonds
also are proper, the boiled breasts of fowls, all the shell-fish eaten raw and
boiled, crabs and crawfish, and the broth of them when drunk.

C . Our author’s detail of symptoms is taken mostly from

Nicander, or, perhaps, direct from Dioscorides. The poet’s plan of treatment
seems to have been much the same as that of Paulus. He omits, indeed, to
make mention of emetics and purgatives as being general remedies in all
cases of poisoning; but he recommends milk, must, and the crustacea, such
as the pinna, echinus, &c. The other authorities supply nothing additional.
Avicenna treats of it under the name of uva vulpis stupefactiva mala; he
copies from Dioscorides (iv, 6; i, 7.)
There is considerable difficulty about the nature of the dorycnium. Our
author, Aëtius and Apuleius, make it to be the same as the strychnos
furiosa, which is generally held to be either the solanum sodomeum, or the
atropa belladonna. On this subject, see Galen (de Med. sec. loc. x, 3); Pliny
(H. N. xxi, 105); Apuleius (de Herb., 22). Schulze affirms, that none of the
ancient poisons is so little known as the dorycnium. He is undecided as to
its nature, except that it belonged to the diadelphous or leguminous plants,
and he is inclined to think that it was an astragalus. (Toxicol. Veterum, 2.)
Sprengel inclines either to the convolvulus cneorus, L., or the con.
dorycnium, L. But as far as we can see, the most probable conjecture that
can be made regarding it is, that it was either the solanum sodomeum, or
atropa belladonna.

SECT. L.—ON THE SARDONIAN HERB.

The herb called the Sardonian is a species of ranunculus, when drunk, or

eaten, it brings on disorder of the intellect, and convulsions with contraction
of the lips, so as to exhibit the appearance of laughter. From this affection
that ill-omened expression, the Sardonian laugh, took its rise. In these cases,
therefore, after vomiting, it will be proper to give honied water and milk,
with embrocations and lubrications of the whole body, by calefacient
remedies; and to have recourse to hot-baths of hot oil and water, and to
anoint properly and rub them after the baths; and, upon the whole, to
conduct the treatment as for convulsions.

C . Dioscorides and our author are perfectly agreed as to the

symptoms and treatment. Aëtius recommends, likewise, castor with sweet
wine. Solinus, like our author, says that it brings on contractions of the
muscles, and the risus Sardonicus. Avicenna acknowledges his ignorance of
the nature and proper treatment of this herb, but supposes that it belongs to
the class of acute poisons. There seems, however, no reason to doubt that it
was a species of ranunculus. Schulze makes it the ranunculus sceleratus, L.,
which bears the English name of celery-leaved crowfoot; and we are clearly
of the same opinion, although Avicenna seems to make a distinction
between the Sardonian herb and the kebekengi, or apium risus, which is the
βατράχιον of Dioscorides. See Alsaharavius (Pract. xxx, i, 39.)

SECT. LI.—ON THE HORNED POPPY.

Seeing that the species of poppy called the horned, when eaten or drunk,
brings on the same symptoms as the juice of poppy, it is to be treated by the
same remedies.

C . Miller says that the glaucium is called horned poppy

because it is a species of poppy having husks resembling horns. See some
account of it in Apuleius (53.) Schulze remarks that Dioscorides has
described several varieties of the poppy. 1, Papaver hortense; 2, P.
opiiferum; 3, P. agreste; 4, P. rhæas; 5, P. ceratites sive corniculatum; 6,
Hypecoum. The fifth of these, or horned poppy, is the glaucium luteum,
Scop. Dioscorides gives a distinct description, but treats of it as a medicine
rather than as a poison. (M. M. iv, 66.) None of the Arabians treat of it
separate from opium.
 SECT. LII.—ON PHARICUM.

The substance called pharicum in taste completely resembles nard, and

when drunk it brings on paralysis, with disorder of the mind and
convulsion. After evacuation by vomiting, we must give the patient to
drink, along with wine, some wormwood, cinnamon, myrrh, or Celtic nard
(which some call saliunca), or of spikenard, dr. ij, or two oboli of myrrh
mixed with must or iris, and the flower of saffron with wine. The head is to
be shaven, and a cataplasm consisting of barley-flour, with levigated rue
and vinegar, is to be applied.

C . Nicander, like our author, compares its taste to that of

spikenard, and says that it proves fatal in one day, inducing delirium. He
recommends the same internal medicines, and also makes mention of
applying a stimulant cataplasm to the head, evidently with a view of
relieving the phrenitis. The other authorities recommend similar treatment.
There is great disagreement among the ancient writers on toxicology
respecting the nature of the pharicum. (See the notes of Gorræus and
Schneider on Nicander.) The former remarks that many suppose it a species
of nard. Dioscorides (Præf. vi) and Galen (Antidot. ii) make it to be a herb.
Scribonius Largus, and Hesychius consider it to have been a compound
medicine. After balancing all the statements Schneider comes to the
conclusion, that most probably it was a composition from agaric. Schulze is
wholly undecided as to its nature. (Toxic. Vet. 21.) Sprengel, in like manner,
can come to no certain conclusion respecting it. (Notæ in Dioscor. l. c.)

SECT. LIII.—ON TOXICUM.

The toxicum seems to be so called because the barbarians anointed their

darts (τοξεύματα) with it. When a person has drunk of it, inflammation of
the lips and tongue comes on, also irrestrainable madness leading to various
fantasies, so that in the treatment of them they are difficult to cure, and it is
rare that any of those who have drunk of it can be saved. However, they are
to be forcibly bound with ligatures, and compelled to drink sweet wine with
rose-oil, and to vomit. Turnip seed, also, drunk with wine will be proper for
them, and the root of cinquefoil, the blood of a he or she-goat when taken,
oak bark, that of the beech or ilex triturated with milk; also quinces when
eaten, or triturated with pennyroyal and drunk in water; and ammomum,
and the fruit of balsam with wine. But if any escape the danger they remain
for a long time confined to bed, and when they get out of it they spend the
rest of their lives in a state of timidity.

C . The symptoms detailed by Nicander are much the same as

those enumerated by our author, namely, swelling of the mouth and throat,
with violent internal pains. His remedies likewise are much the same,
namely, forcing the patient, after he is well secured, to drink wine until he
vomit, and making him take bruised apples, rose-oil, oil of iris, &c. He
says, that certain savage nations upon the Euphrates poisoned their arrows
with it, which rendered their wounds immedicable, occasioning lividity and
putrefaction. Dioscorides, Aëtius, Actuarius, and, in short, all the ancient
authorities, copy his account.
It is very difficult to determine the nature of the toxicum. Theophrastus
describes a species of calamus by the name of toxicus. (H. P. iii, 12.)
Avicenna, however, admits that he was wholly unacquainted with its nature.
(iv, 6; i, 29.) Some have supposed, with considerable probability, that it was
a preparation from the rhus toxicodendron. Schulze is only decided that it
was a vegetable poison. (Tox. Vet. 19.) But it even seems doubtful whether
it was a simple or compound medicine, and whether of an animal or
vegetable nature. (See Schneider’s note on Nicander’s Alexiph. 248.)
Sprengel inclines to the opinion that it was collected from the venom of
serpents. (Notæ in Dioscor.) All, however, is mere conjecture on this
subject.

SECT. LIV.—ON MUSHROOMS.

Of mushrooms, some prove deleterious from their general nature, and

some by the quantity taken. They all bring on suffocation resembling
choking. The general remedy which is to be instantly applied is to compel
the persons affected to vomit by means of oil. They are also wonderfully
relieved by drinking of the lye from vine-shoots, or from the wood of the
wild pear with oxycrate, salts, or natron. And wild pears or their leaves, if
boiled with mushrooms, take away their suffocative quality, and if eaten
they prove beneficial. Hen’s dung, drunk in oxycrate, proves beneficial to
them; likewise a drachm of birthwort, or of wormwood with wine, and
honey when licked or drunk with water; and baum with natron, or the root
and fruit of all-heal with wine, the burnt lees of wine with water, and
copperas with vinegar, radish, mustard, or cresses when eaten. And since
certain mushrooms having been tasted of by venomous animals occasion
not only suffocation but also ulceration of the intestines, we must give in
such cases plenty of wormwood, and the decoction of figs, and of
marjoram, and honied water. Emetics, the hot hip-bath, and raw barley-flour
when applied to the hypochondria, will also be proper.

C . Nicander mentions suffocation as the common effect of

taking mushrooms. His remedies are radishes, rue, the flowers of copper,
natron, mustard, lixivial ashes, &c. Our author copies from Aëtius. Simeon
Seth recommends honey with tepid water, and a moderate quantity of
natron. Ruffus (ap. Oribas. Med. Collect, viii, 24) recommends clysters of
natron, wormwood, the juice of radish, and the decoction of rue.
Dioscorides recommends emetics of oil, natron, &c., and afterwards vinegar
and stimulant decoctions. Avicenna’s remedies are nearly the same as those
of our author. Alsaharavius directs us to give at first emetics, and then
calefacients, such as pepper, cumin, wine, and, if necessary, the theriac.
Haly Abbas, in like manner, recommends emetics, and then wine with
honey, the theriac, &c. The symptoms, he says, are cold sweats, faintings,
and embarrassment of breathing. All the ancient authors affirm that
mushrooms act upon the organs of respiration, and we remark that a sense
of suffocation is generally mentioned in the cases reported by modern
writers.
For a full report of fungi, or mushrooms, see Dioscor. (iv, 53); Pliny (H.
N. xxii, 46); Schulze (Tox. Vet. 14); Sprengel (Comment. in Dioscor.);
Schweighaeuser (in Athen. Deipnos. ii, 59); Schneider (ad Nicand. Alex.
521). Diphilus, as quoted by Athenæus, states that all mushrooms which are
black, livid, and hard, or which grow hard after being boiled, are of a
deleterious nature. He recommends us to give mulse, oxymel, natron, and
vinegar, so as to produce vomiting.
Dioscorides gives the following characters of poisonous fungi: Such as
grow near rusty nails, or putrid rags of cloth, or near the lodging-place of
reptiles, or by trees which have bad fruits, are deleterious; such have a
glutinous coagulum (membrane adhering to the cap?) and when gathered
soon become putrid and melt away. (M. M. iv, 83). According to Sprengel,
these characters are not universally applicable (l. c.); but considering the
experience which the ancients had in the use of these articles, they are no
doubt generally so. The amanita muscaria, the agaricus necator, and many
other species, may be set down as belonging to the ancient list of poisonous
mushrooms.—Schulze, who appears to have paid great attention to the
subject, enumerates the poisonous mushrooms of the ancients as follows:—
1, Agaricus muscarius; 2, Agaricus piperatus; 3, Agaricus emeticus; 4,
Boletus versicolor; 5, Boletus laricis. (Toxic. Vet. xiii, 5.)

SECT. LV.—ON BULLS’ BLOOD.

The blood of a newly-killed bull brings on dyspnœa and suffocation,

obstructing the passages about the tonsils and the parts concerned in
deglutition with violent spasms; the tongue, in such cases, is also found red;
the teeth are stained, and there are clots between them. In this case we must
avoid giving a vomit, because the grumous blood will be more firmly
fastened in the stomach by being raised upwards with the contractions. We
must give those things which are calculated to dissolve the coagulated
blood and loosen the belly; green figs, therefore, are to be administered
when filled with juice, along with oxycrate and natron. All kinds of rennet
are also proper with vinegar, and the root of laserwort, with its juice in like
manner; also cabbage seed, the lye of figs, and the leaves of fleabane with
pepper, and the juice of bramble with vinegar. The bowels are also to be
evacuated. Those who are going to recover have fetid and bloody
discharges by the anus. Cataplasms, made of barley-flour with honey, are
also to be applied to the regions of the stomach and bowels.
 C . Bulls’ blood being exceedingly viscid and indigestible
might prove deleterious by becoming quickly coagulated in the stomach:
we do not find any mention of it, however, in modern works on toxicology.
Themistocles is said to have despatched himself with it. Nicander makes no
mention of emetics, and Dioscorides, like our author, condemns the use of
them. Nicander recommends almost the same identical remedies as our
author. It will be remarked that they are all of a penetrating, attenuant, and
solvent nature, such as wild figs, natron, laserwort, the rennets of certain
animals, &c. Galen mentions the pernicious effects of coagulated blood in
the stomach, and recommends hot vinegar for it. (De Al. boni et mali succi.)
Ruffus (ap. Oribas. Med. Collect. viii, 24) recommends clysters composed
of natron, vinegar, the decoction of cabbage, and of its seed, with vinegar.
The Arabians treat the case in a similar manner. Alsaharavius directs us
to give vinegar, natron, wine, and the like, also diuretics, but he forbids the
use of emetics.
Sprengel inclines to believe that bulls’ blood may prove deleterious, if
allowed to remain long in the stomach, by evolving azotic gas. He therefore
approves of the hot vinegar recommended by Galen. (Comment. in Dios.
25.) Ardoyn states that a large quantity of bulls’ blood taken into the
stomach may produce suffocation by stopping the action of the diaphragm.
(De Venen. iv, 23.)

SECT. LVI.—ON COAGULATED MILK.

Those who take a large draught of milk containing rennet, experience a

great feeling of suffocation from its becoming coagulated. In treating them,
we may give as an antidote rennet with vinegar, compelling them often to
drink of it; also the dried leaves of calamint, and its juice in like manner, or
the roots of laserwort, or its juice with oxycrate, thyme with wine, and the
lye used by bonnet-makers; but nothing saltish must be given, for thereby
the milk becomes more firmly coagulated and is converted into cheese.
Neither must we make them vomit, for thereby the coagula being lodged in
the stomach will produce suffocation.