Supported Methods

By Dr. S.K.Sahoo
Classification to select the Stoping Methods

**In this
section,
we will
discuss
the three
methods
Conditions for Cut-and-Fill Mining
• Conditions-
• Variable Shape
• Steep
• Thin
• Any Size
• Cut and Fill stoping & Stull Stoping are applied to the moderately
competent rocks.
• Square set stoping are used for the least competent rock.
Cut and Fill Stoping
• There are many variations of cut-and-fill
• Overhand Drift and Fill Stoping
• Drift and Fill Stoping
• Underhand Cut and Fill Stoping
Features of Cut-and-Fill Stoping Method
• Cut-and Fill Stoping is used in the overhand fashion.
• Orebody is extracted in the horizontal slices completely and replaced
with the backfilling material.
• Fill material is used in this method, depending on the support
required-
• Waste fill
• Pneumatic fill
• Hydraulic fill with dilute slurry
• High-density hydraulic fill
• Hydraulic fill is supplemented with the Portland cement to harden the
consistency that approaches the hard rock.
• Mining companies mostly use the high density fill when possible.
• Cut-and-fill stopes are bounded by the pillars for major ground
support. These stopes are filled completely, so the pillars could be
partially or completely extracted. But, timing of fill placement is
critical to result the success in this type of method.
• The filling material must accommodate the larger amount of the
superincumbent load that was on the ore at the time of in-situ
condition in the stope.
Stope Preparation
• Stope dimensions are influenced by the following factors
• Mechanisation- Larger stope needs higly mechanised machinery deployed in
the mines.
• Ease of access-
• Manueverability of equipment
• Production rate equipments
• Stope Width varies from 2-30m
• Stope heights- 45-90 m.
• Stope lengths- 60-600 m.
Variations of Cut-and-fill method
• Overhand Cut-and-Fill Stoping
• Drift-and-Fill Stoping
• Underhand Cut and Fill Mining
1. Overhand Cut and Fill Stoping
• The miners work under the roof which would have sufficient head
room to move their equipment easily through the stope.
• This variant of cut-and-fill stoping is used for strong rock.
• The back of the stope is drilled for the production.
Steps-
• Ore is extracted in horizontal slices of thickness 3 m from the stope
starting from the bottom and advancing upwards.
• Broken ore is loaded and completely removed from the stope.
• When one slice is completely extracted, the void space is filled with
the waste material which should have a maintained distance of 2-3m
from the back.
• Filling Materials
• may be the waste materials excavated during the development, crushed and
distributed mechanically over the stope area.
• May be the mill tailings from the Ore dressing plant, sand, crushed rock.
• The filling material is mixed with water and transported to the mines
by means of the pipelines.
• When the water seeps out from the solid consolidated fill after the
settlement, a smooth filled surface is formed.
Fig. 1 Diagram Showing Cut-and-fill Stoping
(Overhand)
• Ramps in the Fig.2 allows the moving of the diesel equipment from
one level to another level through the stope area.
• Maximum grade of ramps is 15 – 20% in the stope area. This is the
ramp slope value which is the ratio of the exceeded height(h) and
length c.
• Haulage Drift
• Borehole Ore passes
 Fig 2. Overhand Cut and Fill Method
• Location of ramps to allow the
mining of the alternate blocks
of ore.
• Block I and II have been mined
and filled with the sand
material.
• Block III is in the progress of
mining operation .
• Block IV in the top will be
mined.
• Then Block V at the lower level
will be mined out. Then
alternate block VI.
• Likewise Block VII and VIII will
be extracted.
• Sill pillar of height 3.6 m is left
above the haulage drift of 3 m.
 Fig. 3 Stoping operations with the Drill Jumbo and
LHD
- Stoping operations with
drill jumbo is used for
drilling holes in the back
i.e. Backstoping drill holes.
- Loading and hauling of
the blasted material is
handled by the LHD which
loads the ore into the
cribbed ore chute.
- The ore chute has grizzly
at the top, where the
particular size of the ore
lumps are allowed to pass
through it.
Preparation (Fig. 4)
• Haulage drift is driven at the bottom of the stope along the orebody at the
lower level.
• (Haulage drift plus the drawpoints and crosscuts are driven to access the
ore. The ore moves from the stope to draw points through the orepass.)
• Undercut of the stope is driven usually at 5 to 10 m above the haulage
drift.
• 5-10 m solid ore is used for driving the short raises for manways and ore
passes from the haulage drift to undercut.
• A raise was driven from the undercut to the adjoining upper level for the
transport of the filling material and for ventilation.
• There should be provision of sufficient water and waste material for filling
operation.
• The pumps should be provided for removing the water overflowing from
the filled stope.
Fig. 4 Cut and Fill – Longitudinal Section
• After every 2.4m-2.5m of the horizontal slice is blasted from the back
of the stope, a series of the planks of the woods or timbers are placed
above each chutes to within 2.5m of the back.
• The waste material is filled between the adjacent timbered chutes
and between the end chutes and the barricades.
• As the stope proceeds upwards, the timbering of chutes and filling
between the timbered chutes proceed on a cyclic basis.
• When the crown pillar is reached, the stope is completed and
abandoned.
Procedure of Ore removal
• Two types of drilling methods- Overhand drilling or Horizontal Drilling
of holes.
• In the Horizontal drilling, a certain head room is required between the
back and the fill surface, usually 2.5-3m.
• This distance is increased to 6-7m which means that the hanging wall
and competent ore is required.
• Advantage- A large section is used for drilling large no. of holes
without any interruptions. A large number of rounds could be blasted.
2.Drift-and-Fill Mining
• It is used for the ground conditions that are worse than those for the
traditional overhand cut-and-fill.
• The stopes are mined in a strategic manner which involves keeping
the openings relatively small to reduce the danger of rock failure.
• Each horizontal slice is removed by drifting forward, using
mechanized equipment.
• After each drift is completed, the drift is backfilled with the hydraulic
filling to within a few metres of the back.
• This provides excellent support of the hanging wall and footwall rock.
 Fig 5. Plan Showing Drift and Fill Mining
• The vein is four drifts wide,
but that fill is placed after
each individual drift is
completed.
• This provides maximum
support and minimizes the
probability of rock failure.

(a) (b)
3.Underhand Cut and Fill Mining
• This is mostly applicable to the poorer quality of rocks. It is
characterised by the procedure of taking horizontal slices from top to
the bottom of the stope.
• To stabilize the surrounding rock after each slice or group of slices,
the stope is filled, usually with cemented hydraulic fill.
• Cemented material is harder and it does not collapse as the miners
commence the work lower to the current level.
• The fill becomes the roof for the lower level.
Fig. 6 Underhand Cut and Fill Mining
Post Pillar Cut-and-Fill Mining
• It is mostly applicable in the horizontal ore-bodies where the deposit is
extracted in the form of the slices from the bottom to top sequence
(overhand).
• This is similar to the room and pillar method in which the backfill is
placed on the floor. The successive layers can be mined upwards.
• The upper portion of the pillars can be preserved and can be extended
upwards to continue supporting the back.
• The pillars are more taller and slender which are surrounded by the fill.
They could be recovered partially or completely depending on the rock
conditions.
Fig. 7. Postpillar Mining
Resuing
• Applicability Conditions- Thin narrow veins, Steep and High Grade ore
body.
• There should be well-defined planes of weakness along the ore body
and the country rocks.
• The flat-back overhead stope of minimum width is first started by the
side of the portion of the vein.
• Broken rock of the barren wall is used for filling. Valuable vein is
exposed and then blasted down to fall through the chutes.
Resuing
Advantages of Cut-and-Fill Mechanisation
• Ore is removed immediately after blasting.
• Large area of ore is not exposed and the ore does not gets deteriorated.
• Ventilation is comfortable because of small area of stope in the air current.
• Dilution of ore is very less as there is no spalling(breakage) of the
associated wall rocks.
• Safety of the mines is increased as there are no old stopes to be collapsed
or transfer the roof stresses to existing stope.
• These method provides permanent support to the structure present above
the ground.
• Moderate Productivity.
• Adaptable to mechanization.
Disadvantages of Cut-and-Fill Mining
• As cut and fill method is cyclic in nature, the production of ore halts a
large number of times unless a few stopes are operated simultaneously.
• When the production operation is stopped in one stope, other stopes
are able to supply ore.
• Preparation and transport of the filling materials are costly.
• Labour-intensive, requires skilled miners.
• Handling of fill is nearly 50% of the mining cost
 Ground Control Measures
1.Stope Backfilling and Compaction: Backfill material needs to be properly compacted to provide effective
support and stability. Improper compaction can lead to voids, settling, and uneven ground, potentially
causing ground instability.
2.Backfill Material Selection: Selecting the right type of backfill material is critical. It should have adequate
strength and be compatible with the surrounding rock to ensure effective support and minimal differential
movement. Poor-quality backfill material or improper placement techniques can lead to weak zones, voids,
or irregularities in the backfilled area, impacting stability.
3.Hanging Wall and Footwall Instability: Steeply dipping ore bodies can create challenges in maintaining
the stability of the hanging wall and footwall. Effective ground support measures such as rock bolting,
meshing, and shotcreting may be required.
4.Ground Support Installation: Proper installation of ground support measures is essential. Inadequate or
incorrectly installed ground support can compromise safety and stability.
• To mitigate these ground control problems, proper engineering design, thorough geological and
geotechnical assessments, and ongoing monitoring are essential.
• Ground support systems, backfill procedures, and pillar designs should be carefully planned to ensure the
safety of workers, prevent ground collapses, and maintain the stability of the underground mine workings.
Stull Stoping
Stull Stoping
• Conditions-
• Tabular
• Steep (Inclined)
• Thin
• Small Size
• Weak Wall rock
• Stull stoping is identified as the overhand stoping when systematic or
random timbering, coupling with pillars and fill, are used to support the
hanging wall.
• The stulls are the horizontal or inclined timbered props used in the mining
stopes which are mostly set in between the hanging wall and footwall of
the ore body.
• The purpose of the stull is to prevent the collapse of the hanging wall
between levels. They are often wooden or steel supports placed at regular
intervals along the stope walls to maintain stability during ore extraction.
• Stull stoping of a deposit varies from the upper limit for the grade of the
haulage vehicle to the lower limit of the gravity flow.
• Stopes that become large are stabilized by backfilling portions of the open
area with fill material.
• The ore raise are driven from the lower level to upper level. The stull
timbers were installed near the bottom level and it is mostly filled till
the upper level.
• The wall rocks are supported by the timbering accompanied by the
backfilling.
• The timbers support the wooden platforms which provide a working
platform for the miners.
• Waste pillars or pillars of cemented fill can be used to support the
hanging wall.
• The stope may be filled periodically to provide more substantial
support and to enhance the recovery of ore.
Flowchart for Sequence of Development
• Bells and drawpoints are not necessary in this case.

Level development is carried out &

Access to the stopes are provided.

Raises are driven between the levels

Ore-passes are formed as the stope

advances.
Advantages
• It is adaptable to small and irregular bodies.
• Requires little mechanization
• Low capital cost
• Low development cost.
• Good recovery if pillars are mined.
• Low dilution.
Disadvantages
• Low productivity.
• Labor intensive and slow
• Heavy timber requirements and cost.
• Low production rate.
• Limited applications are available.
Square Set Stoping
Square-set Stoping
• Applicability conditions-
• Any Shape
• Any Dip
• Thin
• Any size
• Both the Ore strength and rock strength is weak.
• Deposit size is relatively thin.
• It is capable of application to the weakest ore and rock under heaviest
ground condition.
Definitions:-
• Square Sets: Square sets are constructed using square wooden timbers that are
closely spaced and arranged in a grid pattern within the stope. Each timber set
consists of a vertical post and two horizontal members known as a cap and girt.
The timber ends are sawed to allow adjoining timbers to interlock. They are
framed at mutual right angles, and when joined with other sets form a
continuous timber framework that conforms to the irregular shape of the stope.
The posts are 1.83 to 2.13 m high, while the caps and girts are 1.22 to 1.83 m
long. Caps and girts are placed on top of the posts, a line of caps being at right
angles to a line of girts. This system of timber support can be adapted to large
and irregular orebodies resulting in an elaborate network extending the full
height and width of a stope.
• Grid Pattern: The timber sets are installed in a regular grid pattern along the
stope's walls and roof. This grid layout helps distribute the load evenly and
provides a stable structure to prevent hanging wall and roof collapses.
• The square-set stoping are systematically extracted and replaced by a
prismatic framework of square sets, framed into an integrated support
structure and backfilled level by level to provide substantial support to
surrounding rocks. The square-set provides support to the wall and the
back or floor.
• It is conducted in the overhand, underhand or horizontal direction.
• The square set timbers are cut into size on the surface and assembled in
the stope.
• Filling operation is started nearly two levels below the back of the
stope.
• Upper Level- Drilling and blasting
• Second Level- Transport of ore to orepasses.
• Third level- Filling operations.
Sequence of Development
• Haulage level and crosscuts are driven from the lower level
• Two raises are driven between the two levels for the access and
ventilation.
• If the stope is mined overhand, development commences from the
sill pillar at the bottom and progresses upward with the mining.
• Undercuts, bells and drawpoints are omitted; and the orepasses are
finally connected with the chutes to load mine cars directly because
of the thin and steep ore body.
• Generally, each level is mined out entirely before the next level is
started in order to keep the fill close to the back.
Square Set Stoping in an Details of Square-set
irregular or massive deposit timbering
Square – set
Stopping in the
overall mines
layout from the
bottom to the
top(back)
Advantages
• Suitable for the worst ground conditions when caving and subsidence
are not permitted.
• Selective for irregular deposit and variable ore occurrences; waste can
be sorted and left as fill.
• Little mechanization
• Complete recovery.
Disadvantage
• High mining cost.
• Very high timber costs.
• The drifts could not be driven into the weak rocks due to the
deterioration of the rocks. The enhanced ground control methods are
to be applied in such rock conditions.
• Most labor-intensive underground mining methods.