ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

SYLLABUS
Focus and Purpose: Definition, need and importance of organizational behaviour–Nature and scope –
Frame work – Organizational behaviour models.

UNIT-II
Individual Behaviour: Personality – types – Factors influencing personality – Theories – Learning –
Types of learners – The learning process – Learning theories – Organizational behaviour modification -
Misbehaviour – Types – Management Intervention. Emotions - Emotional Labour – Emotional
Intelligence – Theories. Attitudes – Characteristics – Components – Formation – Measurement- Values.
Perceptions – Importance – Factors influencing perception – Interpersonal perception- Impression
Management Motivation – importance – Types – Effects on workbehavior.
UNIT-III
Group Behaviour: Organization structure – Formation – Groups in organizations – Influence – Group
dynamics – Emergence of informal leaders and working norms – Group decision making techniques –
Team building - Interpersonal relations – Communication – Control.
UNIT-IV
Leadership and Power: Meaning – Importance – Leadership styles – Theories – Leaders Vs Managers
– Sources of power – Power centers – Power and Politics.
UNIT-V
Dynamics of Organizational Behaviour: Organizational culture and climate – Factors affecting
organizational climate – Importance. Job satisfaction – Determinants – Measurements – Influence on
behavior. Organizational change – Importance – Stability Vs Change – Proactive Vs Reaction change –
the change process – Resistance to change – Managing change. Stress – Work Stressors – Prevention
and Management of stress – Balancing work and Life. Organizational development – Characteristics –
objectives –. Organizational effectiveness.
 CHAPTER -1 Introduction on to Organizational Behaviour

CONTENTS:
1.1 Learning Objectives
1.2 Learning Outcomes
1.3 Introduction
1.4 Definition of Organizational Behaviour
1.5Meaning and Concepts of Organizational Behaviour
1.6Historicalbackgroundfororganizationalbehaviour
1.7 Need and Importance of Organizational Behaviour
1.8 Nature of OB
1.9 OB –as an interdisciplinary approach
1.10 Importanceandscopeoforganizationalbehaviour
1.11 Models of Organization Behaviour
1.12 Contributing fields to organizational Behaviour
1.13 Framework of OB
EXCERCISE
SUMMARY
POINTS TO PONDER
KEYWORDS
SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1.SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS
2.LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS
1.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
 The main objective of organizational behaviour is helps to understand the human
interactions in the Organization.
 To gain knowledge about various organizational models.
 It also focuses on understanding the behaviour of the employees working inside the
organization.
 To understand the in depth of motivation and its various theories, job satisfaction,
morale etc.
 To gain knowledge in determinants of work environments and its work place,
leadership theories and its style
 To know about the group dynamics and group co-operation, group cohesiveness
 To gain knowledge in organizational climate and its culture.

1.2. LEARNING OUTCOMES:

 To gain knowledge about the process of organization.
 To understand the in-depth of theories of organization and organizational behavior
 To know about the personality and perceptual process.
 To gain knowledge in determinants of human behaviour.

1.3. INTRODUCTION: Organizational behaviour is the study of people at work place. It helps to
understand the workforce behaviour and their performance, perception, attitude etc. It is the field of
study that examine how employees, employers and their structure have on behaviour within the
organization. Specifically, OB emphases on how to improve productivity, reduce absenteeism and
employee turnover, and increase job satisfaction and morale.
1.4. DEFINITIONS:

Definition of organization:
Louis Allen, “Organization is the process of identifying and grouping work to be performed,defining
and delegating responsibility and authority, establishing relationships of enabling people to work
most effectively together in accomplishing objectives”.
Jones Mooney, “Organization is the form of every human association for attainment of a common
purpose”.

Definition of Behaviour:
Organization is a system of two or more people engaged in co-operative action, trying to reach
some purpose. Behaviour is acting in a particular way.
Ex: Business, Hospitals, college & Retail stores.

Definition of Organization Behaviour:

Organizational Behaviour is the study and application of knowledge about how people as
individual and as group act with in the organization-Davis & Newstom

Organization Behaviour is a field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups
and structure have on behaviour within organizations for the purpose of applying such
knowledge towards improving an organization’s effectiveness-Stephen P Robbins.

1.5. MEANING AND CONCEPTS OF ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR:

Organizational behaviour is the study and application of knowledge about how people act
withintheorganizations.Itisahumantoolforhumanbenefit.Itappliesbroadlytothebehaviourof people in
all types of organizations, such as business, government, school and service
organizations.Whereverorganizationsare,thereisaneedtounderstandorganizationalbehaviour.

The organizational behaviour has a goal lo help the managers make a transition to the new
paradigm. Some of the new paradigm characteristics include coverage of second-generation
information technology and total quality management such as empowerment, reengineering and
benchmarking, and learning organization for managing diversity of work. The new paradigm sets
thestageforthestudy,understanding,andapplicationofthetime-testedmicro-variables,dynamics and
macro-variables. One must know why management needs a new perspective to meet the
environmental challenges and to shift to a newparadigm.
Management is generally considered to have three major dimensions—technical, conceptual
and human. The technical dimension consists of the manager's expertise in particular functional
areas. They know the requirements of the jobs and have the functional knowledge to get the job
done.Butthepracticingmanagersignoretheconceptualandhumandimensionsoftheirjobs.Most
managers think that their employees are lazy, and are interested only in money, and that if you
could make them happy in terms of money, they would be productive. If such assumptions are
accepted, the human problems that the management is facing are relatively easy to solve. But
humanbehaviouratworkismuchmorecomplicatedanddiverse.Thenewperspectiveassumesthat
employees are extremely complex and that there is a need for theoretical understanding given by
empiricalresearchbeforeapplicationscanbemadeformanagingpeopleeffectively.

Organisational behaviour is concerned with people's thoughts, feelings, emotions and actions
in setting up a work. Understanding an individual behaviour is in itself a challenge, but
understandinggroupbehaviourinanorganisationalenvironmentisamonumentalmanagerialtask.
Theorganisation'sworkgetsdonethroughpeople,individuallyorcollectively,ontheir,ownorin
collaborationwithtechnology.Therefore,themanagementoforganisationalbehaviouriscentralto the
management task—a task that involves the capacity to "understand" the behaviour patterns of
individuals, groups and organisations, to ''predict'" what behavioural responses will be elicited by
various managerial actions and finally to use this understanding and these predictions to achieve
"control".
Organizational behaviour can then be defined as: "The study of human behaviour in
organizationalsettings,theinterfacebetweenhumanbehaviourandtheorganizationalcontext,and the
organizationitself."

The above definition has three parts—the individual behaviour, the organization and the
(interfacebetweenthetwo.Eachindividualbringstoanorganizationauniquesetofbeliefs,values,
attitudesandotherpersonalcharacteristicsandthesecharacteristicsofallindividualsmustinteract with
each other in order to create organizational settings. The organizational behaviour is
specificallyconcernedwithwork-relatedbehaviour,whichtakesplaceinorganizations.Inaddition to
understanding; the on-going behavioral processes involved, in 'their own jobs, managers must
understand the basic human element of their work. Organizational behaviour offers three major
ways of understanding this context; people as organizations, people as resources and people as
people.

Above all, organizations are people; and without people there would be no organisations.
Thus, if managers are to understand the organizations in which they work, they must first
understand the people who make up the organisations.

As resources, people are one of the organization’s most valuable assets. People create the
organization, guide and direct its course, and vitalize and revitalize it. People make the decisions,
solve the problems, and answer the questions. As managers increasingly recognize the value of
potential contributions by their employees, it will become more and more important for managers
and employees to grasp the complexities of organisational behaviour.

Finally, there are people as people - an argument derived from the simple notion of
humanisticmanagement.Peoplespendalargepartoftheirlivesin;organisationalsettings,mostly as
employees. They have a right to expect something in return beyond wages and benefits. They have
a right to expect satisfaction and to learn new skills. An understanding of organisational
behaviourcanhelpthemanagerbetterappreciatethevarietyofindividualneedsand'expectations.

Organizationalbehaviourisconcernedwiththecharacteristicsandbehavioursofemployeesin
isolation; the characteristics and processes that are part of the organization itself; 'and the
characteristics and behaviours directly resulting from people with their individual needs and
motivationsworkingwithinthestructureoftheorganization.Onecannotunderstandanindividual’s
behaviourcompletelywithoutlearningsomethingaboutthatindividual'sorganization.Similarly,he
cannot understand how the organization operates without; studying the people who-make it up.
Thus, the organization influences and is influenced by individuals. Organizational behaviour
integrates the relevant contents of these disciplines to make them applicable for organizational
analysis.e.g.itaddressesissues,whichmayberelevanttothecase,suchasthefollowing:

 What facilitates accurate perception andattribution?

 What influences individual, group and organizational learning and the development of
individual attitudes towardwork?
 How do individual differences in personality, personal development, and career
development affect individual's behaviours andattitudes?
 Whatmotivatespeopletowork,andhow.Doestheorganizationalrewardsysteminfluence
worker's behaviour andattitudes?
 How do managers build effectiveteams?
  What contributes to effectivedecision-making?
 What are the constituents of effectivecommunication?
 What are the characteristics of effectivecommunication?
 How can power be secured and usedproductively?
 What factors contribute to effectivenegotiations?
 How can conflict (between groups or between a manager and subordinates) be
resolved or managed?
 How can jobs and organizations be effectivelydesigned?
 How can managers help workers deal effectively withchange?

NOTE: Organizations is groups of people who work interdependently toward some purpose.

1.6 Historical background for organizational behaviour:

Scientific Management Approach:
ScientificmanagementapproachwasdevelopedbyF.W.Tayloratthebeginningofthe20thcentury
. This theory supported the use of certain steps in scientifically studying each element job, selecting
and training the best workers for the job arid making sure that the workers follow the prescribed
method of doing the job. It provide dascientificrationale for job specialization and mass production. His
assumption was that employees are motivated largely by money. To increase the
output,Tayloradvisedmanagerstopaymonetaryincentivestoefficientworkers.

Yet, his theory was criticized by many employers and workers. Workers objected to the
pressureofworkasbeingharderandfaster.Criticsworriedthatthemethodstookthehumanityout
oflabor,reducingworkerstomachinesrespondingtomanagementincentives.Therefore,Taylor's
viewisnowconsideredinadequateandnarrowduetothepointsgivenbythecritics.
Bureaucratic Approach:
While scientific management was focusing on the interaction between workers and the
task, me researchers were studying how to structure the organization more effectively. Instead
of trying to make each worker more efficient, classical organization theory sought the most
effective overall organizational structure for workers and managers.
The theory's most prominent advocate, Max Weber, proposed a 'bureaucratic form' of
structure, which he thought would work for all organizations. Weber's idea! Bureaucracy was,
logical,rationalandefficient.Hemadethenaiveassumptionthatonestructurewouldworkbestfor
allorganizations.
Henry Ford, Henry Fayol and Frederick W. Taylor, the early management pioneers,
recognized the behavioral side of management. However, they did not emphasize the human
dimensions. Although there were varied and complex reasons for the emerging importance of
behavioralapproachtomanagement,itisgenerallyrecognizedthattheHawthornestudiesmarkthe
historical roots for the field of organizationalbehaviour.
Hawthorne Studies:
Even,asTaylorandWeberbroughtattentionwiththeirrational,logicalapproachestomore efficient
productivity, their views were criticized on the ground that both approaches ignored worker's
humanity.
The real beginning of applied research in the area of organizational behaviour started with
Hawthorne Experiments. In 1924, a group of professors began an enquiry in to the humana spects
of work and working conditions at the Hawthorne plant of Western Electric Company, Chicago.
The finding softhese studies were given a new name 'human relations'
thestudiesbroughtoutanumber of findings relevant to understanding human behaviour at work. The
Human element in the
workplacewasconsiderablymoreimportant.Theworkersareinfluencedbysocialfactorsandthe
behaviour of the individual worker is determined by thegroup.
Hawthorne studies have been criticized for their research methods and conclusions
drawn. But their impact on the emerging field of organizational behaviour was dramatic. They
helped usher in a more humanity centered approach to work.

1.7. NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR:

There is a need for the study of organizational behaviour because of the following reasons:
1.Understanding people
2.Better knowledge of Humans
3.Problem solving
4.Prediction
5.Motivation

1.Understanding people: OB helps to understand people in a better way. It helps in improving

interpersonal relations.
2.Better knowledge of Humans: The knowledge of OB helps to know individual employees better and
motivate employees to work for better results. It helps in applying appropriate motivational techniques in
accordance to the nature of individual employees.
3.Problem solving: OB helps to understand the cause of the problem, predicts its future course of action
and controls its evil consequences.
4.Prediction: The most important reason for studying OB is to learn how to predict human behaviour
and then apply it in some useful way to make the organization more efficient.
5.Motivation: It enables managers to inspire and motivate employees towards higher productivity and
better results.

1.8. Nature of OB:

OrganizationBehaviourhasemergedasaseparatefieldofstudy.Thenatureithasacquiredbynow is
identified asfollows:
1. Aseparatefieldofstudyandnotadisciplineonly:OBhasamultidisciplinaryorientation and is thus,
not based on a specific theoreticalbackground.
2. An inter disciplinary approach: OB is essentially an interdisciplinary approach to study
humanbehaviouratwork.Ittriestointegratetherelevantknowledgedrawnfromrelated disciplines
like psychology, sociology, anthropology etc.,to make them applicable for studying and analyzing
OB.
3. An Applied Science: OB basically does the application of various researches to solve the
organizational problems related to humanbehaviour.
4. A Normative Science: while the positive science discusses only cause and effect
relationship,OBprescribeshowthefindingsofappliedresearchescanbeappliedtosocially accept
organizationalgoals.
5. A Humanistic and Optimistic Approach: it applies humanistic approach towards people
workingintheorganization.Ittreatspeopleasthinking,feelinghumanbeing.
6. Total system approach; The system approach is one that integrates all the variables affecting
organizational functioning. Man’s socio –psychological framework is complex
oneandthesystemapproachofOBtriestostudythiscomplexityandtofindsolutiontoit.

NOTE: OB spans topics related from the individual to the organization.

1.9. OB –as an interdisciplinary approach:
Organizational behaviour is an applied behavioral science that is built on contributions from a
number of behavioral disciplines such as psychology, sociology, social psychology,
anthropology and economics.
Let’s see how these disciplines are related to organizational behaviour,
A. Psychology. Psychology is the study of human behavior which tries to identify the characteristics of
individuals and provides an understanding why an individual behaves in a
particularway.Thisthusprovidesuswithusefulinsightintoareassuchashumanmotivation, perceptual
processes or personalitycharacteristics.
B. Sociology. Sociology is the study of social behavior, relationships among social groups and
societies, and the maintenance of social order. The main focus of attention is on the social system.
This helps us to appreciate the functioning of individuals within the organization which is
essentially a socio-technicalentity.
C. Socialpsychology.Socialpsychologyisthestudyofhumanbehaviourinthecontextofsocial situations.
This essentially addresses the problem of understanding the typical behavioral
patternstobeexpectedfromanindividualwhenhetakespartinagroup.
D. Anthropology.Anthropologyisthescienceofmankindandthestudyofhumanbehaviourasa
whole.Themainfocusofattentionisontheculturalsystem,beliefs,customs,ideasandvalues within a group
or society and the comparison of behaviour among different cultures. In the
contextoftoday'sorganizationalscenario.Itisveryimportanttoappreciatethedifferencesthat exist among
people coming from different cultural backgrounds as people are often found to work with others
from the other side of theglobe.
E. Economics.Anyorganizationtosurviveandsustainmustbeawareoftheeconomicviability
oftheireffort.Thisapplieseventothenon-profitandvoluntaryorganizationsaswell.
F. PoliticalScience.Althoughfrequentlyoverlooked,thecontributionsofpoliticalscientistsare significant
to the understand arrangement in organizations. It studies individuals and groups
withinspecificconditionsconcerningthepowerdynamics.Importanttopicsunderhereinclude structuring
of conflict, allocation of power and how people manipulate power for individual self-interestetc.

NOTE: Organizational Behavior (OB) the study of what people think, feel and do in and around
organization.
1.10. Importanceandscopeoforganizationalbehaviour:

Organisational behaviour offers several ideas to management as to how human factor

should be properly emphasized to achieve organisational objectives. Barnard has observed that an
organisation is a conscious interaction of two or more people. Organisational behaviour provides
opportunity to management to analyses human behaviour and prescribe means for shaping it to a
particular direction.
Organisational behaviour helps to analyse 'why' and 'how' an individual behaves in a
particularway.UnderstandingHumanBehaviourOrganisationalbehaviourprovidesunderstanding the
human behaviour in all directions in which the human beings interact. Thus, organisational
behaviourcanbeunderstoodattheindividuallevel,interpersonallevel,grouplevelandinter-group level.
Interpersonal Level:Human behaviour can be understood at the level of interpersonal
interaction. Organisational behaviour provides • means for understanding the interpersonal
relationships in an organisation. Analysis of reciprocal relationships, role analysis and
transactionalanalysisaresomeofthecommonmethods,whichprovidesuchunderstanding.
Group Level:Though people interpret anything at their individual level, they are often
modified by group pressures, which then become a force in shaping human behaviour, Thus,
individuals should be studied in groups also. Research in group dynamics has contributed vitally to
organisational behaviour and shows how a group behaves in its norms, cohesion,
goals,procedures,communicationpatternandleadership.Theseresearchresultsareadvancing
managerial knowledge of understanding group behaviour, which is very important for
organisational morale and productivity.
Inter-group Level: The organisation is made up of many groups that develop complex
relationships to build their process and substance. Understanding the effect of group
relationshipsisimportantformanagersintoday'sorganisation.Inter-grouprelationshipmaybe in the
form of co-operation orcompetition.

Scope and importance of OB can be visible in following points:

 Controlling and Directing Behaviour: After understanding the mechanism of human

behaviour,managersarerequiredtocontrolanddirectthebehavioursothatitconformstothe
standardsrequiredforachievingtheorganisationalobjectives.Thus,managersarerequiredto
controlanddirectthebehaviouratalllevelsofindividualinteraction.Therefore,organisational behaviour
helps managers in controlling and directing in different areas such as use of power and sanction,
leadership, communication and building organisational climate favorable for betterinteraction.
 Use of Power and Sanction: The behaviours can be controlled and directed by the use of
powerandsanction,whichareformallydefinedbytheorganisation.Powerisreferredtoasthe capacity of an
individual to take certain action and may be utilized in many ways. Organisational behaviour
explains how various means of power and sanction can, be utilized
sothatbothorganisationalandindividualobjectivesareachievedsimultaneously.
 Leadership: Organisational behaviour brings new insights and understanding to the practice and
theory of leadership. It identifies various leadership styles available to a manager and
analyseswhichstyleismoreappropriateinagivensituation.Thus,managerscanadoptstyles
keepinginviewthevariousdimensionsoforganisations,individualsandsituations.

 Communication:Communicationhelpspeopletocomeincontactwitheachother.Toachieve
organisational objectives, the communication must be effective. The communication process
anditsworkininter-personaldynamicshavebeenevaluatedbyorganisationalbehaviour.
 Organisational Climate: Organisational climate refers to the total organisational situations affecting
human behaviour. Organisational climate takes a system perspective that affect human behaviour.
Besides improving the satisfactory working conditions and adequate compensation, organisational
climate includes creation of an atmosphere of effective supervision; the opportunity for the
realization of personal goals, congenial relations with others at the work place and a sense
ofaccomplishment.
 OrganisationalAdaptation:Organisations,asdynamicentitiesarecharacterizedbypervasive changes.
Organisations have to adapt themselves to the environmental changes by making suitable, internal
arrangements such as convincing employees who normally have the tendency of resisting
anychanges.
1.11. MODELS OF ORGANISATION BEHAVIOUR
Organizations differ in the quality of organizational behaviour that they develop. These
differencesaresubstantiallycausedbydifferentmodelsoforganizationalbehaviourthatdominant
management's thought in each organization. The model that a manager holds usually begins
with certain assumptions about people and thereby leads to certain interpretations of
organizational events.
The following four models of organizational behaviour are as follows:
A. Autocraticmodel
B. Custodialmodel
C. Supportivemodel
 D. Collegial model
Autocratic Model
In an autocratic model', the manager has the power to command his subordinates to do a specific
job. Management believes that it knows what is best for an organization and therefore,
employees are required to follow their orders. The psychological result of this model on
employees is their increasing dependence on their boss. Its main weakness is its high human
cost.

Custodial Model
This model focuses better employee satisfaction and security. Under this model organizations
satisfy the security and welfare needs of employees. Hence, it is known as custodian model.
This model leads to employee dependence on an organization rather than on boss. As a result of
economic rewards and benefits, employees are happy and contented but they are not strongly
motivated.

Supportive Model
The supportive model depends on 'leadership' instead of power or money. Through leadership,
management provides a climate to help employees grow and accomplish in the interest of an
organization. This model assumes that employees will take responsibility, develop a drive to
contribute and improve them if management will give them a chance. Therefore, management's
direction is to 'Support' the employee's job performance rather than to 'support' employee benefit
payments, as in the custodial approach. Since management supports employees in their work,
the psychological result is a feeling of participation and task involvement in an, organization.

Collegial Model:
The term 'collegial' relates to a body of persons having a common purpose. It is a team concept.
Management is the coach that builds a better team. The management is seen as joint contributor
rather than as a boss. The employee response to this situation is responsibility. The
psychological result of the collegial approach for the employee is 'self-discipline'. In this kind of
environment employees normally feel some degree of fulfillment and worthwhile contribution
towards their work. This results in enthusiasm in employees' performance.

Four models of organizational behaviour

Autocratic Custodial Supportive Collegial

Basis of Model Power Economic Leadership Partnership

resources

Managerial- Authority Money Support Teamwork

orientation
 Employee Dependence Dependence Participation Self-discipline
psychological on boss on
result organization

Employee Subsistence Security Status and Self-actualization

needs met recognition

Performance Minimum Passive Awakened Moderate enthusiasm

result cooperation drives

Itiswrongtoassumethataparticularmodelisthebestmodel.Theselectionofmodelbya
managerisdeterminedbyanumberoffactorssuchas,theexistingphilosophy,visionandgoalsof
manager.Inaddition,environmentalconditionshelpindeterminingwhichmodelwillbethemost
effectivemodel.

Limitations of organizational behaviour:

1. Organizational behaviour cannot abolish conflict and frustration but can only reduce
them. Itisawaytoimprovebutnotanabsoluteanswertoproblems.
2. Itisonlyoneofthemanysystemsoperatingwithinalargesocialsystem.
3. Peoplewholacksystemunderstandingmaydevelopa'behavioralbasis',whichgivesthema
narrowviewpoint,i.e.,atunnelvisionthatemphasizesonsatisfyingemployeeexperiences
whileoverlookingthebroadersystemofanorganizationinrelationtoallitspublic.
The law of diminishing returns also operates in the case of organizational behaviour. It
states, that at some point increase of a desirable practice produce declining returns and
sometimes,negativereturns.Theconceptimpliesthatforanysituationthereisanoptimum amount of a
desirable practice. When that point is exceeded, there is a decline in returns. For example, too much
security may lead to less employee initiative and growth. This relationship shows that
organizational effectiveness is achieved not by maximizing one
humanvariablebutbyworkingallsystemvariablestogetherinabalancedway.

1.12. Contributing fields to organisational Behaviour:

Psychology: Psychology is an applied science, which attempts to explain human behaviour in a

particular situation and predicts actions of individuals. Psychologists have been able to modify
individual behaviour largely with the help of various studies. It has contributed towards various
theories on learning, motivation, personality, training and development, theories on individual
decision making, leadership, job satisfaction, performance appraisal, attitude, ego state, job design,
work stress and conflict management. Studies of these theories can improve personal skills, bring
change in attitude and develop positive approach to organizational systems. Various psychological
tests are conducted in the organizations for selection of employees, measuring personality
attributes and aptitude. Various other dimensions of human personality are also measured. These
instruments are scientific in nature and have been finalized after a great deal of research. Field of
psychology continues to explore new areas applicable to the field of organizational behaviour.
Contribution of psychology has enriched the organizational behaviour field.
Toward an OB Discipline
Sociology:
Science of Sociology studies the impact of culture on group behaviour and has contributed
to a large extent to the field of group-dynamics, roles that individual plays in the organization,
communication, norms, status, power, conflict management, formal organization theory,
group processes and group decision-making.
Political science:
Political science has contributed to the field of Organizational behaviour. Stability of
government at national level is one major factor for promotion of international business,
financial investments, expansion and employment. Various government rules and
regulations play a very decisive role in growth of the organization. All organizations have
to abide by the rules of the government of the day.
Social psychology:
Working organizations are formal assembly of people who are assigned specific jobs
and play a vital role in formulating human behaviour. It is a subject where concept of
psychology and sociology are blend to achieve better human behaviour in organization.
The field has contributed to manage change, group decision-making, communication and
ability of people in the organization, to maintain social norms.
Anthropology:
It is a field of study relating to human activities in various cultural and environmental
frameworks. It understands difference in behaviour based on value system of different
cultures of various countries. The study is more relevant to organizational behaviour today
due to globalization, mergers and acquisitions ofvarious industries. The advent of the
21stcentury has created a situation where in cross-cultural people will have to work in one
particular industry.
Managers will have to deal with individuals and groups belonging to different ethnic
cultures and exercise adequate control or even channelize behaviour in the desired direction
by appropriately manipulating various cultural factors. Organization behaviour has used the
studies on comparative attitudes and cross-cultural transactions. Environment studies
conducted by the field of anthropology aims to understand organizational human behaviour
so that acquisitions and mergers are smooth. Organizations are bound by its culture that is
formed by human beings.

1.13. FRAME WORK OF OB:

An OB model is an abstraction of reality, a simplified representation of some real-
world phenomenon. Dependent variables are the key factors that you want to explain or predict
and that are affected by some other factors.
The primary dependent variables in OB are:
Productivity:
An organization is productivity if it achieves its goals and does so by transferring inputs to
outputs at the lowest cost. As such, productivity implies a concern for both effectiveness and
efficiency.
Absenteeism:
Absenteeism is the failure to report to work. It’s obviously difficult for an organization to
operate smoothly and to attain its objectives if employees fail to report to their jobs.The work
flow is distributed and often important decision must be delayed. In organization that rely
heavily upon assembly -line production, absenteeism can be considerably more than a
disruption, it can result in a drastic reduction in quality of output, and in some cases. It can
bring about a complete shutdown of the production facility. But levels of absenteeism beyond
the normal range in any organization have a direct impact on that organization’s effectiveness
and efficiency.
Turnover:
Turnover is the voluntary and involuntary permanent withdrawal from an organization.Ahigh
turnover rate results in increased recruiting, selection and training costs.A high rate of turnover
can also disrupt the efficient running of an organization when knowledgeable and experienced
personnel leave and replacements must be found and prepared to assume position of
responsibility.
Job Satisfaction:
The difference between the number of rewards workers receive and the amount they believe
they should receive.
1.Considearation of interaction
2.The tasks to be undertaken
3.The technology employed
4. The method of carrying out work
5.The behaviour of people
6.The process of management
7.External environment in which organization is working.

EXERCISE:
Putting Common Sense to the Test
Please answer the following 10 questions by noting whether you believe the sentence
is true or false.

1. Brainstorming in a group is more effective than brainstorming alone. _____

2. The first 5 minutes of a negotiation are just a warm-up to the actual negotiation and
don’t matter much. _____
3. The best way to help someone reach their goals is to tell them to do their best.
_____
4. If you pay someone to do a task they routinely enjoy, they’ll do it even more often
in the future. _____
5. Pay is a major determinant of how hard someone will work. _____
6. If a person fails the first time, they try harder the next time. _____
7. People perform better if goals are easier. _____
8. Most people within organizations make effective decisions. _____
9. Positive people are more likely to withdraw from their jobs when they are
dissatisfaction.

SUMMARY:
Organizational behaviour is the study of behaviour of people while at work.
It is a study:
(a) To understand the behaviour of individual employees around him as
individuals.
(b) To understand the behaviour of these employees in the same group as they
are interacting with each other as they are doing their work.
(c)To appreciate how other groups are related to his group and the people in his
group.
(d) To persuade the employees to work for the goals of the organization.
(e) To keep the employees fairly contented and enthusiastic about their work
and their organization.
Ourmanagerwillhavetoappreciatetheissuesatthreelevelsviz.
(1) The level of the individual employees;
(2) The level of the group of which our individual is a
member and
(3) The level of the organization wherein these groups are
expected to work together.
These levels are different but also inter-related. And the subject matter is not as simple as
it sounds. At the present state of knowledge which we have about human being and their
behaviours we fully appreciate the fact that even if we spend our whole life time in
 studying just one single individual, still our understanding about him would be
inadequate. And, therefore, to persuade others to work for us is a formidable task indeed.
This is the challenge for the practicing manager. And it is hoped that the knowledge in
this field of Organizational Behaviour may be some use to him in sorting out some of his
problems.

The main concern for the managers in any organization is to persuade people to work
together in a coordinated manner and achieve the goals of the organization. The role of
the manager is similar to that of a conductor of an orchestra. Different musicians who are
playing their different instruments. And if they are able to work in a coordinated manner
they can come out with a beautiful musical composition. And it is primarily the
responsibility of the conductor that they are trained to work together in such a
coordinated manner. So is the job of the manager.

POINTS TO PONDER:
 Various fields like psychology, social psychology, anthropology, sociology,
politics, economics, and medical sciences have contributed to the field of
organization behaviour.
 Various models in the above fields have enriched the study of organization
behaviour. It is the field of study that investigates the impact on individuals,
groups and organizational structure have on individual behaviour so that the
knowledge so achieved can be suitably modified and applied for organizational
effectiveness.
 The study of organizational behaviour relates to the study of attitude, perception,
learning, values at individual level.
 The study is undertaken pertaining to managing stress, conflicts, intergroup
behaviour, decision making at group level.
 Management of change, development of organizational culture, designing and
redesigning of jobs, and various organizational development strategies are
required to be undertaken by leaders for organizational effectiveness.
 Communication, delegation of authority, well defined policies, rules, regulation,
systems, procedures and processes. Introduction of latest technology is an
essential part of organizational development that should be taken care of by the
manager responsible for running the organization. Jobs should be allotted to the
individual based on the aptitude and the processes must be compatible with the
technology being used.
 Organizational behaviour is highly useful in ensuring organizational effectiveness.
KEYWORDS:
 Organizational Behaviour (OB): The study of human attitudes, behaviour and
performance.
 Management: The process of getting things done effectively and efficiently through
and with other people.
  Organisations: Collections of people working together to achieve a common purpose.
 Human Resources: The people who do the work that helps organizations fulfil their
missions.
 Groups: Involve two or more people working together regularly to achieve common
goals.
 Team: A group whose members have complementary skills, who work actively
together and are committed to a common purpose for which they are all accountable.
 Model: A model is a simplified presentation of some real-world phenomenon.
Productivity: Productivity is the ratio of an organization’s output to its inputs.
Efficiency: Ability to do things right, minimizing resource costs.
 Effectiveness: Means choosing right goals; the degree to which the organization
achieves a stated goal.
 Turnover: Turnover is the voluntary and involuntary permanent withdrawal from an
organization.
SELF -ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS:
Short Answer Questions:
1. What is organizational behaviour?
2. Why is organizational behaviourimportant?
3. Explain the nature and scope of organizationalbehaviour.
4. Define the goals of organizational behaviour.
5. What makes a company the best place to workfor?
6. What are the essential skills of anemployee?
7. What are the factors that affect the organizationalbehaviour?
8. What are the four key influences on individual’s behaviour andmotivation?
9. How do interpersonal influence and group behaviour affect organizational
performance?
10. What are the behavioral processes that contribute to effective
organizationalperformance?
11. What is a model?
12. Name the two sets of variables around which the model of OB is generally built.
13. What isabsenteeism?
14. Define the termproductivity.
15. What do you understand by the term turnover?
16. State two points of difference between dependent variable and independent variable.
17. Write a short note on collegial model ofOB.
18. State two points of difference between custodial model and autocratic model.
 19. Define supportivemodel.
20. List two features of organizationalbehaviour.
Long Answer Question:
1.Explain individual and group behaviour.
2.‘Human behaviour in organisations is not an exact science; it is in itself a significant
realization.’ Justify thisstatement.
3.Describe the framework of organizational behaviour indetail.
4.Examine the trends in the models of OB as they have developed over a period of time.
Why have the trends moved in a positivedirection?
5.OB deals with human thoughts, feelings, emotions and actions in a work setting. Explain
how an individual’s behaviour at home and in society affects his behaviour in
organizationalenvironment.
 CHAPTER-II
PERSONALITY
CONTENT:
2.1 Learning Objective
2.2 Learning Outcome
2.3 Personality
2.4 Dimensions of Personality
2.5 Determinants of Personality
2.6 Nature of Personality
2.7 Personality Traits Influencing Organizational Behaviour
2.8 Different Types of Personality
2.9 Different Theories of Personality
Exercise
Case study
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions

2.1 Learning Objective:

 To develop a working understanding of the concept of ‘personality trait’ and the hierarchical
structure of traits.
 To understand how psychologists have developed models of the dimensional structure of
personality traits, including the statistical methods employed.
 To comprehend the ‘Big Five’ personality dimensions and their differences from existing three-
factor models.
 To recognize the importance of trait taxonomies for advancing psychological understanding
and prediction.
 To develop a balanced understanding of the merits and limitations of personality traits as units
of personality description.
 To recognize some of the controversies and criticisms surrounding personality traits and trait
models of personality.
 To understand alternative units of personality description (e.g. values) and how these
complement description in terms of traits.

2.2 Learning Outcome:

 Develop and exhibit and accurate sense of self.
 Develop and nurture a deep understanding of personal motivation.
 Develop an understanding of and practice personal and professional responsibility.
 Demonstrate knowledge of personal beliefs and values and a commitment to continuing
personal reflection and reassessment.
2.3 PERSONALITY:
INTRODUCTION:
Personality is a vital aspect of organizational behaviours. This term is a more
comprehensive term denoting temperament, character or the external appearance of
individuals. The personality refers to individual differences in characteristic patterns of
thinking, feeling and behaving. At its most basic, personality is the characteristic patterns of
thoughts, feeling, and behaviours that make a person unique. It is believed that personality
arises from within the individual and remains fairly consistent throughout life. The so-called
personality can be reflected in the
temperamentofaman.Theseareallputtogetherformthepersonalityand
hencethisisakeyfactorindeterminingtheindividualbehaviourthathasa rolein
organizationalbehaviour.Thewrongpersonalityofasuperiorcan prove disastrous in terms of
work unrest and protests. In many firms’
personalityclashesanddifficultieshaveendedupinstrikesandlockouts.It
allhashappenedinspiteofthetechnicalknowledgeandotherbehavioural
characteristicsbecauseitisthetemperamentofthesuperiorthatiscrucial
incordialinteractionwithhissubordinates.
Definition:
Many behavioural scientists have defined the term “personality”. A few important
definitions are given below:
Floyd L. Ruch, “Personality can be described as how a person affects others, how he
understands and views himself and his pattern of inner and outer measurable traits”.
Gordon Allport, “Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those
psychological systems that determine his unique adjustment to his environment”.
Personalityisastaticattributeandcharacteristicsofapersonthatinfluences
hisorherbehaviourtowardsgoalachievement.Eachpersonhasaunique wayofprotectingthisstate.
Aperson’snatureisoutgoing,invigoratingwithinterpersonalabilities,then
itisareflectionofhispersonality.
SalvatoreMaddidefinespersonalityas“astablesetofcharacteristicsand tendencies that determine
those commonalities and differences in the
psychologicalbehaviours(thoughts,feelingsandactions)ofpeoplethathave
continuityintimeandthatmaynotbeunderstoodeasilyasaresultofsocial
andbiologicalpressuresofthemoment”.
Thisdefinitiontellsthatthereisconsistencyincharacteristicsthataccount for a relatively stable and
consistent behaviour by man. It also tells that someofthemarecommonwithotherswhile
othertraitssetanindividual apart fromothers. Thesignificanceofthisisthat everypersonisincertain
aspects, like others, like some other people, like no other person. What a
managerofanorganizationmustlearnisthatnotallemployeesalikeand
thateachoneisuniqueandmayormaynotrespondtothestimulilikepay rise, transfer, promotion
orreprimands.
Personality is a complex, multi-dimensional construct and there is no simple
definition of what personality is. Maddi defines personality as, “ A stable set of
characteristics and tendencies that determine those commonalities and differences in the
psychological behavior and that may not be easily understood as the sole result of the
social and biological pressures of the moment".
Fromtheabovedefinitionwecaninferthatallindividualshavesomeuniversallycommon
characteristics. Some personality theorists stress the need of identifying person-situation
 as
interaction.Thisisequivalenttorecognizingthesociallearningaspectsrelatedtopersonality.Suc
h
asociallearninganalysisisoneofthemostcomprehensiveandmeaningfulwaysincludedintheov
erall study of organizational behavior. Fromthis perspective, personality means the way
people affect others. It also involves people's understanding themselves, as well as their
pattern of inner
andoutermeasurabletraits,andthepersonandsituationinteraction.Peopleaffectothersdependi
ng primarily upon their external appearance such as height, weight, facial features, color
and other physical aspects andtraits.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PERSONALITY:
Traits and patterns of thought and emotions play important roles as well as the
following fundamental characteristics of personality:

 Consistency: There is generally a recognizable order and regularity to behaviours. Essentially,

people act in the same ways or similar ways in a variety of situations.
 Psychological and physiological: Personality is a psychological construct, but research
suggests that it is also influenced by biological processes and needs.
 Behaviours and actions: Personality not only influences how we move and respond in our
environment, but it also causes us to act in certain ways.
 Multiple expressions: Personality is displayed in more than just behaviour. It can also be seen
in our thoughts, feelings, close relationships, and other social interactions.

2.4 Dimensions of Personality:

 1.Physical Aspects: This includes physical body, appearance, health, speech, action, gait,
movements, the nerves and other systems.
 2.Intellectual Aspects: This comprises abilities, memory, thought, power of discrimination,
rationality and imagination.
 3.Emotional Aspect: This includes emotional response, temperament desires, attitudes and
abnormalities.
 4.Social Aspects: This aspect includes sociability, social adjustments and social behavior.
 5.Volitional Aspect: This aspect includes interest, will, character and adjustment.

PERSONALITY TRAITS:
Personality traits are very important in organizational behavior. In particular, five
personality traits especially related to job performance have recently emerged from research.
Characteristics of these traits can be summarized as follows:
1. Extroversion: Sociable, talkative andassertive.
2. Agreeableness: Good-natured, cooperative andtrusting.
3. Conscientiousness:Responsible,dependable,persistentandachievement-oriented.
4. Emotional Stability: Viewed from a negative standpoint such as tense, insecure and
nervous.
5. OpennesstoExperience:Imaginative,artisticallysensitiveandintellectual.
Identifying the above "big five" traits related to performance reveals that personality plays
an important role in organizational behavior. Besides physical appearance and personality
 traits, the aspectsofpersonalityconcernedwiththeself-conceptsuchasself-esteemandself-
efficacyandthe person-situation interaction also play importantroles.

PERSONALITY FORMATION:
The personality formation of an individual starts at birth and continues throughout his life.
Three major types of factors play important roles in personality formation, which are as
follows:
 Determinants: The most widely studied determinants of personality are biological,
social and cultural. People grow up in the presence of certain hereditary characteristics
(body shape and height), the social context (family and friends) and the cultural context
(religion and values). These three parts interact with • each other to shape personality.
As people
growintoadulthood,theirpersonalitiesbecomeveryclearlydefinedandgenerallystable.
 Stages: According to Sigmund Freud human personality progresses through four stages:
dependent, compulsive, oedipal and mature. This concept of stages of growth provides a
valuable perspective to organizational behavior. Experienced managers become aware
of thestagesthattheiremployeesoftengothrough.Thishelpsthem19dealwiththesestages
effectivelyandpromotemaximumgrowthfortheindividualandfortheorganization.
 Traits:Traitstopersonalityarealsobasedonpsychology.Accordingtosometraittheories,
allpeoplesharecommontraits,likesocial,(political,religiousandaestheticpreferencesbut
each individual's nature differentiates that person from allothers.
2.5 DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY:
Peoplesareverycomplex.Theyhavedifferentabilityandinterest.Personalityisinfluencedbyf
our major factorsas:

Cultural factors Family factors

ORGANISATIONBEHAVIOUR

Personality

Social Factors
Situational
Factors

1. Culturalfactors
Culturelargelydetermineswhatapersonisandwhatapersonwilllearn.Cultureisthecomplexof the
believes, values and techniques for dealing with the environment which are shared with the
contemporaries and transmitted by one generation to the next. Norms, attitude, moral values,
introducing and accepting changes etc will influence thepersonality.
2. Family
Family is an important factor in shaping personality of an individual. The impact of these
factors on the personality can be understood identification process. Identification starts when
a person
 beginstoidentifyhimselfwithsomeothermembersofthefamily.Normallychildtriestobehave like
father ormother.
Home environment, family background, social class, parent education level, race,
family relationship, geographical location, birth order, number of members in family etc. will
determine the personality development of an individual
3. Situationalfactors
Situationextendsanimportantpressonindividual.Everyindividualgoesthroughdifferenttypes
ofexperienceandeventsinhislife.Somewillinfluencehisbehaviourandsomewillchangeand
modify hisbehaviour.
E.g., A trauma suffered by a person, especially sex assault, affects his later life also.
Timid/shy person performs his heroic acts in certain lifesaving situation, without caring for
his own safety.
4. Socialfactors
Socialization is a process by which an infant acquires from the enormously wide range of
behavioral potentialities that are open to him at birth or customarily acceptable to the family
and socialgroups.Thecontributionoffamilyandsocialgroupincombinationwiththecultureisknown
as socialization. It initially starts with the contact with the mother and later on the other
members
ofthefamily,schoolmates,friends,andthencolleaguesatworkspaceandsoon.Anindividualhas to
accept the norms of the society in which heexists.

2.6 Nature of Personality:

Personality is the psychological growth and development within the ambit of change.

Hubert Bonner underlines six propositions to clarify the nature of personality. These propositions
are relevant to decision making by an administrator.
1. Totality of acts
2. Personality and Environment
3. Personality Depicts consistency
4. Personality is goal-oriented behaviour
5. Time Integrating structure
6. Personality Structure
PERSONALITY FACTORS IN ORGANIZATION:
Some of the important personalities factors that determine what kind of behaviors are
exhibited at work include the following:
Need Pattern
Steers and Braunstein in 1976 developed a scale for the four needs of personality that became
apparent in the 'work environment. They are as follows:
 The need for achievement: Those with a high achievement need engage
themselves
proactivelyinworkbehaviorsinordertofeelproudoftheirachievementsandsuccesses.
 The need for affiliation: Those in greater need for affiliation like to work
cooperatively withothers.
 The need for autonomy: Those in need for autonomy function in the best way
when not closelysupervised.
  The need for dominance: Those high in need for dominance are very effective
while
operatinginenvironmentswheretheycanactivelyenforcetheirlegitimateauthority.
Locus of Control
Locus of control is the degree to which an individual believes that his or her behavior has
direct impact on the consequences of that behavior. Some people, for example, believe that if
they work hard, they will certainly succeed. They, strongly believe that each individual is in
control of his or
herlife.Theyaresaidtohaveaninternallocusofcontrol.Bycontrast,somepeoplethinkthatwhat
happenstothemisaresultoffate,chance,luckorthebehaviorofotherpeople,ratherthanthelack
ofskillsorpoorperformanceontheirpart.Because-theseindividualsthinkthatforcesbeyondtheir
controldictatethehappeningsaroundthem,theyaresaidtohaveanexternallocusofcontrol.

Introversion and Extroversion:

Introversion is the tendency of individuals, which directs them to be inward and process
feelings, thoughts and ideas within themselves. Extroversion, on the contrary, refers to the
tendency in
individualstolookoutsidethemselves,searchingforexternalstimuliwithwhichtheycaninteract.
While there is some element of introversion as well as extroversion in all of us, people tend to
be dominant as either extroverts or introverts. Extroverts are sociable, lively and gregarious
and seek outward stimuli or external exchanges. Such individuals are likely to be most
successful while
workinginthesalesdepartment,publicityoffice,personalrelationsunit,andsoon,wheretheycan
interact face to face with others. Introverts, on the other Hand, are quiet, reflective,
introspective, and intellectual people, preferring to interact with a small intimate circle of
friends. Introverts are more likely to be successful when they can work on highly abstract
ideas such as R&D work, in a
relativelyquietatmosphere.Sincemanagershavetoconstantlyinteractwithindividualsbothinand
out of the organization and influence people to achieve the organization's goals, it is believed
that extroverts are likely to be more successful asmanagers.

Tolerance for Ambiguity

This personality characteristic indicates the level of uncertainty that people can tolerate to
work efficiently without experiencing undue stress. Managers have to work well under
conditions of
extremeuncertaintyandinsufficientinformation,especiallywhenthingsarerapidlychanginginthe
organization's external environment. Managers who have a high tolerance for ambiguity can
cope
upwellundertheseconditions.Managers,whohavealowtoleranceforambiguitymaybeeffective in
structured work settings but find it almost impossible to operate effectively when things are
rapidlychangingandmuchinformationaboutthefutureeventsisnotavailable.Thus,tolerancefor
ambiguity is a personality dimension necessary for managerialsuccess.
Self-Esteem and Self-Concept
Self-esteem denotes the extent to which individuals consistently regard themselves as capable,
successful, important and worthy individuals. Self-esteem is an important personality factor
that determines how managers perceive themselves and their role in the organization. Self-
 esteem is importanttoself-
concept,i.e.,thewayindividuals,definethemselvesastowhotheyareandderive
theirsenseofidentity.Highself-esteemprovidesahighsenseofself-concept,which,inturn,
reinforces high self-esteem. Thus, the two are mutually reinforcing. Individuals with a high
self- esteem will try to take on more challenging assignments and be successful. Thus, they
will be enhancingtheirself-
concepti.e.,theywouldtendtodefinethemselvesashighlyvaluedindividuals in the organizational
system. The higher the self-concept and self-esteem, the greater will be their contributions to
the goals of the organization, especially when the system rewards them for their contributions.
Authoritarianism and Dogmatism
Authoritarianismistheextenttowhichanindividualbelievesthatpowerandstatusdifferencesare
importantwithin'hierarchicalsocialsystemslikeorganizations.Forexample,anemployeewhois
highlyauthoritarianmayacceptdirectivesorordersfromhissuperiorwithoutmuchquestioning.A
person who is not highly authoritarian might agree to carry out appropriate and reasonable
directivesfromhisboss.Buthemayalsoraisequestions,expressdisagreementandevenrefuseto carry
out requests if they arc for some reasonobjectionable.
Dogmatism is the rigidity of a person's beliefs and his or her openness to
otherviewpoints. The popular terms 'close-minded' and 'open-minded' describe people who are
more andless
. dogmaticintheirbeliefsrespectively.Forexample,amanagermaybeunwillingtolistentoanew
idearelatedtodoingsomethingmoreefficiently.Heissaidtobeapersonwhoisclose-mindedor
highlydogmatic.Amanagerwhoisveryreceptivetohearingaboutandtryingoutnewideasinthe
samecircumstancesmightbeseenasmoreopen-mindedorlessdogmatic.Dogmatismcanbeeither
beneficial or detrimental to organizations, but given the degree of change in the nature of
organizations and their environments, individuals who are, not dogmatic are most likely to be
useful and productive organizationalmembers.
Risk Propensity
Risk-propensity is the decree to which an individual is willing to take chances and make risky
decisions.Amanagerwithahigh-riskpropensitymightbeexpectedtoexperimentwithnewideas and
to lead the organization in new directions. In contrast, a manager with low-risk propensity
might lead to a stagnant and overly conservativeorganization.
Machiavellianism

Machiavellianismismanipulatingorinfluencingotherpeopleasaprimarywayofachievingone's
goal. An individual tends to be Machiavellian, if he tends to be logical in assessing the system
around, willing to twist and turn facts to influence others, and try to gain control of
people,events and situations by manipulating the system to hisadvantage.
Type A and B Personalities
Type A persons feel a chronic sense of time urgency, are highly achievement-oriented, exhibit
a competitive drive, and are impatient when their work is slowed down for any reason. Type B
persons are easy-going individuals who do not feel the time urgency, and who do not
experience
thecompetitivedrive.TypeAindividualsaresignificantlymorepronetoheartattacksthanTypeB
individuals.WhileTypeApersonshelptheorganizationtomoveaheadinarelativelyshortperiod of
time, they may also suffer health problems, which might be detrimental to both themselves and
the organization in the longrun.
Work-Ethic Orientation
Some individuals are highly work-oriented while others try to do the minimum Work that is
necessarytogetbywithoutbeingfiredon-the-
job.Theextremelyworkorientedpersongetsgreatlyinvolvedinthejob.Extremeworkethicvaluescou
ldleadtotraitsof"workaholism"whereworkis
consideredastheonlyprimarymotiveforlivingwithverylittleoutsideinterests.Foraworkaholic
turningtoworkcansometimesbecomeaviablealternativetofacingnon-work-related problems.A
high level of work ethic orientation of members is good for the organization to achieve its
goals.
Toomuch"workaholism",however,mightleadtoprematurephysicalandmentalexhaustionand
healthproblems,whichisdysfunctionalforbothorganizationandtheworkaholicmembers.
The above ten different personality predispositions are important for individual,
managerial and organizational effectiveness.
In summary, personality is a very diverse and complex cognitive process. It incorporates
almost everything. As defined above, personality means the whole person. It is concerned with
external appearance and traits, self and situational interactions. Probably the best statement on
personality
wasmademanyyearsagobyKluckhohnandMurray,"tosomeextent,aperson'spersonalityislike
allotherpeople,likesomeotherpeople,andlikenootherpeople."

2.7 Personality Traits Influencing Organizational Behaviour:

Personality traits have more to do with the job performance of individuals. It manifests when an
individual interacts with his superior, subordinates and colleagues. When a given job entails interaction
with a greater number of persons, it is mainly the personality traits that influence a successful
performance of the job.

 Agreeableness
 Conscience
 Emotional Stability
 Extraversion
 Opener
 Major Personality Traits:
1.Agreeableness: This trait includes being courteous, good natured, empathetic and caring.
People with opposite traits are labelled as non-complaints. They tend to be uncooperative, short
tempered and irritable. Therefore, people with a high degree of agreeableness can be engaged in
relationship building and conflict resolution jobs.
2.Conscientiousness: Conscientiousness refers to the extent of one’s carefulness, dependability
and self-disciplines. People with low conscientiousness tend to be disorganized, careless and
irresponsible. Therefore, people with high conscientiousness can be engaged in customer
relations jobs.
3.Emotional equanimity: People with emotional stability are found to be poised, composed,
calm and secure while people with emotional instability tend to be depressed, anxious,
indecisive and moody. Therefore, people with emotional stability can be appointed for
customer service and conflict resolution jobs.
4.Open Mindedness: People with open-mindedness tend to be flexible, creative, curious and
sensitive while people who score low on these dimensions tend to be rigid and resistant to
change.
 5.Extraversion: Extroverted people who are gregarious, outgoing, talkative, sociable and
assertive. While introverts are those who prefer isolation; timid in public interaction and
reserved.

2.8. TYPES OF PERSONALITY:

There are several personality types of people in an organization that can dictate the behaviour of
individuals. By figuring out how these personality types fit into the culture of the organization,
people can gain insight into how well the individuals themselves may fit into the organizational
structure. If there is a high level of dissimilarity among the personalities of the employees and the
culture of the organization, communication, cooperation and working relationships can suffer to the
detriment of the organization as a whole.

1. Extrovert Personality

The extrovert is a friendly person who is quick to establish relationships with others. Extroverts are
gregarious and display a high level of social engagement. They enjoy being with people and like to
be in the company of large groups. Extroverts are active and tend to get involved in many activities.
At the opposite end of the spectrum, people with low levels of extroversion feel a greater desire for
privacy, avoid large group situations and generally live a more leisurely life.

2. Agreeable Personality

The agreeable person can cooperate well with other people by putting aside personal needs while
getting along with peers. These people trust others and rely on their integrity, character and abilities.
Often the agreeable personality feels the need to help other people, and can derive fulfilment by
offering support.

3. Conscientious Personality

Conscientious people exude confidence and feel capable of accomplishing goals. They may be
overachievers who want to be viewed as successful.

4. Cautious Personality

Cautious people will look at problems from every angle before acting or making a decision, while
those who are not cautious often act or speak before they think things through.

5. Self-Conscious Personality
Self-conscious people are highly sensitive to what others think and say about them. They dislike
criticism and are sensitive to rejection, while those who are not all that self-conscious are not
bothered by being judged by other people.

6. Adventurous Personality

People with an adventurous personality seek out new experiences and dislike routine. They may be
unafraid to challenge authority and conventions, while those who are less adventurous may have
traditional values and prefer security over adventurousness. Those with an adventurous personality
enjoy having power and may be more amenable to taking risks.

2.9. THEORIES OF PERSONALITY:

1.Sigmund Freud Psycho Analytical Theory:
Sigmund Freud conceptualized the psycho analytical theory. Main crux of the
theory is that human behaviour is more influenced by unconscious forces than the conscious
and rational thoughts. The unconscious forces operate on three elements namely ID, EGO,
SUPER EGO.
According to Sigmund Freud, human personality is complex and has more than a
single component. In his famous psychoanalytic theory, Freud states that personality is
composed of three elements known as the id, the ego, and the superego. These elements
work together to create complex human behaviors. Each component adds its own unique
contribution to personality and the three interact in ways that have a powerful influence
on an individual. Each element of personality emerges at different points in life.
According to Freud's theory, certain aspects of your personality are more primal and
might pressure you to act upon your most basic urges. Other parts of your personality
work to counteract these urges and strive to make you conform to the demands of reality.
Here's a closer look at each of these key parts of the personality, how they work
individually, and how they interact.
The Id
 According to Freud, the id is the source of all psychic energy, making it the primary component
of personality.
 The id is the only component of personality that is present from birth.
 This aspect of personality is entirely unconscious and includes instinctive and primitive
behaviours.

The id is driven by the pleasure principle, which strives for immediate gratification of all
desires, wants, and needs. If these needs are not satisfied immediately, the result is a state anxiety or
tension. For example, an increase in hunger or thirst should produce an immediate attempt to eat or
drink.

The id is very important early in life because it ensures that an infant's needs are met. If the
infant is hungry or uncomfortable, they will cry until the demands of the id are satisfied. Young infants
are ruled entirely by the id, there is no reasoning with them when these needs demand satisfaction.

EXAMPLE: Imagine trying to convince a baby to wait until lunchtime to eat their meal. The id
requires immediate satisfaction, and because the other components of personality are not yet present,
the infant will cry until these needs are fulfilled.
 However, immediately fulfilling these needs is not always realistic or even possible. If we were
ruled entirely by the pleasure principle, we might find ourselves grabbing the things that we want out
of other people's hands to satisfy our own cravings.

This behaviour would be both disruptive and socially unacceptable. According to Freud, the id
tries to resolve the tension created by the pleasure principle through the use of primary process
thinking, which involves forming a mental image of the desired object as a way of satisfying the need.

Although people eventually learn to control the id, this part of personality remains the same
infantile, primal force throughout life. It is the development of the ego and the superego that allows
people to control the id's basic instincts and act in ways that are both realistic and socially acceptable.

The Ego

 According to Freud, The ego develops from the id and ensures that the impulses of the id can
be expressed in a manner acceptable in the real world.
 The ego functions in the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious mind.
 The ego is the component of personality that is responsible for dealing with reality

The ego operates based on the reality principle, which strives to satisfy the id's desires in realistic and
socially appropriate ways. The reality principle weighs the costs and benefits of an action before
deciding to act upon or abandon impulses.

In many cases, the id's impulses can be satisfied through a process of delayed gratification—the ego
will eventually allow the behaviour, but only in the appropriate time and place.

Freud compared the id to a horse and the ego to the horse's rider. The horse provides the power and
motion, while the rider provides direction and guidance. Without its rider, the horse may simply
wander wherever it wished and do whatever it pleased. The rider gives the horse directions and
commands to get it to go where the rider wants it to go.

The ego also discharges tension created by unmet impulses through secondary process thinking, in
which the ego tries to find an object in the real world that matches the mental image created by the id's
primary process.

Imagine that you are stuck in a long meeting at work. You find yourself growing increasingly hungry
as the meeting drags on. While the id might compel you to jump up from your seat and rush to the
break room for a snack, the ego guides you to sit quietly and wait for the meeting to end.

Instead of acting upon the primal urges of the id, you spend the rest of the meeting imagining yourself
eating a cheeseburger. Once the meeting is finally over, you can seek out the object you were
imagining and satisfy the demands of the id in a realistic and appropriate manner.

The Superego
The last component of personality to develop is the superego.

 According to Freud, the superego begins to emerge at around age five.

 The superego holds the internalized moral standards and ideals that we acquire from our parents
and society (our sense of right and wrong).
 The superego provides guidelines for making judgments.
The superego has two parts:

1. The conscience includes information about things that are viewed as bad by parents and
society. These behaviours are often forbidden and lead to bad consequences, punishments, or
feelings of guilt and remorse.
2. The ego ideal includes the rules and standards for behaviours that the ego aspires to.

The superego tries to perfect and civilize our behaviour. It works to suppress all unacceptable urges of
the id and struggles to make the ego act upon idealistic standards rather that upon realistic principles.
The superego is present in the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious.

The Interaction of the Id, Ego, and Superego

When talking about the id, the ego, and the superego, it is important to remember that these are not
three separate entities with clearly defined boundaries. These aspects are dynamic and always
interacting to influence an individual's overall personality and behaviour.

With many competing forces, it is easy to see how conflict might arise between the id, ego, and
superego. Freud used the term ego strength to refer to the ego's ability to function despite these
duelling forces.

A person who has good ego strength can effectively manage these pressures, while a person with too
much or too little ego strength can be unyielding or disruptive.

What Happens If There Is an Imbalance?

According to Freud, the key to a healthy personality is a balance between the id, the ego, and the
superego.

If the ego is able to adequately moderate between the demands of reality, the id, and the superego, a
healthy and well-adjusted personality emerges. Freud believed that an imbalance between these
elements would lead to a maladaptive personality.

For example, an individual with an overly dominant id might become impulsive, uncontrollable, or
even criminal. Such an individual acts upon their most basic urges with no concern for whether their
behaviour is appropriate, acceptable, or legal.

On the other hand, an overly dominant superego might lead to a personality that is extremely moralistic
and judgmental. A person ruled by the superego might not be able to accept anything or anyone that
they perceive to be "bad" or "immoral."

2.Socio-Psychological Theory:
Definition: The Socio-Psychological Theory asserts that individual and society are interlinked. This
means, an individual strives to meet the needs of the society and the society helps him to attain his
goals. Through this interaction, the personality of an individual is determined.
The Socio-Psychological theory is the contribution of Adler, Horney, Forman and Sullivan. This theory
is also called as Neo-Freudian Theory because it differs from the Freud’s psychoanalytic theory in the
following respects:

1. According to this theory, the social variables and not the biological instincts, are the important
determinants in shaping the individual’s personality.
2. Here, the motivation is conscious, i.e., an individual knows what are his needs and wants and
what kind of behaviour is required to meet these needs.
Thus, the theorists believe that socio-psychological factors, i.e., the combination of both the social
(family, society, wealth, religion) and the psychological factors (feelings, thoughts, beliefs) play an
important role in shaping the personality of an individual.

It is the society from where the individual inculcates the cultural values and the social norms, which
helps him in shaping his personality and influences his behaviour according to the external situations.

3.Traits Theory:
The Trait Theory asserts that an individual is composed of a set of definite predisposition
attributes called as traits. These traits are distinguishable and often long lasting quality or a
characteristic of a person that makes him different from the others.

The two most common trait theories are:

Allport’s Trait Theory: This theory is given by Gordon Allport. According to him, the personality of
an individual can be studied through a distinction between the common traits and the personal
dispositions.

The common traits are used to compare the people on the grounds of six values, such as religious,
social, economic, political, aesthetic and theoretical. Besides the common traits, there are personal
dispositions which are unique and are classified as follows:

 Cardinal Traits: The cardinal traits are powerful, and few people possess personality
dominated by a single trait. Such as Mother Teressa’s altruism.
 Central Traits: These traits are the general characteristics possessed by many individuals in
the varying degrees. Such as loyalty, friendliness, agreeableness, kindness, etc.
 Secondary Trait: The secondary traits show why at times, a person behaves differently than
his usual behaviour. Such as a jolly person may get miserable when people try to tease him.
Cattell’s Trait Theory: This trait theory is given by Raymond Cattell. According to him, the sample
of a large number of variables should be studied to have a proper understanding of the individual
personality.

He collected the life data (everyday life behaviours of individuals), experimental data (standardizing
experiments by measuring actions), questionnaire data (responses gathered from the introspection of an
individual’s behaviour) and done the factor analysis to identify the traits that are related to one another.

By using the factor analysis method, he identified 16 key personality factors:

1. Abstractedness – Imaginative Vs Practical

2. Warmth – Outgoing Vs Reserved
3. Vigilance – Suspicious Vs Trusting
4. Tension – Impatient Vs Relaxed
5. Apprehension – Worried Vs Confident
6. Emotional Stability – Calm Vs anxious
7. Liveliness – Spontaneous Vs Restrained
8. Dominance – Forceful Vs Submissive
9. Social Boldness – Uninhibited Vs Shy
10. Perfectionism – Controlled Vs Undisciplined
11. Privateness – Discreet Vs Open
12. Sensitivity – Tender Vs Tough
13. Self-Reliance – Self-sufficient Vs Dependent
14. Rule-Consciousness – Conforming Vs Non-Conforming
15. Reasoning – Abstract Vs Concrete
16. Openness to Change – Flexible Vs Stubborn
The trait theory is based on the assumption that the traits are common to many individuals and they
vary in absolute amounts. Also, the traits remain consistent over a period of time, and thus can be
measured through the behavioural indicators.
4.Self Theory:
Definition: The Self Theory emphasizes on the set of perceptions an individual has for himself and the
perceptions of the relationships he has with others and the other aspects of life. Carl Rogers has
contributed significantly towards the self-theory. The self-theory comprises of four factors that are
explained below:

1. Self-Image: Self-image means what an individual think about himself. Everybody has certain
beliefs about themselves, such as who or what they are, these beliefs form the self-image and
identity of a person.
According to Erikson, identity is formed through a lifelong development usually unconscious to
the individual and his society, i.e., an individual forms perception about himself unconsciously,
according to the social circumstances.

2. Ideal-Self: The ideal-self means, the way an individual would like to be. It is very much
different from the self-image, as it shows the ideal position perceived by an individual, whereas
the self-image is the reality that an individual perceives. Thus, there could be a gap between
these two.
The ideal-self-acts as a stimulus to motivate an individual to undertake those activities that are
in compliance with the characteristics of his ideal self.

3. Looking-Glass-Self: The looking-glass self means, an individual’s perception of how others

are perceiving his qualities or feeling about him. Simply, it is the perception of other’s
perception, i.e. perceiving what others perceive about yourself and not see what actually you
are.
4. Real-Self: The real-self is what others show you with respect to your self-image. An
individual’s self-image is confirmed when others responses to him and shares their beliefs or
perception, about what they actually feel about him.
This is taken as feedback from the environment that helps an individual to adjusts his self-
image accordingly and be in line with the cues he had received.

Thus, according to Carl Rogers, the self-theory is composed of several perceptions of “I” or “me” and
the perception of relationships of “I” and “me” to others.

MEASUREMENT OF PERSONALITY:
Psychologists seek to measure personality through a number of methods. The most common of these
methods include objective tests and projective measures.

1. Objective Tests:

An objective test is a psychological test that measures an individual’s characteristics in a way

that isn’t influenced by the examiner’s own beliefs; in this way, they are said to be independent of rater
bias. They usually involve the administration of a bank of questions that are marked and compared
against standardized scoring mechanisms, in much the same way that school exams are administered.
Objective tests tend to have more validity than projective tests (described below); however, they are
still subject to the willingness and ability of the examinee to be open, honest, and self-reflective
enough to accurately represent and report their true personality.

The most common form of objective test in personality psychology is the self-report measure. Self-
report measures rely on information provided directly by participants about themselves or their beliefs
through a question-and-answer format. There are a number of test formats, but each one requires
respondents to provide information about their own personality. They typically use multiple-choice
items or numbered scales, which represent a range from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

Self-report measure: Self-report measures typically use multiple-choice items or numbered scales,
which represent a range from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

Self-report measures are used with both clinical and nonclinical populations and for a variety of
reasons, from diagnostic purposes to helping with career guidance. Some of the more widely used
personality self-report measures are the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, Neo Pi-R, MMPI/MMPI-2, 16
PF, and Eysenck Personality Questionnaire.

2. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is based on Carl Jung’s theory of personality. The
MBTI is one of the most popular personality inventories used with nonclinical populations; it has been
criticized, however, for its lack of statistical validity and low reliability. The MBTI measures
individuals across four bi-polar dimensions:

 Attitudes: Extraversion-Introversion. This measures whether someone is “outward-

turning” and action-oriented or “inward turning” and thought-oriented.
 The perceiving function: Sensing- Intuition . This measures whether someone
understands and interprets new information using their five senses (sensing) or intuition.
 The judging function: Thinking-Feeling. This measures whether one tends to make
decisions based on rational thought or empathic feeling.
 Lifestyle preferences: Judging-Perceiving. This measures whether a person relates to the
outside world primarily using their judging function (which is either thinking or feeling)
or their perceiving function (which is either sensing or intuition).
3. Neo Pi-R

The Revised Neo Pi (personality inventory) is designed to measure personality traits using the five-
factor model. According to the five-factor model, the five dimensions of personality lies along a
continuum of opposing poles and include Openness to Experience, Conscientiousness, Extroversion,
Agreeableness, and Neuroticism.

4. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI):

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is the most widely used personality
inventory for both clinical and nonclinical populations, and is commonly used to help with the
diagnosis of personality disorders. It was first published in 1943, with 504 true/false questions; an
updated version including 567 questions was released in 1989, and is known as the MMPI-2. The
original MMPI was based on a small, limited sample composed mostly of Minnesota farmers and
psychiatric patients; the revised inventory was based on a more representative, national sample to
allow for better standardization.

The MMPI-2 takes 1–2 hours to complete. Responses are scored to produce a clinical profile composed
of 10 scales: hypochondriasis, depression, hysteria, psychopathic deviance (social deviance),
masculinity versus femininity, paranoia, psychasthenia (obsessive/compulsive qualities),
schizophrenia, hypomania, and social introversion. There is also a scale for ascertaining risk factors for
alcohol abuse. In 2008, the test was revised once more using more advanced methods; this is the
MMPI-2-RF. This version takes about one-half the time to complete and has only 338 questions.
Despite the new test’s advantages, the MMPI-2 is more established and is still more widely used.
Although the MMPI was originally developed to assist in the clinical diagnosis of psychological
disorders, it is now also used for occupational screening for careers like law enforcement, and in
college, career, and marital counselling (Ben-Porath & Tellegen, 2008).

5.16 PF:

The 16 PF (personality factor) inventory measures personality according Cattell’s 16 factor theory of
personality. The 16PF can also use be used by psychologists and other mental health professionals as a
clinical instrument to help diagnose psychiatric disorders and help with prognosis and therapy
planning. It provides clinicians with a normal-range measurement of anxiety, adjustment, emotional
stability, and behavioral problems. It can also be used within other areas of psychology, such as career
and occupational selection.

Eysenck Personality Questionnaire:

The Eysench Personality Questionnaire is based on Eysenck’s model of personality, and was
developed from a large body of research and laboratory experiments. Eysenck’s inventory focuses on
three dimensions: psychoticism, extraversion, and neuroticism.
6. Projective Measures:
Projective measures, unlike objective tests, are sensitive to the rater’s or examiner’s beliefs. Projective
tests are based on Freudian psychology (psychoanalysis) and seek to expose people’s unconscious
perceptions by using ambiguous stimuli to reveal the inner aspects of an individual’s personality. Two
of the most popular projective measures are the Thematic Apperception Measure and the Rorschach
test.

The advantage of projective measures is that they purportedly expose certain aspects of personality that
are impossible to measure by means of an objective test; for instance, they are more reliable at
uncovering unconscious personality traits or features. However, they are criticized for having poor
reliability and validity, lacking scientific evidence, and relying too much on the subjective judgment of
a clinician.

7. Rorschach Test:

The Rorschach test consists of ten inkblots, which were created by Herman Rorschach dribbling ink on
paper and then folding over the paper to create a symmetrical design. During the test, participants are
shown the inkblots and asked what each one looks like. The test administrator then asks questions
about the responses, such as which part of the inkblot was linked to each response. This test can be
used to examine a person’s personality characteristics and emotional functioning, and is thought to
measure unconscious attitudes and motivations.

Simulated inkblot: This simulated inkblot is similar to those that make up the Rorschach test; a
Rorschach inkblot would be filled in rather than a dotted pattern.

8. Thematic Apperception Test:

The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) consists of 30 cards (including one blank card) depicting
ambiguous drawings. Test-takers are asked to tell a story about each picture, including the background
that led up to the story and the thoughts and feelings of the characters. Like the Rorschach test, the
results are thought to indicate a person’s personality characteristics and emotional functioning.

9. Objective Tests:

Objective tests (such as the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, Neo Pi-R, Minnesota Multiphasic
Personality Inventory, 16PF, and Eysenck Personality Questionnaire) are thought to be relatively free
from rater bias, or the influence of the examiner’s own beliefs. Because of this, objective tests are said
to have more validity than projective tests. The challenge of objective tests, however, is that they are
subject to the willingness and ability of the respondents to be open, honest, and self-reflective enough
to represent and report their true personality; this limits their reliability.
The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) attempts to account for these weaknesses by
including validity and reliability scales in addition to its clinical scales. One of the validity scales, the
Lie Scale (or “L” Scale), consists of 15 items and is used to ascertain whether the respondent is “faking
good” (in other words, under-reporting psychological problems in order to appear healthier). For
example, if someone responds “yes” to a number of unrealistically positive items such as “I have never
told a lie,” they may be trying to “fake good” or appear better than they actually are.

Reliability scales test the instrument’s consistency over time, assuring that if you take the MMPI today
and then again five years later, your two scores will be similar. Beutler, Nussbaum, and Meredith
(1988) gave the MMPI to newly recruited police officers and then to the same police officers two years
later. After two years on the job, police officers’ responses indicated an increased vulnerability to
alcoholism, somatic symptoms (vague, unexplained physical complaints), and anxiety. When the test
was given an additional two years later (four years after starting on the job), the results suggested high
risk for alcohol-related difficulties.

The MMPI-2 also revised many of the limitations within the original MMPI, thereby increasing its
usefulness. For example, the original MMPI was intended to be used in clinical populations, and the
normative sample (or the sample of individuals whose scores are used as a baseline against which all
test-takers’ scores are compared) consisted of psychiatric patients. For a clinical population, this
information can reveal what is normative for that particular population; however it limits the usage
and application to other nonclinical populations. The MMPI-2 used a normative sample from within
the general population that was thought to be representative of all major demographic variables,
expanding its applicability.

Many objective personality measures were created after years of research, such as the Eysenck
Personality Questionnaire. Eysenck spent many years working with factor analysis and conducting
countless laboratory experiments. The result is that the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire has
excellent reliability and validity. Additionally, there is a large body of research that demonstrates the
practical uses of the Eysenck measure.

10. Projective Tests

In contrast to objective tests, projective tests are much more sensitive to the examiner’s beliefs.
Projective measures like the Rorschach Inkblot Test and the Thematic Apperception Test have been
criticized for having poor reliability and validity, for lacking scientific evidence, and for relying too
much on the subjective judgment of a clinician. Some projective tests, like the Rorschach, have
undergone standardization procedures so they can be relatively effective in measuring depression,
psychosis, and anxiety. In the Thematic Apperception Test, however, which involves open-ended
storytelling, standardization of test administration is virtually non-existent, making the test relatively
low on validity and reliability. Projective tests are often considered best used for informational
purposes only, and not as a true measure of personality.

For many decades, traditional projective tests have been used in cross-cultural personality assessments.
However, it was found that test bias limited their usefulness. It is difficult to assess the personalities
and lifestyles of members of widely divergent ethnic/cultural groups using personality instruments
based on data from a single culture or race. Therefore, it was vital to develop other personality
assessments that explore factors like race, language, and level of acculturation

Types of Tests Used in the Workplace:

1.Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI):

 The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is a highly validated
psychopathology test that is generally used in a clinical psychology setting and may reveal
potential mental health disorders. Notable situations in which the MMPI is often used include
final selection for police officers, firefighters, and other security and emergency personnel,
especially when the employees are required to carry weapons. The controversies associated
with assessing mental health for the purposes of job selection are discussed below; in these
cases, however, an assessment of mental stability and fitness can be reasonably related to and
necessary for optimal job performance.

2.Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI):

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is the name of a personality test designed to
measure psychological preferences for how people perceive the world and make decisions.
Based on Carl Jung’s Psychological Types, it was developed during World War II by Isabel
Myers and Katherine Briggs and is perhaps the world’s most popular personality type
description tool today. This 16-type indicator test uses two opposing behavioral divisions along
four scales which, when combined, yield a “personality type;” the four scales include
extroversion-introversion, sensing-intuition, thinking-feeling, and judging-perceiving.

The Myers–Briggs Type Indicator is used by 89 of the Fortune 100 companies, and is
very popular in businesses around the world. Because studies using the MBTI show clusters of
different personality types in different professions, the test has become popular with recruiters
and managers. For instance, the proportion of engineers who are INTJ (scoring high on
introversion, intuition, thinking, and judging) is higher among this profession than the 1%
found in the general population.

3.Controversies:

Many companies use personality testing as part of their hiring process, but research has
found that personality tests are often misused in recruitment and selection when they are
mistakenly treated as if they were normative measures.

4.Discrimination and Accuracy:

A key concern about using personality tests in the workplace is the potential they create
for illegal discrimination against certain groups. A major criticism of many personality tests is
that because they are sometimes based on narrow samples in which white, middle-class males
are over-represented, they tend to skew test results toward this identity. That is, they normalize
one identity while pathologizing other identities. For example, the sample used to develop the
original MMPI consisted primarily of white people from Minnesota. While the MMPI-2
intentionally expanded this sample to address this bias, critics argue that Asian Americans,
Hispanics, and under-educated people are still largely underrepresented.

As mentioned above, tests like the MMPI are often useful in identifying mental illness.
When they are used to assess potential employees in the workplace, however, the Equal
Employment Opportunity Commission can interpret them as an attempt by an employer to gain
knowledge of a medical condition prior to an offer of employment. This is a form of
discrimination and an illegal basis for a hiring decision in the United States.

Another danger of using personality tests in the workplace is that they can create false-
negative results (for instance, honest people being labeled as dishonest), especially in cases
 when the applicant is stressed. Privacy issues also arise when applicants are required to reveal
private thoughts and feelings in their responses and perceive this as a condition for
employment.

Criticisms of the MBTI:

There are several criticisms specifically regarding the validity of the MBTI as a useful
measure of personality. The MBTI is not yet scientifically proven, and skeptics—including
many psychologists—argue that the MBTI has not been validated by double-blind tests (in
which participants accept reports written for other participants and are asked whether or not the
report suits them). Some even demonstrate that profiles can apparently seem to fit any person
due to ambiguity of their basic terms.

Critics also argue that people do not fit easily into one of 16 types because they use
different styles of thinking at different times. This can be especially true when comparing
behaviour at home or with friends to behaviour at work—limiting the test’s accuracy for
employment. Critics argue that the test results of the MBTI should not be used to label,
evaluate, or limit the respondent in any way. Since all types are valuable, and the MBTI
measures preferences rather than aptitude, the MBTI is not considered a proper instrument for
purposes of employment selection. Many professions include highly competent individuals of
different types with complementary preferences.

Exercise:
Putting Common Sense to the Test

Please answer the following 10 questions:

1.Person who manipulates others for meeting his end is called--------------type of personality.
2.-----------Ego discriminates right and wrong.
3.The extent to which an employee considers himself important is called -----------is personality
trait.
4.----------represent psychic energy.
5.------------- discipline a person saying there is time and place for satisfying any need in Sigmund
Freud psycho analytical theory.
6.According to self-theory, -----------image represents one’s perception about oneself.
7.---------------image represents perception of human about how others perceive about him.
8.Ink blot test was designed by-------------
9.A person who is withdrawn, unsociable, quit looking inward etc is categorized as------------
10.Person learns to behave by observing the behaviour of other and consequence of their action
under-----------
Case study:
So, for a manager, It Is Important to single out the Individuals whose behaviours better fit those of the
company, its objectives and the job positions they are to fulfil – much following the preparation
principle of Frederick Tailor’s Scientific Management approach.

Personality is a cluster of inherit and socially acquired traits that distinguishes an individual by
influencing its behaviour, attitudes and emotions. Thusly, it is crucial that a manager has different tools
in order to assess its employees’ personality.

Tests – like Rorschach Inkblot Test and Myers-Briggs Type Indicator -, interviews and relaying are
some of the numerous dimensions of analysis that can be used to predict and observe an individual’s
reaction to a set of controlled stimuli. Each company looks for the set of personality traits that best cult
their needs and business. Virgin Group strives to continue to Improve Its multifaceted business and
maintain Its worldwide reputation of high consumer engagement.

Why, then, should there be so much focus on “finding the best people to run the diverse businesses in
the Virgin Group”? Traits like openness to experience, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness
and neurotics (Big 51 individually balanced adequately to fill the optimal profile for the employer and
the company itself, have been known to have a positive correlation with Job performance.

Richard Brannon, the CEO of Virgin, shifts the paradigm of “consumers and shareholders first” to a
chief focus on employees which, he believes, are the core agents for profit generating.

Abrasion’s personality already exhibits some of the key characteristics of this organization: he “will do
almost anything to promote the Virgin Brand”, partaking In “outlandish publicity stunts” – a highly
extroverted Individual, outgoing, action-oriented, that enjoys Interacting with people (“he sets aside
about 25 percent of his time for public relations actively”b conveying the ecstatic and vibrant purity
that attracts and inspires customers, keeping them constantly engaged with the brand.

As mentioned above, the fundamental stakeholder of Virgin, according to Richard Brannon, are its
employees. When a company displays a multitude of worldwide businesses, it is essential to recruit
“employees with strong communication and teamwork competencies”, that is, with high agreeableness
qualities. Trustworthiness and cooperation support the company’s stability through the sharing of
information between colleges, increasing group cohesion and creation f a solid company culture.

Moreover, in a setting where all sectors are in close interaction with the customer, the ability of each
employee to understand and empathic Implies the strengthening of customer relationships and
satisfaction. Furthermore, Brannon Is searching for an Individual “who gets charged up when told that
something cannot be done”, “who Is unafraid of Industry barriers and will not take no for an answer” –
an individual that exhibits a high openness to experience.

A company Tanat endeavourer to Keep constantly canalling needs Its employees adaptable and
creative, not only taking part in the chance but also contributing to it. Ultimately, personality defines
an organization, from the CEO to the last recruited employee – it shapes decisions, procedures and
culture, determining the inner and outer relationships of the company. Although the last two Big 5
traits – conscientiousness and neurotics – where not directly mentioned in the case, their significance
holds: an individual with a balanced combination of all these attributes will become an asset to its
organization.

Keywords:

Person-job Fit: The extent to which a person’s ability and personality match the requirements of a
job.
Workforce Diversity: Hiring people with different human qualities who belong to various cultural
groups.
 Contingency Approach: Philosophy that different environments require different behavioural
practices for effectiveness.
Rational Economic Model: The model of decision-making according to which decision makers
consider all possible alternatives to problems before selecting the optimal solution.
Self-actualizing People: Self-actualizing people are rare individuals who come close to living up to
their full potential for being realistic, accomplishing things, enjoying life, and generally
exemplifying classic humanvirtues.
Personality: The combination of characteristics or qualities that form an individual's distinctive
character.
Machiavellianism: Machiavellianism is a personality characteristic indicating one's willingness to
do whatever it takes to get one's way.
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI): The MBTI assessment is a psychometric questionnaire
designed to measure psychological preferences in how people perceive the world and make
decisions.
Personality Traits: Enduring characteristics that describe a person’s behaviour.
Locus of Control: It refers to the extent to which individuals believe that they can control events
affecting them.

Self-Assessment Questions:
Short Answer Questions:
1.List out the characteristics of personality.
2.State the dimensions of personality.
3.mention the assumption of traits theory.
4.State the characteristics of ID.
5.What are the characteristic of super ego?
6.What is self-Theory? What are its components?
7.Distinguish “Introvert” and “Extrovert” Personalities.
8.What are the characteristics of judging personality?
9.How is personality of a person assessed through assessment centre?
10.Briefly explain about Allport’s Trait theory.

Long Answer Questions:

1.Explain Sigmund Freud’s Psycho Analytical theory of personality development.

2.Ellaborate on various methods of personality measurement.

3.Discuss the factors determining the personality of an individual.

4.Bring about the personality factors that influence organisational development.

5.Elaborate on different types of personality.

6.Briefly explain self-theory of personality.

7.Briefly discuss the traits theory of personality.

 CHAPTER-3
LEARNING
CONTENT:
3.1 INTRODUCTION ABOUT LEARNING
3.2 DEFINITION OF LEARNING
3.3 MEANING OF LEARNING
3.4 FEATURES OF LEARNING
3.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING
3.6 FACTORS AFECTING LEARNING
3.7 LEARNING PROCESS
3.8 PRINCCIPLES OF LEARNING
3.9 THEORIES OF LEARNING
3.10 TYPES OF LEARNERS
EXERCISE
SUMMARY
CASE STUDY
SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
 CHAPTER-3
LEARNING:
3.1 INTRODUCTION:
Learning is a psychological process of understanding, acquiring, information, processing, storing and
using it in future. It is a natural human activity. It is a continuous process. It influences the behaviors.
In organizational context, learning involves acquisition of skill, knowledge, manners, forming attitude.
which influence the work behaviour and work performance, of individuals. Learning occurs by
observation and invitation. Learning happens when there is a change in the behaviour of individual.
3.2 DEFINITION:
Learning is any relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience. -
Stephen P. Robbins
Learning is the process of having one’s behaviour modified, more or less permanently, by what he does
and the consequences of his action, or by what he observes. -Munn N.L.
Learning can be defined as relatively permanent change in behaviour potentially that results from
reinforced practice or experience-Steers and Porter
3.3 MEANING OF LEARNING:
There are two primary elements in meaning of learning:
1. Change must be relatively permanent: This means that after “learning” our behaviour
must be different, either better or worse as compared to our behaviour prior to this learning
experience.
For example, you “learn” to drive a car or have learned how to use a computer.
2. This change must occur due to some kind of experience or practice. This learning is not
caused by biological maturation.
For example, a child does not learn to walk, it is a natural biological phenomenon. We do
not learn to eat or drink. Modification of behaviour taking place through observation,
training or practice is what is called learning.
3.4 FEATURES OF LEARNING:

 Learning is a psychological process.

 It involves a permanent change in the behaviour. Temporary change in behaviour does not
reflect learning.
 It is a cognitive function of brain.
 Mere change in one’s thought process or attitude does not mean learning.
 It occurs through repetitions or reinforced practices. Otherwise learning will vanish.
 Learning is a continuous process.
 Change in behaviour due to sickness, illness or illness injury or aging is not the result of
learning.
 A change in learning is deemed to be the outcome of learning only if it is caused by
observation, training or practice.
 Any behavioural change caused by physical maturation is not learning. Ability to work
brought about physical maturation is not learning.

3.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING:

Learning is the process by which one acquires, ingests, and stores or accepts information. The main
characteristic of learning that; it is a process of obtaining knowledge to change human behaviour
through interaction, practice, and experience.

Characteristics of learning are;

1. Learning involves change.

2. All learning involves activities.
3. Learning Requires Interaction.
4. Constitute Learning.
5. Learning is a Lifelong Process.
6. Learning Occurs Randomly Throughout Life.
7. Learning Involves Problems Solving.
8. Learning is the Process of Acquiring Information.
9. Learning Involves far more than Thinking.
10. Experience is Necessary for Learning.

Let’s explain and understand these characteristics of learning.

1.Learning involves change: It is a reconstruction, combined thinking, skill, information and

appropriation in a single unity process. For example, when a child learns to read they can retain this
knowledge and behaviour for the rest of their lives. It is not always reflected in performance. The
change from the learning may not be clear until a situation arises in which the new behaviour can
occur.

2.All learning involves activities: These activities involve either physical or mental activity. They
may be simple mental activities of complex, involving various muscles, bones, etc. So also, the
mental activities may be very simple involving one or two activities of mind or complex which
involve higher mental activities.

3.Learning Requires Interaction: At the time of learning, the individual is constantly interacting
with and influenced by the environment. This experience makes him change or modify his
behaviour to deal effectively with it.

4.Constitute Learning: To constitute learning, the change should be permanent. Temporary

changes may be only reflective and fail to represent any learning.

5.Learning is a Lifelong Process: Learning is a lifelong process of gaining and using the
information presented to a person. It is not static. A person never stops acquiring new information.
It keeps a person’s mind active and aware but also conscious of the world around them.

6.Learning Occurs Randomly Throughout Life: Some learning occurs randomly throughout life,
from new experiences, gaining information and from our, perceptions, for example: reading a
newspaper or watching a news broadcast, talking with a friend or colleague, chance meetings, and
unexpected experiences.

7.Learning Involves Problems Solving: Learning involves problem-solving i.e. understanding

and discovering relations between different contents in a situation.

8.Learning is the Process of Acquiring Information: Learning. It occurs as a result of interaction

with the person’s environment.
 9.Learning Involves far more than Thinking: Learning involves far more than thinking: it
involves the whole personality – senses, feelings, intuition, beliefs, values, and will. If we do not
have the will to learn, we cannot learn and if we have learned, we are changed in some way. If the
learning makes no difference, it can have very little significance.

10.Experience is Necessary for Learning: Some sort of experience is necessary for learning. We
can get the experience from direct observation or from formal approaches to learning such as
training, mentoring, coaching and teaching. We can get the experience from direct observation or
from formal approaches to learning such as training, mentoring, coaching and teaching.

Learning is more or less the acquisition of a new discourse, a new way of speaking, acting,
interacting, looking at the world, and knowing it. It will be successful only when the information
gained is used and understood.

It is a continuous process followed by an individual that allows for the acquisition of information,
attitudes, and practices, through observation, seeking previous knowledge, searching out guides,
and looking within as well as without. It is a key process in human behaviours. If we compare the
simple ways in which a child feels and behaves, with the complex modes of adult behaviour, his
skills, habits, though, sentiments and the like we will know what difference learning has made to
the individual.

3.6 FACTORS AFFECTING LEARNING:

Learning is based upon some key factors that decide what changes will be caused by this experience.
The key elements or the major factors that affect learning are motivation, practice, environment, and
mental group.
Coming back to these factors let us have a look on these factors −
 Motivation − The encouragement, the support one gets to complete a task, to achieve a goal is
known as motivation. It is a very important aspect of learning as it acts gives us a positive
energy to complete a task. Example − The coach motivated the players to win the match.
 Practice − We all know that” Practice makes us perfect”. In order to be a perfectionist or at
least complete the task, it is very important to practice what we have learnt. Example − We
can be a programmer only when we execute the codes we have written.
 Environment − We learn from our surroundings; we learn from the people around us. They
are of two types of environments – internal and external. Example − A child when at home
learns from the family which is an internal environment, but when sent to school it is an
external environment.
 Mental group − It describes our thinking by the group of people we chose to hang out with. In
simple words, we make a group of those people with whom we connect. It can be for a social
cause where people with the same mentality work in the same direction. Example − A group
of readers, travellers, etc.
These are the main factors that influence what a person learns, these are the root level for our
behaviour and everything we do is connected to what we learn.

3.7 LEARNING PROCESS:

The learning process has the following steps:
1. Stimuli
2. Attention
3. Recognition
4. Translation
5. Reinforcement
6. Behaviour
7. Reward
8. Habits
9. Motives
10. Efforts

1.Stimuli
Stimuli are any objects and language which draw the attention of people. Employees get
stimuli from the actions of their superiors. Superiors tell and advice employees who pay
attention to these stimuli. All the stimuli may not be fully attended to.
2.Attention
The degree of attention depends upon the nature of stimuli. All stimuli are not paid
attention to. Technical and interesting stimuli are highly attended. Career-oriented stimuli are
generally accepted by employees. The personality levels of employees influence their desires to
learn, motives for need fulfilment and tension reduction.
3.Recognition
Attention-paid stimuli are recognised as acceptable factors of improvement and new life
styles. Employees paying attention to stimuli are recognising the stimuli for learning purposes.
The levels of recognition depend upon the levels of values, preferences, needs and desires of the
employees.
4.Translation
The translation and evaluation process is a crucial point for implementing the stimuli in
behaviour through reinforcement. Employees behave properly through attitude changes,
objectivity, mental and physical development. It is observed in better performances.
5.Reinforcement
Reinforced perception is learning. The perception process includes stimuli, attention,
recognition, translation and behaviour. Perception leads to learning, but perception itself is not
learning unless it is reinforced.
Repeated action is reinforcement. Reinforcement may be positive, negative, punishment
and extinction. Learners learn as per their perception levels. Generally positive reinforcement is
more effective for making permanent changes in behaviour.

6.Behaviour

Learning changes behaviour through reinforcement of perceived knowledge. It makes

permanent changes in behaviour. A temporary change in behaviour is not learning. Positive
behaviour gives rewards to employees.

7.Reward

Employees expect rewards for learning. If the translated behaviour provides a reward, it
is accepted, otherwise it is not accepted. Employees develop their behaviour into habits.
Rewards may be monetary or non-monetary.
8.Habits
A permanent change in behaviour becomes a habit which helps continuous
improvement in behaviour and performance. Employees develop the habit of self-appraisal and
 development. It helps to instil creativity and confidence in employees who are encouraged to
behave properly again and again.
9.Motives
Motives depend on the level of satisfaction. Employees getting more satisfaction
through learning develop high motives. Less satisfied learners have low motives. Learning is
complete only when motives are fully realised and translated into efforts.
10.Efforts
Habits help achieve good efforts and performance. This is a continuous
process. Efforts are the automatic outcome of good habits which are acquired through the
learning process. Self-development is possible through self-effort. Employees willing to
develop themselves are self-motivated and effort-oriented.

3.8 Principles for Learning

Over the years, educational psychologists have identities several principles which seem
generally applicable to the learning process. They provide additional insight into what makes
people learn most effectively.

6 Most important principles for learning are:

1. Readiness
2. Exercise
3. Effect
4. Primacy
5. Intensity
6. Recency

1.Readiness: Readiness implies a degree of single-mindedness and eagerness. When students

are ready to learn, they meet the instructor at least halfway, and this simplifies the instructor’s
job.
2.Exercise: The principle of exercise states that those things most often repeated are best
remembered. It is the basis of drill and practice. The human memory is fallible. The mind can
rarely retain, evaluate, and apply new concepts or practices after a single exposure.

3.Effect: The principle of effect is based on the emotional reaction of the student. It states that
learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling, and that learning
is weakened when associated with an unpleasant feeling.

4.Primacy: Primacy, the state of being first, often creates a strong, almost unshakable,
impression. For the instructor, this means that what is taught must be right the first time.

5.Intensity: A vivid, dramatic, or exciting learning experience teaches more than a routine or
boring experience. A student is likely to gain greater understanding of slow flight and stalls by
performing them rather than merely reading about them.
6. Recency: The principle of recency states that things most recently learned are best
remembered. Conversely, the further a student is removed time-wise from a new fact or
understanding, the more difficult it is to remember.

3.9 Theories of Learning

Theories of learning have been developed as models of learning which explain the learning
process by which employees acquire a pattern of behaviour. There are four theories of
learning discussed below.
 1.Classical Conditioning theory
2.Operant conditioning theory
3.Cognitive Learning theory
4.Social Learning Theory
1.Classical Conditioning Theory:
The classical conditioning occurs when a conditioned stimulus is coupled with an unconditioned
stimulus. Usually, the conditioned stimulus (CS) is an impartial stimulus like the sound of a tuning
fork, the unconditioned stimulus (US) is biologically effective like the taste of food and the
unconditioned response (UR) to the unconditioned stimulus is an unlearned reflex response like
salivation or sweating.
After this coupling process is repeated (for example, some learning may already occur after a single
coupling), an individual shows a conditioned response (CR) to the conditioned stimulus, when the
conditioned stimulus is presented alone. The conditioned response is mostly similar to the
unconditioned response, but unlike the unconditioned response, it must be acquired through
experience and is nearly impermanent.

2.Operant Conditioning Theory:

Operant conditioning theory is also known as instrumental conditioning. This theory is a learning
process in which behaviour is sensitive to, or controlled by its outcomes.
Let’s take an example of a child. A child may learn to open a box to get the candy inside, or learn to
avoid touching a hot stove. In comparison, the classical conditioning develops a relationship between
a stimulus and a behaviour. The example can be further elaborated as the child may learn to salivate at
the sight of candy, or to tremble at the sight of an angry parent.
In the 20th century, the study of animal learning was commanded by the analysis of these two sorts of
learning, and they are still at the core of behaviour analysis.
3.Social Learning Theory:
The key assumptions of social learning theory are as follows −
 Learning is not exactly behavioural, instead it is a cognitive process that takes place in a social
context.
 Learning can occur by observing a behaviour and by observing the outcomes of the behaviour
(known as vicarious reinforcement).
 Learning includes observation, extraction of information from those observations, and making
decisions regarding the performance of the behaviour (known as observational learning or
modelling). Thus, learning can occur beyond an observable change in behaviour.
 Reinforcement plays an important role in learning but is not completely responsible for
learning.
 The learner is not a passive receiver of information. Understanding, environment, and
behaviour all mutually influence each other.

4.Cognitive Learning Theory

Cognition defines a person’s ideas, thoughts, knowledge, interpretation, understanding about
himself and environment.
This theory considers learning as the outcome of deliberate thinking on a problem or situation
based upon known facts and responding in an objective and more oriented manner. It perceives that a
person learns the meaning of various objects and events and also learns the response depending upon
the meaning assigned to the stimuli.
 This theory debates that the learner forms a cognitive structure in memory which stores
organized information about the various events that occurs.
Learning & Organizational Behaviour
An individual’s behaviour in an organization is directly or indirectly affected by learning.
Example − Employee skill, manager’s attitude is all learned.
Behaviour can be improved by following the listed tips −
 Reducing absenteeism by rewarding employees for their fair attendance.
 Improving employee discipline by dealing with employee’s undesirable behaviour, drinking at
workplace, stealing, coming late, etc. by taking appropriate actions like oral reprimands,
written warnings and suspension.
 Developing training programs more often so as to grab the trainees’ attention, provide required
motivational properties etc.
3.10 Types of Learners
There are following types of learners:
1. Visual Learners
2. Auditory Learners
3. Kinesthetics Learners
Visual Learners
 Visual learners learn primarily through the written word.
 They tend to be readers who diligently take down every word.
Auditory Learners
 Auditory learners learn primarily through listening.
 They focus their ears and attention on your words, listening carefully to everything you say.
 They like to talk rather than write and relish the opportunity to discuss what they’ve heard.

Kinesthetics Learners
 kinesthetics learners learn better by doing
 This group learns best when they can practice what they’re learning
 They want to have their hands on the keyboard, the hammer, or the test tube because they
think in terms of physical action.
EXERCISE:
Putting Common Sense to the Test
Please answer the following 10 questions:
1.The object and language that draws the attention of people is called----------
-
2.Classical conditioning theory was propounded by---------------------
3.-----------theory advocates that behaviour is the function of consequence.
4.-------------theory recognized the importance of thinking.
5.Anything that increases the strength of response and induces the repetition
of behaviour is called----------
6.Drives and motives administered to learners to learn the whole complex.
7.When one is driven by ones’ own motive to learn it is called ------------
8.-----------theory states that people learn more by observing others.
9.----------theory seeks to find novel solution to problem.
10.Appreciating an employee for his excellent work performance is an
 instance of------------------

SUMMARY:

First, learning involves a change in an attitude or behaviour. This change does not necessarily have to
be an improvement, however, and can include such things as learning bad habits or forming prejudices.
In order for learning to occur, the change that takes place must be relatively permanent. So, changes in
behaviour that result from fatigue or temporary adaptation to a unique situation would not be
considered examples of learning. Next, learning typically involves some form of practice or
experience. For example, the change that results from physical maturation, as when a baby develops
the physical strength to walk, is in itself not considered learning. Third, this practice or experience
must be reinforced over time for learning to take place. Where reinforcement does not follow practice
or experience, the behaviour will eventually diminish and disappear (“extinction”). Finally, learning is
an inferred process; we cannot observe learning directly. Instead, we must infer the existence of
learning from observing changes in overt behaviour.

CASE STUDY:

For Raghunath Mashelkar, currently the director general of the council of scientific and industrial
research (CSIR), it has been long and tedious learning voyage.

Having lost his father at the age of six, Mashelkar worked on a casual basis in shops, providing sundry
help. His barely literate mother, Anjanitai Mashelkar, brought up her son with great courage and
determination. The hunger for education was planted in him by her. She drove Mashelkar forward at
decisive moments in his life, when he could have easily succumbed to the overwhelming odds and
given up.

Mashelkar and his mother lived in a one room tenement in a chawl in Deshmukh Galli, Khet wadi in
Mumbai’s girgaum area. Young Mashelkar was aa consistent topper in his Marathi -medium school.
When he needed Rs.21 as entrance fee to enter senior school, Anjanitai borrowed it from a friend who,
Like her, was doing odd jobs in nearby households. Mashelkar recalls, “when we had weekly tests in
schools on Saturdays, we had to carry our own answer paper, which cost three paise.one had to always
wonder where that money would come from the next week”. For this reason, he almost gave up his
studies at the eleventh standard. Just then the gomanthak Maratha samaj came to his assistance with a
modest scholarship.

Unable to have either privacy or space in the chawl, Mashelkar studied for his secondary school
certificate (SSC) examination under the streetlights at Chowpatty, just as Bal Gangadhar Tilak had
done.

His excellent grades led well-wishers to offer him the Rs.200 needed for college admission. He was
also selected by the sir Dorab Tata trust for their prestigious scholarship. When he finished his
bachelors in chemistry with flying colours and wanted to take up a job to ease the financial situation at
home, his mother asked him a simple question: “What is the next degree in this subject?” Mashelkar
thus started and completed one of the fastest ever doctorates in chemical engineering.
After his Ph.D., His mother encouraged him to go abroad and excel in his chosen field. There followed
an illustrious career at the university of Salford, UK., where he established a first -rate group in
polymer engineering and carried out pioneering work in the field. The desire to climb the educational
ladder was nursed by the barely literate Anjanitai. He says, I owe it all to the supreme sacrifice and
vision of my mother who, by doing odd jobs, nurtured me and motivated me to keep studying”.
Mashelkar recalls that when someone asked his mother why she wanted her son to get educated, she
simply said, “If he had not been educated, he would have been forced to do mental jobs, like I was. I
did not want that to happen”.

SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

SHORT ANSWER QUESTION:
1.Highlight the features of Learning.
2.Briefly state cognitive theory.
3. State cases where classical conditioning theory is applied.
4.Highlight the features of experiential learning.
5.List out the assumptions of adult learning theory.
6.Distinguish between classical conditioning theory and operant conditioning theory.
7.State the cases where classical conditioning theory is applied.
8.Briefly state negative reinforcement.
LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS:
1.Elaborate on the theories of learning.
2.Discuss classical conditioning theory.
3.Write an explanatory note on operant conditioning theory.
4.Describe the various types of reinforcement.
5.How would you administer the reinforcement?
6.Bring out the factors influencing learning.
7.Explain how reinforcement can be used to bring about change in behaviour.
8.Elucidate the steps involved in learning.
9.Elaborate on the process of learning.
10.Discuss the applications of learning concept in organisations.
 CHAPTER-4
MISBEHAVIOUR

CONTENT:
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 DEFINITION OF MISBEHAVIOUR
4.3 TYPES OF EMPLOYEE MISBEHAVIOUR
4.4 FORMS OF MISBEHAVIOUR
4.5 CAUSES OF MISBEHAVIOUR
4.6 MANAGEMENT INTERVENTION TOWARDS EMPLOYEE
MISBEHAVIOUR

MISBEHAVIOUR
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Organization scientists and practitioners are increasingly becoming more aware that patterns of work-
related misconduct by members of organizations are prevalent, and that their consequences for work
organizations are significant.
These misbehaviors range from a mere breach or violation of psychological contracts to blatant acts
bordering on criminal activity perpetrated against others and organizations. Such forms of misconduct
appear to be universal. Most members of work organizations, it appears, engage in some form of
misbehaviors that is related to their work, albeit in varying degrees of intensity, severity and frequency.
In fact, misbehaviors is not restricted to certain employees; it has been recorded for both
nonsupervisory and managerial members of different types of work organization. Not surprisingly
then, both the economic and social costs of many forms of work and organization -related
misbehaviour may, indeed, be quite substantial.
Organizational Misbehaviour is defined as “any intentional action by members of organizations that
violate core organizational and /or societal norms. Inappropriate or illegal employee conduct can create
a wealth of problems for any employer. It can result in a decrease of productivity, damage to the
organization business or reputation, injuries to employees and customers, and exposure to costly legal
liability. Employee misbehaviour can take many different forms-form substance abuse that can create
workplace hazards, to workplace violence that threatens individual safety, to improper e-mail and
internet usage that can result in exposure to law suits and security violations.

4.2 DEFINITION:
Organizational Misbehaviour (OMB) is defined here as any intentional action by members of
organizations that defies and violates shared organizational norms and expectations, and or core
societal values, mores and standards of proper conduct.

Organizational Misbehaviour to refer to “Anything you do at work which you are not supposed to”.
Management establishes boundaries that distinguish acceptable and non-acceptable behaviors from
employees. The actions of employees are then judged as falling one side or other of these boundaries.
4.3 TYPES OF EMPLOYEE MISBEHAVIOUR:
Employee misbehavior has centered around two deviances:
a. Production deviance
b. Property deviance
While both constitute rule-breaking behaviour, production deviance includes various types of
behaviour that are counterproductive (e.g., substandard work, slowdowns, insubordinates), and the
property deviance pertains to acts against property and assets of the organization (e.g., theft, pilferage,
embezzlement, vandalism).
Individual acts are more likely to occur when individual attachment (e.g. Commitment) to an
organization is low. Other antecedents that were found to affect “Productivity deviance” are mostly
related to group and peer pressures, maladjustment, increased competitive pressures, or disagreement
with organizational goals and expectations.

Based on the intention of the misbehaving individual:

a) Misbehaviour that are intended to benefit the self (OMB Type S). These misbehaviors are
mostly internal to the organization, and usually victimize the employing organization or its
members. Thus, such behaviour may have three categories of internal targets:
1. The work itself (e.g., Distorting data, moral harassment at the workplace);
2. The organization’s property, resources, symbols or regulations (eg., stealing and
selling manufacturing secrets); and
3. Other members (e.g., harassing peers). An exception to the above is a behaviour by
a member that appears to benefits the organization (e.g., overcharging customers),
but is, in fact intended to eventually benefit the individual (e.g., gaining a
promotion).
4. Victims of physical violence on the part of persons out of the workplace, like
customers.
b) Misbehavior that primarily intend to benefit the member’s employing organization as a
whole (OMB Type O). Those misbehaviors (e.g., falsifying records in order to improve chances of
obtaining a contract for the organization), are mostly external in nature, usually directed toward outside
“victims” such as other organizations, social institutions, public agencies, or customers. If the intention
underlying this form of behaviour is not primarily to benefit the organization, but is self- serving.
c) Misbehaviors that primarily intend to inflict damage and be destructive (OMB Type D).
Targets of these behaviours could be as listed above, both internal and external. Whereas the intentions
underlying type S and Type O misbehaviors are to benefit either the individual or the organization, the
intention behind OMB type D is to hurt others or the organization.
TREVINO’S MODEL:
Organizational misbehaviour has been undertaken by Trevino in 1992. Her focus is the
interaction between personality and situational factors in determining ethical or unethical decisions
among managers in organizations. In Trevino’s model the individual level variables are the stage of
moral development, ego strength, field dependence, and locus of control. The situational variables are
the immediate job context, the organization culture, and characteristics of the work.
4.4 FORMS OF MISBEHAVIOUR:
1.Viloence at the workplace: No employer wants to think that there is a potential for violence in its
work place, but workplace violence is a disturbing fact of life. Not all incidents of employee violence
can be predicted or prevented, but companies today are expected to take reasonable measures to keep
informed of potential threats to the health and safety of employees and customers. some of the warning
signs of workplace violence are:
  Explicit threats and verbal abuse
 Inappropriate displays of anger, such as screaming and slamming doors.
 Continually disgruntled attitude
 Paranoid behaviour
 Distorting data
 Moral harassment at the workplace
 Exhibition of wide mood swings
 Other erratic behaviour
2. Inappropriate E-mail and Internet usage:
E-mail is a powerful communication tool that lets individual transmit information bothnwithin and
outside of the organization inexpensively and with lightning speed. However, an inadequate usage of e-
mail and the internet by the employee can be a serious problem for an employer.
E-Mail transmission are considered “documents” and can be used against an employer in a lawsuit in
the same way as any written letter. In recent court cases in USA employee e-mail message have been
presented as evidence in claim of discrimination, sexual harassment and other illegal activities.
Employees commonly create and store personal documents on employer -supplied hardware.
Furthermore, non-business -related web surfing can impede business productivity. Managers should
develop and communicate a policy regarding online issue, which should apply to all employees with
access to these tools.

3.Substance abuse in the workplace:

The issues of substance abuse in the workplace is an unpleasant one to face. Most of on-the-job
accidents are due to drug and alcohol use and has effects on judgement and on performance of skilled
work. Alcohol has a deleterious effect on performance because f its effect on vision, perceptual motor
functions, judgement, reasoning and memory.
4.Accidents as withdrawal Behaviour:
People may be motivated to have an accident so that can take time off work. Workers either
consciously or unconsciously cause an accident in order to escape from work.
5.Another workplace Dishonesty:
A company can experiences other acts of employee dishonesty, such as theft of company property or
the property of other employees, or fraud. In order to root out or prevent such incidents, managers may
use some techniques: such as search of employees property, or employees themselves, video
surveillance and telephone monitoring. However, managers actions should be reasonable and not
against the privacy expectation of the employees.

4.5 CAUSES OF EMPLOYEES MISBEHAVIOUR:

Misbehaviour in the workplace not only deplete an organization’s energy, but they are also a
warning that employees needs are not met. That is the premise behind the five key drivers of
misbehaviors which helps companies boost their organizational energy and employee engagement.
The five leading drivers of employee’s misbehaviour are:
1.Bad Fits: When employees are not doing things, they are good at, it creates inner friction and feeling
of incompetence and lack of focus, poor performance and mistakes follow.

2.Unclear about their role:

When employees are not clear on what is expected of them, and they are unsure about how they serve
the company, it can create feelings of confusion, insecurity and mistrust. They begin to question
whether they are succeeding or failing in their role; as a result, they become critical of management
initiatives and demonstrate poor commitment.
3.Lack of support:
This includes physical tools and emotional support. When people do not have the time, tools resources
they need to succeed, it can leave them feeling overwhelmed, taken for grant and resentful They
respond by bad -mouthing the organization, complaining and showing an overall poor attitude.

4.Not being Valued:

Employees look for a “thank you” to feel appreciated for their work, but they do not always get it. The
resulting misbehaviour incudes lack of trust and loyalty, low engagement, communication and toxic
culture.

5.Lack of Inspiration:
Individuals cannot sustain their energy when they feel their leaders are hypocrite and their job has no
real purpose beyond making money for someone else. When people do not feel like they are living up
to their potential and being held accountable to results apathy and cynicism.

4.6 MANAGEMENT INTERVENTION TOWARDS EMPLOYEE MISBEHAVIOUR:

The difficult demeanors of some persons or of the so-called problem-employees are easily
recognizable in companies due to the emotional reactions they develop. Difficult demeanors of some of
the employees can consist of objective causes such as:
 Assignment of tasks which exceed their abilities.
 Too few tasks
 Lack of variety of work
 Setting vague objectives for the employees.
 Uncertainty of the job
 Continuous pressure
 Consequence of stress and exhaustion,
 Hypersensitivity
 Negative thinking
 Low self-respect or aggression
Regardless of what the causes of difficult demeanor are, the approach of problem employees is
a challenge for the maangers.While most of them may be tempted to dismiss these employees,
the best alternatives is to learn how to behave with that person. Dismissal is not always a
solution as recruiting and training new persons is expensive. On the other hand, the presence in
a work group of an aggressive, arrogant, insubordinate, finical, hypersensitive and unproductive
employee is difficult to bear. It is even worse he has alcohol problems.
In organizations various types of problem-employees are to be met and they are often named
with humor “little genius”, “pathologic blabber”, “chronic complainant”, the informer”, “the
absent-minded”, “the bad-tempered” and so on. The choice of the right demeanor for the
approach of the employee will be made according to the type of demeanor.
a) Understanding the hypersensitive
b) Tempering tantrums
c) “Got you” Game
d)Denying negativity
e) The informer
a) Understanding the hypersensitive: No one likes to be critized but most people can accept
constructive critiques. However, some persons feel any kind of critiques. Every time there are
vague critique hints made related to their activity, they become defensive and start accusing
people that they are picking holes in them. The hypersensitive employee fear to be criticized
leads to great precaution in all his activities. In order not to risk by making the smallest mistake
he checks and double checks anything he does. Consequently, he does not succeed to finish his
 tasks on time. The hypersensitive employee may have low self-respect and therefore needs
encouragement.
b) Tempering Tantrums: There are employees who lose their temper occasionally and scream
and yet at their colleagues and even at their bosses. They calm down rapidly but their demeanor
affects the work of the entire team and some time has to pass until everything returns to normal.
Here are some suggestions of how to treat a person who has tantrums:
 After he has calmed down you should have a human-to-human discussion with the
person. Emphasize you understand that it is not always easy for anyone to control one’s
temper but these tantrums are not to be accepted at work.
 If he has another tantrum send him out of the room until he calms down. Tell him that
the next tantrum will lead to disciplinary actions.
 Recommend him to think about the old saying; count up to ten before opening the
mouth”.
 If you have an employee assistance program suggest the member to set a meeting with
one of the program’s advisors.
b) “Got you” Game: Almost in every organization there is an employee whose greatest
pleasure is to catch the others making a mistake. The persons who play this game try to
display their superiority. Because they usually do not have original ideas or constructive
suggestions, they find it satisfactory to dis others mistakes, especially their boss’s. They try
to make them feel embarrassed and uncomfortable. The most adequate approach is by
ignoring their observations or the answer by making a joke and smiling. “Thankyou for
drawing the attention before something bad would happen”.
c) Denying Negativity: Nothing goes right for the negativist employee. He always has a
reason why an activity or a program cannot be realized. Negativist Persons Cause more
problems to the organization. They oppose do whatever they can to sabotage a situation so
that the new method would not work and they could then say: “I Told you so”. Negativist
persons have a negative impact on the team’s morale.
d) The Informer: The informer type problem-employee can be very good in his domain, can
have multiple qualities, but has the greatest flaw: a bad character. He is disgusting by
providing information about his colleagues to his boss: “X is late again”, “Y is talking to
her friend on the phone again”. Such a man can manipulate the relations among the
employees of a company for his own benefit. He is the same man who will leave to another
company for a greater income and will expose all secrets of the previous company.

4.7 THE EMPLOYEE HANDBOOK-A TOOL FOR HANDLING EMPLOYEES’

MISBEAHVIOUR:
The handbook should be written in simple and clear language, avoiding ambiguity. It is
recommended to use a positive tone, not to adopt a punitive posture.
Sections Content
Welcome/Introductory section  Letter of welcome
 Information about the history
of the organization, its
mission and values
 Explanation about the
purpose of the employee
handbook
Employment & Compensation policies  Hours of work; break times
 Attendance policy
  Overtime policy; time records
 Pay periods
 Transfers and promotions
 Performance appraisal systems
 Personal records
 Standards of conduct; dress code
 Confidential information policy
 Theft of company property
 Smoking policy
 Employment of relatives
 Electronic communications policy

Time-off policies  Vacation time, holidays

 Personal days, sick days
 Unpaid leave of absence
Employee  Safety rules
safety policies  Procedures for reporting an accident
 Emergency procedures
 Procedures For Responding and
preventing violence in the workplace
 Policies prohibiting workplace substance
abuse
Corrective discipline/  Open door policy
Termination policies  Internal complaint procedure
 Progressive disciplinary procedure
 Dismissal
 Resignation
 CHAPTER-5
5.1 INTRODUCTION
EMOTIONS:
Emotions vary from person to person. Even in the case of same person, emotions vary depending on
moods. Before exploring the emotions, let us examine its classification.
The term emotion is one of the important variables in psychology. It is now receiving a lot of attention
in the sphere of organizational behaviour.
Frijida, opines those emotions are intense feelings at someone or something. Where a person is angry
at someone. He is showing his emotion at him. One feels happy when one meets his friends after a long
time. An individual feels frustrated when he is not selected at interview. A person feels disappointed
when his expectations are not fulfilled. Thus, emotions can be defined as how a person feels about
something.
5.2 TYPES OF EMOTIONS:
Emotions are many in number Anger, contempt, hatred, envy, jealously contentment, rancor, dejection,
depression tension, jealousy, fear, worry, disappointment, sadness, enthusiasm, joyfulness, surprise,
shock, happiness, rejoice, pride, love and so on point to emotion. The list is endless. Basically,
emotions emerge from two dominant factors namely pain and pleasure.
The psychological literature discloses the type of emotions listed below.
Positive/Primary Emotions Description
1.Love, Affection Acceptance, adoration, devotion and
infatuation
2.Joy and Happiness Cheerfulness, enthusiasm, delight,
contentment, enjoyment, euphoria, zeal,
zest, thrill, excitement, enthrallment and so
on.
3.Surprise Wonder, astonishment, amazement, shock

Negative Emotions Description

Fear Anxiety, apprehension, concern, dread, fright, terror panic,
phobia
Sadness Grief, sorrow, gloom, despair, rejection, disappointment,
suffering
Anger Outrage, indignation, hostility,irritability,dejection.
Disgust Contempt, horror, revulsion, distaste
Shame Guilt, remorse, embarrassment, humiliation, insult

Emotions common in workplace:

 ‘x’ feels happy when he is appreciated by his boss in the presence of his colleagues.
 ‘Y’ feels humiliated when his superior admonished her in the presence of his coworker.
 ‘Z’ is shocked when he learnt that he was not considered for oversees assignment.
 ‘L’ was angry when he was passed over for promotion for the third time.
 ‘O’ felt ashamed when he was caught for padding the expenses.
 ‘A’ felt honored when he represented his company in negotiation with outside agency.
 ‘G’ feels sad that he may lose job when the company decided to downsize.
 ‘J’ was surprised to learn that the stock prices of his company dropped to few points.
5.3 Differences Between Affect, Emotion and Mood:
An Affect is a term that encompasses a broad range of feelings that people can experience. It embodies
both emotions and moods.
An Emotion is an intense feeling that is short-term and is typically directed at a source. Emotions can
often have indicative facial expressions and body language as well.
A Mood is a state of mind that tends to be less intense than an emotion, and does not necessarily need
a contextual stimulus. Moods last longer than emotions, from hours to days.

Emotions have the ability to turn into a mood state when unattended to. If a precipitating event is
ignored or lost focus of, the emotion of said event could transform into a new mood state. Also, moods
can affect a person’s emotion and emotional intensity of new situations that follow as well. Emotions
and moods influence one another.

Factors Mood Emotion

Duration Relatively long-term Relatively short-term
Time Pattern Gradual onset, continuous, Rapid onset, episodic,
tonic phasic
Intensity Relatively weak Relatively strong
Causation Not caused by specific Caused by a specific event
events
Function Provides information about Provides information about
current state of self current state of situation.
Directedness Unfocussed Takes specific object

5.4 SOURCES OF EMOTION:

1.Gender: Research by A.M. King on “Differences in emotion expression, experience and physiology”
has confirmed that women are emotional more than a man. They react to emotions faster than men.
Research by J.A. Hall on “Nonverbal sex difference”. Communication accuracy and expressive style
has reported that women are more capable of reading the emotions of others.
2.Age: The age has a bearing on emotion. The elders are emotionally stable than the younger ones.
Elder people undergo fewer negative emotions than younger ones. Moreover, the duration of negative
emotion for the elders is also lesser.
3.Personality: There are two types of personalities namely introvert and extravert. Emotions affect
them differently in nature and in intensity. Events affect the extraverts positively while it affects
introverts negatively.
4.Time: The term ‘time’ connotes different days of a week or different times of days. People are very
in the morning hours. They undergo positive mood in the morning of hour of their work.
5.Stress: Tension or stress affects our emotion. A stress is usually short tenured. It emerges and
subsides too. For Example: tension, before an interview, an anxiety before declaration of examination
result, disappointment after expectation of something etc.

5.5 THEORIES OF EMOTION:

The major theories of emotion can be grouped into three main categories: physiological, neurological,
and cognitive.

1. Physiological theories suggest that responses within the body are responsible for emotions.
2. Neurological theories propose that activity within the brain leads to emotional responses.
3. Cognitive theories argue that thoughts and other mental activity play an essential role in
forming emotions.

1.Evolutionary Theory of Emotion

It was naturalist Charles Darwin who proposed that emotions evolved because they were adaptive and
allowed humans and animals to survive and reproduce. Feelings of love and affection lead people to
seek mates and reproduce. Feelings of fear compel people to either fight or flee the source of danger.
According to the evolutionary theory of emotion, our emotions exist because they serve an adaptive
role. Emotions motivate people to respond quickly to stimuli in the environment, which helps improve
the chances of success and survival.

Understanding the emotions of other people and animals also plays a crucial role in safety and survival.
If you encounter a hissing, spitting, and clawing animal, chances are you will quickly realize that the
animal is frightened or defensive and leave it alone. By being able to interpret correctly the emotional
displays of other people and animals, you can respond correctly and avoid danger.

2.The James-Lange Theory of Emotion

The James-Lange theory is one of the best-known examples of a physiological theory of emotion.
Independently proposed by psychologist William James and physiologist Carl Lange, the James-Lange
theory of emotion suggests that emotions occur as a result of physiological reactions to events.

This theory suggests that seeing an external stimulus leads to a physiological reaction. Your emotional
reaction is dependent upon how you interpret those physical reactions.

For example, suppose you are walking in the woods and see a grizzly bear. You begin to tremble, and
your heart begins to race. The James-Lange theory proposes that you will conclude that you are
frightened ("I am trembling. Therefore, I am afraid"). According to this theory of emotion, you are not
trembling because you are frightened. Instead, you feel frightened because you are trembling.

James-Lange Theory of Emotion:

3.The Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

Another well-known physiological theory is the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion. Walter Cannon
disagreed with the James-Lange theory of emotion on several different grounds. First, he suggested,
people can experience physiological reactions linked to emotions without actually feeling those
emotions. For example, your heart might race because you have been exercising, not because you are
afraid.
Cannon also suggested that emotional responses occur much too quickly to be simply products of
physical states. When you encounter a danger in the environment, you will often feel afraid before you
start to experience the physical symptoms associated with fear, such as shaking hands, rapid breathing,
and a racing heart.

Cannon first proposed his theory in the 1920s, and his work was later expanded on by physiologist
Philip Bard during the 1930s. According to the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion, we feel emotions and
experience physiological reactions such as sweating, trembling, and muscle tension simultaneously.

More specifically, the theory proposes that emotions result when the thalamus sends a message to the
brain in response to a stimulus, resulting in a physiological reaction. At the same time, the brain also
receives signals triggering the emotional experience. Cannon and Bard’s theory suggests that the
physical and psychological experience of emotion happen at the same time and that one does not cause
the other.

Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

4.Schachter-Singer Theory
Also known as the two-factor theory of emotion, the Schachter-Singer theory is an example of
a cognitive theory of emotion. This theory suggests that the physiological arousal occurs first, and then
the individual must identify the reason for this arousal to experience and label it as an emotion. A
stimulus leads to a physiological response that is then cognitively interpreted and labeled, resulting in
an emotion.

Schachter and Singer’s theory draws on both the James-Lange theory and the Cannon-Bard theory.
Like the James-Lange theory, the Schachter-Singer theory proposes that people infer emotions based
on physiological responses. The critical factor is the situation and the cognitive interpretation that
people use to label that emotion.

Like the Cannon-Bard theory, the Schachter-Singer theory also suggests that similar physiological
responses can produce varying emotions. For example, if you experience a racing heart and sweating
palms during an important exam, you will probably identify the emotion as anxiety. If you experience
the same physical responses on a date, you might interpret those responses as love, affection, or
arousal.

The Two-Factor Theory of Emotion

5.Cognitive Appraisal Theory

According to appraisal theories of emotion, thinking must occur first before experiencing emotion.
Richard Lazarus was a pioneer in this area of emotion, and this theory is often referred to as the
Lazarus theory of emotion.

According to this theory, the sequence of events first involves a stimulus, followed by thought, which
then leads to the simultaneous experience of a physiological response and the emotion. For example, if
you encounter a bear in the woods, you might immediately begin to think that you are in great danger.
This then leads to the emotional experience of fear and the physical reactions associated with the fight-
or-flight response.

6.Facial-Feedback Theory of Emotion

The facial-feedback theory of emotions suggests that facial expressions are connected to experiencing
emotions. Charles Darwin and William James both noted early on that sometimes-physiological
responses often had a direct impact on emotion, rather than simply being a consequence of the
emotion.

Supporters of this theory suggest that emotions are directly tied to changes in facial muscles. For
example, people who are forced to smile pleasantly at a social function will have a better time at the
event than they would if they had frowned or carried a more neutral facial expression.

5.6 INTRODUCTION TO EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE:

In this existing sceptical world, every human comes across success as well as failures while
working with the diversified ideologies. As far as an employee is a novice, it will be evaluated for his
individual performance. This individual performance is mostly based on the analysis of intelligence
and individual hard work that has been displayed during the course of time. Emotional intelligence and
soft skills start playing a major role in defining success, as and when one becomes a leader.

The intelligence by which an individual gets into an organization is highly important to scale up and
give climb to the career. The amount of success a person achieves ultimately depends on the basis of
attained expertise in the relevant field. As soon as the novice phase starts ripening, every organization
expects some new skills, new attitudes, and a new approach. It’s the transition phase where the
situation demands to learn some of the most vital life lessons. As it’s a widely accepted fact that none
of the human beings would like to execute the same job for the entire life. Change and up-gradation of
living standards are the great aspects every individual, it’s a sense of motivation for the working
people.

Gradually to raise the standards to the utmost level one needs to get elevated in the workplace to the
next position. The new roles and new responsibilities would demand some managerial skills to
understand different kinds of workforce need that o be handled.

5.7 MEANING OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE:

Emotional Intelligence is all about self-management, self-awareness, and understanding
people around. The major aspect of emotional intelligence is relationship management.
“Emotional Intelligence is the capability of individual to recognize their own emotions and those of
others, discern between different feelings ad label them appropriately, use emotional information to
guide thinking and behaviour, manage and or adjust emotions to adapt to environments or achieve
one’s goal.

5.8 Components of Emotional Intelligence:

Psychologist and author Daniel Goleman have suggested that there are five components to emotional
intelligence.
Below are the components of Emotional Intelligence:
1. Self-Awareness
2. Self-Management
3. Social Skill
4. Empathy
5. Motivation
1.Self Awareness
Self-awareness is a basic understanding of one’s own personality. It is one of the core qualities
that disclose the capacity of the individual to make a self-reflection and monitor self. It also involves
self-observation of the various functions being carried out.

As a person is self-reflective, aware of the feelings than taking good decisions in crucial times becomes
uncomplicated.

As a person begins to understand their own feelings, it enables us to make informed choices.
Ultimately the person starts self-assessment of the job that is being executed, as a result, the person
feels confident and never hesitates to change the direction in mid-journey. This helps them in taking
quick decisions and act public opinion.

2.Self-Management

Self-Management is all about how a person manages emotions. It allows people to control their
thoughts and feelings. Basically, humans get distressed and disgusted when things are not going our
way. But in such conditions are we still able to hold our nerves and remain adaptable, can we still stay
focused and motivated.
The ability to remain calm, self-motivated, showing flexibility is related to internal Self –
Management.
In the present world, we all are put to go through various states of disequilibrium that is a chance to
display the self-management skills, a person who holds the ground and retain the equilibrium is a well-
defined leader. Managing fear, anxiety, anger, distrust, and disappointment can be achieved if a person
is a well self – managed.

3.Social Skills
Social Skills refer to the management of relationships and building networks, which ultimately
helps to communicate and interact with each other.
It is a major personality trait required to be an outstanding leader. A person who possesses good social
skills is always an inspiration for the workforce and can easily motivate the team during tough times.

It helps in building rapport and building better bonds with the team members and various other
organizations. It maintains a personal friendship amongst colleagues/work associates.

A great leader with good social skills can always create enthusiasm and make missions get
accomplished much accurately. How a leader makes the employees feel plays a vital role in the level of
their work execution and commitment.

4.Empathy
Empathy makes us understand how other people are thinking and feeling. This is a great skill to
understand very well sometimes one should get into someone else’s shoes. It makes us be aware of
someone’s feelings and act accordingly. Empathy is a critical skill required to be an outstanding leader.

An impeccable leader always has concerns that how the team members feel, always take care of the
employees, always help them in critical situations, and always stand, come forward courageously
during failures.

One, who wants to lead the firm to the real path of success and growth, should give full freedom to the
employees to show disagreement wherever it’s being felt. Disagreements and asking questions always
made an organization strong and resilient. A mature leader tries to value the differences and learn from
them, instead of eliminating them.

5.Motivation:

Motivation is the willingness of an individual to do something. It drives an individual to the goals and
targets indirectly.

Motivation generated externally from others may stay for a very short period but inner and self-
motivation makes you much enthusiastic towards the work and duties. It describes truly what we want
and ultimately creates a focus to reach the destination.

It helps in discarding various distractions in between the journey and keeps us moving forward. It
makes a person strong and works magically to turn a failure into learning. As soon as a person
understands the purpose and sense of meaning, work is providing; the person gets motivated, forgetting
all the external odds and tries to approach the goals with utmost accuracy.

Motivation keeps the person positive ever and as a leader passes a similar kind of vibes and energy
towards his team members. That’s the reason motivation plays a key role in becoming a perfect leader.
Advantages of Emotional Intelligence:

Hopefully, would have made you understand the role played by Emotional Intelligence in
crafting out an impeccable leader.
In conclusion, I would like to disclose some of the advantages of Emotional Intelligence.
1. It would strengthen teamwork.
2. It helps to deal with the conflicts within the organization.
3. It enhances the effective execution of the duties assigned.
4. It gives a competitive edge and makes people work for you.
5. It provides you a distilled wisdom of theory and practical approaches.
6. It ultimately makes a person much productive and successful.

Emotional Intelligence to be an Impeccable Leader:

As soon as one becomes a leader, emotional intelligence and soft skills start playing a major role in
defining success. Here come the most versatile soft skills, conclusive evidence reveals that soft skills
may sound like a quite business but are very much crucial for outstanding leadership and creating the
happiest workforce.

Emotional Intelligence is one of the basic qualities required for a person to be a successful leader and
ultimately take the organization to the most successful end. A leader has to execute the duty in various
dimensions of the work field.

CASE STUDY: A CAPCO Case Study

Founded just 15 years ago, Capco is a leading international provider of consulting, managed services
and technology solutions for the financial services industry. With 20 offices around the world Capco
employs over 2,000 people. In 2013 Capco ranked 27th in The Sunday Times 100 Best Companies to
Work For list and is also featured as one of The Times Top 50 Employers for Women. One of Capco’s
key differentiators is that it is solely dedicated to the global financial services sector. The financial
services sector includes banking, finance and investment. This sector faces many challenges, the main
ones being: a). Increased customer expectation and demand b). New entrants to the market c). A need
for innovation d). Significant regulation following the recent global financial crisis. For Capco, its
employees must be creative and think differently to provide tailored solutions in order to meet the
needs of their clients facing these challenges. ‘We understand the business drivers of global financial
services. Working shoulder to shoulder with our clients, we address and then look beyond immediate
issues of compliance and competition. We help foster an entrepreneurial, innovative and growth-
focused approach.’ Strong values of respect, integrity, commitment, excellence and knowledge define
how the company works with its clients and reflect the behaviours Capco expects from its employees.
It has a very large client base working with 75% of the world’s global financial services institutions. Its
success is demonstrated by the fact that globally, it has grown 14.7% faster than its fastest growing
competitor. Capco’s Associate Talent Programme (ATP) helps to ensure a pipeline of talent to meet
thisgrowth.
 This case study shows how the organisational structure at Capco helped develop an
innovative and entrepreneurial culture to facilitate its success.

CASE STUDY QUESTIONS:

Do you think that Organisational structure helps build innovative environment? What are the
values you consider in this case study.