Test Bank for Principles of Microeconomics 8th Edition

Test Bank for Principles of Microeconomics 8th Edition

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Exam
Name_

MULTIPLE CHOICE. Choose the one alternative that best completes the statement or answers the question.
1) All of the following, except one, is demand. Which is the exception? 1)
A) The relationship between various prices and quantities demanded for a product.
B) The quantities which consumers want to buy.
C) A hypothetical construct which expresses the desire and ability to purchase, not
at a single price, but over a range of prices.
D) The quantitieswhich consumers are willing and able to buy per period of time
at various prices.
2) What is the term for the quantities which consumers are willing and able to buy per 2)
period of time at various prices?
A) Desire.
B) Supply.
C) Market.
D) Human wants.
E) Demand.

3) What is the term for a table that shows the various quantities demanded per period of 3)
time at different prices?
A) Supply schedule.
B) Production possibilities table.
C) Market schedule.
D) Schedule of equilibrium points.
E) Demand schedule.

4) What is meant by the term change in the quantity demanded? 4)

A) The change in the quantity which results from a change in any factor other than
the price and implies a movement along the demand curve.
B) The change in the quantity which results from a change in any factor other than
the price and implies a shift in the demand curve.
C) The change in the quantity which results from a price change and implies a
movement along the demand curve.
D) The change in the quantity which results from a price change and implies a shift
in the demand curve.
5) What is the most likely reason that your instructor does not have a demand for a 5)
top-of-the-line BMW?
A) He or she would prefer to own no car at all.
B) He or she cannot afford to own such an expensive car.
C) He or she does not wish to own such an expensive car.
D) He or she does not want to own a German-made car.

What is meant by the term ceteris paribus?

6) 6)
A) Other things being equal. B) Prices remain constant.
Visit TestBankBell.com to get complete for all chapters
 C) A downward-sloping demand D) All things vary.
curve.

7) What is the correct way to label the axis on a graph which illustrates a demand c urve
? 7)

_
A) Quantity on horizontal axis and price on the vertical axis.
B) Price on horizontal axis and quantity on the vertical axis.
C) Income on the horizontal axis and price on the vertical axis.
D) Price on the horizontal axis and income on the vertical axis.

8) What is the term for income measured by the amount of goods and services which it 8)
will buy?
A) Income effect.
B) Real income.
C) Actual income.
D) Net income.
E) Nominal income.

9) What is the term for the total demand for a product by all consumers? 9)
A) Product market.
B) Market Supply.
C) Quota.
D) Market Demand.
E) Schedule of wants.

10) What is market demand? 10)

A) The desire to purchase cheaper competing products rather than relatively more
expensive products.
B) The substitution of one product for another as a result of a change in their
relative prices.
C) An increase or decrease in prices based on the quantity demanded of a product.
D) The total demand for a product by all consumers.

11) What is the income effect? 11)

A) The effect of a change in income on the demand for a substitute product.
B) The effect of a price change on real income and therefore on the quantity
demanded of a product.
C) The effect of a change in income on the demand for an inferior product.
D) The effect of a change in income on the demand for a product.

12) What is the substitution effect? 12)

A) The sacrifice which has to be made when an additional quantity of one product
is purchased.
The substitution of one product for another as a result of a change in their
B)
relative prices.
C) The effect that a change in income has on the demand for a substitute product.
D) The substitution of a normal product for an inferior product as the result of an
increase in income.
13) What is the term for the substitution of one product for another as a result of a 13)
change in their relative prices?
A) Market effect. B) Law of demand.
 Another random document
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 Dr. L L Rabbi Dr. N. M. A

Baron M. de H

Prof. Dr. H S M H

Dr. Theodor Herzl was elected President of the Congress and Dr. Max
Nordau, Dr. Salz and M. Samuel Pineles first, second and third Vice-
Presidents respectively. The Executive Central Committee elected by the
First Congress consisted of:—

Vienna: Dr. Theodor Herzl, Dr. Schnirer, Dr. Oser Kokesch, Dr. Müntz,
Julius M. Kremenezky. Austria (other than Galicia): Dr. Sigmund
Kornfield. Galicia: Dr. Salz, Dr. Korkis. Bukovina: Dr. Meyer Ebner.
France: M. Bernard Lazare. Germany: Rabbi Dr. Isaac J. Rülf, Dr.
Bodenheimer. Russia: Rabbi Samuel Mohilewer, Prof. Max Mandelstamm,
Dr. Jacob Kohan-Bernstein, Isidor Jasinowski. Roumania: Dr. Karl Lippe,
Samuel Pineles. Bulgaria and Servia: Prof. Gregor Belkovsky. Orient:
Jacques Behar.

One of the most prominent members of the First Congress was Dr.
Hermann Schapira (1840‒1898), Professor of Mathematics at the
University of Heidelberg. He was a native of Russia, and had a most
remarkable career. Being too poor to study, he turned to trade, and when he
had saved sufficient money became a student once more. He was then
already forty years of age, but his keen intellect and industry soon brought
him to the forefront in mathematics, which he had studied privately without
the help of a school or a teacher. He first learned his science from old
Hebrew books, and then from books written in other languages. So much
was his pre-eminence recognized that, notwithstanding his being a Jew and
a foreigner—a Russian subject—he was appointed to the Professorship of
Mathematics at Heidelberg University. He remained in appearance, in
manners and in mentality as typical and picturesque a member of his people
as any old Rabbi. He was an excellent Hebrew scholar, and well versed not
only in ancient Jewish history and literature, but also in modern Hebrew
literature. Like the whole modern Hebraist school, he regarded Hebrew as a
living tongue. His heart and soul were in the “Lovers of Zion” movement
and in the Hebrew revival. At the first Zionist Congress he solemnly called
upon the delegates to declare allegiance to the cause. When differences of
opinion arose, the old Professor in impassioned language appealed to all to
sink their differences and personal prejudices and to work unitedly with one
heart and soul for the common cause. A dramatic scene followed. The
Professor called upon every delegate present to raise his right hand, and
they all did so and repeated after him:—

“‫אשכחך ירושלם תשכח ימיני׃‬-‫ ”אם‬¹

¹ “If I forget thee, O Jerusalem,

Let my right hand forget her cunning” (Psalm cxxxvii. 5).

This was one of the most solemn moments of the Congress. On the
other hand, when Professor Schapira first spoke about the necessity of a
Jewish National Fund, an idea which he had advocated some time earlier in
Hebrew articles, the proposal was regarded as a chimera rather than as a
practical scheme. But he did not feel discouraged by the opposition of the
“practical people.” During the first year of the Zionist organization,
between the first and second Congresses, he devoted himself entirely to
Zionist work. He died on a Zionist propaganda tour, during a stay at
Cologne.
 The first Christian clergyman to encourage Herzl was the Chaplain to
the British Embassy in Vienna, the Rev. Dr. W. H. Hechler, who is an ardent
student of the Bible and a Christian “Lover of Zion.” With the full
knowledge of his chief, the British Ambassador, he supported the Zionist
movement, and introduced Herzl to several of his Royal and Imperial pupils
and friends. He was the first English clergyman to go to Russia and help the
persecuted Jews on the spot: he visited at that time Odessa, Mohilew,
Kishinew and Balta. He visited the Holy Land several times, and regularly
attended the Zionist Congresses.

Among the most interesting visitors at the Congress were, the famous
pioneer of Zionism, Henri Dunant; and the Protestant pastor Dr. Johannes
Lepsius, son of Carl Richard Lepsius (1810‒1884), the famous
Egyptologist, who is thoroughly acquainted with the East, and had been
pastor of a small community in the Harz Mountains. Dr. Lepsius warmly
espoused the cause of the Armenians in 1895, and when, as the result of his
agitation, the German Government sent him a warning, he resigned his post.
He placed his views on the Zionist Congress before a meeting held on the
7th September, 1897, at Basle, in a paper entitled, “Armenians and Jews in
Exile; or, the Future of the East with Reference to the Armenian Question
and the Zionist Movement.” After referring to points of similarity between
Jews and Armenians, both persecuted races, he said: “When the time comes
... will Jewry lay their hands on Palestine and say: this is our land? Will
anyone be able to prevent them? Even if the Zionist movement has an
exclusively national character, there is yet a strong religious undercurrent.
We believe that the Jewish nation has a future before it, and that this future
will be a glorious one.” The address was followed by an interesting
discussion, in the course of which Professor Carl Friedrich Heman, the
Orientalist, of Basle University, heartily endorsed Dr. Lepsius’ views.

The greatest achievement of the new Zionism was the Jewish Congress
—the supreme authority in the movement based upon democratic principles
—and the creation of a world-wide organization for the resuscitation of the
Jewish nationality and for the regaining of Palestine, not by brute force or
political adventure, and not by any act against the government or the
population of the country or any other government or nation, but by force of
conviction, enthusiasm, devotion and self-sacrifice.
 M. Zadoc Kahn (1839‒1905), Grand Rabbin of France, addressed a
letter of congratulation to the first Zionist Congress. The Grand Rabbin
wrote that he would not fail to follow with much interest the deliberations
of the Congress. Whatever might be thought as to the utility and
opportuneness of the Congress, it could not be denied that it merited every
attention. Differences of opinion were inevitable, but he prayed with all his
might that God might guide and inspire all the leaders of the movement,
and that the debates and the resolutions which would be arrived at would be
for the benefit of Judaism throughout the world.

In an interview on the subject of the Zionist movement, which took

place immediately after the first Zionist Congress, M. Zadoc Kahn spoke in
the highest terms of Dr. Herzl.

“This man of faith is also a man of action. He is an apostle, but an

apostle who is doctor of political economy. I know he occupies a
distinguished place in the Austrian Press, and that he has excellent relations
in the highest political spheres. But he appears ready to sacrifice all for the
triumph of his ideas.” M. Zadoc Kahn then criticized in very mild terms the
exaggerated “pessimism” of Herzl’s pamphlet, “The Jewish State,” and
after dwelling on the religious aspects of the question, he concluded:—

“The sympathy of the French Jews, now awakened, is assured to the

Zionists. To ridicule or condemn a project when this project carries with it
hope, and thus consolation, to thousands of co-religionists who are
molested in their quality as Jews, this the French Jews have not the right to
do.”

In opening the proceedings of the final day of the Congress, Herzl

announced that several letters and telegrams had been received. The only
one he would mention was that sent by the Rev. Dr. Moses Gaster, Haham
of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews in England, who wrote to express his
sympathy with the objects of the Congress.
 CHAPTER XLIX.
THE MOTIVE FORCES OF
ZIONISM
Modern Hebrew literature—The Chovevé Zion—The pioneers in Palestine.

T the Zionist Movement was launched. Before we follow its

progress during the intervening twenty years, it will be as well to give some
account of the forces at work in Jewish life which made the movement and
its success possible. For Zionism cannot be properly understood if it is
regarded merely as a result of certain political combinations or as a reaction
against anti-Semitism. It must be traced to its roots, which lie deep in the
national consciousness of the Jewish people; and that national
consciousness is not simply a vague sentiment, but has long had its concrete
expressions in connection with the revival of Palestine and of the Hebrew
language. The inner history of Zionism, then, is to be traced along the lines
of Palestinian colonization and the Hebrew renascence. For convenience we
may divide our brief survey into three main headings:

1. Modern Hebrew Literature.

2. The Chovevé Zion and University Zionist Groups in various countries.

3. The pioneers of the Hebrew Revival in Palestine.

It must be remembered, however, that these are not watertight divisions,

and we naturally meet with the same men in different fields of work.
 The aim of the present chapter is to trace the development of each of
these three forces (so far as that has not been done in earlier chapters),
giving some account of the outstanding figures in each department. There is
in each field a host of less distinguished but not less devoted workers. Of
some of these mention is made in Appendix lxxv.

1. Modern Hebrew Literature

From a linguistic and literary point of view, no less than from a moral
and religious standpoint, the Bible is a great and wonderful book:

‫ בן בג בג אומר הפך בה והפך בה דכלא בה‬¹

.‫ ה׳ כה‬.‫פּרקי אבות‬

¹ Ben Bag Bag said, ponder in it, and ponder in it, for all is in it. Ethics of the
Fathers, v., 25.

Not that modern Hebrew writers use the Bible merely as a storehouse of
words and phrases, depending on reminiscence for their effect. The practice
of cramming Hebrew writings with scriptural quotations so as to give them
an artificial brilliance and a second-hand wealth of idiom and grandeur of
diction was characteristic of the so-called M’lizah. ¹ In our time there is no
more of this patchwork writing. The Hebrew language has become
independent of quotations, but none the less the traditional spirit continues
to live, and the Bible is the corner-stone of modern Hebrew literature. It
could not be otherwise, for in the Jewish view the Bible must enter into
every phase of man’s life, must exert an influence upon the words of his
mouth, the thoughts of his mind, and the feelings of his heart. This is the
result not of any dogma, but of the tradition of Jewish learning, which is a
sort of intellectual devotion, a reverent feeling, a particular worship of the
Torah as knowledge, teaching, thought.

¹ M’lizah = “flower of speech.”

 The revival of the Hebrew language was thus able to become the
foremost factor in the Jewish national revival. Yet little attention has been
paid to this part of the history of Zionism. Perhaps the most important
reason is the general ignorance of the Hebrew language or of its modern
literature and Press. Some writers on Zionism are quite ignorant of the
whole of this literature, others are misinformed as to its past, and often
imperfectly and insufficiently conversant with its present, and are only
capable of repeating mechanically a few names and titles which have
gained currency. Few have an adequate conception of the real activity of
hundreds of writers, of the amount of work which has been done, or of the
succession of the different stages of development. This lack of knowledge is
the main reason for the strange opinion so often expressed by anti-Zionists
in Western Europe, particularly in England, that Zionism is a mere political
or materialistic movement.

Our object here is not to write a history of Hebrew literature as such, but
only to illustrate a part of Zionist history which has hitherto been very
imperfectly surveyed, and a certain knowledge of which is necessary for a
real and adequate conception of the inner intellectual forces which have
made Zionism what it is. The fact of importance from our point of view is
that the best, the noblest, and the soundest ideas were brought into Zionism
from Hebrew literature, that certain Hebrew writers are prominent
nationalists, that from them have gone forth “the thoughts that inspire” and
“the words that ignite,” and that the wide dissemination of the Zionist idea
among hundreds of thousands of Jews (Russian Jews or those who came
from Russia) could not have been produced merely by organization and
business institutions, had they not been prepared for it by the knowledge
and every-day use of the Hebrew language with its innumerable national,
historical and Palestinian reminiscences and associations. And not only
that: in our view even the better elements of the Hebrew literature of the
period which preceded the Zionist movement, and which is commonly
known as the “Haskalah” (enlightenment) period, as well as the writings of
those modern authors who do not support Zionism, have contributed to that
great regeneration which has enabled the national language and literature to
reach such an advanced stage of development.
 For the beginnings of modern Hebrew literature we must go back at
least as far as Abraham Dob Bär (1789‒1878) ben Chayyim Lebensohn
(surnamed Michailishker; pseudonym Adam), the Hebrew Klopstock—a
serious and somewhat dry poet and his son Micah Joseph (1818‒1852), a
graceful singer cut off in his early bloom. Contemporary with them was
F. Rothstein, an almost unknown Polish Chassid and Maskil, ¹ who
translated Hermann and Dorothea of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749‒
1832) in stanzas of laconic beauty which in precision of outline and
completeness of impression are as sublime as the original. These men
founded a school of poets, the tradition of which was carried on by men like
Solomon ben Baruch Salkind (1805 ?‒1868); Bernhard Nathansohn
(b. 1832); David Moses Mitzkun (1836‒1887); and Isaachar Berush
Hurwitz (b. 1835). Contemporaneously, the beginnings of a modern prose
literature were being created. To Mordecai Aaron ben Judah Asher
Günzburg (1795‒1846) we owe a Hebrew style at once forceful and
condensed, in great contrast to the limp and diffuse style prevalent before
him. Abraham Mapu (1808‒1867), master of a pure biblical style and a
wonderful imaginative sympathy with the life of Bible times, created in his
romantic novel The Love of Zion a gossamer web in evanescent hues of
gold and silver. Kalman Schulman (1819‒1899), a versatile translator and
popularizer, did much to break ground for the ideas of the Haskalah. Isaac
Erter (1792‒1851), of Galicia, wrote satires which are masterpieces of art in
their epigrammatic beauty. These and a host of lesser men laid the
substantial foundations on which later a more specifically nationalist
Hebrew literature could be built up. For themselves they were too busy with
their task of acclimatizing European culture on Hebrew soil to trouble
overmuch about nationalism. Their tendency was even towards
assimilation, so strong was their reaction against the conservatism of their
environment. This tendency is seen most strongly in the greatest of these
Maskilim, Judah Löb (Leon) ben Asher Gordon (1831‒1892), a poet,
essayist and story-teller, who united lightness of touch, clearness and
elegance of diction with a great gift of expression, and combined in one
harmonious whole accurate reflection and vivid imagination—an
exceedingly keen satirist, and the most profound among writers of the
Haskalah in the knowledge and use as well of the biblical as of the post-
biblical Hebrew idiom. The recently deceased veteran novelist Solomon
(Shalom) Jacob Abramowitsch (1836‒1918) “Mendele Mocher Sephorim” ²
still continued to carry on the Haskalah tradition; and although dubbed
“Grandfather of Yiddish,” he also produced Hebrew works of immortal
value, the works of a giant artist in language and imagination. But broadly
speaking the ideals of the Haskalah have given place since about 1880 to a
more distinctly nationalist tendency.

¹ Chassid—member of the sect of Chassidim or “Pious.” Maskil—upholder of

the ideals of Haskalah (“enlightenment”), as against strict traditionalism with
its restriction of intellectual interest to ancient Hebrew literature.

² The Jewish Cervantes.

The historical and philosophical bases of modern Jewish nationalism

were laid in the earlier half of the nineteenth century by a number of Jewish
scholars who wrote in Hebrew, and of whom the most noteworthy are
Nachman Cohen Krochmal (1785‒1840), Samuel David ben Hezekiah
Luzzatto (1800‒1865) and Solomon Judah Löb Rapaport (1790‒1867).
Krochmal in his Modern Guide for the Perplexed (a title which alludes, of
course, to the great work of Maimonides), strove to effect a synthesis
♦ between traditional Judaism and Hegelianism. The national idea is a
postulate of his method, and he presents it in a rational and constructive
manner, entirely free from sentimentality. Luzzatto, who studied deeply and
wrote much in the fields of history, religious ideas and exegesis, was more
of a mystic in temperament, but not less fundamentally nationalist in
outlook. Rapaport, an encyclopædic scholar and one of the pioneers of the
so-called “Jewish Science” (scientific study of Judaism and Jewish history),
was perhaps less directly and consciously concerned with the national idea,
but his hostile attitude to the extravagances of the “Reform” movement
sufficiently indicates his leaning. Another profound scholar who has
received too scant attention is Jacob Reifmann (1818‒1895), whose Hebrew
pamphlet The Mission of Israel—one of a hundred treatises and articles—is
an eloquent exposition of the national idea and a thoroughgoing
condemnation of radical “Reform,” not from a theological, but from a
purely nationalist and historical point of view. We may remark in passing
that some of the later representatives of “Jewish Science,” though they
wrote mostly in other languages than Hebrew (principally German), were
essentially nationalist in feeling: especially Heinrich Hirsch Graetz (1817‒
1891), the historian, who was influenced by Moses (Moritz) Hess (1812‒
1875), and really—though perhaps unconsciously—laid the foundations of
Jewish nationalism in Western Europe, and David Kaufmann (1852‒1899),
whose learning and instinct combined made him welcome Zionism and
defend its leaders on occasion. Important, however, as was the work of
these scholars in giving Jewish nationalism the necessary philosophical
foundation, the spread of the national idea among the people is more
directly due to the popular Hebrew writers of Russia, who, growing up
during the Haskalah period, abandoned the vague, universalistic idea of
“enlightenment” for the conception of a modernized and progressive Jewish
people.

♦ “beween” replaced with “between”

Of these David ben Dob Baer Gordon (1826‒1886) was one of the
earliest. In 1856 he became assistant editor of the first Hebrew weekly
paper, Ha’magid. He also assisted in the formation and conduct of the
Society Mekize Nirdamim (1864), established for the purpose of publishing
old and valuable Hebrew works. In 1884 he went to London as the
representative of the Chovevé Zion to congratulate Sir Moses Montefiore on
the hundredth anniversary of his birth.

Peter (Perez) ben Moses Smolenskin (1842‒1885), the most popular

Hebrew writer of his time, was an ardent nationalist and Zionist during the
second period of his literary activity. He rejected the theory associated with
the name of Mendelssohn, which makes Judaism nothing more than a
religious confession; and against this theory he wrote a series of articles and
essays. About 1880 he began to be interested in the colonization of
Palestine. He joined Laurence Oliphant, through whom he hoped to secure
the intervention of European Powers in favour of the Jews. His realistic
Hebrew novels, as well as his monthly Ha’shachar (The Dawn), exercised a
wide influence.

Moses Löb Lilienblum (1843‒1910) was a progressive “radical” during

the first half of his literary career. But the anti-Jewish riots of 1880 and
1881 aroused him to a consciousness of the unsafe position of the Jews in
exile, and he started writing articles in Hebrew and in Russian, in which he
pointed to the re-establishment of the Jews in Palestine as the only solution
of the Jewish question. He wrote several pamphlets, and as Secretary of the
Chovevé Zion took a most earnest and energetic part in their activity.

Alexander Ossypovitch Zederbaum of St. Petersburg (1816‒1892)

indefatigably advocated the colonization of Palestine by Jews in his Hebrew
paper Ha’melitz. He did not confine his labours in the cause of Jewish
nationalism to such editorial efforts. He took an active part in obtaining the
permission of the Russian Government for the formation of an Association
of Chovevé Zion in Russia, with its centre in Odessa, and afterwards in
organizing the Association.

Samuel Joseph Fuenn (1819‒1891) of Wilna was an admirable scholar

and a Hebrew writer of wide outlook. For many years he was editor of the
Hebrew weekly Ha’carmel. His Kiria Neemana (the History of the Jews in
Wilna) is a standard work. He was also author of Ha’otzar (Hebrew
dictionary), of a biographical lexicon, and of many other books of
reference. During the last years of his life he was engaged in the Chovevé
Zion movement.

Jechiel Mendelssohn (1817‒1892) of Lublin, was a distinguished

Hebraist. The diversity as well as the extent of his reading was remarkable.
He knew the whole of Hebrew literature as well as the classical writers of
antiquity, and had a wide knowledge of Jewish history. His Hebrew style
was of great exactitude and beauty. He contributed to Hàboker Or,
Ha’melitz and Ha’assif, and preached with artistic skill and historical
discrimination the national idea of the Chovevé Zion.

Asher Ginzberg—“Achad Ha’am”—deserves a special chapter in the

history of Zionism. He was the most prominent literary figure in the
Chovevé Zion movement, and he is the most respected and influential
representative of modern Hebrew literature. Born in Russia, and educated in
the traditional religious way, he went through a carefully arranged course of
studies in “Jewish Science” and in philosophy and literature. He first
attracted notice by his articles in Ha’melitz about the condition of the
colonies in Palestine. He had the clearness of mind to see things as they
were, and the courage to publish what he believed to be the truth. The
absence of exaggeration, the earnestness, and the steadfast truth-seeking
which are the characteristic features of all his writings, and give them
peculiar weight, were already clearly developed and evident in his first
essays. He founded the Hebrew monthly Ha’shiloach, which became a
creative force in the modern Hebrew revival. He grouped around himself
young men of talent, and discovered, stimulated and guided many young
writers and students, who looked upon him as their spiritual father.
Ha’shiloach soon became the leading literary Hebrew review, principally
owing to his philosophical and publicistic articles. A deep and clear thinker,
he expounded with convincing logic, and in calm, noble and dignified
language the ideology of Jewish nationalism. His principal ideal is Jewish
national distinctiveness in the Diaspora, based upon Hebrew culture, and
making Palestine a spiritual centre or “nidus.” Some of his essays can be
read in an English version by Leon Simon of London, published by the
Jewish Publication Society of America. We should, however, form a very
inadequate estimate of the services which this distinguished writer has
rendered to Zionism, and of the influence which he has exerted on his
readers, were we to confine our attention solely to his writings. It is the
combination of a writer and a personality that gives him his unique position.
He was successfully active in the Chovevé Zion movement, he has visited
Palestine several times, and he founded in 1889 the Order “B’nai Moshé,” a
group of intellectual Jewish Nationalists. This Order, which existed for
eight years, gave rise to the foundation of the Hebrew Publication Society
“Achiasaf” in Warsaw, of the first modern Hebrew school in Jaffa, and of
the Palestinian colony Rechoboth. Out of these grew many other institutions
for colonization, Hebrew literature and education.

Chaim Nachman Bialik is the greatest living Hebrew poet, and with his
name the national revival is inseparably connected. Born in Volhynia,
Russia, he had a Talmudical education. He started his literary career in the
Ha’shiloach and other Hebrew reviews. He rose quickly to great fame,
making a new era in Hebrew poetry. He has an epic as well as a lyric gift.
His marvellous artistic instinct, his harmonious Hebrew, his liveliness of
imagination, the melody of his verse place him in the highest rank. He is a
national poet in the noblest sense of the term. He voices the feelings and
traditions of generations. He has measured the groans of our people, has
counted their sighs and tears, has gathered and sung them and played them
upon the celestial harp of his Hebrew muse. Sometimes, like a rebel cherub,
he sounds the trumpet of judgment against tyranny. He is familiar with
every phase of Jewish thought and life, ancient as well as modern, in the
Ghetto as well as in nature, but his heart is in Zion, and here the freshness
and vividness of his colouring, the truth and life-like reality of his pictures,
the enthusiasm of his hopes are unsurpassed. He is also distinguished as a
writer of prose, and is active in the Hebrew Publication Society “Moriah,”
at Odessa, which has enriched Hebrew literature by many valuable works.

Saul Tschernichowsky, born in Michailovka, Russia, by profession a

physician, is, next to Bialik, the greatest living Hebrew poet. He is
distinguished by depth and tenderness of feeling, fertile and ingenious
fancy, profound knowledge of the classical world, the easy transition by
which he passes from nature to man, exquisite sense of beauty and a highly
developed taste for music, which makes his verse exceedingly melodious.

2. The Chovevé Zion and University Zionist Groups

We have more than once had occasion to mention the groups of
Chovevé Zion (“Lovers of Zion”) which sprang up in Russia in the early
eighties for the support of the pioneers of immigration into Palestine. Some
account of the most important of these groups and of the outstanding
personalities connected with them will indicate both the rapidity with which
the movement spread, and the continuity of development between the
Chovevé Zion and the new Zionist organization founded by Herzl. We shall
find throughout that those who came into prominence in Herzl’s movement
were almost without exception men who had been active for years before as
“Lovers of Zion.” We shall find also that everywhere it was the Jewish
University Student—and particularly the Russian Jewish Student, whether
at a Russian or at a German or Swiss University—who, captured by the idea
of the national revival, became the life and the driving force of the
movement.

The first place among the Chovevé Zion groups belongs to that of
Odessa, which became and has remained the headquarters of the whole
organization. We have already mentioned three prominent members of this
group—Pinsker, Achad Ha’am and Lilienblum (the last two in connection
with their services to Hebrew literature). Among a host of other Odessa
Zionists who have earned distinction, M. M. Ussishkin stands out most
prominently because of the influence which his energy and determination
have won for him. He graduated in engineering at Moscow, where he was
instrumental in founding the B’nai Zion (“Sons of Zion”)—one of the
earliest and strongest of the Chovevé Zion groups. Afterwards he went to
Ekaterinoslaw, and only later to Odessa, where he has been the centre of
Jewish national work in all its branches for some years. To him perhaps
more than to any single man is due the return of Zionist effort to practical
colonizing work in Palestine after the temporary concentration on political
negotiation under Herzl. He has worked strenuously for the financial
institutions of Zionism as well as for Palestinian colonization and the
Hebrew revival.

Of the brilliant group of leaders which received its training in the B’nai
Zion of Moscow we mention here the recently deceased Dr. Ephim
Wladimirovitch [Jechiel] Tschlenow (1865‒1918), Vice-President of the
Inner Actions Committee of the Zionist Movement. After graduating in
medicine at Moscow University, he settled in that city, and divided his life
between the claims of his profession and those of Zionist work. He
combined appreciation of the value of practical work in Palestine with a
sound sense of political values. He had been twice to the Holy Land, and in
a brochure, Five Years’ Work in Palestine (written in Russian and translated
into German), produced an admirably clear and comprehensive record of
recent Jewish achievements in the country.

Scarcely less important than the Odessa and the Moscow Societies were
those of St. Petersburg, of Bialystok, of Pinsk, of Minsk and of Wilna,
every one of which was a training-ground for men who afterwards became
prominent in the Zionist movement. It was at Pinsk, his birthplace, that Dr.
Chaim Weizmann, now President of the English Zionist Federation, began
his Zionist activity, which was continued afterwards with such fruitful
results at German and Swiss Universities and in this country. Wilna is the
home of two Zionists, the brothers Isaac and Boris Goldberg, who hold a
specially distinguished place both in Russian Zionism and in the movement
at large. So in every Jewish centre in Russia the “Lovers of Zion”
movement attracted the best of Jewish energy and idealism, especially
among the youth, and the idea of the return to Zion took a firmer and firmer
hold on the people and demanded more and more imperatively an outlet in
practical work. In Poland and Galicia and Roumania, and to a lesser extent
in Germany, the movement spread during the eighties and nineties of last
century, so that when Herzl came on the scene the national consciousness to
which he appealed was largely awakened (though not in those elements of
Jewry to which he first addressed his call). In countries further west there
was little progress until after the creation of Herzl’s organization. True there
were Chovevé Zion groups in England and France, but the idea of the return
had not really struck root in the Jewish communities of those countries. One
of the great services rendered by Herzl’s organization to the cause of Jewish
nationalism is that it has provided a bridge over which the Jewish spirit and
the idealism of the reawakened Jewries of Eastern Europe could make their
way into the Western communities and give them new life and a new sense
of the realities of Judaism. Thus in Anglo-Jewry during the last decade or
so there has been a marked tendency away from the polite conventions of
assimilation towards a realization of the deeper and more serious
implications of Jewishness; and only a remnant of the “old guard” still
repeats the shibboleths of an earlier generation about Judaism as a
“persuasion” and “emancipation” as a cure for all the ills of Jewry.

We have spoken of the part that the Jewish student has played in this
evolution, and it is so important as to merit further examination.

The position of the Jewish students at the Universities of Western

Europe at the beginning of the third quarter of the last century was a most
deplorable one from a Jewish point of view. They had increased in
numbers, belonging partly to the native Jewish populations and partly to
Eastern Europe, nevertheless they were a negligible quantity. They were
scattered all over Germany, Austria and Switzerland as units without
cohesion or organization. Nationally they did not count: the chief principle
of assimilation—which was at the time the general tendency of Western
European Jewry—was to abandon Jewish national claims. Their attitude
towards the religion of their fathers was one of indifference, want of faith, if
not hostility. What marked them out as Jews was in fact only the treatment
meted out to them by the anti-Semitic Students’ Societies, which hated and
insulted them. And while the Jews born in the Western European countries
were regarded as outcasts by the non-Jewish corporations and societies, the
foreign Jewish students—mostly from Russia—were regarded as outcasts
by the outcasts. The Western European and the Eastern European Jewish
students were thus divided into two fractions.

Then the new spirit of Zionism made itself felt. A group of Jewish
students at the Vienna University founded, in 1882, a National Jewish
Students’ Association called “Kadima,” ¹ which was later, as we have seen,
the first organization to extend a welcome to Herzl. These Vienna students
have a better claim than any other similar organization in Western Europe to
be regarded as the pioneers of the Jewish national idea.

¹ “Eastward,” “Forward.”

One of the leaders of the Kadima was Nathan Birnbaum, known also by
his nom de plume of “Mathias Acher,” who was born in Galicia and
graduated at Vienna University. A powerful writer and a keen thinker, he
became, in course of time, a considerable figure in German-Jewish
literature. In recent years he has become a Jewish democrat, championing
the cause of Yiddish. But in the early days of the Kadima he was heart and
soul devoted to this Association, of which he was the philosophical leader.

The members of the Kadima soon attracted attention owing to their

courageous attitude, and steadily increased in number. They had become
conscious Jews, and derived from this fact a great access of moral strength.
They were no longer weak, downtrodden, degraded young men, feeling
helpless and demoralized; they began to be men, jealous of their honour,
demanding their rights as Jews among the nationalities. The Chovevé Zion
movement appealed strongly to their emotions and energies. The idea, a
mere spark at first, developed into a blazing fire that seized upon several
Universities. Young Jews speaking different languages and of many
different habits and customs became united by invisible ties all over the
Continent of Europe. At the end of the eighties there existed an important
Association in Berlin, which was at first somewhat theoretical in character,
but very soon afterwards became a sister society of the Vienna Association,
taking also the name of “Kadima” (Appendix lxxvii). The members of this
group include a great number of workers whose names are inseparably
bound up with the history of the Zionist Organization and with Jewish
national literature. Most of them were of Russian birth, as might be
expected; for it was the Russian Jewish student who, moving from one
German University to another, carried with him the torch of the national
revival. Besides Dr. Chaim Weizmann, already mentioned, we find in the
Berlin Students’ group two of the present members of the Inner Actions
Committee—Dr. Shemaryah Levin, a powerful speaker and one of the most
energetic propagandists of the movement, and Victor Jacobsohn, who for
some years represented Zionism at Constantinople. Martin Buber and
Berthold Feiwel, two gifted littérateurs, were both members of the Vienna
Kadima who worked later in Berlin. Davis Trietsch, not himself a
University student, worked in close co-operation with the Berlin group. An
indefatigable advocate of colonization schemes, he has given a great
impetus to the study of Palestine and has originated many fruitful ideas.
Associated with him on the staff of the Jüdischer Verlag, the Zionist
publishing house, was the artist Ephraim Moses ben Jacob Hacohen Lilien,
who together with Hermann Struck, an artist of a very different type, best
represents Jewish national development on the æsthetic side. It remains to
mention two Berlin Zionists who became members of the Inner Actions
Committee in 1911—Arthur Hantke, distinguished for his services to the
organization of the movement, and Professor Otto Warburg, a well-known
botanist and founder of the Palestine Land Development Company.

Similar associations to the Kadima were founded at many German and

Swiss Universities—Heidelberg, Munich, Leipzig, Königsberg, Breslau,
Berne, Zürich, Geneva and Lausanne. To them is due the national
awakening which has led to so great an improvement in the spiritual
condition of Jewry in Western Europe. In Germany especially the progress
of the national idea among the younger generation was phenomenal. The
sons of the most assimilated and denationalized families became the most
ardent champions of the new movement back to the Jewish land and Jewish
ideals. But much the same thing has happened in all countries which have a
considerable Jewish population. In Russia it goes without saying that
Jewish Students’ groups were to the fore in the national work. Even in the
Polish cities of Warsaw and Lodz, the homes of the most extreme and
disintegrating assimilation, numbers of Jewish students at the Universities
were kindled by the national idea and did it valuable service. In Anglo-
Jewry, isolated by distance and by difference of language and environment
from the main currents of Jewish life, the university Zionist movement
developed later and has not gone so far. Its history belongs entirely to the
last dozen years, and its adherents are still a small band. But it is one of the
most remarkable and promising features of Zionist development in England
in recent years. While the older generation of Zionists in this country
worked mainly in the field of organization, a group of younger men, largely
of University training, has paid more attention to the spread of the Zionist
idea by means of literature and education. Most of these younger men have
been influenced by the ideas of Achad Ha’am. They have produced
monthly journals, pamphlets and books on Zionism and in the Zionist spirit,
and have contributed in various ways to the spread of Jewish knowledge
and the improvement of Hebrew education. They have also taken their share
in the work of organization, and one of them, Mr. H. Sacher, has recently
become Grand Commander of the Order of Ancient Maccabæans, a Zionist
association organised on Friendly Society lines.

3. The Pioneers of the Hebrew Revival in Palestine

While modern Hebrew literature and the propaganda of the Return to
Zion were quickening the Jews of the Diaspora to new life and new hope,
there were not wanting men who were prepared to throw up their careers
and prospects in Europe in order themselves to help in laying the
foundations of the revival in Palestine. It is not our purpose here to tell the
almost miraculous story of the foundation of the earliest Jewish settlements
or “colonies” in the eighties, how by sheer endurance the pioneer settlers
maintained their hold in the face of appalling difficulties, and how by the
time when the great war broke out there had been created the nucleus of a
thriving Hebrew nation, firmly attached once more to its ancestral soil, and
repossessed of its ancestral tongue. ¹ We have merely to glance at a few of
the outstanding facts and personalities of this revival (Appendix lxxviii).
 ¹ For an account of Jewish colonization in Palestine the reader may be referred
to Palestine: the Rebirth of an Ancient People, by A. M. Hyamson (London:
Sidgwick and Jackson, 1917), chs. 11‒14.

The revival is not wholly, though it is largely, a result of the terrible

events which drove large masses of Jews to emigrate from Russia in 1880‒
1881. Even before that date there were a few Jews in Palestine who, if they
were not strong enough of themselves to initiate a national revival, were
able to help when new forces came from without. Of these were Jechiel
Brill (1836‒1886), who, born in Russia and educated in Constantinople and
Jerusalem, established a Hebrew monthly, Ha’lebanon, in Palestine in
1863, and later was commissioned by Baron Edmond de Rothschild to
conduct a group of experienced farmers from Russia through Palestine;
Jechiel Michael ben Noah Pines (1842‒1912), also of Russian birth, who in
1878 was sent to Jerusalem to establish charitable institutions associated
with the name of Sir Moses Montefiore, and lived thenceforward in
Palestine, interesting himself in the welfare of the Jewish community and
the organization of the Jewish agricultural colonies; David Yellin, a native
of Palestine and one of the most eminent of living Hebraists, who has
devoted himself mainly to education, and has played a large part in the
development of Hebrew as a living language through his contributions to
the perfection of the “natural method” of teaching Hebrew; and the late
Abraham Moses Luncz (1854‒1918), who had lived in Palestine from early
youth, and whose long-established Hebrew Palestine Annual has done much
for the historical and geographical study of the country. But it was not till
the immigration which followed on the Russian massacres of 1880‒1881
that Jewish life in Palestine really began to take a new direction. Among the
stalwarts of those early days a group of Russian students known as Bilu
(Appendix lxxix) (from the initials of the four Hebrew words meaning
“Come, let us go up to the house of Jacob,” which they chose as their
motto) will always be held in affectionate remembrance. Their example of
stubborn endurance and unfailing optimism did much to rescue the
colonization movement from the ruin which threatened it in its early days,
when the natural effects of insufficient knowledge and resources began to
be felt. Most of the group died young, but a few still survive—among them
Israel Belkind, who is still at work in Palestine as a teacher. Elieser Ben-
Jehuda, who settled in Jerusalem in 1881, is associated principally with the
revival of Hebrew. It is thanks largely to him that out of the welter of
languages spoken by Jews in Palestine Hebrew has once and for all won its
place as the national language. His monumental Hebrew dictionary,
Thesaurus Totius Hebraitatis, in ten volumes, was in course of publication
when the war broke out. Another side of the revival is represented by Boris
Schatz, the founder and head of the Bezalel School of Arts and Crafts at
Jerusalem, whose idea of creating a distinctively Jewish art has already
borne good fruit (Appendix lxxx). And in yet other spheres the young
Jewish settlement owes much to David Levontin, Manager of the Anglo-
Palestine Company, the Jewish banking concern in Palestine; to Aaron
Aaronsohn, head of the valuable Agricultural Experiment Station at Atlit,
near Haifa; to Dr. Benzion Mossinsohn and his colleagues at the Jaffa
Hebrew Secondary School, where an education similar to that of a
Grammar School is given entirely in Hebrew. Each of these men has done
pioneer work in one field or another. They have stood in the van of a
movement which has transformed Jewish life in Palestine as Zionist
propaganda has transformed Jewish life in the Diaspora, not only creating
new types and values of its own, but surely if slowly breaking down the
resistance of the anti-national Jewish agencies which were at work in
Palestine before Zionism came on the scene. And if the propaganda and
organization of Zionism have been essential to the existence and growth of
the Palestinian settlement, it is no less true that if not for the work of those
who built up the new Jewish life in Palestine, there would have been no
inspiring force behind the propaganda of Zionism, and no solid basis for its
organization.