Pratik Nayak Art and Culture PDF Part

Pratik Nayak- Unacademy Educator
Compiled PDF-
1. Visual Arts
Architecture
Cave
Stupa
Sculpture
Pillar
Temple
Medieval
Modern
Indian Paintings
Indian Textiles & Handicrafts

https://t.me/UPSC_PDF
Cave Architecture in Ancient India
Presented by - Pratik Nayak
https://telegram.me/CivilServices_UPSC
About Me
Six Years Experience online & offline
teaching
BE Civil, M. Planning (CEPT University)
Cleared GPSC, Worked at Govt. of Gujarat
Pratik Nayak -Unacademy

Understanding History
Pre Historic India- Stone Age

(Origin to 10000 BCE)
Indus Valley Civilisation –

2500 BCE- 1600 BCE)
During this Historical
Aryans & Vedic Age
Development we find
(1500 BCE-600 BCE)
changes in
Architecture
Mahajanapda- Foreign Invasions
600 BCE-350 BCE
Buddhism & Jainism
Q. What type of
Mauryan Age (325-185 BCE) Architecture forms we
find in Ancient India ?
Post Mauryan India (200 BCE-300CE)
Gupta Age (320-550CE)
Post Gupta-(600-750 CE)

Harsha, Chalukya & Pallava
Early Medieval -
750-1000 CE- Kannauj Triangle,
1000-1200 CE- Rajput Period

Art & Culture
Culture
Visual Arts Performing Arts - Religion
- Architecture - Music - Bhakti- Sufi Movement
- Sculpture - Dance - Indian Philosophy
- Paintings - Theatre - Language & Literature
- Pottery - Puppetry - Cinema
- Handicrafts - Circus - Calendar
- Martial Arts - Fairs & Festivals
- Awards & Institutions
- Miscellaneous topics

Ancient Architecture
Caves Temples Pillars Stupa Sculpture Palaces/Forts
Independent Part of Architecture-

Sculpture Relief Art forms

INDIAN ARCHITECTURE & SCULPTURE
Difference between Architecture and Sculpture
Point of difference Architecture Sculpture
Size and scope
Material used
Principle
Example

Classification of Caves
Based on the Usage Based on the Design Origin Phases Other Aspects
Types of Caves→ Who made it ? Purpose→

Location→
Natural Merchants Chaitya
West India
Artificial Kings Vihara
East India
Missionaries

Part of the Rock-Cut Architecture
creating a structure by carving it out of the natural rock
diverse and found in greater abundance (more than 1,500 rock cut structures in India
religious character
Buddhist Architecture
Chaitya
places of worship for Buddhist and Jain Monks.
rectangular prayer hall with stupa at centre
Central Chaitya and two aisles
polished and the ending of Chaitya was apsidal
Vihara
monasteries were excavated near Chaityas
residence of monks in rainy seasons.
not have stupa.
Later on→ also used as temples, multiple images were found in the caves
Q. How the origin of cave architecture took place ? Based on Design ?

divided into 3 different phases
1st phase (2nd B.C.E to 2nd Century CE)

exclusively related to Buddhism and Buddha was represented symbolically e.g. Lotus, Wheel
Ajanta, Karla, Bhaja, Kanheri, Nasik, Bedsa

connection existed between the religion and commerce, as Buddhist missionaries often built monasteries
Location near the trade routes
commissioned by wealthy
2nd phase (5th to 7th century CE.)

Buddha was personified
viharas underwent some changes→ buddhas image included in the vihara
rock-cut cave temples
3rd Phase (7th to 10th Century CE)

Buddhist Caves in the form of Chaitya Vihara continued
Hindu Caves and Jain Caves also built during this period
Located at multiple places
Q. Design based classification of Cave Architecture

Q. Design based classification of Cave Architecture→ Evolution
Phase 1:
o It began with the construction of Lomarishi and Sudama caves in Barabar
Hills by Ashoka.
o These were simple caves and the cave ran parallel to the rock face after
entry.
There was one large rectangular room followed by a smaller circular
room.
Phase 2:
o The second stage (100 BC) showed up at Konditve.
o The cave was cut perpendicular to the rock face and the inner room now
contained a stupa and a circumambulatory path around it.
Pratik Nayak for Unacademy

Q. Design based classification of Cave Architecture→ Evolution
Phase 3:
o The next stage was when rows of pillars were built parallel to the
walls creating a circumambulatory passage right after entering.
The central roof was high, vaulted and side roof was low and half-
vaulted. Bhaja, Pitalkhora, Bedsa caves are examples.
O Sometimes cells, rock cut beds were cut around the central hall.
An example is Bedsa caves
Phase 4:
o During the Kshatrapa-Satvahana kings, caves got royal patronage
and became more elaborate and ornamented.
o The basic features of previous phase continued.
A variety of mithun couples were carved on the gates, the pillars

came to have elaborate capitals, the side roof became flat.
o Multi-storeyed caves came up.
o Double storeyed viharas came up at Karle and triple storeyed at

Ajanta. Other examples are Nasik caves, Junnar, Kanheri caves,
Pitalkhora.

Origin→ Chronological Developments and Design Changes
Divided into 3 different phases
1st phase (2nd B.C.E to 2nd Century CE)

exclusively related to Buddhism and Buddha was represented symbolically e.g. Lotus, Wheel
Ajanta, Karla, Bhaja, Kanheri, Nasik, Bedsa

connection existed between the religion and commerce, as Buddhist missionaries often built monasteries
Location near the trade routes
commissioned by wealthy
2nd phase (5th to 7th century CE.)

Buddha was personified
viharas underwent some changes→ buddhas image included in the vihara
rock-cut cave temples
3rd Phase (7th to 10th Century CE)

Buddhist Caves in the form of Chaitya Vihara continued
Hindu Caves and Jain Caves also built during this period
Located at multiple places
Q. Examples ??

In the first century BCE some modifications were

made
to the standard plan of the apsidal vault-roof variety
where the hall becomes rectangular like at Ajanta

Cave No. 9 with a stone-screen wall as a facade.
It is also found at Bedsa, Nashik, Karla and Kanheri.
Cave 9, an early chaitya hall
Entrance of cave no. 9 @Ajanta

Bedsa chaitya
Bedsa Caves > Pune, Maharashtra > 1st century BC.

There are two main caves.
oThe best known cave is the chaitya(prayer hall) with
comparatively large stupa,
othe other cave is monastery - vihara.
Bedsa vihar
trilogy of the caves (Karla -

Bhaje - Bedse) in Mawal
Region of MH
▪The viharas are excavated in all the cave sites.

▪The plan of the viharas consists of a veranda, a hall and
cells around the walls of the hall.
oSome of the important vihara caves are

▪Ajanta Cave No. 12,
▪Bedsa Cave No. 11,
▪Nashik Cave Nos. 3, 10 and 17.
oMany of the early vihara caves are carved with

interior decorative motifs like chaitya arches and the
vedica designs over the cell doors of the cave.
oFacade design in Nashik Cave Nos. 3, 10, and 17
became a distinct achievement.

oThe vihara caves at Nashik were excavated with front pillars

carved with ghata-base and ghata-capital with human figures.
oOne such vihara cave was also excavated at Junnar which is
popularly known as Ganeshleni because an image of Ganesha
belonging to a later period was installed in it. Later, a stupa was
added at the back of the hall of the vihara and it became a chaitya-
vihara.
The stupas in the fourth and fifth centuries CE have Buddha

images attached.
Junnar has the largest cave excavations— more than two hundred
caves around the hills of the town—
whereas Kanheri in Mumbai has a hundred and eight excavated
caves.
oThe most important sites are Ajanta, Pitalkhora, Ellora, Nashik,
Bhaja, Junnar, Karla, Kanheri.
oAjanta, Ellora, and Kanheri continue to flourish (Next aa
joiye..)

▪Chronological Development of Cave Architecture in India



2500 BCE- 1600 BCE)
Aryans & Vedic Age

(1500 BCE-600 BCE)

600 BCE-350 BCE
Buddhism & Jainism
Mauryan Age (325-185 BCE)

Early Medieval ( 750-1000 CE, 1000-1200

CE)

Origin of Cave Architecture
1. Pre Historic India

Stone Age
Natural Caves
Used as Rock Shelters
Cannot be considered as an man-made architecture
In these rock shelters- paintings are found

Based on this paintings we can understand the socio-
economic conditions of that period

Pre Historic India

Q. Sources about their lifestyle?
- Hunting – Gathering
- making of stone tools
- Painting on cave walls
- Who did the work?
Hunted
Made tools
Painted Men | Women
Gather Both together
- Different tasks as per practices
- Till 12000 years ago, people used to live like this …….
Paintings - ?
- BhimBetka (MP)
- Southern (UP)
- Shows accuracy
& skills.

2. Vedic & Later Vedic Age

No evidence of cave architecture found

3. Mahajanapada- 16
Period of Siddhartha Gautama

Vardhamana Mahavira
evidence of cave architecture found
Ajatsatru→ king of Haryanka dynasty

Follower of Buddha
1st Buddhist Council
Depicted @ sculptures of Barhut
Inscriptions mentions about the construction of chaitya and

vihara
But no archeological sources are found directly to coorelate the

inscriptions
Saptaparni Caves / Sattapanni @ Rajgir

Probable place where Buddha stayed during Vihara
1st Buddhist Council took place

4. Mauryan Age- 325- 185 BCE
आजा
गफ
ु ाओं
1. Asokan Caves- में आ
Barabar
2. Dashrath Caves –
Nagarjuni hills

आजा
गुफाओं
Asokan Caves
Barabar Caves
influenced by the Lomas Rishi and Sudama Caves which were में आ
excavated around 250 BC in Barabar Hills in Bihar
Belonged to Mauryan period
four caves
reign of Asoka (273-232 BC) and his grandson Dasaratha
caves were made for the Ajivika sect
hundreds of rock-cut caves were made for the Buddhist, Jaina and
Brahmanical traditions
policy of religious tolerance
Four Major Caves at Barabar Hills

1. Sudama cave
2. Lomas Rishi cave
3. Karan Chaupar
4. Visva Zopri
wood imitating chambers with their walls polished like a glass mirror

Rock-cut cave @Barabar hills near Gaya in Bihar is

known as Lomus Rishi cave.
oFacade decorated with semicircular chaitya arch as
entrance.
oelephant frieze carved in high relief on chaitya
arch shows considerable movement.
oInterior hall = rectangular with circular chamber at
back.
oEntrance is located on side wall of hall.
ocave was patronised by Ashoka for Ajivika sect.
oIsolated example of this period.
oBut many Buddhist caves of subsequent periods were
excavated in eastern and western India.
Lomus Rishi cave-entrance detail

Barabar Caves
Circular vaulted chamber with a rectangular mandapa
hut-style facade at the entrance to the cave is the earliest survival of the ogee shaped
"chaitya arch" or chandrashala
Frieze of Elephants found

Non-
NCERT

Barabar Caves
Circular vaulted chamber with a rectangular mandapa
hut-style facade at the entrance to the cave is the earliest survival of the ogee shaped
"chaitya arch" or chandrashala

Nagarjuni Caves- built during the time of Dashratha

3 caves discovered Gopi cave , Mirza Mandi, Vedathika Kubha
• Dedicated to monks of Ajivika sect by Dasaratha (grandson of Ashoka)
• Largest cave Gopi cave or Milkmaid’s cave

5. Post Mauryan India
200 BCE-300 CE
500 years period
Different dynasties came to power in

different regions
Satvahana started building caves in western

ghats
Kharavela dynasty also built up caves in

Kalinga

From second century BCE onwards
-Early Satvahana caves ?
many inscriptional evidences (on stupa) mentioning donors and, at times, their
profession.
Who used to built these caves ?

Pattern of patronage = in what ways they were built
very collective one + very few examples of royal patronage.
Patrons range from lay devotees to gahapatis and kings.
Donations by guilds are also mentioned at several sites.
Very few inscriptions mention names of artisans e.g.

Kanha at Pitalkhora and his disciple Balaka at Kondane caves.
oArtisans = stone carvers, goldsmiths, stone-polishers, carpenters, etc. are also

mentioned.
omethod of working was collective in nature and at times only

specific portion of monument is said to have been patronized by particular
patron.
o
oTraders recorded their donation along with their place of origin.
Cave Architecture during Satvahna and later period
Pitalkhora Bedsa Kanheri Kondana Nasik
Junagadh Bhaja Karle Mahakali Ajanta
Naneghat

The Pitalkhora Caves

in the Satamala range of the Western Ghats of Maharashtra
are an early Buddhist site > date back to the third century BCE (making them one of the earliest
examples of rock-cut architecture in India)
•14 rock-cut cave monuments,

•Out of the 14, four are chaityas and the rest 10 are viharas.
•All the caves belong to the Hinayana period, but the paintings are of the Mahayana period.
Non-
NCERT

Kondane caves , raigarh, Maharastra
•This cave group has 16 Buddhist caves.

•The caves were excavated in first century
B.C.
•The construction on wooden pattern is
notabale.
Non- NCERT
40 rock paintings were recently discovered in the Kondane caves in Raigarh

district in Maharashtra.
Source THE HINDU - March 3, 2016
Bhaja Caves
One of the Oldest Deccan Cave
group of 22 rock-cut caves and depicts a typical early phase of Buddhist

architecture marked by deep apsidal hall cut in solid rock, with a row of
plain octagonal pillars near the walls
Feature→ chaityagriha having an open horseshoe-arched entrance.

Another prominent part of the cave is a group of 14 stupas.
stupas have relics of monks who resided and died
• Deep upsidal wall

• Octagonal pillars
Hinayana faith
Has wooden ceiling over Chaitya-griha
Stupa has a hole on top, for inserting wooden umbrella

Bhaja Caves
Oldest Deccan Cave
• Deep upsidal wall
• Octagonal pillars

Stupa in chaitya at Bhaja

Caves
Bhaja Caves or Bhaje caves (Marathi: भाजा) is a group of 22 rock-

cut caves dating back to the 2nd century BC located in Pune,
near Lonavala, Maharashtra.
▪The most prominent excavation is its chaityagrha (Cave XII), demonstrating

prototypes of wooden architecture and a vaulted horseshoe ceiling.
▪Its vihara (Cave XVIII) has a pillared verandah in front and is adorned with
unique reliefs.These caves are notable for their indications of the awareness of
wooden architecture.
▪The carvings prove that tabla – a percussion instrument – was used in India for
at least two thousand years. The carving shows a woman playing tabla and
another woman, performing dance.
Wooden ceiling @bhaja

Bhaja Caves
Chaitya, Cave No. 12, Bhaja - NCERT

Karle Caves
pattern is similar to the Bhaja caves
developed in size and splendor
Great Chaitya (Cave no. 8). It is the largest rock-cut

chaitya in India
cut 124 feet deep into the rock
Pillars – square stepped plinth
Capitals of horses/elephants to support roof which has

ribs to represent barrel vaulting
• Sangharama monastery
Related with the Mahasaṃghika sect of Buddhism
✓In Karla, the biggest rock-cut chaitya hall was excavated.

The cave consists of an open courtyard with two pillars, a
stone screen wall to protect from rain, a veranda, a stone-
screen wall as facade, an apsidal vault-roof chaitya hall with
pillars, and a stupa at the back.
✓Karla chaitya hall is decorated with human and animal
figures.
✓They are heavy in their execution, and move in the picture
space.

Karle Caves
Inscription found bearing different names
1. Nahapana (Saka Kshatrap)
2. Yavana - donated six of the pillars
3. Inscription by Satavahana ruler Sri Pulumayi,

that is, Vasishthiputra Pulumavi
Majority caves belonging to the Mahasamgika sect

Karla-carvings
The Karla Caves
in Karli near
Lonavala, Maharashtra.
Chaitya hall, Karla –NON- NCERT

Kanheri Caves
Means black mountain in sanskrit

located to the north of Borivali on the western outskirts of Mumbai
Located within the forests of the Sanjay Gandhi National Park
All NON- NCERT

Kanheri Caves
Sanjay Gandhi national park
Name from the Sanskrit Krishnagiri, which

means black mountain
comprises of 109 caves carved out of basalt rock
Each cave has a stone plinth that functioned as a

bed.
influence of Mahayana is evident, as the outer

walls of the caves bear images of Buddha
Inscription
marriage of Satavahana ruler Vashishtiputra
Satakarni with the daughter of Rudradaman
inscription of Yajna Sri Satakarni (circa 170 CE),

Unfinished chaitya cave, Kanheri - NCERT
✓Further elaboration over the Karla chaitya hall plan is observed at Kanheri Cave No.3.
Though the cave’s interior was not fully finished, it shows how the carving progressed from
time to time. Subsequently, the quadrangular flat-roofed variety became the most preferred
design and is extensively found at many places.

✓Darbar Cave- part of Kanheri
✓Similar to saptapani cave @ Rajgir

Junagadh Caves:
Location Gujarat
Buddhist religion
three separate sites of rooms carved out of stone to be

used as monks’ quarters
Uparkot →
2-3rd Century CE
Satvahana Period- influence from Greco-Scythian
Style
30-50 ft high artificial platforms connected by a staircase
to the hall
Khapara Kodia caves

dated to 3rd-4th century BCE-
Khangar Mahal
Baba Pyare Caves

Outside Uparkot fort complex
Built during 1st Century CE – Satvahana Period
Mentioned by Hieun Tsang
Buddhist and Jain tradition

Nashik Caves:
Location Maharashtra
25 caves
Hinayana Buddhism
1st Century AD
group of 24 caves dating from the 1st century CE-3rd

Century CE
They were built during the reign of the Satavahana ruler
Krishna
Also called as Pandava Leni / Trirashmi

Spiritual presence of Buddha is denoted by a throne
and footprints
Most of the caves are Viharas
18th cave Chaitya
Inscriptions mention Gautamiputra Satakarni’s mother

‘Gautami Balasri‘ had financed
the construction of 3rd cave
Contains a panel depicting Buddha’s Mahaparinirvana

Cave no-10 Nahapana Cave no-3 Gautamiputra
Nasik Caves inscription was made by Gautamiputra's

mother the great queen Gotami Balasiri, during the
reign of her grandson Vasishthiputra Pulumavi, in order
to record the gift of Cave No3. The full inscription
consists in a long eulogy of Gautamiputra Satakarni,
mentioning his valour, his military victories, and then
her gift of a cave in the Nasik Caves complex.

Nashik Caves→ Sculptures inside caves
Cave number 11- Jaina Cave
Cave number 12-

inscription mentioning it is the gift of a merchant
named Ramanaka
Cave number 17-

Yavana Vihara
Cave number 19-

Krishna Vihara
Kanha Cave
"Krishna inscription" from the King's name in

the Puranas

Mahakali caves
The Mahakali Caves (also known as the Kondivite Caves)

located in the eastern suburb of Andheri in the city of Mumbai (Bombay) in western India
carved out of a solid black basalt rock
Rock-cut Buddhist caves situated in udayagiri hills, Mumbai.

Excavated during 200 BC to 600 AD and are now in ruins.
Comprise of 4 caves on the southeastern face and 15 caves on the northwestern face.
Cave 9 is the chief cave & is the oldest and consists of a stupa & figures of Lord Buddha.


Le….Couples
Wow, what a place
Le…UPSC
to do pre-wedding aspirant
photo shoot
Isko kaise
yaad
karoon

Ganeshleni = junnar caves = Lenyadri
Lenyadri > about 30 rock-cut Buddhist caves, >

near Junnar in Pune district > Maharashtra.
The current name "Lenyadri" literally means
"mountain cave“
Cave 7 is a famous Hindu temple dedicated to the

god Ganesha. > aka Ganeshleni
It is essentially a Buddhist Vihara (a dwelling for

monks, mostly with meditation cells) in design, an
unpillared hall with 20 cells .
Vihara
Naneghat Caves
•Naneghat pass was one of the trade routes. It

connected the Konkan coast communities with
Deccan high plateau through Junnar
• nane means "coin" and ghat means "pass“
•rest stop for travellers
•William Sykes found them while hiking during

the summer of 1828
•Nayanika or Naganika, likely the wife of

king Satakarni
•Buddhist tradition
•Vedic Gods like Dharma Indra,

Chandra and Surya
mention of Samkarsana (Balarama)

and Vasudeva (Krishna
Ajanta Caves
Ajanta Caves:
Location Aurangabad, Maharashtra
Discovered in 19th century
Built on Perpendicular Cliff

Since the caves are on perpendicular side
there are not many chaityas
29 entirely Buddhist caves

2nd century B.C. while others are of as late as
7th century A.D
caves 9, 10, 12, 13
9 and 10 are know for Buddhist Mural Paintings

200 BCE-300 CE
500 years period

different regions
Satvahana started building caves in western

ghats
Kharavela dynasty also built up caves in

Kalinga

Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves
situated over two adjacent hills, Udaygriri and Khandgiri)

are located near the city of Bhubaneswar
2nd century BCE during the reign of King Kharvela
Kattaka Caves or Cuttack caves
partly natural and partly artificial caves
Situated on two adjacent hills

Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves
situated over two adjacent hills, Udaygriri and Khandgiri)

are located near the city of Bhubaneswar
2nd century BCE during the reign of King Kharvela
residential blocks for Jain monks
Udayagiri means “Sunrise Hill” and has 18 caves including

Rani Gumpha, Ganesh Gumpha, Hathigumpha, Vyaghra
Gumpha etc
Rani Gumpha→ largest
Khandagiri has 15 caves which include Navagiri,

Devsabha and Anant Gumpha etc.

The rock-cut cave tradition also existed in Odisha.

The earliest examples are the Udaigiri-Khandagiri caves in the
vicinity of Bhubaneswar.
✓These caves are scattered and have inscriptions of

Kharavela kings.
✓According to the inscriptions, the caves were meant for Udaigiri-Khandagiri caves
Jain monks. near Bhubaneswar
oThere are numerous single-cell excavations.

o Some have been carved in huge independent boulders and
given the shape of animals. Details of the veranda,
oThe big caves include a cave with a pillared veranda with Udaigiri-Khandagiri
cells at the back. The upper part of the cells is decorated with
a series of chaitya arches and narratives that still continue in
the folklores of the region.

Udaigiri Caves- 18 caves
Rani Gumpha "Cave of the Queen“

largest and most popular
double storeyed
carved dwara pala images
Mancapuri and Swargapuri Gumpha

depicts two male figure and 2 female figure worshipping to the Kalinga
Jina that Kharval brought back from Magadha
Ganesha Gumpha
name due to carved figure of Ganesha on the back of its right cell
Built in later period
elopement of Bassavadatta, Princess of Ujjayini, with King Udayana of
Kausambi in the company of Vasantaka
Vyaghra Gumpha
large mouth of a tiger with single cell in cave acting as Tiger's throat

Udaigiri Caves- 18 caves
Hathi Gupha
"Elephant Cave"
auspicious Jain Namokar Mantra venerating Arihant and
Siddhas for in Jainism
Inscrition compiled by King Kharavela
refers to the Kharaval's feat of bringing back Jain image

which was taken by Nanda empire
Also mentions about the Sangam dynasties

Chola
Chera
Pandya

Caves at Khandagiri- 15 Caves
Ananta Gumpha
Sculptures of women, elephants, geese
Tentuli Gumpha
Navamuni Gumpha
sculptures of nine Jain Tirthankaras and Sasana Devis
Sculptures added by somavanshi dynasty 11th century CE
Trusula Gumpha
three sculptures of Rishabha Deva who is found in
the Kayotsarga posture
Ambika Gumpha
relief sculptures, two of Rishabhanatha and one Amra the
sasana-devi of Neminatha

Gupta Age & Post Gupta Period
Gupta & their Feudatories Vakataka
Chandragupta- II
Kumargupta
Vakataka→ King Harisena

CULTURE
Gupta Arts
Rock-cut Caves
extensive changes in the ornamentation of the facade and in the designs of the pillars in the
interior.
Cave Architecture
Ajanta Bagh Udaigiri Mandargiri

Udayagiri Caves
twenty rock-cut caves near Vidishathe
Great Boar (Varaha), at the entrance of a cave at Udayagiri.
19 Hindu Caves, 1 Jaina Cave

images
of Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaktism (Durga and Matrikas)
and Shaivism (Shiva)
reigns of Chandragupta II (c. 375-415) and Kumaragupta I (c.

415-55)

Mandargiri
Siddha Kshetra (The place of salvation of 12th Teerthankar

Vasupoojya Swami).
beautiful cave temple with 5 feet high standing idol
Bagh Caves
nine rock-cut monuments
Dhar district, Madhya Pradesh
Known for mural paintings
Located on the banks of river Baghani
Buddhist Caves
In the form of Vihara
Similar to Ajanta architecture

Bagh Caves
group of 9 rock-cut monuments situated in Madhya Pradesh

more impressive than even those of Ajanta
All the caves are Vihara and out of 9 caves, only 5 have
survived
Rang Mahal cave (Cave no. 4).
famous for their mural paintings as on the walls of the veranda

of a cave, a procession of elephants and a scene of a dancer
and women musicians are depicted

The other noteworthy cave site is

Bagh located near Indore in Madhya Pradesh.
✓nine rock-cut monuments,

✓situated among the southern slopes of the Vindhyas
✓The Bagh caves, like those at Ajanta, were excavated
by master craftsmen on perpendicular sandstone rock
face of a hill on the far bank of a seasonal stream, the
Baghani.
PAINTING IN BAGH CAVE

The Bagh caves 2- Bodhisattva

Ajanta Caves:
Location Aurangabad, Maharashtra
Discovered in 19th century
Built on Perpendicular Cliff

Since the caves are on perpendicular side there are not many chaityas
29 entirely Buddhist caves

2nd century B.C. while others are of as late as 7th century A.D
2 phases i.e. Saatavahana phase and Vakataka Phase.

Satvahana→
Hinayana phase, as a symbolic representation of Buddha was done
focus was given on stupa
Vakataka – Gupta- Post Gupta

Buddha was depicted as a human thus it was also known as Mahayana Phase.
paintings as well as rock-cut sculptures mentioned by Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang

based on Jataka tales narrating the lives of Buddha Cave no. 9 & 10 attributed to Satavahana Kings
fresco technique
Fahien and Hiuen Tsang are mentioned in Ajanta

5 caves Hinayana Buddhism
25 caves Mahayana Buddhism

Ajanta
✓They are entirely Buddhist

✓Aurangabad , MH
✓It is of interest to note that the Chinese

Buddhist travellers, Hiuen Tsang and Fa Hien,
refer to Ajanta in accounts of their travels.
✓ also by a Mughal-era official of Akbar
✓Of the 29 excavations,

ofour are chaitya halls and
othe rest are viharas.
NON- NCERT

How modern discovery was made ?
Locals were aware about the caves
28 April 1819, a British officer named John Smith, of the

28th Cavalry, while hunting tigers, discovered the
entrance to Cave No. 10 when a local shepherd boy
guided him to the location and the door
1848- published in Royal Asiatic Society
Basalt- deccan trap

Belonging to the cretaceous period

Ajanta are on CLIFF side of the mountain (ajanta hill)
Where as ellora are on slope side
All NON- NCERT

Waghora river Pratik Nayak -Unacademy
Ajanta Caves
Built in 2 Phases
1. Satvahana Period
9, 10, 12, 13 and 15A
Known for Murals
2. Vakataka Period
1–8, 11, 14–29

Continuation of earlier caves
19, 26, and 29 are chaitya-grihas,
Rest all are viharas

Ajanta has 29 caves.

It has four chaitya caves datable to -
the earlier phase the second and the first century Cave Nos. 10 and 9
BCE
the later phase the fifth century CE Cave Nos. 19 and 26
First period Hinayana built during the Satavahana dynasty

Second period Mahayan during the reign of Emperor Harishena of the
Vakataka dynasty
The Hinayana and Mahayana phases are also well defined,

•the first being simpler ,
•the second being much more decorative and characterised by images of the Buddha.
The caves are unique in that they combine three forms of art—architecture, sculpture and
painting.

oThe chaitya Cave Nos. 19 and 26 are

elaborately carved.
o(2nd period chaitya = obvio. Decoration
hase.)
oTheir facade (the principal front of a
building, that faces on to a street or open
space) is decorated with Buddha and,
Boddhisattva images.
oThey are of the apsidal-vault-roof variety.
Cave Nos. 19 ajanta
Cave No. 26 is very big and the

entire interior hall is carved with a
variety of Buddha images, the
biggest one being the
Mahaparinibbana image. All NON- NCERT
Cave Nos. 26 ajanta

Ajanta - Paintings
“Such developments in paintings need to be understood in the context of the

religious requirement.” = NCERT says hahaah

NCERT names :
Among the important patrons at Ajanta were
✓Varaha-deva (patron of Cave No. 16),
✓the prime minister of the Vakataka king, Harishena;

Upendra-gupta (patron of Cave Nos. 17–20)
✓the local king of the region and feudatory of the Vakataka

king, Harishena > Buddha-bhadra (patron of Cave No. 26);
and
✓Mathura-dasa (patron of Cave No. 4).

Mathurdadas, UPSC
aspirants की जान लेने के
ललए - इससे पहले में तुम्हे
गोली मारकर गद्दार कहु भाग में छुट्टी लेके, Ajanta
यहााँ से के गुफा बनाऊंगा

Sculptural panel in the veranda of
Cave No. 2, Ajanta
Painted ceiling, Cave

No. 10, Ajanta
Paintings, Cave No. 9, Ajanta

All NON- NCERT
Painting of the Buddha,
Yashodhra and Rahul,
Cave No. 17, Ajanta
Apsara, Cave No. 17, Ajanta

Cave number 1
King's White Elephant from Jataka tales, Cave 17

Cave number 2
Colonade
Harini Sculpture Cave number 4
Buddha- Preaching

Cave number 6
With disciples and deer Cave number 9
Originally Satvahana
Later on Mahayana images were made

Cave number 11 Cave number 19,

Buddha with a Kneeling Devotee Standing Buddha,
Cave by Upendragupta
Nagaraja in ardhaparyanka
asana, with his wife holding
lotus and
wearing mangalasutra

Cave number 26,

Cave number 20 Mara Vijaya
Buddha on a lion throne

Cave No. 26 is very big and the

entire interior hall is carved with a
variety of Buddha images, the
biggest one being the
Mahaparinibbana image.

Udayagiri Cave temple:

Near Sanchi, M.P.
Tall statue of Vishnu's Boar Avatar
This image was in the personal temple of
Chandragupta II
Total 20 caves
1 cave Jainism
19 caves Hinduism

6. Post Gupta Period
Harsha- no caves were built
Chalukyas of Badami
Cave temples were created during this time
Pallavas of Kanchi

✓The tradition of rock-cut caves continued in the Deccan and they are found
not only in Maharashtra but also in
1) Karnataka, mainly at Badami and Aiholi, executed under the

patronage of the Chalukyas;
2) in Andhra Pradesh in the area of Vijayawada; and
3) in Tamil Nadu, mainly at Mahabalipuram, under the patronage of the
Pallavas.

Cave temple of Mandagapattu:
Tirumurti Temple
Built by Mahendravarman I
1st cave temple of Tamil Nadu
dedicated to Brahma-Shiva-Vishnu
Holds a significant position in the history of architecture
of the Pallavas
Inscription in Sanskrit- Grantha Script
Other Cave temples→
Mahishasuramardini Cave Temple
Krishna Cave Temple
Mahishasuramardini
Varaha
The Kotikal Cave Temple
Tiger Cave Temple (also known as Yali)
Atiranachanda Cave Temple


Pancha Pandava cave:

Located in Mamallapuram
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Bas relief
Arjuna’s Penance:
Also known as ‘Descent of Ganga’
Built by Pallavas
Open-air rock relief
Story of the descent of the sacred river Ganga to earth
from the heavens led by Bhagiratha

Badami Cave temples

example of Chalukyan Architecture,
Time→ 6th century CE
decorative pillars, embellished brackets, intricately carved sculptures and finely
chiseled ceiling panels.
It is a group of four rock-cut cave temples –

3 Brahminical and 1 Jaina.
The Jaina cave temple was built around a century later from the earlier
temples.
The largest cave is Cave no. 3 which is dedicated to Lord Vishnu.
It is also the oldest Badami cave.
Most of temple building activity of Chalukyas was concentrated in Badami,

Aihole, Pattadakal and Mahakuta in modern Karnataka.

Badami caves , KN
Caves on the cliff

above Agastya Lake
Nataraja or Tandava Dancing

Shiva in Cave 1 Vishnu as Varaha rescuing
Earth as Bhudevi , cave 2
Left: Cave 3 is the largest, and

dedicated to Vishnu. Right: Vishnu
seated on serpent Sesha
Cave Tradition in Eastern India
Like in western India, Buddhist caves have also been excavated in eastern India,
mainly in the coastal region of Andhra Pradesh, and in Odisha- Kalinga .
relevant
Non-NCERT > just to remember not
o One of the main sites in Andhra Pradesh is Guntapalle in Eluru
district.
o The caves have been excavated in the hills along with the
structured monasteries.
o Around 200 BCE- 0, with later additions
o Perhaps it is among the very unique sites where the structured
stupas, viharas and the caves are excavated at one place.
o The Guntapalle chaitya cave is circular with a stupa in the circular

hall and a chaitya arch carved at the entrance. The cave is
relatively small when compared to the caves in western India.
o These excavations date back to the second century BCE.

The site has two Buddhist caves,

two vihara made up of
brick, chaitya and a group of stupas.
Guntupalli Buddhist Caves
During excavation three relic caskets (डिबबया) were found.The casket had many precious
elements like gold, silver, crystal beads.
✓The bronze image of Padmapani was found along with one of the caskets. The inscription on the casket
was in Devanagari script which notes the year 9th to 10th century AD.

✓At Anakapalli near Vishakhapatnam, caves were

excavated and a huge rock-cut stupa was carved out
of the hillock during the fourth–fifth centuries CE.
✓It is a unique site as it has the biggest rock-cut

stupas in the country.
Bojjannakonda and Lingalakonda are two

Buddhist sites which exist on adjacent hillocks
near a village called Sankaram in
Vishakhapatnam district, located just a few rock-cut stupas >
kilometers from Anakapalle. Anakapalle AP
(Rampa Yerram Palem Village)
✓Apart from Guntapalle, the other important cave site is Rampaerrampallam which has very
moderate small excavations but there are rock-cut stupas on the hillock.

7. Early Medieval India
750 to 1000 CE
1000 to 1200 CE
Rashtrakuta dynasty-
1.Ellora Caves
2.Elephanta Caves
Parmara Dynasty
Shivleni caves
King Udayaditya (reigned c. 1060–1087)

Ellora caves- Locally known as ‘Verul Leni’

Representing 3 major religion of India- Hinduism, Buddhism& Jainism.
Lies on ancient trade route- ‘Dakshinpatha‘.
34 Buddhist, Hindu & Jain caves.
12 Buddhist caves(no.1-12),
17 Hindu Caves(no.13-29) - ‘Ravan Ki Khai’ and ‘Dasavatar caves’
5 Jaina Caves (no.30-34)- ‘Indra Sabha’ and ‘Jagannath Sabha’
All 3 forms of Art are combined in these caves: Architecture, Sculpture, Paintings
Unique in terms of stylistic eclecticism, i.e. confluence of many styles at one place
Ajanta also has the excavated double story caves but at
Ellora, the triple story is a unique achievement.
Ellora cave temples were carved out on the sloping side of the hill.
Hence most of the temples have courtyards.
Cave no.16 is a rock cut temple, known as ‘Kailash leni‘ – carved out of a single
rock built by Rashtrakutas
3 storied caves are also present


UNESCO World
Heritage Site

Ellora Cave:
Locally known as ‘Verul Leni’
Cut by Buddhists Rock cut monastery
Famous for the largest monolithic excavation in the world- the great Kailasa
Sahayadri ranges of Deccan

UNESCO World heritage site
Buddhist, Hindu and Jain monuments
Cave 16 features the largest single monolithic rock excavation in the world, the
Kailasha temple, a chariot shaped monument dedicated to Shiva
17 Hindu (caves 13–29, Caves No. 14 and 15 are famous and are known as ‘Ravan
Ki Khai’ and ‘Dasavatar caves’ respectively
12 Buddhist (cave 1-12)

5 Jain (caves 30–34, Jaina caves include ‘Indra Sabha’ and ‘Jagannath Sabha’) caves

Ellora Wiki - built by the Rashtrakuta dynasty and Yadav.

Ellora
▪Ellora caves > Aurangabad, MH.
▪It is located a hundred kilometres from Ajanta
▪and has thirty-two Buddhist, Brahmanical and Jain caves.
▪It is a unique art-historical site in the country as it has monasteries associated with the three
religions dating from the fifth century CE onwards to the eleventh century CE.
The 34 "caves" are actually structures excavated out of the vertical face of the Charanandri hills.
NCERT = 32 caves
✓Hindu, Buddhist and Jain rock-cut temples and viharas and mathas were built between the 5th UNESCO site = 34 caves
century and 10th century.
✓17 Hindu (caves 13–29),
✓12 Buddhist (caves 1–12) and
✓5 Jain (caves 30–34) caves, built in proximity, demonstrate the religious harmony prevalent
during this period of Indian history.
Pratik Nayak-Unacademy
12 Buddhist caves
▪There are 12 Buddhist caves having many images belonging to Vajrayana Buddhism
like Tara, Mahamayuri, Akshobhya, Avalokiteshwara, Maitrya, Amitabha, etc.
▪Buddhist caves are big in size and are of single, double and triple storeys. Their pillars
are massive.
▪Ajanta also has excavated double-storeyed caves but at Ellora, the triple storey (cave
no. 12 , a buddhist cave) is a unique achievement.
▪All the caves were plastered and painted but nothing visible is left. The shrine Buddha
images are big in size; they are generally guarded by the images of Padmapani and
Vajrapani.

Cave 12→ tantric Buddhist goddesses Cave 10→ Buddha-

Vyakhyan Mudra
Vishvakarma Cave
Seated Buddha, chaitya hall, Cave No. 10, Ellora
Only chaitya at Ellora among Buddhist caves

The sculptures include those of the Gautama Buddha,
bodhisattvas and saints. The Cave number 10 also known
as Vishwakarma Cave is the only chaitya - the most
famous Buddhist Cave at Ellora.
✓This cave has a pillared verandah columns have

massive squarish shafts and ghata-pallava (vase and
foliage) capitals.
✓The main hall is apsidal on plan and is divided into
central nave and side aisles by 28 octagonal columns with
plain bracket capitals.
✓In the apsidal end of the chaitya hall is a stupa on the
face which a colossal 3.30 m high seated Buddha in
vyakhyana mudra (teaching posture) is carved.
✓The ceilings of this Chaitya hall has
✓been sculpted in such a way that it appears having
wooden ribs.
17 Brahmanical caves
oConstructed during the Kalachuris period, from the mid-6th century to the end of
the 8th century in two phases
oFirst phase- Caves 28, 27 and 19, 29 , 21
o excavated concurrently with Caves 20 and 26, 17 & 28- last ones to start
oThe Brahmanical cave Nos. 13–28 have many sculptures.

o Many caves are dedicated to Shaivism, but the images of both Shiva and
Vishnu and their various forms according to Puranic narrative are depicted.
oAmong the Shaivite themes –

Ravana shaking Mount Kailash, Andhakasurvadha,
Kalyanasundara are profusely depicted
owhereas among the Vaishnavite themes, the different
avatars of Vishnu are depicted.
14, 15 and 16, were constructed during the Rashtrakuta period
Dashavatara temple, or Cave 15
Gangadhara,
marriage of Shiva and Parvati,
Tripurantika of Shakti tradition,
Markendeya, Garuda, aspects of life,
Nandi in mandapa,
dancing Shiva,
Andhakasura,
Govardhanadhari,
Gajendravarada
Inscription of Dantidurga had offered Gajasur Shiva, Cave No.15, Ellora
prayers at that temple
Cave 14 (Ravan ki Khai)
Kalyanasundar
Vishnu and Lakshmi-
presenting Parvati to Shiva Andhakasurvadh
Brhama as a priest
Ravana Shaking Kailash

Ravananugraha
Cave No. 16 is known as Kailash leni.

A rock-cut temple has been carved out of a single rock, a unique achievement of the
artisans.
Based on Virupaksha Temple-Pattadakal & Kailash Temple-Kanchi
1682, during the reign of Mughal emperor, Aurangzeb, the temple was ordered to be
demolished
Courtyard, Kailash Temple,

Cave No.16, Ellora = NCERT
dedicated to Ganga, Yamuna, Saraswati,

the ten avatars of Vishnu,
Vedic gods and goddesses including Indra, Agni, Vayu,
Surya and Usha,
as well as non-Vedic deities like Ganesha,
Ardhanarishvara (half Shiva, half Parvati),
Harihara (half Shiva, half Vishnu),
Annapurna, Durga
Carvings from Ramayana & Mahabharat

Rameshwar temple, Cave 21

Godess Ganga at the entrance
display of the Sapta Matrika, the seven mother goddesses of
the Shakti tradition
Nilkantha - Cave 22
carving of Surya in its ceiling- Cave 25
Dhumar Lena- Cave 29

one of earliest excavations in Ellora

Indra Sabha (Jaina)
The 5 Jain caves at Ellora belong to

the Digambara sect.
They are known for detailed work in
sculpture. The notable Jaina caves
are
Chhota Kailash,
Indra Sabha and
Jagannath Sabha
Out of them, the Indra Sabha is a two

storeyed cave with one more
monolithic shrine in its court.
It has a very fine carving of the lotus flower on the ceiling. Its name is a misnomer and derives
from the sculpture of a Yaksha Matanga on the elephant, which was mistaken Indra.
It possesses an imposing image of Ambika, the yakshini Neminath, seated on her lion under a
mango tree, laden with fruits.

Sidaika
Mahavira Bahubali

Elephanta Caves and Other Sites
The Elephanta Caves located near Mumbai, were originally

a Buddhist site which was later dominated by the
Shaivite faith.
It is contemporary with Ellora.
Original name was Gharpuri Caves→ "the city of caves

An elephant image was found by the Portuguese, hence
Elephanta
established a base on the island, and its soldiers damaged
the sculpture and caves
Entrance to
Elephanta Caves

Elephanta Caves and Other Sites
Elephanta site was first occupied by Hinayana faith

worshippers
Stupa→ created in 2nd century BCE
Coins of the western Kshatraps 4th Century CE
Origin of caves→ between from late 5th to late 8th century

AD
Colonial historians→ belongs to the Rashtrakuta period


Elephanta cave:
• Located on Elephanta Islands in Mumbai
5 Hindu + 2 Buddhist
• Carved from solid basalt rock
• UNESCO World Heritage Site
Cave number 1- Main Cave

1. Ravananugraha
2. Shiva-Parvati, Mount Kailash
3. Ardhanarishvara
4. Sadashiva Trimurti
5. Gangadhara
6. Wedding of Shiva
7. Shiva slaying Andhaka
8. Nataraja
9. Yogishvara
16. Linga
East Wing Shrine West Wing Shrine

10. Kartikeya 14. Yogishvara
11. Matrikas 15. Nataraja
12. Ganesha
13. Dvarapala

Elephanta cave:
• Located on Elephanta Islands in Mumbai
• 7 cave excavations in the Elephanta group
• Trimurti of Shiva
5 Hindu + 2 Buddhist
• Carved from solid basalt rock
• UNESCO World Heritage Site
island off the coast of Bombay)
originally supposed to be a Buddhist site but later these caves

were dominated by the Shaivite faith
great Trimurti figure of Shiva (Shiva is akin to the Trimurti figure

of Brahma, Vishnu and Mahesh) and some other notable
sculptures include Ravana shaking the Kailash, Tandav dance
of Shiva, Ardh-narishwara

Main cave -
Shiva-Parvati on Kailash (cave 1) and
Ravana lifting Kailash(cave 2),
elephanta
Remember– Ravana shaking
kailash
Cave no. 16 – ellora –
Elephanta main cave

Gangadhara Andakasurvadha Kalyansundara

Shiva- as Yogishvara, Mahayogi Nataraj

Lakulisha-pashupat sect

Trimurti or Sadashiva –
The Creator, The Protector, The Destroyer
Official logo of MTDC

Gangadhara Shiva (right) with part of
the Trimurti and a guardian (left).
Ardhanarishvara (centre)
at Elephanta caves. Note
the sculpture's left is
female and the right is
male, depicting Shiva and
his consort Parvati.

Sapta Matrikas, or the "seven mothers" along with Parvati,

Kartikeya (Skanda) and Ganesha
symbolically represent the seven different aggressive tendencies

of the female part of a human being
tend to destroy the wellness that comes out of a fostering mother
-Brahmi or Brahmani
-Vaishnavi- shakti of Vishnu
-Maheshwari also known as Raudri, Rudrani and Maheshi
is the Shakthi of Shiva
-Aindri, also known as Indrani, Mahendri, Shakri and Vajri, is
the shakthi of Indra
-Varahi is the Shakthi of Varaha, an incarnation of Vishnu
-Kaumari also known as Kumari, Karttikeyani and Ambika is
the power of Kumara or Skanda; the war – god
-Chamunda also known as Chamundi; and, Charchika is the
Shakthi of Devi (Chandi)
-Narasimhi or Narasimhini or Narasimhika with the face of a
lion, fierce claws and four arms is the shakthi of Narasimha
- Mahalakshmi is counted as the eighth Matrika in the Asta-

matrika tradition followed in the Nepal region

Elephanta caves- Gharpuri caves
TriMurti-Maheshmurti→ Significance ?
Central attraction here is a twenty-foot high bust of the deity in 3 headed
form.
The maheshamurti is built deep into a recess & looms up from the darkness
to fill the
full height of the cave.
Image symbolizes the fierce, feminine & meditative aspects of the great
ascetic & the 3
heads represent lord Shiva as Aghori, Ardhanarishvara & Mahayogi.
Aghori is the aggressive form of Shiva where he is intent on destruction.
Ardhanarishvara depicts lord Shiva as half-man/half-woman signifying the
essential
unity of the sexes.
Mahayogi posture symbolises the meditative aspect of the god.
Other sculptures in these caves depict Shiva’s cosmic dance of primordial
creation and
destruction and his marriage to parvati.

Montepzir / Mandapeshwar Cave (Mumbai)

Located in Mandapeshwar
Dated to 8th century
Probably the only Bramhanical caves to be converted
into a Christian shrine
Location Mount Poinsur in Borivali, Maharashtra

• River Dhaisar
Built between 5-6th Century CE as buddhist caves

created by the Buddhist monks and then they hired
travelling Persians to paint
Later on by
• 8th century cut rock dedicated to Shiva
sculptures of Nataraja, Sadashiva and a splendid sculpture
of Ardhanarishvara
The Portuguese converted this cave→

Immaculate Conception Church

Early Medieval
Rajput Period
Fragmentation of the Rajput clans-1000 to 1200 CE
Fragmentation- Gurjara Pratihara
Chauhan Solanki Parmar Chandela Gadhvala
Cave were built

Shivleni Caves – Parmara Dynasty
Shivleni Caves (Shiva leni; Jogai Mandap; Hattikhana)

in Ambajogai, Maharashtra, are rock-cut cave
monuments which date in King Udayaditya (reigned c.
1060–1087) from Paramara dynasty of Malwa
Udayaditya→ Mahamandaleshwar
banks of the Jayvanti river
Shiva, Saptamatrikas and Ganesha
Nandi Mandap
Jogaidevi, whose temple is situated nearby. It is said that

the wedding was planned to take place in this mandap but
could not take place for supernatural reasons, and the
elephants and everything inside it turned to stone, hence
the name 'Jogai Mandap’
local belief that there is a tunnel in this Hattikhana leading

to Parli Vaijanath, around 25 km away

Previous Years Questions-
Q. Mesolithic rock-cut architecture of India not only reflects the cultural life of the times but
also a tine aesthetic sense comparable to modem painting. Critically evaluate this comment
(2015)
THANKS!
Stupa Architecture
About Me
teaching



2500 BCE- 1600 BCE)
Aryans & Vedic Age
Development we find
(1500 BCE-600 BCE)
changes in
Architecture
600 BCE-350 BCE
Buddhism & Jainism
Q. What type of

Early Medieval -

Art & Culture
Culture



Size and scope
Material used
Principle
Example

Classification of Stupa Architecture
Based on the Usage Based on the Design Origin Phases Based on the Design
Types of Stupa→ Who made it ? Purpose→

Location→
Rock Cut Merchants
Places & Sites
Composite Kings
Missionaries

Stupa Architecture
Origin ?
term stupa has been referred to in Rig Veda
fire coming out of the sacrificial altar
word Stupa is mentioned in the Rigveda, Atharvaveda, Vajasaneyi Samhita, Taittriya

Samhita, in the Panchavimsata Brahmana
Stupa raised by the King Varuna above the forest in a place having no
foundation
How come it developed in Buddhism ?

Stupa Architecture
Stupa in Buddhism → Origin ? Initially→ Mound Burial Prevalent

in the
Pali Word→ Thuppa 1. Stone Age- Megalithic period
called as Dheep, Bhisa etc.
2. Indus Valley Civilisation
conical heap, a pile or a mound or a conical or bell shaped shrine containing a relic
originally the focus of a popular cult of the dead
relics were buried at significant crossroads and stupas of mud were raised on them for
people to pay their respects by venerating them
a large burial mound containing a relic of the Buddha
Significance ?
Jataka literature
Siddhartha Gautama (568-483 BCE)
4 noble truth Sujata Jataka and Bahiya Sutta
Astangika marg- Madhyampratipadah
Death @ Kushinagara- creamated raised earthen mounds
Buddha’s parinirvana → Death
Made of clay

Stupa Architecture
Stupa in Buddhism → Origin ?
-funeral mound which was originally made of earth but later on with
bricks and stone
-also called “Chaitya” which literally means a monument on the spot of

the funeral pyre
-plant a tree on the spot where the dead body was buried or burnt→
Chaitya Tree
- Later on, monument was raised on the spot to enshrine the remains of
the dead person
-demise of Buddha and his cremation at Kushinagar
- What to do with the relics ?

- The Mallas of the Kushinagar kept the relics with themselves

Stupa Architecture
Stupa in Buddhism → Origin ? Development of Stupa

Architecture
-demise of Buddha and his cremation at Kushinagar
Theory behind Stupa
- What to do with the relics ?
- The Mallas of the Kushinagar kept the relics with themselves Classification
Chronological
- Issue ? Understanding
- Other Mahajanpada also claimed – battle took place
- Kushinagar vs others→ for the relics Evolution in shape &
- King Ajatshatru of Magadha, the Licchavis of design
Vaishali, the Koliyas of Ramagrama and the other
-later the corporeal relics was distributed among 8 Mahajanapadas Purpose of Stupa also
changed
-initially 8 Stupas (Saririka Chaityas) were built North India & South
India
Later on expansion of Stupa Architecture took place

Stupa Architecture- Types & Classification ?
Sharirik Paribhogika Uddeshika
contains the bodily Objects used Memorial

remains of various objects purpose
Tathagata and utensils
& other Buddhist Used for aradhna
figures
Object based Commemorative
Hence Relics
based
Symbolic stupa- aspects of Buddhist theology

Votive stupas - constructed to commemorate visits


Stupa Architecture- Design ?
Anda - semi circular mound built on earth
Harmika -
balcony like structure above anda
living place of god
Yashti -
mast above harmika surmounted by umbrella
Railing –
mound believed to separate the stupa from surrounding world
Chatra – 3 Gems
Buddha-Dhamma-Sangha
Pradakshinapatha-
clockwise circumambulation
Torana – core of the stupa was made up of

Gateways- Jataka stories unburnt brick and the outer face of
burnt brick
Medhi- Square platform
Vedika- boundary wall

Theory of Stupa ?
Significance ?
five purified elements :
1) The square base represents earth
2) The hemispherical dome/vase represents water
3) The conical spire represents fire
4) The upper lotus parasol and the crescent moon represents air
5) The sun and the dissolving point represents the element of space



2500 BCE- 1600 BCE)
Aryans & Vedic Age Development of Stupa

(1500 BCE-600 BCE) Architecture
Chronological
600 BCE-350 BCE Understanding
Buddhism & Jainism
Evolution in shape &
Mauryan Age (325-185 BCE) design
Post Mauryan India (200 BCE-300CE) Purpose of Stupa also

changed
Gupta Age (320-550CE) North India & South

India
Early Medieval -

Vedic & Later Vedic Age

Evidence of Stupa- mentioned in Rig Veda

Mahajanapada- 16
Period of Siddhartha Gautama

Vardhamana Mahavira
evidence of cave architecture found
After the death of Buddha stupa building started
8 or 9 stupas were established initially

Mauryan Age- 325- 185 BCE
Asoka- made more than 84000 Stupas

Now m
gonna
make stupa

Post Mauryan India
200 BCE-300 CE
500 years period

different regions
Satvahana started building Stupa
Andhra Pradesh , Karnataka region also saw

stupa building process

Gupta Period (320-550 CE)

- Stupa Building continued – Sarnath region
- Gujarat Also saw the development of the

Stupas
Post Gupta Period (550-750 CE)

- Harsha Vardhan- converted to buddhism
Kannauj Assembly
Phase-1
Originally 8/9 Stupas were constructed
Initially built by Drona→ Brahmin

erected a Stupa to enshrine the urn that was used to divide the relics
Location → 8
first eight stupas on the Buddha’s bones and ashes were the mud stupas Stupas
which were nothing but mound burials Rajagrihya,
Vaishali,
mud heaps or mound burials were prevalent Kapilavastu,
Allakappa,
Sramanas were also known to have been given live burials in meditative postures and Ramagrama,
earth stupas were consequently built on them Vethadipa,
Pava and
Piparhava Stupa- oldest one Kushinagara
Piparhava

Piparhava Stupa
Oldest Stupa
Location- Siddharth Nagar District, UP
1898- Discovery by William Claxton Peppe
Excavation going on due to famine condition
18 feet of solid brickwork, they came to a large

stone coffer which contained five small vases containing
bone fragments, ashes, and jewels.
discovered 13 sealings which bore the same legend in

Kushan script: 'Of the community of the monks of great
Kapilavastu'.
On one of the vases was a Brahmi script which was

translated by Georg Bühler,
Later on bone relics were taken away to Siam(Thailand),

Rangoon, Srilanka

Ramabhar Stupa- Kushinagar
Cremation site of Lord Buddha
dome shaped monument having brickworks and stands

at a height of 49 feet

First relic (saririka) stupas at Vaishali in Bihar
Licchavis took their share of the Buddha’s ashes and

bones and buried it here and built a mud stupa
Asoka→ opened the stupa to take out a little of the relic

and thereafter closed the monument while keeping
back the original casket and coated the stupa with bricks

Kesariya Stupa- Bihar
contain the begging bowl of Tathagata which he had

presented to the Licchavis prior to his journey for his
mahaparinirvana in Kusinagara
104 feet structure- original size 150 feet

Kesaria Stupa is one of the tallest and largest Buddhist
Stupas

Phase-2 Mauryan Period onwards
Originally 8 Stupas were constructed
Asoka→
opened the stupa to take out a little of the relic and thereafter closed
the monument while keeping back the original casket and coated the
stupa with bricks
Dipavamsa→ Asoka → building 84,000 stupas all over India and

Afghanistan.
Hiuen Tsang, seen a considerable number of these stupas
Features of the Stupa ?

Buddha is depicted symbolically through footprints,
Chhadanta Jataka, Vidurpundita
stupas, lotus throne, chakra
Jataka, Ruru Jataka, Sibi Jataka,
Vessantara Jataka and Shama
Jataka stories, were depicted on the railings and toranas of the stupas
Jataka

Phase-2 Mauryan Period- Post Mauryan-Gupta Period
Originally 8 Stupas were constructed
Asoka→
opened the stupa to take out a little of the relic and thereafter closed
the monument while keeping back the original casket and coated the
stupa with bricks
Dipavamsa→ Asoka → building 84,000 stupas all over India and

Afghanistan.
Hiuen Tsang, seen a considerable number of these stupas
Features of the Stupa ?

Buddha is depicted symbolically through footprints,
Chhadanta Jataka, Vidurpundita
stupas, lotus throne, chakra
Jataka, Ruru Jataka, Sibi Jataka,
Vessantara Jataka and Shama
Jataka stories, were depicted on the railings and toranas of the stupas
Jataka

Bairat Stupa
Viratnagar Stupa
Stupa in third century BCE @Bairat in

Rajasthan.
Very grand stupa having circular mound with
circum-ambulatory path.
The Remains of a very flourishing

Buddhist Stupa reminding of the
areas's Buddhist past as well.
•Bairat @ Jaipur district of Rajasthan, India

•Bairat's history goes back to the time of the Mahabharata,
when it was known as "Viratnagar". Viratnagar was the capital
of the ancient Mahajanapada (kingdom) of Machcha or Matsya.
•The Banganga River originates from a nearby village, Mair.
Mahastupa
STUPA-1, SANCHI


Sanchi, Bhopal, is a UNESCO world heritage site.

Along with other relatively small stupas, there are
three main stupas at Sanchi.
oStupa-1 is presumed to have the relics of the

Buddha,
oStupa-2, the relics of ten less famous arhats

belonging to three different generations. Their names
are found on the relic casket.
oStupa-3 has the relics of Sariputta and

Mahamougalayana.

core of stupa No 1 at Sanchi can be considered as the

oldest of the stupas
Originally built by Ashoka, Pushyamitra Sunga destroyed it, his

Son Agnimitra repaired it
inscription by the ivory carvers of Vidisha on the southern

gateway
Transition from wood to stone architecture
four beautifully decorated life of the Buddha and thejatakas
Depiction of picture gets naturalistic
Symbollic Worship→ representing the Buddha and the Manushi

Buddhas
24 Buddhas but only 1st one dipankar and last six are pictorially
represented at Sanchi-1
addition was done at the end of 1st century BC when Toranas

were added at the 4 cardinal points

At Sanchi Stupa-1, narratives get more elaborated

The historical narratives such as
the siege of Kushinagra,
Buddha’s visit to Kapilavastu,
visit of Ashoka to the Ramgrama Stupa
Mahakapi Jataka- Monkey King
are carved with considerable details.
•In Mathura, images of this period bear the same quality

but are different in the depiction of physiognomic details
(assessment of a person's character or
personality from his or her outer
appearance, especially the face.)
Stone carving, Stupa-1,

Sanchi
▪Stupa-1, known for the carvings on its gateways .

▪Originally the stupa was a small brick structure which expanded
over a period and was covered with stone, vedika and the torana
(gateways).
▪The Ashokan lion-capital pillar with an inscription is found on
the southern side of the stupa, indicating how Sanchi became a
centre of monastic and artistic activities.
▪The south gateway was made first followed by the others. The pradakshinapath around the
stupa is covered with the vedika.
▪There is also the upper pradakshinapath which is unique to
▪this site.
▪Buddha is shown symbolically as an empty throne, feet, chhatra, stupas, etc.
▪The four gateways are decorated profusely with sculptures. Toranas are constructed in all four
directions. Their stylistic differences indicate their possible chronology from the first century BCE
onwards.

-Though Stupa-1 is the oldest stupa,

-The carving of images on the vedica of Stupa-2 are earlier than those on
Stupa-1.
-Jatakas also become an important part of the narratives in stupas.
-The figures at Sanchi, despite being small in dimension, show considerable
mastery of sculpting.
-Their physiognomic treatment of the body shows both depth and dimension
which are very naturalistic.
✓There are guardian images on pillars and the shalbhanjika (i.e.,

lady holding the branch of a tree) sculptures are remarkable in
their treatment of volume.
✓The rigidity of the earlier sculptures of Stupa-2 is no

more there. Each torana consists of two vertical pillars
and three horizontal bars on the top. Each horizontal
bar is decorated with different sculptural themes on the Yakshi→ salabhanjika or shalabhanjika is the
front as well as at the back. sculpture of a woman, displaying stylised feminine
features, standing near a tree and grasping a branch
✓Supporting the extensions of the lowermost horizontal
bar from below are the images of shalbhanjikas. known as madanakai, madanika or shilabalika



Ashokan Pillar on a relief at the Mahastupa at Sanchi,

Bharhut stupa
may have been established by the Maurya king Ashoka
art were apparently added during the Sunga period
important for its sculpture as the dome is now vanished
railings are made of red stone
pictoral representations of nature
sculptures portray some realistic scenes of daily life

Bharhut
Bharhut (Hindi: भरहुत) is a village located in the Satna

district of Madhya Pradesh, central India. It is known for its
famous relics from a Buddhist stupa.
Bharhut sculpture, early Indian sculpture of the Shunga

period (mid-2nd century BCE) that decorated the great
stupa, or relic mound, ofBharhut, in Madhya
Pradesh state.
The Bharhut style marks the beginnings of a tradition of

Buddhist narrative relief and decoration of sacred
buildings that continued for several centuries.
The monkey chief and the king of Varanasi,

King Ajatsatru→ Depicted @ sculptures of Barhut red sandstone relief from Bharhut, Madhya
Pradesh, India.

Bodhisattva was born as a monkey, ruler

over 80,000 monkeys
King Brahmadatta of Benares

Buddha- as a monkey chief was helped by
his cousin Devdatta
This scene was depicted at Sanchi and

Bharhut
Yakshini, Bharhut
•Bharhut sculptures are tall like the images of Yaksha and
Yakhshini in the Mauryan period
•Images stick to the picture plane
✓At Bharhut, narrative panels are shown with fewer

characters but as the time progresses, apart from the main
character in the story, others also start appearing in the picture
space.
•At times more than one event at one geographical place is

clubbed in the picture space or only a single main event is
depicted in the pictorial space.
•Availability of the space is utilised to the maximum by the

sculptors. Folded hands in the narratives as well as single
figures of the Yakhshas and Yakshinis are shown flat clinging
to the chest.
But in some cases, especially in later times, the hands are

shown with the natural projection against the chest.

Narrative reliefs at Bharhut show how artisans used the

pictorial language very effectively to communicate stories.
In one such narrative, showing Queen Mayadevi’s

(mother of Siddhartha Gautam) dream, a
descending elephant is shown.
✓The queen is shown reclining on the bed whereas
an elephant is shown on the top heading towards the
womb of Queen Mayadevi. (!!!)
Queen Maya’s dream, Bharhut

✓On the other hand, the depiction of a Jataka story

is very simple—narrated by clubbing the events
according to the geographical location of the story
like the depiction of Ruru Jataka where the
Boddhisattva deer is rescuing a man on his back.
•The other event in the same picture frame depicts

the King standing with his army and about to
shoot an arrow at the deer, and the man who was
Jataka panel rescued by the deer is also shown along
with the king pointing a finger at the deer.
Jataka panel , Bharhut

•According to the story, the man promised the deer after his rescue that he would not
disclose his identity to anybody. But when the king makes a proclamation of reward for
disclosing the identity of the deer, he turns hostile and takes the king to the same jungle
where he had seen the deer.
•Such Jataka stories became part of stupa decoration.
✓One main characteristic in all the male images of first–second

centuries BCE is the knotted headgear.
Due to shallow carving of the picture surface,

projection of hands and feet was not possible,
hence, the folded hands and awkward position of
the feet. There is a general stiffness in the body
and arms.
But gradually, such visual appearance was modified
by making images with deep carvings, pronounced
volume and a very naturalistic representation of
human and animal bodies.
Sculptures at Bharhut, Bodhgaya, Sanchi Stupa-

2, and Jagayyapetta are good examples.
Non-NCERT
Dhamek Stupa (Sarnath)
Built by Asoka, later on by the Guptas
Location→ Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh
contains the relics of Buddha and is, therefore, an important place

of Buddhist pilgrimage.
spot where the Buddha gave the first sermon- Dhamma Chakra
Pravartana
Design & Materia- solid cylinder of bricks and stone
stone basement has eight projecting faces with niches in them

Q. Significance of Sarnath/Isipatana
Sarnath has been variously known as Mrigadava > means "deer-park".

Isipatana is the name used in the Pali Canon, and means the place where holy men
(Pali: isi, Sanskrit: rishi) landed.
The legend says that when the Buddha-to-be was born, some devas came down to announce
it to 500 rishis. The rishis all rose into the air and disappeared and their relics fell to the
ground.
Another explanation for the name is that Isipatana was so called because sages, on their way
through the air (from the Himalayas), alight here or start from here on their aerial flight.
Panoramic view of Sarnath

Current features of Isipatana
- The Dhamek Stupa;- also known as Dharmarajika Stupa

- The Dhamek Stupa is said to mark the spot of a deer park
(Rishipattana) where the Buddha gave the first sermon to his five
disciples after attaining enlightenment,"revealing his Eightfold Path
leading to nirvana".
- The Dharmarajika Stupa is one of the few pre-Ashokan stupas

remaining, although only the foundations remain.
- The rest of the Dharmarajika Stupa was removed to Varanasi to be
used as building materials in the 18h century. At that time, also
relics were found in the Dharmarajika Stupa. These relics were
subsequently thrown in the Ganges river.
Dharmarajika Stupa from

the pre-Ashokan Era
Satvahana-
Expanded the sanchi stupa
Amaravati Stupa
Also known as Mahachaitya
Developed during the period of the Satvahana & Ikshvaku
dynasty
developed at Amravati, on the banks of the Krishna River
built in 2nd or 1st century BC

Initially Hinayana→ later on transformed into Mahayana
free-standing columns surmounted by lions near the

gateways
dome was covered with sculptured panels
Example of commemorative stupa
Material- white marble/limestone
Other locations where the Stupa were Built
Goli, Jaggiahpeta, Bhattiprolu, Gantasala, Nagarjunakonda

Model of Stupa in Museum

Buddhist Monuments of South India
Vengi in Andhra Pradesh has many stupa sites like

Jagayyapetta(AP), Amaravati(AP), Bhattiprolu(AP),
Nagarjunkonda(AP), Goli(AP), etc.

Amaravati
▪Amaravati has a mahachaitya
•Like the Sanchi Stupa, the Amaravati Stupa also has

pradakshinapatha enclosed within a vedika on which many narrative
sculptures are depicted.
•The domical stupa structure is covered with relief stupa
sculptural slabs which is a unique feature
•The torana of the Amaravati Stupa has disappeared over

a period of time.
•Events from the life of the Buddha and the Jataka stories
are depicted.

Amaravati sculpture- Relief Art form
Sculptural form in this area is

ocharacterised by intense emotions.
oFigures are slender,
ohave a lot of movement, bodies are shown with three
bents (i.e. tribhanga), and
othe sculptural composition is more complex than at Sanchi.
▪Linearity becomes flexible,

▪dynamic movement breaks the staticness of form.
▪The idea of creating three-dimensional space in the relief
sculpture is devised by using pronounced volume, angular
bodies and complex overlapping.
Non-NCERT
A representation of Mara's
assault on the Buddha, 2nd
century AD, Amaravati.
Q. Mara Vijaya Sculpture

depicted at other site ?

▪Narratives are profusely depicted which include events

from the life of the Buddha and the Jataka stories.
▪In the depiction of the birth event, the queen is shown

reclining on a bed surrounded by female attendants and
a small-sized elephant is carved on the upper frame of
the composition showing the dream of Queen Mayadevi.
Ref. carved slabs placed against

the stūpa proper. These slabs are
usually called 'drum slabs' because
they were placed round the base of
the stūpa which has a shape similar to
a circular drum. @amravati Stupa drum slab,
Amravati, second
century CE

Panel, Nagarjunkonda
▪The animated movement in the figures gets reduced in the sculptures of

Nagarjunkonda and Goli in the third century CE.
▪Even within the relatively low relief volume than in the Amaravati sculptures, artists Carving on outer wall of Stupa,
at Nagarjunkonda and Goli managed to create the effect of protruding surfaces of Amaravati
the body which is suggestive in nature and look very integral. ???

Rock-cut stupas >

Anakapalle AP
✓At Anakapalli near Vishakhapatnam, caves

were excavated and a huge rock-cut stupa
was carved out of the hillock during the
fourth–fifth centuries CE.
✓It is a unique site as it has the biggest
rock-cut stupas in the country.
Bojjannakonda and Lingalakonda are two Buddhist sites

which exist on adjacent hillocks near a village called Sankaram
in Vishakhapatnam district, located just a few kilometers from
Anakapalle.

Sannati Maha-stupa KN
▪Located in Karnataka, Gulbarga district

▪ mahastupa the diameter of which was around
75 ft.
▪exposed the medhi along with hundreds of

sculptured slabs with lotus designs and other
decorations
▪Kanganahalli
▪Image of Ashoka – Ranyo Asoka inscribed on it
▪Prakrit and Brahmi
▪limestone bass-relief sculptures
▪Ascribed to Satvahana dynasty- names of the

king Yajna Sri Satkarni etc.

Gandhara Stupas
Dharmarajika Stupa
name given to Buddha who was the true Dharma Raja
(Lord of Law)
Located @ Taxila (NW India)
dates from the 2nd century CE→ Kushan dynasty
originally built over the remains of an even older stupa that

had been built by the Mauryan emperor King Ashoka in the
3rd century BCE
Later on the site came under the control of Huns, who

destroyed this monuments

Gandhara Stupas
Purushpura Stupa
Built by the Greek Engineer→ Agesilaus

After the Death of Kanishka
Expansion of the stupa took place in the next period
Stupa with a square base was constructed
Tower stupas were built
Mention by Fa Hein- tallest tower was built- 560 feet

Sung yun- tower struck by the lightning, copper chatri on
top
Hieun Tsang
Kanshika’s Bronze Casket- relics were found



By 3rd-4th century CE→

Among the important stupa sites outside the Gangetic
valley is Devnimori in Gujarat.
Ref. The remains of a Buddhist monastery belonging to

3rd-4th century AD have been unearthed from Devni
Mori, about two km from Shamlaji.
The presence of a stupa and monastery has reconfirmed

that during the early centuries of Christian era, there had
been a strong presence of Buddhists in Vadnagar.
Excavating of the stupa brought to light an inscribed

casket which contained relics of Budhha. The
inscription clearly mentions that the casket contains
bodily relics of Buddha.
Vadnagar→ mentioned by Hieun Tsang

Dev ni Mori Near Shamlaji, Dist:
Sabarkantha

Dev ni Mori Near Shamlaji, Dist: Sabarkantha

Gupta Period- Stupa @ Sarnath

Chaukhandi Stupa
The Chaukhandi Stupa commemorates the spot

where Lord Buddha and his first disciples met travelling
from Bodh Gaya to Sarnath, dating back to Gupta
period - the fifth century or earlier
Chaukhandi stupa
Later on→ change of design by the Mughal period
Govardhan, the son of a Raja Todarmal, modified the
stupa to its present shape by building the octagonal
tower to commemorate the visit of Humayun
the addition of an octagonal tower of Islamic origin.
The ruins of the Mulagandhakuti vihara mark the

place where the Buddha spent his first rainy season.
Mula-gandha-kuti
Post Gupta-Harshavardhan
Kannauj Assembly
Hieun Tsang mentions about 100 feet high tower
Stupa’s design got changed by this time

THANKS!
Pillar Architecture
About Me
teaching



2500 BCE- 1600 BCE)
Aryans & Vedic Age
Development we find
(1500 BCE-600 BCE)
changes in
Architecture
600 BCE-350 BCE
Buddhism & Jainism
Q. What type of

Early Medieval -

Art & Culture
Culture



Size and scope
Material used
Principle
Example



2500 BCE- 1600 BCE)
Aryans & Vedic Age During this Historical

(1500 BCE-600 BCE) Development we find
changes in
Architecture
600 BCE-350 BCE
Buddhism & Jainism Q. What type of Pillars
were erected ?
Q. Who built these
Post Mauryan India (200 BCE-300CE) pillars?

Early Medieval -

Classification of Pillar Architecture
Types of Pillar→ Who made it ? Purpose→

Location→
Rock Cut-Monolithic Merchants Independent
Places & Sites
Composite Kings
Missionaries Part of
Architecture
- Building
- Palace
- Forts

Pillar Architecture
Pillars
Origin ?
Initially made as a part of Buildings/Monuments
Used to support the structure Independent Part of Architecture
Square/rectangular shape
Later on Independent pillars were made

Pillars
Pillar Architecture
Phase-1 Indus Valley Civilisation

Independent Part of Architecture
Pillars were made
Part of Buildings
Square/Rectangle in Shape
Pillared Hall in Mohenjo-daro

Used for social gathering
Kiln baked bricks were used to construct these pillars
27.5 meters square (90 feet square) with twenty square

brick pillars arranged in four rows, only two of which are
still preserved


Pillars
Pillar Architecture

Dholavira-
Water reservoirs
Pillar with - Measurement inscribed on it
House Pillars
Used to support building roof
Generally square/rectangle in shape
Many Archaeologist believe the Harappans pillars were

the copy of Mesopotamian pillars, but the pillars found in
Mesopotamia are

Pillars
Pillar Architecture
Phase-2 Mahajanapada
16 Mahajnapada
Fort Building took place
Pillars were used to support the structure of the Building
Not much remains are found

Pillars
Pillar Architecture
Phase-3 Asoka
Climax period of pillar Architecture
Dhamma Stambha
Inscriptions
Location- Origin Theory ?
20 pillars are still intact Bihar
few with animal capitals UP Western Origin
MP -Persian
Dimensions- Haryana Influence
12 and 15 m (40 and 50 ft) in height, Delhi - Hellenistic
weighing up to 50 tons Influence
Made at Chunar & Mathura - Indian Origin c
built at Buddhist monasteries

Boundaries of the empire
ommemorate visits by Ashoka

THE MAURYAN EMPIRE
Pillars and Sculpture
Built by Asoka under royal supervision
edicts inscribed on them,

Location→ either in sacred enclosures or
in the vicinity of towns.
Showed the suzerainty of the empire
Q.Material ?
Two types of stone:
(1) the spotted red and white sandstone from the region of Mathura
(2) the buff coloured fine-grained hard sandstone usually with small
black spots quarried in Chunar near Banaras.
Stone was transported from Mathura and Chunar to the various sites
The stone was cut and carved by craftsmen
Craftsmen→ came from Taxila and had experience in handling stone.

THE MAURYAN EMPIRE
pillars have four component parts in two pieces:

Each pillar has three parts: Monolithic Pillars the three sections of the capitals are made in a single piece,
1. the prop under the foundation,
2.the shaft or the column,→ single piece of sandstone often of a different stone to that of the monolithic shaft to whi
round and slightly tapering shaft, circular in cross section they are attached by a large metal dowel.
highly polished
3. the capital→ single piece of sandstone→ Detailing
(a) some finely executed animal figures, such as the lion or the elephant- seated/standing
(b) the sacred dharmachakra (with 24 spokes) symbol engraved
with animal sculptures in relief, and
(c) the inverted or bell-shaped lotus.
Language→ Prakrit,
Script→ Brahmi , Kharosti

THE MAURYAN EMPIRE
✓at Sarnath, near Varanasi

✓in commemoration of the historical event of the first
sermon or the Dhammachakrapravartana by the Buddha at
Sarnath, the lion capital was built by Ashoka.
✓consisted of five component parts:
(i) the shaft
(ii) a lotus bell base,
(iii) a drum on the bell base with four animals proceeding
clockwise,
(iv) the figures of four majestic addorsed lions, and
(v) the crowning element, Dharamchakra, a large wheel,
was also a part of this pillar.
However, this wheel is lying in a broken condition and is
displayed in the site museum at Sarnath.
The abacus has the depiction of a chakra (wheel) having

twenty-four spokes in all the four directions and a bull, a
horse, an elephant and a lion between every chakra is
finely carved.
The capital without the crowning wheel and the lotus

base has been adopted as the National Emblem of
Independent India.
THE MAURYAN EMPIRE
Asokan Pillars
Sites
Basarah-Bakhira, Allahbad
Lauriya-Nandangarh, → Single lion Amravati
Rampurva→ 2 pillars→ Single lion, Bull No Capital
Nigali Sagar
Sankisa → Elephant Lauriya Araraj
Sarnath→4 lion Fatehabad
Sanchi→ 4 lion
Lumbini→ Horse
Vaishali → Single lion
6 Major Pillar →
Kausambhi (Allahabad), Topra (now Delhi), Meerut (now Delhi),
Lauriya-Araraj, Lauriya-Nandangarh, Rampurva (Champaran),
and a 7th one on the Delhi-Topra pillar.

Mauryan Empire
Asokan Pillars
Allahbad Pillar
Originally located @ Kaushambi
Shifted to Allahbad by Akbar/Jahangir
Built during the time of Asoka
Inscriptions of Asoka
Inscription of Harisena @ Samdudragupta
Jahangir's message
Local rulers message
Also known as Queen’s Edict

Mauryan Empire
Asokan Pillars
Pillars @ Delhi
2 pillars are there
Brought to Delhi by Feroz Shah Tughlaq
1→ brought from Topara
Erected on a mosque built @ FSK
2→ brought from Meerut
Installed @ hunting place nr. Wazirabad hills


Mauryan Empire
Asokan Pillars


Persian Influence
Sarnath Lion Capital of Ashoka shows
Achaemenid and Sargonid influence
Origin Theory ? Hellenistic/Greek Influence

Rampurva bull, the Sankissa elephant and the Allahabad
Western Origin pillar capital) use bands of motifs, like the bead and
- Persian reel pattern, the ovolo, the flame palmettes, lotuses, which
Influence likely originated from Greek
- Hellenistic Greek columns such as the Sphinx of Naxos
Influence
- Indian Origin Dhvaja
Indian soldiers carried with them during battle and it was
believed that the destruction of the enemy's dhvaja brought
misfortune to their opponents
Mauryan Empire
Asokan Pillars
Q. V.A. Smith “Asokan pillars were copy of Persian pillars” ???
Similarities→
Both were made of stone
Both have glossy polish
Both have bell shaped portion
Both have capitals
Persian pillars carved out during 6th Century BCE

Mauryan Empire
Asokan Pillars
Differnces→
Asokan Pillars Persian Pillars
Shaft→ Monoliths Composite→ Joining of different pieces
Outer surface→ Smooth Outer surface→ Grooves
Bell @ top Bell @ top & bottom
Erected on bell shaped base

Erected w/o any base

Mauryan Empire
Asokan Pillars
Differnces→
Asokan Pillars Persian Pillars

Used for inscriptions/edicts
Used for supporting roof
Independent constructions Part of palaces, not much

evidence of Independent
construction
Animal capital
Animal capital + Human capital
Glossy polish was used from 6th century BCE onwards

Polish was used even in the pottery-
Northern Black Polished ware
6-8th century BCE

Mauryan Empire

Post Mauryan India
200 BCE-300 CE
500 years period

different regions
Satvahana- Built Cave Architecture

Octagonal Pillars
Square Shaped Plinth Pillars
Stupa- Drum shaped pillars supporting the
stupa base
Shunga Dynasty-
Pillars were built by Heliodorous

Pillars
Pillar Architecture
Phase-5 Post Mauryan India

Besnagar Pillar Inscription→ By Heliodorus
Source→ Besnagar Pillar Inscription
Greek King Antialcidas ambassador @ court of Sunga King Bhagvata
Temple dedicated to god Vasudeva was built

Inscription→ The king describes himself as Bhagvata (worshipper of Lord
Krishna)
Heliodorous also ascribes himself as the devotee of Vasudeva
Garuda→ Vishnu’s Vehicle
Significance of the pillar ?

Dhavaja Style
The same can be seen in Bharaut Sculptures
Sapta-Matrikas belonging to 7th Century CE were also found from the

temple premises

Besnagar Pillar Inscription
Pratik Nayak - Unacademy

Kalpadruma Tree-
Makara Capital Fan Shaped
Lakshmi

Chandragupta- II
Pillar Architecture continued
Iron Pillar of Mehrauli

- The iron pillar-1500 years old

- Location @ Mehraulli
- Shows Highly Skilled
made of iron, 7.2. m high (1.2 m underground), and weighs over
3 Tonnes
erected elsewhere, perhaps outside the Udayagiri Caves, and

moved to its present location early in the Delhi Sultanate-
Qutubuddin Aibak or Tomara King- Angapal
• How we know the date?

• an inscription on the pillar mentioning a ruler named Chandra
• Gupta Dyansty
• Special Feature-→ Pillar has not rusted till now
• Talks about the military conquest of King Chandragupta
Early Medieval India- 750 to 1000 CE
Kannauj Tripartie Struggle
Gurjara Pratihar-Pala-Rashtrakuta
Rashtrakuta Dynast
Krishna-III
Defeated the Chola king Parantaka-I
Erected a victory pillar at Rameshwaram
Medieval History Theme https://t.me/UPSC_PDF
Early Medieval (1000-1200 CE)- Rajput

Kingdoms & Foreign Invasions
Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526)

Simultaneous History
Provincial Kingdoms – Vijayanagar,
Malwa, Gujarat, Bengal Starting of Modernism
Bhakti & Sufi Movement

Indo-Islamic Culture Entry of Europeans
(Modern topic)
Mughals (1526-1707) Later Mughals (1707-1857)
Marathas (1628-1680, 1707-1761)

British Conquest of
Political Fragmentation in 18th Century India
Rise of the Princely States

Rajput Period- 1000- 1200 CE
Parmara Dynasty
King Bhoja
knowledge of iron metallurgy can be seen in his
book Yuktikalpataru.
Iron Pillar at Dhar

No name/inscription/date found
Original height- 13.2 metres
Later on Fragmentation took place

Small piece erected at Mandu by Dilawar Khan
Large piece at Lat Masjid
1531- Gujarat Ruler Bahadur Shah

Tried to take the pillar to Gujarat
Further fragmentation took place

Medieval India
Kakatiya Kingdom
Shiva temple
1000 pillared hall
Vijaynagar
temples are also known for their carved pillars , which
depict charging horses, figures from Hindu mythology,
and yali (hippogriphs).

Provincial Kingdoms during Delhi Sultanate
Malwa- Khilji Dynasty
Mahmud Khilji
Erected a seven storied tower at Mandu
Rajputs- Rana Kumbha

Erected the tower @ chittor
Victory pillar

THANKS!
Sculptures
About Me
teaching



2500 BCE- 1600 BCE)
Aryans & Vedic Age
Development we find
(1500 BCE-600 BCE)
changes in
Architecture
600 BCE-350 BCE
Buddhism & Jainism
Q. What type of

Early Medieval -

Art & Culture
Culture



Size and scope
Material used
Principle
Example



2500 BCE- 1600 BCE)
Aryans & Vedic Age During this Historical

(1500 BCE-600 BCE) Development we find
changes in
Architecture
600 BCE-350 BCE
Buddhism & Jainism Q. What type of Pillars
were erected ?
Q. Who built these
Post Mauryan India (200 BCE-300CE) pillars?

Early Medieval -

Classification of Sculpture
- Religion
- Secular
Types of Pillar→ Who made it ? Purpose→

Location→
Rock Cut-Monolithic Merchants Independent
Places & Sites
Composite Kings
Missionaries Part of
Architecture
- Building
- Palace
- Forts

Sculpture
Sculpture
Origin ?
Made as a part of Buildings/Monuments
Independent sculptures were also built in Ancient Independent Part of Architecture

India -Relief Art
Q. Material
- Stone
- Bricks
- Copper
- Bronze

Pillars
Pillar Architecture

Sculpture Art can be found in various forms-
Sculptures
Steatite- Seals Terracotta Stone Bronze &

Copper

Indus Valley Civilisation
Seals
- Made from steatite (soft stones)
- Half inch to two inch – square, rectangular, button, cubical, round
- Cutting polish white lustre
- Images on seal – name & inscriptions
- One humped bull, unicorn, tiger, deer, elephant, tiger, bison, rhino
- Boats, musical instrument, pipal tree
- significance
Identity rights Trading & Education Religion

Commerce
- Property
- Found @ Lothal
- Warehouse
Inside
- Found @ different Location
Outside
•Seals
•Usually made of steatite, and
•occasionally of agate, chert, copper, faience and terracotta,
•with beautiful figures of animals, such as unicorn bull, rhinoceros, tiger, elephant, bison, goat, buffalo,
etc.
The purpose of producing seals was 1- mainly commercial.

But also used as 2- amulets, carried on the 3- persons of their
owners, perhaps as modern-day identity cards.
The standard Harappan seal was a square plaque 2×2 square inches, usually made from the soft river
stone, steatite.
Every seal is engraved in a pictographic script which is yet to be deciphered. Some seals have also been
found in gold and ivory.


Seals→ Script Script

script has still to be fully deciphered
Direction of writing→ Right to left

Bull like→ Boustrophedon
Seals are depicted and decorated with motifs with animals

Other Art→ Copper Forms
Square or rectangular copper tablets,

oWith an animal or a human figure on one side
and an inscription on the other,
oor an inscription on both sides have also been
found.
The figures and signs are carefully cut with a

burin.
These copper tablets appear to have been
amulets.
Unlike inscriptions on seals which vary in each
case, inscriptions on the copper tablets seem to
be associated with the animals portrayed on
them.

5. Arts & Crafts Beads and Ornaments
Beadwork and jewellery

items
Bronze Images
Terracotta Figurines
- toys, clay carts Hand made

- Cult objects Single mould - Mohenjodaro Hara. Daimabad Chanhudaro
- Birds, animals, monkey, dogs, sheep & cattle
- Dancing girl - Ikka - Elephant - Ikka
- Male & female figures
- Rhino
- Ornamental jewellery, head dress
- Buffalo
- Mother & child groups
- charlot
- Head gear – horn like gear
- Mother goddess - lost wax technique
Stone images
Stone pieces @ Mohenjodaro – priest king

2 pieces @ Harappa – Nude make torso

Stone Statues
found at Harappa and

Mohenjodaro
two male figures—
•one is a torso in red sandstone and
•the other is a bust of a bearded man in

steatite

Bearded man-as a priest,

Stone Statues
•is draped in a shawl coming under the right arm and covering the left shoulder. This shawl
is decorated with trefoil patterns.
•The eyes are a little elongated, and half-closed as in

meditative concentration.
•The nose is well formed and of medium
size; the mouth is of average size with close-cut moustache
and a short beard and whiskers.
•The hair is parted in the middle, and a plain woven fillet is
passed round the head.
•An armlet is worn on the right hand and holes around
the neck suggest a necklace.

MALE TORSO
•In this red sandstone figure, there are socket holes in

the neck and shoulders for the attachment of head and
arms.
•The frontal posture of the torso has been consciously
adopted.
•The shoulders are well baked and the abdomen slightly
prominent.

Bronze Casting
was practised on a wide scale by the Harappans.
Their bronze statues were made using the ‘lost wax’ technique >
the wax figures were first covered with a coating of clay and allowed to
dry.
Then the wax was heated and the molten wax was drained out through a
tiny hole made in the clay cover.
The hollow mould thus created was filled with molten metal which took
the original shape of the object.
Once the metal cooled, the clay cover was completely removed.
In bronze we find human as well as animal figures -

othe best example of the former being the statue of a girl
popularly titled ‘Dancing Girl’.
oAmongst animal figures in bronze the buffalo with its uplifted
head, back and sweeping horns and the goat are of artistic
merit.

Bronze Casting
•approximately four-inch-high copper figure of a dancing girl -

Found in Mohenjodaro
•long hair is tied in a bun
•Bangles cover her left arm, a
• bracelet and an amulet or bangle adorn her right arm, and
•a cowry shell necklace is seen around her neck.
oHer right hand is on her hip and her left hand is clasped in a
traditional Indian dance gesture.
oShe has large eyes and flat nose.
oThis figure is full of expression and bodily vigour and conveys a
lot of information

•Bronze casting was popular at all the major centres of the
Indus Valley Civilisation.
•The copper dog and bird of Lothal and

•the bronze figure of a bull from Kalibangan are in no
way inferior to the human figures of copper and bronze
from Harappa and Mohenjodaro.
•Metal casting appears to be a continuous tradition.
This bronze figure of a bull from Mohenjodaro deserves

mention.
oThe massiveness of the bull and the fury of the charge
are eloquently expressed.
oThe animal is shown standing with his head turned to the
right and with a cord around the neck.
oDaimabad- Bronze Chariot 60 kg weight

Terracotta
> compared to the stone and bronze statues the terracotta

representations of human form are crude in the Indus
Valley >> They are more realistic in Gujarat sites and
Kalibangan.
The most important - the mother goddess
•crude standing female figures adorned with necklaces

hanging over prominent breasts and wearing a loin cloth and
a girdle.
The fan-shaped head-dress with a cup-like projection on each

side is a distinct decorative feature of the mother goddess
figures of the Indus Valley. The pellet eyes and beaked nose
of the figures are very crude, and the mouth is indicated by a
slit.

Terracotta

Phase- II Mahajanapada
Not much evidences of sculptures were found
Images were made although
Coins were made- Punchmarked Silver Coins

Shows development of Relief Art form

Mauryan Age- 325- 185 BCE
खम्बा,
संतरे का
बोतल
Sculpture
Pillars
-Independent
Sculptures
-Stone
Teracotta
Phase- III Mauryan Age
Sculptures were made as a part of Court Art

Pillars- Capital-
Lion
Elelphant
Bull
Horse
Independent Sculptures
Yaksha & Yakshini
Parkham Yakhsa- found at Mathura

Known as Manibhadra

Sculpture
In the form of Yaksha & Yakshini
(1) the yaksi of Besnagar (MP),
(2) (2) the yaksa of Parkham (near Mathura),
(3) 3) the chauri-bearer from Didarganj (Bihar), and
(4) (4) the stone elephant from Dhauli (Orissa).
Carved by local craftsmen

THE MAURYAN EMPIRE
Terracotta Objects
Mother Godess→ IVC

Also found at Ahichchhatra.
Between Pataliputra to Taxila.

well-defined shape and clear ornamentation.
Other itemsprimitive
idols or images,
votive reliefs with deities, toys, dice, ornaments and beads.
Toys were mostly wheeled animals, the elephant being a favourite.
round medallions→ act as a protection against the evil spirits.

200 BCE-300 CE
500 years period

different regions
Sculpture art was practised as a part of relief

architecture
Independent Sculptures also made-
1. Gandhara
2. Mathura
3. Amravati

Phase- IV Post Mauryan Age
Sculptures were made as a part of Court Art
Satvahana- Cave Architecture

Buddhist sculptures were made in the form of relief art forms
Amravati evolved as a major centre for sculptures and Stupa
Indo-Greeks & Kushans

Started building sculptures
Development of the Gandhara and Mathura School of Art
Kharavela- Cave architecture

Sculpture were made in Hathi Gupha brought together masons and artisans trained
in different art forms and belonging to
Sunga- Repaired Sanchi and Bharaut Stupa different nationalities, which further enriched
Sculpture were made as a part of relief architecture the diverse cultures

Gandhara School-
Started during the Indo-Greeks

Real founder→ Kushans- Kanishka
Kanishka, motivated the Gandhara artists to carve the

themes from Buddha’s life and the jatakas
Graeco-Buddhist School of Art
foreign influences like Greek, Roman, Persian, Saka and

Kushan
Locations-
Jalalabad, Begram, Hadda, Bamaran & Taxila
Only Buddhist Images were made
Features of the Gandhara School ?


Origin→ 50 BCE to 500 CE
Relief sculpture
Free standing images also found
Physical features of human body

Minute detailing
Muscular body
Curly hair, anatomical accuracy, spatial depth, and foreshortening
Drapery- thick and large, bold lines
Material- Blue-grey Mica schist / Grey Sandstone
Halo is not decorated
Greco-Roman Features ?
Q .Highlight the Central Asian and Greco-Bactrian
elements in Gandhara art.

Q .Highlight the Central Asian and Greco-Bactrian
elements in Gandhara art.
Central Asian Influence & Roman Influence

Process→
1. Material→ Green phyllite and grey-blue mica schist,
Q. Greco Bactrian elements ???
2.the basic shape has been cut out of stone,
3.plastered with lime plaster to give it a finished look
Features→
presented in Roman motifs like Triton
Buddha in human form made like roman gods
Outer dressing- costume similar to them
Greco Bactrian elements ???
Also known as Hellenistic art
Buddha potrayed as Greek god Apollo

Drapery- toga
Corinthian capitals and friezes of garland also found
Greek sculpture believed in mythological and idealist statues,
Roman sculpture was more realistic. The Gandhara sculpture

evolved as a hybrid of these characteristics.
Romans used art for
Stone and stucco respectively which were extensively used in ornamentation and decoration
Greek and Roman projects realism and depicts real
Vajrapani- transformed into Hercules people and major historical

events.

Mathura School
Origin→ between 1st and 3rd centuries CE
Location→ banks of the river Yamuna in the period.
Later on→ Sarnath and Kaushambi also developed as centres
Theme→ influenced by the stories and imageries of all three religions
of the time – Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism.
Design- ?
modelled on the earlier Yaksha images found during the Mauryan period.
striking use of symbolism in the images
Hindu Gods were represented using their avayudhas.

halo around the head of Buddha
Buddha seating in Padmasana
Accompanied by his disciples- Padmapani & Vajrapani

Bronze Images ?
Mathura School
Features→ Jain Tirthankaras
discovered from Chausa, Bihar
transforming Buddhist symbols into human form
modelling of masculine human
physique
Material- white spotted – red sand stone
short curly hair the depiction of
indigenous style of sculpture developed Vrishabhnath or Adinath
Long hairlocks depicted
Not much foreign influence can be seen
Religious Theme of the Images- ?

images of Siva and Vishnu along with their consorts Parvathi and
Lakshmi
Shiva and Vishnu in the form of→ ayudhas (weapons).
female figures of yakshinis and apsaras

Jain Tirthankars- Bronze images were also made
Secular images were also made- Kanishka

Mathura School
Features→
Halo is more decorative
light volume having fleshy body was carved

Internal beauty is focused
Facial expressions- sentiments are conveyed
Smiling gesture
Large images were made

Not aimed to sculpt anatomically correct Human Buddha
Garments/cloth can be seen
Over a period of time→ Mathura, Gandhara arts cross-fertilized

Amaravati School
Location→the banks of Krishna river
Sites→ Amravati, Nagarjunikonda, Goli, Ghantasala

and Veng
Rulers→ patronage of the Satvahana rulers,

Ikshvaku & other dynasties
Theme→put more emphasis on the use of dynamic

images or narrative art.
site for the largest Buddhist stupa of South India.
Started around 100 BCE onwards
Q. Features of the Amravati School ?

Amaravati School
Symbolic representation of Buddha’s life

Buddha represented via symbols
Jataka stories are depicted

narrative stories from the life of Buddha
Birth, the miracles, Enlightenment and the victory over

Mara, Sundari, Nanda, Tushita heaven and Angulimala
The sculptures of this school made excessive use of

the Tribhanga posture, i.e. the body with three bends
figures are slim, have a lot of movement, bodies are
shown with three bents (i.e. tribhanga),
White marble used as material

Religious and secular images were made
Buddha is depicted in the form of `Swastika` mark

Chandragupta- II
Kumargupta
Vakataka→ King Harisena
Sculptures ?
Relief art- caves & temples
Independent-
Sarnath School
Metal- Bronze & Iron
Teracotta

Gupta Age
Construction of Temples took place

Sculptures were made as part of temple architecture
Caves were built- Udaygiri, Ajanta, Mandargiri, Bagh

Sculptures were made as a part of relief art form
Independent Sculptures also developed-

Sarnath School of Art
Cream colour sandstone
Features from Mathura & Gandhara art forms
More decorative images were made
Bronze Images also developed

GUPTA AGE (320 CE-550 CE)
Sculpture
Metal Statues
The art of casting statues .
(1) A copper image of the Buddha, about eighteen feet high at Nalanda in Bihar,
(2) Sultanganj Buddha of seven and half feet.
'lost wax' process
right hand in abhaya mudra
sanghati (Monastic Robe) is wrapped
appears youthful and proportionate
conveys an image of calm and tranquillity and a spiritual detachment

from the material world
bronze from Dhanesar Khera, Uttar Pradesh

folds of the drapery are treated as in the Mathura style
Mehrauli Iron Pillar

Had image of Gurada on top
inscription refers to a ruler named Chandra, who
had conquered the Vangas and Vahlikas
Pratik Nayak- Unacademy

GUPTA AGE (320 CE-550 CE)
Terracottas and Pottery

Clay Figurines → religious and secular purposes.
Images→ Vishnu, Kartikeya, Surya, Durga, Kubera, Nagas and other gods and
goddesses.
Pottery→ Red Ware

at Ahichchhatra, Rajgarh, Hastinapur and Bashar

Vakataka Bronze Sculpture
images of the Buddha from Phophnar, Maharashtra

Features of Amravati style
Contemporaray to Gupta- but design is different

Buddha in Abhay Mudra
Small size images→ hence portability increased

Hence images were found in different parts of the country
bronzes images discovered in Akota near Vadodara

Images of the Tirthankara found
Seating on Throne
Group of Tirthankaras also found
yakshinis or Shasanadevis (also known as Ambai, Amba,

Kushmandini and Amra Kushmandini i.e. dedicated
attendant deity)

Q. Different Mudras of Buddha ?
Bhumisparsa Mudra
Performed during Mara’s assault
“touching the Earth” which represents the moment of
the Buddha's awakening as he claims the earth as the
witness of his enlightenment
right hand, which is held above the right knee,

reaching toward the ground with the palm inward while
touching the lotus throne
Abhaya Mudra
gesture of fearlessness or blessing
protection, peace, benevolence, and dispelling of fear.
Right hand- palm facing outward, fingers pointed

towards the sky
Left hand hanging down/on the lap side

Vitarka Mudra
signifies the discussion and transmission of the
teachings of the Buddha
joining the tips of the thumb and the index fingers
together
Rest fingers pointed towards the sky
Dharmachakra Mudra
'Teaching of the Wheel of Dharma’
1st sermon @ Sarnath
both the hands which are held against the chest, the
left facing inward, covering the right facing outward
Dhyan Mudra
Samadhi mudra
two hands which are placed on the lap and place the
right hand on the left hand
Dhyani Buddha-Amitabha

Varada Mudra
represents the offering, welcome, charity, giving,
compassion and sincerity.
Performed by both the hands in which palm of right hand

facing forward and fingers extended and left hand palm placed
near omphalos with extended fingers
Karana Mudra
signifies the warding off evil- no sick/negative feelings
raising the index and the little finger, and folding the other
fingers
Vajra Mudra
denotes the fiery thunderbolt that symbolizes the five
elements, i.e. air, water, fire, earth, and metal
right fist, left hand forefinger, which placed by enclosing the
erect forefinger of the left hand in the right fist with the tip of
the right forefinger touching (or curled around) the tip of the
left forefinger

Uttarabodhi Mudra
supreme enlightenment through connecting oneself with
divine universal energy
both the hand, which placed at the heart and the index fingers
touching and pointing upwards and the remaining fingers
intertwined
Anjali Mudra
Namaskara Mudra
gesture of greeting, prayer and adoration
pressing the palms of the hands together in which the hands
are held at the heart chakra with thumbs resting lightly against
the sternum



Post Gupta- 550-750 CE
Harshavardhan-
Kannauj Assembly
Hieun Tsang mentions large image of Buddha being made
by Harsha, carrying on the head during procession
Q. Bronze Sculptures- Pallava period ?
Chalukyas- Badami
Cave Architecture- Images of Shiva found in the caves icon of Shiva seated in ardhaparyanka
Temple Architecture- Relief art form also found asana (one leg kept dangling) (Paryanka
” denotes ” cross-legged) in which the
Pallavas- right hand is in the achamana mudra
Cave Architecture- images found of different gods and gesture,
goddess that he is about to drink poison
Independent→ Bronze Sculptures were made
Temple architecture- Stone Sculptures
Mahishasuramardini, Girigovardhana panel, Trivikrama
Vishnu, Arjuna’s penance or the Descent of the Ganga,
Gajalakshmi and Anatasayanam
Sapta Rath of Mahabalipuram
Shore Temple @
Kailashnath temple @ Kanchi

7. Early Medieval India
750 to 1000 CE
1000 to 1200 CE
Rashtrakuta dynasty-
Gurjara Pratihara
Pala Rulers
Chola Dynasty
Jain Sculptures at Shravanbelgola
Sculpture art flourished in this period

Stone- relief art forms
Metal art also made during this period

Early Medieval- 750 to 1000 CE
Rashtrakuta- Bronze Images of Pala Rulers ?

Cave Architecture sculptors at Kurkihar near Nalanda
Ellora Caves- Revived the Gupta bronze sculptures:
Hindu, Buddhist & Jain Sculptures
-Four armed Alokiteshvar (Tribhanga)
Elelphanta Caves- -Images of Tara- seated on throne
Shaivite & Buddhist Sculptures with lotus and Abhay mudra
Gurjar Pratihara
Sculpture carving on temple walls
Vishwaroopam form of Vishnu
Kalyan sundar
Lakshmi naryan images
Pala
Sculpture on temple walls
Siddheshvara Mahadeva temple in Barakar
Bronze images also built

Early Medieval- 750 to 1000 CE
Chola Sculptures-
Built on Temple wall-
Brihadeshwar
Gangaikondacholapuram
Chidambaram
Kumbhkonam
Bronze Sculptures also made-

Climax period of Bronze art
Made at Kumbakonam, Tanjore as major centre

Patronage by the chola queen-
Sembiyan Maha Devi
Images of Nataraj Bronze Images of Chola rulers ?

Kalyansundara
Ardhnarishvara Parvati’s (the bride’s) right hand is
Parvati- Tribhanga posture accepted by Shiva (the groom) with
Gajsurasamaharamurti his extended right hand, Parvati is
depicted with a shy expression and
taking a step forward

Significance of Nataraj
Chola Sculptures-
Tandava ?
Natraj Images- Tandava Dance
universe is created, maintained, and dissolved Shiva→ performs the divine
dance to destroy a weary
balancing himself on his right leg and suppressing the universe and make
apasmara ( represented ignorance or forgetfulness ) preparations for the god
Brahma to start the process
left leg in bhujangatrasita stance of creation
karaṇas (minor dance movement) mentioned in the Natya
Shastra
kicking away the veil of Maya or illusion
four arms are outstretched

Lower right hand- Abhay Mudra
Upper right hand- Damru- creation
Upper left hand- carrying flame- destruction

Lower left hand-
held in dola hasta (All fingers extended straight and joined
together is Patak Hasta Mudra and When the pataka hasta
is placed to the sides of the thigh we get the Dola hasta
Mudra)
hair locks fly on both the sides touching the circular jvala
mala
Ardhanarishwara represented on the face
Snake wrapped on the neck
Jain Sculptures- Built at Sharvanabelgola
Constructed in 981 CE
Bahubali- Son of Rishabhdev

Vindyagiri Hill
Built by the Western Ganga dynasty of Karnatka
Minister Chavundarya
Mahamastakabhishek done every 12 years
Other site of Sculpture- Chandragiri Hills

Statue of Bharat (brother of Gomateshwar)

Bawangaja-12th Century CE
Statue of Adninath
84 feet high
Located in MP
Medieval History Theme



(Modern topic)
Marathas (1628-1680, 1707-1761)

British Conquest of

Rajput Period- 1000 to 1200 CE
Kashmir
Chandela Dynasty
Solanki Dynasty
Ganga Dynasty
Hoysala Dynasty

Independent Sculpture Art flourished in different

regions of the Country
1. Himachal Pradesh- Kashmir

Bronze Images- origin from 7-10th century CE
Related to Hinduism , Buddhism
Vishnu Image- 4 headed

Chaturanana
Central face represents Vasudeva, other two faces are
that of Narasimha and Varaha
Mahishasuramardini Durga
Narsihm Image
Ganesh

1. Chauhan Dynasty- Ajmer

Built the city of Ajaymeru-Ajmer
Temples were built at Ajmer, Delhi
Had stone sculptures on them
2. Chandela Dynasty- Bundelkhand (MP)

Temples at Khajuraho
Sculpture from Vatsayana- Kamasutra
Other Images of Gods & Godesses were made
All sculptures are the in the form of relief architecture
erotic relief panels which may illustrate the tantrik
practices
3. Solanki Dynasty- Gujarat

Temples were made at Dilwara, Rajathan
Jain sculptures were carved out
Sun Temple, Modhera
Rani Ki Vav-
Dashavatar of Vishnu

1. Delhi Sultanate- 12th Century CE onwards

The image building process got a setback
Why ?
The Islamic invasion resulted in the stopping of Iconography
No human images were made of gods and goddess by the
sultans of Delhi.
2. Mughals (1526-1707)
Sculpture art forms were not made
Islamic style of Architecture was the main focus
Paintings were also made
2. Provincial Kingdoms
Odissa
Hoysala
Vijaynagar Art flourished

Medieval India-1200 Onwards
Odissa- Ganga Dynasty (10-12th Century CE)

Temples like Jagganath Puri, Lingraj, Mukteshwar,
Konark
Sculptures were made as a part of relief art form
Erotic sculptures- Mithun on the entrance
Jagganath Temple- Wooden image of Jagganath,
Balaram and Subhadra- metal Images
Karnataka- Hoysala Dynasty

Temples built at Halebid, Belur etc.
Sculptures- ornamentation
carving showing Lord Krishna holding aloft the
mountain Govardhana
Govardhan-Girdhari

Vijaynagar Kingdom
Founder Harihar & Bukka
Sculpture art practised largely during

the time of Krishnadev Raya
Medieval India- Provincial Kingdoms
3. Vijaynagar Dynasty
Temples carved out at Hampi, Kanchipuram
Raya gopurams
sculptures of Krishnadevaraya at Gopura in
Chidambaram
narrative forms of the Ramayana and Krishna, Bal Lila
Bronze images were also built

portrait sculpture (artistic representation of a person)
Krishnadevaraya with his two queens, Chinnadevi and

Tirumalamba - namaskara mudra
image of Shiva and a Parvati
feminine envisionment of Shiva’s consort Parvati
Pillars- yali stambh

THANKS!
Temple Architecture
About Me
Seven Years Experience online & offline
teaching



2500 BCE- 1600 BCE)
Aryans & Vedic Age
Development we find
(1500 BCE-600 BCE)
changes in
Architecture
600 BCE-350 BCE
Buddhism & Jainism
Q. What type of

Early Medieval -

Art & Culture
Culture



Size and scope
Material used
Principle
Example

Classification of Temple Architecture
Based on the Usage Based on the Design Origin Phases Sculpture
Who made it ? Design→

Types of Temples→ Location→
Merchants - Nagara
Rock Cut Places & Sites
Kings - Dravida
Composite
Missionaries - Vesara

Temple Architecture
Origin ?
Latin templum "piece of ground consecrated for the taking of auspices, building for
worship of a god," of uncertain signification
Place of worship
In India the temples originated in Multiple phases

Temple Architecture
Origin→ ?
Ancient India-
1. Bairat – Rajasthan
Viratnagar
originally contained a Buddhist Stupa and was made of
brick and wood
AL Basham identified this place
But not much remains of temples are found
2. Jandial- Taxila
Temple like structure found
Excavated in 1912-1913
Greek style of architecture
Probably was a place of worship- Zoroastrian faith
Not much evidence of free standing temples

Q. When did the

development of Free
Standing Temples took
place ?
Q. What is the Basic form

of a Hindu Temple ?
Q. How the Temples were

made ?
Q. Chronological Origin ?

Temple Architecture – Free Standing Temples
Basic Form of a Hindu Temple ?
1. a cave-like sanctum (garbhagriha)

early temples, was a small cubicle-
single entrance and grew into a larger chamber in time
made to house the main icon which is itself the focus of much ritual attention
2. mandapa- entrance hall

may be a portico or colonnaded hall that incorporates space for a large number of
worshippers
3. mountain like spire, which can take the shape of a curving shikhar in North India
and a pyramidal tower, called a vimana, in South India
This style developed from 5th century CE Onwards
4. the vahan
mount or vehicle of the temple’s main deity along with a standard pillar or dhvaj is
placed axially before the sanctum
5. processional path for circumambulation (Pradakshana Path) that formed a part

of the worship-ritual – later evolution

An Amalaka, is a stone disk, usually with ridges on

the rim, that sits atop a temple's main tower
(Shikhara). According to one interpretation,
the amalaka represents a lotus, and thus the symbolic
seat for the deity below.

SCULPTURE, ICONOGRAPHY AND

ORNAMENTATION
What is Iconography ?
- study of images of deities
- identification of images based on certain symbols and

mythologies associated with them
- fundamental myth and meaning of the deity may
remain the same for centuries, its specific usage at a
spot can be a response to its local or immediate social,
political or geographical context.
- Where the deity is placed ?

SCULPTURE, ICONOGRAPHY AND

ORNAMENTATION
What is Iconography ?
- study of images of deities
- identification of images based on certain symbols and

mythologies associated with them
- fundamental myth and meaning of the deity may
remain the same for centuries, its specific usage at a
spot can be a response to its local or immediate social,
political or geographical context.
- Where the deity is placed ?

Q. Where the deity is placed ?

✓Various forms or aspects of the main divinity
The placement of an image in a temple is carefully are to be found on the outer walls of the
planned: sanctum.
for instance,
- Garbha Griha- Main Godess ✓The deities of directions, i.e., the ashta-
✓river goddesses (Ganga and Yamuna) are usually dikpalas face the eight key directions on the
found at the entrance of a garbhagriha in a Nagara outer walls of the sanctum and/or on the outer
temple, walls of a temple.
✓dvarapalas (doorkeepers) are usually found on the
gateways or gopurams of Dravida temples, ✓Subsidiary shrines around the main temple
✓similarly, mithunas (erotic images), navagrahas (the are dedicated to the family or incarnations of the
nine auspicious main deity.
planets) and yakshas are also placed at entrances to
guard them. Finally, various elements of ornamentation such
Vyalas (composite animals) as gavaksha(Window), vyala/yali(a mythical
creature), kalpa-lata, amalaka, kalasha, etc. are
used in distinct ways and places in a temple.
Q. Other Art forms on Temple walls ?

Q. How the deity is placed ? scenes of everyday life consist of military
deities consecrated in the sanctum were carved strictly processions, royal court scenes, musicians,
according to religious canons and installed by performing a dancers, acrobats and amorous couples
special consecration ceremony

Styles of Temple
Architecture:
Nagara
Dravida
Vesara
Substyle→
Nayaka
Hoysala
Vijaynagar
Pala and Sena
Temples in North India

Temple Architecture
Origin→ ?
Ancient India- Phase 1
1. Bairat – Rajasthan
Viratnagar
originally contained a Buddhist Stupa and was made of brick and wood
AL Basham identified this place
But not much remains of temples are found
2. Jandial- Taxila
Temple like structure found
Excavated in 1912-1913
Greek style of architecture
Probably was a place of worship- Zoroastrian faith
Not much evidence of free standing temples
Q. When did the development of Free Standing Temples took place ?

-Gupta Period (320-550 CE)
- What is the Basic form of a Hindu Temple ?

Temple Architecture
Origin→ ?
Ancient India- Phase-2
Cave Chaitya were Built – Mainly in Buddhism
1. Ashoka- Cave Architecture, Stupa
2. Satvahana- Cave Architecture, Stupa
3. Kushans- Stupa Architecture

Kanishka also built Devkula
Deified images of the Kushana kings were enshrined in dynastic

sanctuaries or devakulas.
Mathura School also had images of the Hindu Gods & Goddesses but no
evidence of temple architecture took place
By 4th Century CE- Gupta Age

Free Standing temples started

By 4th Century CE- Gupta Age

Free Standing temples started
Q. Free Standing Structural Temples ?

Evolutionary Phases→
Flat-roofed square temple;

Flat-roofed square temple with a second storey (vimana) above;
Square temple with a curvilinear tower (sikhara) above;
Rectangular temple; and
Circular temple.

Temple Architecture
Origin→ ?
Ancient India- Phase 3
Gupta Age- Temples

Developed in Multiple Phases
Stage-1
basic elements of the Indian temple consisting of a square sanctum and

pillared porch emerged
-Sqaure base with flat roof

-Had a single celled sanctum with a shallow portico resting on 4 pillars
in front
-Plain treatment of walls and modestness of size
-Shallow pillared approach at the front
-Low platforms

Temple Architecture
Stage-2

pillared porch emerged
Addition of roof ambulatory round the sanctum

Other features same as the first stage continued flat roof, square
pillared approach
High or uprised platforms
Two storeyed temples
Bhumara temple introduced 2 smaller shrines at the flanks of entrance
steps
Parvati temple at Nachna and Siva temple at Bhumara

Temple Architecture
Gupta Age- Temples

Stage-3

Continued square platform, pillared approach, high platform and covered
ambulatory
Flat roof not seen
Low and square shikas (curvilinear tower)
Introduction of panchayatan style
Rectangular Plan
Subsidiary Shrine + Main Shrine
Crucified ground plan
Eg. Dashvatar temple at Deogarh

Temple at Bhitargaon
From this stage- the Nagara Style of temples emerged

Temple Architecture
Stage-4
Main shrine became more rectangular

Rest all features continued
Ter Temple @ Sholapur
Rectangular temple with an apsidal back and barrel-vaulted roof above

such as the Kapoteswara temple at Chejarla

Temple Architecture
Gupta Age- Temples

Stage-5
Introduction of circular temples with shallow

rectangular projections
Rest all features continued
Maniyar Math- Rajgir

Temple Architecture
Nagara Style of Temples→ ? Nagara Temples ?
Gurjar Pratihara Solanki

Gupta Age Odissa
- Parmara
- Chandela
- Solanki

Q. Design of the Nagara Architecture ?
The style of temple architecture that became popular in northern India is

known as nagara.
1. In North India it is common for an entire temple to be built on a
stone platform with steps leading up to it.
2. Further, unlike in South India it does not usually have elaborate
boundary walls or gateways.
3. While the earliest temples had just one tower or shikhara, later
temples had several.
4. The garbhagriha is always located directly under the tallest tower.
5. There are many subdivisions of nagara temples depending on the
shape of the shikhara. (three types – of shikhara)
Types of Shikhara
Rekha Phamsana Vallabhi

There are different names for the various parts of the temple in
different parts of India; however,
The most common name for the simple shikhara which is square
at the base and whose walls curve or slope inward to a point on top
is called
1- the 'latina’ or the rekha-prasada type of shikara.

square at the base and whose walls curve or slope inward to a
point on top
2- The second major type of architectural form in the nagara

order is the phamsana.
2- The second major type of architectural form in the nagara

order is the phamsana.
✓Phamsana buildings tend to be broader and shorter than latina
ones.
✓Their roofs are composed of several slabs that gently rise to a
single point over the centre of the building, unlike the latina ones
which look like sharply rising tall towers.
✓Phamsana roofs do not curve inward, instead they slope upwards
on a straight incline.
In many North Indian temples you will notice that the phamsana
design is used for the mandapas while the main
garbhagriha is housed in a latina building.
Later on, the latina buildings grew complex, and instead of

appearing like a single tall tower, the temple began to support
many smaller towers, which were clustered together like rising
mountain-peaks with the tallest one being in the centre, and this
was the one which was always above the garbhagriha.

3- The third main sub-type of the nagara building is what is

generally called the 3-valabhi type.
These are rectangular buildings with a roof that rises into a

vaulted chamber.
The edge of this vaulted chamber is rounded, like the

bamboo or wooden wagons that would have been drawn by
bullocks in ancient times.
They are usually called ‘wagonvaulted buildings’.
Q. Local Influence in the Temples ?

Form of the temple - is influenced by - ancient building forms
that were already in existence before the fifth century CE.
The valabhi type of building was one of them.
The ground-plan of many of the Buddhist rock-cut chaitya

caves,
they are shaped as long halls which end in a curved back.
From the inside, the roof of this portion also looks like a
wagon-vaulted roof.
Temple Architecture
Nagara Style of Temples→ ? Origin of Temples ?
Pre Gupta Age Gurjar Pratihara Chandella Odissa Solanki

Gupta- & Post - Continued the
Gupta Nagara Art
Flat Sub Style of Nagara Architecture
Roof Origin-
temples Phase
Nagara Art
5th Century
CE Onwards

1. Gupta Age Temples

Ancient temples of Madhya Pradesh(here), Uttar Pradesh (Next),
and Rajasthan
share many traits
made of sandstone.
Where found ?
In Madhya Pradesh.
These are relatively modest-looking shrines each having four pillars

that support a small mandapa which looks like a simple square porch-
like extension before an equally small room that served as the
garbhagriha.
Location→ two such temples,
1. Udaigiri, which is on the outskirts of Vidisha(MP) and is

part of a larger Hindu complex of cave shrines,
2. at Sanchi, which was a Buddhist site.

This means that similar developments were being incorporated
in the architecture of temples of both the religions.

2. In the Later Gupta Period- New temples were constructed
Architecture CULTURE
Nagar Style of Temple Architecture Gupta Arts
Temple Building started in a different form- Q. Temples built during Gupta

Initially Flat Roof Temple Age ?
Later on evolved into a full fledged structural temple 1. Bhitargaon Temple
Located in Kanpur (UP)
Temple based on the platform
2. Dashavtar Temple
Deogarh (UP)
Panchayatan Style

Q. Dashavtar Temple
Deogarh (UP), location- river Betwa
Panchayatan Style
Who made this ?

The patrons and donors of the temple at Deogarh (in Lalitpur
District, Uttar Pradesh) are unknown;
on the basis of both architecture and imagery, it is established that this

temple was built in the early sixth century CE.
about a hundred years after the small temples in Sanchi and Udaigiri.
This makes it a classic example of a late Gupta Period type of temple.
✓This temple is in the panchayatana style of architecture where the

main shrine is built on a rectangular plinth with four smaller subsidiary
shrines at the four corners (making it a total number of five shrines,
hence the name, panchayatana).
✓The tall and curvilinear shikhara also corroborates this date.
✓The presence of this curving latina or rekha-prasada type of shikhara

also makes it clear that this is an early example of a classic nagara
style of temple.

Q. Deogarh temple ?
This west-facing temple has a grand doorway with standing

sculptures of female figures representing the Ganga on the left
side and the Yamuna on the right side.
The temple depicts Vishnu in various forms, due to which it was

assumed that the four subsidiary shrines must also have housed
Vishnu’s avatars and the temple was mistaken for a
dasavatara temple.
In fact, it is not actually known to whom the four subsidiary
shrines were originally dedicated.
There are three main reliefs of Vishnu on the temple walls:

Sheshashayana on the south,
Nara- Narayan on the east and
Gajendramoksha on the west.
- Figures of Ganga & Yamuna on the door
The temple is west-facing, which is less common, as most

temples are east- or north-facing.

✓Sheshashayana is the form of Vishnu where he is
shown reclining on the sheshanaga called Ananta.
✓Nara-Narayan shows the discussion between the

human soul and the eternal divine.
✓Gajendra-moksha is the story of achieving moksha,

symbolically communicated by Vishnu’s suppression of an
asura who had taken the form of an elephant.

Bhitargaon of Kanpur district in UP
architecturally rich structure

constructed with brick and terracotta
platform size of the

shrine measures almost 47 feet
terraced brick foundation has on its

three sides a central offset
sanctum 68.25 feet in height from the ground level

Wall thickness-8 feet
ceilings of anteroom and the sanctum have domical

vaults and the sanctum bears a resemblance to a tri-ratha
sculptured walls illustrate interesting stories, myths and images
secular and religious themes
Figures of birds, animals and beasts -Lord Ganesha,
-Mahishasur-mardani (Goddess Durga) and
-The river goddess
-abduction of Sita and the penance of Nara
and Naryan

SIRPUR TEMPLE
Mahasmand
district of Chhattisgarh
both Hindu
and Buddhist monuments
east-facing
Lakshmana temple built by Vasata, the mother of
Mahasivagupta
Balarjuna in the 7th century AD
ancient name Sripura

South Kosalas during the rule of Sarabhapuriyas
and Panduvamsis from 6th to 8th century AD
Temple→ Dedicated to Lord Vishnu

brick temple stands on a high massive
platform accessible by steps in the north and the
south
doorframe depicts figures of Seshasayi Vishnu

along
with his other incarnations

Gurjar-Pratihara
Containing the Armies of the Arab

Started the Maru-Gurjar Architecture
Acient name of Rajasthan was Marudesh while Gujarat was called Gurjaratra.
Batesvar temples site or Batesara temples site

dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu and Shakti
Located near Gwalior (MP)
Baroli Temples Complex, also known as the Badoli temples

Located in Chattisgarh
Feudal lords- Chandela made the Khajuraho Monuments
Viswaroopa form of Vishnu and

Marriage of Siva and Parvati from Kannauj,
the image of Laksmi-Narayana
temples standing at Osian, Abhaneri and Kotah


Odisha:
The main architectural features of Odisha

temples
are classified in three orders, i.e.,
1. rekhapida,
2. pidhadeul and
3. khakra.
Most of the main temple sites are located in

ancient Kalinga—
1. modern Puri District, including
Bhubaneswar or ancient
Tribhuvanesvara,
2. Puri and
3. Konark.
A deula is a shrine in
an Odishan temple -
✓ Rekha deula,
✓ Pidha deula and
✓ Khakra deula.

Pidha Deula >
The jaga mohan (assembly hall) of the Sun
temple in Konârak
Rekha Deula >

The Shikhara of
the LingarajaTemple
in Bhubaneswar
Khakhara deula >

BaitalaDeula, Bhubaneswar (
dedicated to Chamunda)

Rekha in Oriya means a straight line. It is a tall

building with a shape of sugar loaf, looking like
a Shikhara. It covers and protects the sanctum
sanctorum (Garbhagriha).
Pidha Deula
It is a square building
with a pyramid-shaped
roof, like the vimanas.
For the halls or service
rooms of the temple.
Khakara deula is a rectangular building with a truncated

pyramid-shaped roof, like the gopuras. The name
comes from Khakharu (=canteen (bottle)) because of
the shape of the roof. The temples of the feminine
deities as Shakti are temple of that type.

The temples of Odisha constitute

a distinct substyle within the nagara order.
1. In general, here the shikhara, called deul in Odisha, is vertical almost until the top when it
suddenly curves sharply inwards.
2. Deuls are preceded, as usual, by mandapas called jagamohana in Odisha.
3. The ground plan of the main temple is almost always square,

4. which, in the upper reaches of its superstructure becomes circular in the crowning
mastaka.This makes the spire nearly cylindrical in appearance in its length.
5. Compartments and niches are generally square.
6. The exterior of the temples are lavishly carved, their interiors generally quite bare(imp).
7. Odisha temples usually have boundary walls(imp).
8. Iron girders are used to support the slab
9. Erotic images- Mithun also used on the door/dwarpalak and outside walls



Jagannath temple, Puri

Even though the icons of most Hindu deities that
are worshiped are made out of stone or metal,
- The image of Jagannath is wooden.
- Every twelve or nineteen years these wooden

figures are ceremoniously replaced by using
sacred trees, that have to be carved as an
exact replica.
- The reason behind this ceremonial tradition is

the highly secret Navakalevara ('New Body'
or 'New Embodiment') ceremony, an intricate
set of rituals that accompany the renewal of the
wooden statues.
The temple was built in the 12th century atop its

ruins by the progenitor of the Eastern Ganga
dynasty, King Anantavarman Chodaganga Deva
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu is associated with the puri

temple

In other regions, regional cultures grew around religious

traditions.
Rulers and Religious Traditions :
The Jagannatha Cult
Jagannatha (literally, lord of the world, a name for

Vishnu) at Puri, Orissa.
How it evolved?
To date, the local tribal people make the wooden image
of the deity, which suggests that the deity was originally
a local god, who was later identified
with Vishnu.
In the twelfth century, one of the most important rulers

of the Ganga dynasty, Anantavarman, decided to erect
a temple for Purushottama Jagannatha at Puri.
Subsequently, in 1230, king Anangabhima III dedicated

his kingdom to the deity and proclaimed himself as the
“deputy” of the god.
The Jagannatha Cult
As the temple gained in importance as a centre of

pilgrimage, its authority in social and political matters
also increased.
All those who conquered Orissa, such as the

Mughals, the Marathas and the English East India
Company, attempted to gain control over the temple.
They felt that this would make their rule acceptable to

the local people.

The Sun Temple in Konark, Odisha

At Konark > Sun temple > AD 1240
1. The Sun temple is set on a high base,

2. its walls covered in extensive, detailed ornamental
carving.
3. These include twelve pairs of enormous wheels
sculpted with spokes and hubs, representing the chariot
wheels of the Sun god who, in mythology, rides a
chariot driven by eight horses, sculpted here at the
entrance staircase.
The whole temple thus comes to resemble a colossal
processional chariot (एक विशाल जल ु स
ू रथ).
On the southern wall is a massive sculpture of surya carved out of green stone. It is
said that there were three such images, each carved out of a different stone placed on the
three temple walls, each facing different directions. The fourth wall had the doorway into the
temple from where the actual rays of the sun would enter the garbhagriha.

Temples at Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh:
Numerous temples of smaller dimensions have been Known for Hindu & Jain temples
constructed over a period of time. By contrast, if we study
the temples of Khajuraho made in the tenth century, i.e.,
about four hundred years after the temple at Deogarh,
Q. Khajuraho Architecture ?
UNESCO World Heritage Site.
• The temples were patronized by Chandela kings.
• The temples at Khajuraho are all made of Sandstone.
• The largest temple at Khajuraho is the Kandariya Mahadeva templewhich is attributed

to king Ganda.
• The Lakshmana temple dedicated to Vishnu was built in 954 by Chandela king,
Dhanga.
Features of Khajurao temple > A nagara temple -
1. it is placed on a high platform accessed by stairs. (Unique)

2. There are four smaller temples in the corners (yaad rakhjo ho raj ), and all the towers
or shikharas rise high, upward in a curved pyramidal fashion, emphasising the
temple’s vertical thrust ending in a horizontal fluted disc called an amalak topped with a
kalash or vase.
3. The crowning elements: amalak and kalash, are to be found on all nagara temples of
this period.
4. The temple also has projecting balconies and verandahs, thus very different from
Deogarh.
5. Inside and outside- both sides are carved
6. ArdhaMandap-Mandap-Garbhagriha→ single element

Kandariya mahadev
Temple at Khajuraho = largest temple
Visvanatha
Temple
Lakshmana
Temple,
Khajuraho
Temple Construction in the Early Eleventh Century
The Kandariya Mahadeva temple

Who Constructed it ?
The Kandariya Mahadeva temple dedicated to Shiva was constructed in 999 by
King Dhangadeva of the Chandela dynasty.
An ornamented gateway led to an entrance, and the main hall (mahamandapa)

where dances were performed.
The image of the chief deity was kept in the main shrine (garbhagriha).
Characteristics of this temple ?

• This was the place for ritual worship where only the king, his immediate family
and priests gathered.
• The Khajuraho complex contained royal temples where commoners were not
allowed entry.
• The temples were decorated with elaborately carved sculptures.


✓Khajuraho’s temples are also known for their extensive

erotic sculptures; the erotic expression is given equal
importance in human experience as spiritual pursuit, and it
is seen as part of a larger cosmic whole.
✓Many Hindu temples therefore feature mithun (embracing
couple) sculptures, considered auspicious.
✓Usually, they are placed at the entrance of the temple or
on an exterior wall or they may also be placed on the walls
between the mandapa and the main shrine.
✓Khajuraho’s sculptures are highly stylised with typical

features:
they are in almost full relief, cut away from the surrounding
stone, with sharp noses, prominent chins, long slanting eyes
and eyebrows.

There are many temples at Khajuraho, most of them devoted to Hindu gods. There are
some Jain temples as well as a Chausanth Yogini temple, which is of interest.
Predating the tenth century, this is a temple of small,

square shrines of roughly-hewn granite blocks, each
dedicated to esoteric devis or goddesses associated with
the rise of Tantric worship after the seventh century.
Several such temples were dedicated to the cult

of the yoginis across
Madhya Pradesh, Odisha and even as far south
as Tamil Nadu. They were built between the
seventh and tenth centuries, but few have
survived.

Q. Reference→ Chausath Yogini Temple ?
yoginis → positions in the Sri Yantra, represent

conjoint energies that are a part of
the Transcendental Power or Maha Sakti, the
Devi (popularly believed to be devi Durga).
On temple walls they are seen in all directions,
often by the side of the gods whose energies
they represent
Chausath Yogini temple (Ekattarso

Mahadeva Temple) in Morena
constructed by Maharaja Devapala of the

Kacchapagata dynasty, dated VS 1380
(1323 CE)

Parmara Style-
Under the Paramara Rulers→ hence the Paramara type.
Nilakantesvara temple at Udayapur in MP, built by the Paramara

King Udayaditya (AD 1059–1080) and hence also known as the
Udayesvara temple.
The sikhara of this temple is ornamented with four narrow bands

running from the base to the summit.
The temple at Ambaranatha (Thane district, Maharashtra) is

another good illustration of the Paramara type.

Gujarat- Solanki Style
The temples in the north-western parts of India including Gujarat and

Rajasthan - Maru-Gurjar Architecture Style
The stone used to build the temples ranges in colour and type.
1. While sandstone is the commonest,
2. a grey to black basalt can be seen in some of the
tenth to twelveth century temple sculptures.
3. The most exuberant and famed is the manipulatable
soft white marble which is also seen in some of the
tenth to twelveth century Jain temples in Mount Abu
and the fifteenth century temple at Ranakpur.
Q. Earliest Temples in Gujarat ?

Gujarat- Pre Solanki Style
▪Among the most important art-historical sites

▪in the region is > Samlaji in Gujarat
(in Aravalli district of Gujarat state.
- dedicated to Vishnu or Krishna.)
▪Showing - earlier artistic traditions of the region get mixed with

a post-Gupta style and gave rise to a distinct style of
sculpture.
▪A large number of sculptures made of grey schist

▪dated between the 6th and 8th centuries CE. While the
patronage of these is debated.
The temple is structured in Chaulukyan style of architecture .

It also has a vast area of gathering which is called as Uagati.
It has an elegant elephant gate topped with a beautiful arch which
faces the steps of main temple leading to the entrance hall.
Behind the temple, a big lake is situated which is popular as Shyam
Sarovar.

▪Among the most important art-historical sites

▪in the region is > Samlaji in Gujarat
(in Aravalli district of Gujarat state.
- dedicated to Vishnu or Krishna.)
▪Showing - earlier artistic traditions of the region get mixed with

a post-Gupta style and gave rise to a distinct style of
sculpture.
▪A large number of sculptures made of grey schist

▪dated between the 6th and 8th centuries CE. While the
patronage of these is debated.
The temple is structured in Chaulukyan style of architecture .

It also has a vast area of gathering which is called as Uagati.
It has an elegant elephant gate topped with a beautiful arch which faces the steps of main
temple leading to the entrance hall.
Behind the temple, a big lake is situated which is popular as Shyam Sarovar.

The Sun temple at Modhera
dates back to early 11th century and

was built by Raja Bhimdev I of the Solanki Dynasty in 1026.
The Solankis were a branch of the later Chalukyas.
Sun temple, Modhera, Gujarat

✓The influence of the woodcarving tradition of
Gujarat is evident in the lavish carving and
sculpture work.
✓However, the walls of the central small shrine are

devoid of carving and are left plain.
✓as the temple faces the east and, every year, at
the time of the equinoxes, the sun shines directly
into this central shrine.

▪There is a massive rectangular stepped tank called the surya kund in front of it.
▪Proximity of sacred architecture to a water body such as a tank, a river or a pond has
been noticed right from the earliest times.
▪By the early eleventh century they had become a part of many temples.
✓Hundred-square-metre rectangular pond =

perhaps the grandest temple tank in India.
✓ A hundred and eight miniature shrines are
carved in between the steps inside the tank.
✓A huge ornamental arch-torana leads one to
the sabha mandapa (the assembly hall) which is
open on all sides, as was the fashion of the times
in western and central Indian temples.

Sun Temple @ Modhera

Queen Udaymati- Rani-ki-vav (Queen’s Stepwell)
Vimal Vasahi temple @ Dilwara

Dedicated to Rishabhdeva (Adinath)
Built by minister Vimalshah

Styles of Temple
Architecture:
Nagara
Dravida
Vesara
Substyle→
Nayaka
Hoysala
Vijaynagar
Pala and Sena

Dravida Temple- Architecture ?
Origin-
Pallava Dynasty
Climax- Chola Dynasty
12th Century Onwards
Regional Styles emerged in the Dravida Art form

1. Unlike the nagara temple, the dravida temple is enclosed within a compound wall.
The front wall has an entrance gateway in its centre, which is known as a gopuram.
2. The shape of the main temple tower k/a vimana in Tamil Nadu is like a stepped
pyramid that rises up geometrically rather than the curving shikhara of North India.
3. In the South Indian temple, the word ‘shikhara’ is used only for the crowning element at
the top of the temple which is usually shaped like a small stupika or an octagonal
cupola— this is equivalent to the amlak and kalasha of North Indian temples.
4. Whereas at the entrance to the North Indian temple’s garbhagriha, it would be usual to
find images such as mithunas and the river goddesses, Ganga and Yamuna, in the
south you will generally find sculptures of fierce dvarapalas or the door-keepers
guarding the temple.
5. It is common to find a large water reservoir, or a temple tank, enclosed within the
complex.

6. Subsidiary shrines are either incorporated within the main temple tower, or located as
distinct, separate small shrines beside the main temple.
7. The North Indian idea of multiple shikharas rising together as a cluster was not popular in
South India.
At some of the most sacred temples in South India, the main temple in which the
garbhagriha is situated has, in fact, one of the smallest towers. This is because it is
usually the oldest part of the temple. With the passage of time, the population and size
of the town associated with that temple would have increased, and it would have
become necessary to make a new boundary wall around the temple. This would have
been taller that the last one, and its gopurams would have been even loftier.
So, for instance, the Srirangam temple in Tiruchirapally has as many as seven
‘concentric’ rectangular enclosure walls, each with gopurams. The outermost is the
newest, while the tower right in the centre housing the garbhagriha is the oldest.

Just as there are many subdivisions of the main types of

nagara temples, there are subdivisions also of
dravida temples.
These are basically of five different shapes:

1. Kuta or caturasra – square
2. Shala or ayatasra – rectangular
3. Gaja-prishta or vrittayata (elephant backed) –
elliptic
4. Vritta – circular >> deriving from wagon-vaulted
shapes of apsidal chaityas with a horse-shoe
shaped entrance facade usually called a nasi
5. Ashtasra – octagonal

PALLAVA
Art and Architecture

Temple Building
Sculpture
evolution starting from the cave temples to monolithic
rathas and culminated in structural temples
Structural
Cave Rath temples
4 stages-
1st Stage→ Mahendravarman-I
Rock cut cave temples
2nd Stage→ Narsimhvarman-I

Rath temples→Panchapanadava rathas
3rd Stage→ Rajasimha

Structural temples
soft sand rocks
4th Stage→ later pallava rulers


1. Mahendra group South Indian Art
Built by king Mahendravarman
Mandapa→
Cave Temples→ Assembly
Halls
Cave temple of Mandagapattu:

Tirumurti Temple
Built by Mahendravarman I
1st cave temple of Tamil Nadu
dedicated to Brahma-Shiva-Vishnu
Holds a significant position in the history of architecture
of the Pallavas
Inscription in Sanskrit- Grantha Script
Other Cave temples→
Mahishasuramardini Cave Temple
Krishna Cave Temple
Mahishasuramardini
Varaha
The Kotikal Cave Temple
Tiger Cave Temple (also known as Yali)
Atiranachanda Cave Temple

South Indian Art
2. Narasimha group:
Ratha Temples @ Mahabalipuram
Rock cut- rath temples
mandapas were now divided
into separate rathas
Built by Narsimhvarman
design of a temple in the Dravidian style of
architecture is a successor of the
Dharmaraja Ratha, Bhima Ratha, Arjuna

Ratha, Nakula and Sahadeva Ratha, and
Draupadi Ratha

South Indian Art
ARCHITECTURE AT MAHABALIPURAM
UNSESCO World Heritage Site
1. Ratha temples or Pancha Ratha: Dharmaraja Ratha,
Bhima Ratha, Arjuna Ratha, Nakula and Sahadeva
Ratha, and Draupadi Ratha,
2. Rock-cut caves: Varaha Cave Temple,

Krishna Cave Temple,
Panchapandava Cave Temple, and the
Mahishasuramardini Mandapa (Bas-relief of Goddess
Durga killing Mahishasura)
3. Stone Sculpture→ Arjun’s penance/Bhagirath’s

penance/Descent of Ganges
4. Shore Temple complex: images of Nandi, the vahana of

Shiva. sculpture of Anantashayana Vishnu in one of the
three temples within the complex.
5. Krishna’s Butter Ball
Q. Panch Pandava Rath ?
i) Draupadi Ratha: Dedicated to Goddess Durga.

shape of a south Indian hut
4 armed standing Durga, adored by two male devotees
front→lion vehicle of Durga.
ii) Arjuna Ratha: Dedicated to Lord Shiva; is almost a replica of the
Dharmaraja ratha.
iii) Bhima Ratha: Dedicated to Vishnu in repose;
replicates a Buddhist chaitya; is devoid of any figure carvings.
iv) Nakula-Sahadeva Ratha: Dedicated to Indra,elephant statue is there
Vimana is known by the name Gajaprashta.
v) Dharmaraja Ratha: Dedicated to Hari-Hara (Vishnu-Shiva) and
Ardhanareeswara (Siva-Parvati combine).

Arjun’s Penance-Bhagirath’s Penance- Descent of

Ganges
world’s largest Bas Relief
-Arjuna is seen as doing penance for obtaining the
powerful Pasupatha ---Astra from Lord Siva for the
ensuing war with his cousins, the Kauravas
-Siva, Vishnu, Surya, Chandra, celestial musicians like
Kinnaras and Gandharvas, Bhuta ganas (dwarves)},there
are sages doing penance, hunters, ordinary human
beings, serpents, wild animals like lion, elephant and
deer and domestic animals like cat and mouse
Sculpture- divided into 2 parts- middle- descent of

Ganges
5 dwarf images→ 5 material elements- air, earth, space,
fire and water
Arjun shown as Nara→ accompanied by Narayana

Kiratarjuniya

South Indian Art
3. Rajsimha group:
Rajsimhavarman – Narsimhvarman-II
structural temples was started in the place of rock-cut
temples.
Example: Shore temple at Mahabalipuram,
Kailashnath temple at Kanchipuram, etc.

We got married at
this temple- 2
states
•Kshatriyasimha Pallavesvara temple:

•dedicated to Siva and
•temple facing east →sea shore.
•narrow and elongated Vimana and contains a fluted Siva linga
made of granite known as ‘Dhara Lingam’.
•Vishnu temple:
•Called as Narapathi Simha Pallava Vishnu shrine and contains the
figure of Seshasayi Vishnu (locally called Palligondaruliya Deva).
•the image of Vishnu and the base of its shrine are carved out of the
bed rock, other part made of stone blocks
•Rajasimha Pallavesvara temple: This is a west facing Shiva temple
and contains a smaller spire.
South Indian Art
4. Nandivarman group:
smaller in size.
similar to the Dravidian style of temple
architecture.
new style under the Chola kingdom,
known as the Dravidian style of temple
architecture.
Vaikuntaperumal temple at Kanchi

were constructed.

South Indian Art
Chola Art: Climax period of Dravidian Architecture
Tanjore & Trichy→ number of temples built
Dravidian Style of Temple Architecture:

the patronage of the Chola rulers, hundreds of
temples were
features of the Dravidian style or chola style are:
• high boundary walls.
• gopuram.
• Panchayatan Style
• vimana.
• vestibular tunnel known as antarala
• . Dwaarpal, mithun and yakshas
• water tank inside the temple
Example:
Brihadeswara temple at Tanjore (built by Raja Raja
I in 1011 A.D.),
Sun God Temple built by King Kolutunga
Gangaikondacholapuram temple (built by Rajendra I
to commemorate his victory in the Gangetic delta), etc.

oTemples thus started becoming the focus of

urban architecture.
1. Kanchipuram,
2. Thanjavur or Tanjore,
3. Madurai and
4. Kumbakonam (in theThanjavur district)
o the most famous temple towns of Tamil

Nadu, where, during the 8th to 12th centuries,
the role of the temple was not limited to
religious matters alone.
oTemples became rich administrative centres,

controlling vast areas of land.



RULERS AND UILDINGS
The Rajarajeshvara Temple

Who built it?
The Rajarajeshvara temple at Thanjavur had the tallest shikhara amongst
temples of its time.
An inscription mentions that it was built by King Rajarajadeva for the

worship of his god, Rajarajeshvaram.
Significance ?
the name of the ruler and the god are very similar.
The king took the god’s name because it was auspicious and he wanted to
appear like a god.
Through the rituals of worship in the temple one god (Rajarajadeva)

honoured another (Rajarajeshvaram).
Other Kings role in Construction?

The largest temples were all constructed by kings.
The other, lesser deities in the temple were gods and goddesses of the
allies and subordinates of the ruler.

RULERS AND UILDINGS
The Rajarajeshvara Temple
Highlights of the Temple :

Temple Sihkar→ Size and Weight
Constructing it was not easy because there were no cranes in those days
and the 90 tonne stone for the top of the shikhara was too heavy to lift
manually.
They were also meant to demonstrate the power, wealth and devotion of
the patron
Q. Who was the Architect ?

The townspeople are all praise for its architect Kunjaramallan Rajaraja
Perunthachchan who has proudly carved his name on the temple wall.
Q. How did they Built it ?

RULERS AND UILDINGS
Rajarajeshwara Temple→ How did they bult it ?
So the architects built an inclined path to the top of the temple, placed the boulder
on rollers and rolled it all the way to the top.
The path started more than four kilometres away so that it would not be too steep.
This was dismantled after the temple was constructed.
But the residents of the area remembered the experience of the construction of the
temple for a long time.
Even now a village near the temple is called Charupallam, the “Village of the
Incline”.
The temple was a miniature model of the world ruled by the king and his allies.
As they worshipped their deities together in the royal temples, it seemed as if

they brought the just rule of the gods on earth.
Q. Significance ?

RULERS AND UILDINGS
Splendid temples and bronze sculpture
Q. The Temples
Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram,
built by Rajaraja and Rajendra, are architectural and sculptural marvels.
Signficance of Temples?
• Chola temples →became the nuclei of settlements which grew around them.
• These were centres of craft production.
• Temples were also endowed with land by rulers as well as by others.
How to run these Temples?

• Revenue from the produce of this land
• went to maintain all the specialists who worked at the temple and very often lived near it
– priests, garland makers, cooks, sweepers, musicians, dancers, etc.
• temples were not only places of worship;

• they were the hub of economic, social and cultural life as well.
• crafts associated with temples
• Multiple activities connected with the temples

The Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple is a Hindu temple dedicated

to Ranganatha, a reclining form of Hindu deity, Vishnu located
in Srirangam, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu,

Styles of Temple
Architecture:
Nagara
Dravida
Vesara
Substyle→
Nayaka
Hoysala
Vijaynagar
Pala and Sena

South Indian Art
Vesara School:
known as the Karnataka school of architecture Chalukya rulers in the mid-
seventh century A.D.
It combined features of both Nagara school and Dravidian school and resulted
in a hybridised style.
.
Three prominent dynasties who made Vesara style temples are:
• Chalukyas of Badami and Kalyani.
• Rashtrakutas (750-983 AD). For Example, Kailashnath temple in Ellora, etc.
• Hoysala Dynasty (1050-1300 AD).
• For example, temples at Halebid, Belur etc.
Influence of Nagara style is in Curvilinear Shikhara and square base of Vesara

temples.
Influence of Dravida style is seen in intricate carvings and sculptures, design of

Vimana and Step or terraced Shikara of Vesara temples.
Example: Doddabasappa temple at Dambal, Ladkhan temple at Aihole,

temples at Badami etc.

Chalukyan architecture→ divided into two stages
first stage→ temples at Aihole & Badami
Second Stage→ temples at Pattadakal
Aihole- town of temple- more than 70 temples located
temple built between the 7th-8th centuries
1. Ladh Khan temple is a flat roofed building- dedicated to Shiva
2. Durga temple was an experiment seeking to adopt the Buddhist chaitya to

a Brahmanical temple.
Irony- not dedicated to god Durga, but name from Durg- Fortress
Fusion of Nagara and Dravida→ Gajaprastha design
3.Hucimaligudi is very similar to the Durga temple, but smaller than it.
4. Megut Jain temple shows some progress in the erection of
structural temples, but it is unfinished
Meguti Temple→ Known for Aihole Inscription

Temples at Badami
early Chalukyan period
the Melagitti Sivalaya
four rock-cut
halls at Badami (three of them Hindu and one Jaina)
workmanship in the caves is marked by a high degree of
technical excellence
carved out of sand stone
same plan – a veranda with columns and brackets leading to a main hall

Pattadakal Temples -narrative art of the temples depicts different

nine Hindu temples & one Jain temple episodes from the Hindu epics like Ramayana
4 Nagara & 4 Dravida architecture and Mahabharata
-the holy book Bhagavata Purana as well as the
Sangamesvara Temple-oldest one tales of Panchatantra
Virupaksha Temple- built in 740 CE

By queen lokmaha Devi Papanath Temple-
Commomerate victory of Husband Vikramaditya on South India Mixture of all styles
Jambulinga Temple- dedicated to Shiva
Images of Parvati and Nandi
Shikar is of the Nagara art
MALLIKARJUNA TEMPLE
second queen of Vikaramaditya II
Largest hindu temple at Pattadakal
Commomeorate victory over Pallava
One Jain Temple

Built in 9th Century CE

Chalukyan temples at made in the reign of Vikramaditya II (733-44) by his chief queen Loka Mahadevi
Pattadakal
shows complete knowledge of Pallava buildings at Kanchipuram and as a corollary,
Mahabalipuram.
The temple is one of the best early examples of the dravida tradition
Eastern Chalukyan •like the Mahakuta, 5km from Badami, and
temples – •the Swarga Brahma temple at Alampur
show a greater assimilation of northern styles from Odisha

and Rajasthan
the Durga temple at Unique >
Aihole 1. having an even earlier style of an apsidal shrine which is reminiscent of Buddhist chaitya
halls and
2. is surrounded by a veranda of a later kind,
3. with a shikhara that is stylistically like a nagara one.
the Lad Khan temple at This seems to be inspired by the wooden-roofed temples of the hills, except that it is
Aihole constructed out of stone.

➢The hybridisation and incorporation of several styles was the hallmark of Chalukyan buildings.
NCERT
Virupaksh
temple,
Pattadkal
NCERT=
Durga temple,
Aihole
Lad Khan
Swarga temple at
Brahma Aihole
temple at
Alampur

South Indian Art
Papnath
Temple
Doddabasappa temple at Dambal
sanctum contains a Shiva linga, the

symbol of the presiding deity, God
Shiva
12th Century CE

Hoysalas of Karnataka
With the waning of Chola and Pandya power, the Hoysalas

of Karnataka grew to prominence in South India and
became the most important patrons centred at Mysore.
only three of them that are most frequently discussed: the

temples at
Belur,
Halebid and
Somnathpuram.

South Indian Art
Hoysala Art:
Karnataka near Mysore,
the temples built under the Hoysala rulers
period from 1050-1300 A.D with
Belur, Halebid and Sringeri.
Temple itself appears to be the work of a sculptor and not of a builder
Some of the features of the architecture are:

• Multiple shrines were built around a central pillared hall.
This was known as the Stellate plan.
• Soft sope stone (Chorite schist) → material.
• Ornamental designs practised
• All the chambers had Shikharas which were interconnected by an
arrangement of horizontal lines and mouldings. This resolved the tower into an
orderly succession of tires.
• Shallow height→ 1 meter height
• The walls and stairs of the temple followed a zigzag pattern.
Example: Kesava at Somnathpur,

Chenna Kesava at Belur and Hoyasalesvara at Halebid

•dedicated toHindu god Shiva.
Hoysaleshvara temple •during the rule of King Vishnuvardhana of the Hoysala
(Lord of the Hoysalas) at Halebid Empire in the 12th century
✓The Hoysaleshvara temple (Lord of the Hoysalas) at

Halebid in Karnataka was built in dark schist stone in
1150.
✓Hoysala temples are sometimes called hybrid or

vesara as their unique style seems neither completely
dravida nor nagara, but somewhere in between.
✓They are easily distinguishable from other medieval

temples by their
ohighly original star-like ground-plans

and
oa profusion of decorative carvings.

✓Dedicated to Shiva as Nataraja, the Halebid temple

is a double building with a large hall for the mandapa
to facilitate music and dance.
✓A Nandi pavilion precedes each building.
From the central square plan cutout angular

projections create the star effect decorated with the
most profuse carvings of animals and deities.
So intricate is the carving that it is said, for instance,

in the bottom-most frieze featuring a continuous
procession of hundreds of elephants with their
mahouts, no two elephants are in the same pose.

Vijaynagar Kingdom
Founder Harihar & Bukka
Vijaynagar Style of Temple Art

Developed

South Indian Art

South Indian Art
Vijayanagara School:
Vijayanagar style→ characterised as Dravida style, it had its own distinct
features
combined the features of Chola, Hoysalas, Pandyas, Chalukyas
architectural styles
temples also have a kalyana mandapam

Pillars with horse motif
Amman shrine was meant for the consort of the god
temples in this style are in Hampi-Vijayanagar

Vitthalaswamy and the Hazara Ramaswamy temples
Tadapatri and Parvati temples at Chidambaram,

Varadaraja and Ekambaranatha temples at Kanchipuram

South Indian Art
Hampi Monuments- UNESCO World Heritage Site-
Krishna temple complex, Narasimha, Ganesa group of temples,
Achyutaraya temple complex, Vitthala temple complex, Pattabhirama
temple complex, Lotus Mahal complex
temple complexes
containing subsidiary shrines, bazaars, residential areas and tanks applying
the unique hydraulic technologies and skilfully and harmoniously
integrating the town and defence architecture
Kalyana Mandapa and Utsava Mandapa

stone chariot, large Pushkarani (stepped tank)
Material→ granite, burnt bricks and lime mortar
Also fusion of Architecture is found→

Indo Islamic Architecture in secular buildings like the Queen’s Bath and
the Elephant Stables

South Indian Art
(1335-1565 AD)
capital at Hampi (Karnataka).
combined the features of Chola, Hoysalas, Pandyas, Chalukyas
architectural styles.
influenced by the Indo-Islamic style of Bijapur,
Features→
Rai Gopurams→ all sides
• Monolithic rock pillars, Musical Pillars, Yali Stambh
• Use of Kalyan Mandap .
• Temple complex is enclosed by boundaries
• Secular buildings used
Example: Vittalsami temple,
Lotus Mahal,
Virupaksha temple in Hampi, Raghunatha Temple in Hampi etc.
Rock-cut idol of Narasimha on Shesha (snake) near Hampi is a marvel in itself.

South Indian Art

South Indian Art
Nayaka School:
Nayaka rulers
period between 16th centuries and 18th centuries A.D.
It was also knows as Madurai school. It was
architecturally similar to the Dravidian style,
Large size, islamic influence.
Some of the unique features are:

• Presence of Prakarms or huge corridors in the
portico, around the garbhagriha, along with roofed
ambulatory passageways.
• The gopurams built under the Nayaka rulers were
some of the largest gopurams.
• The Meenakshi temple in Madurai has the tallest
gopuram in the world. The art of gopuram reached its
climax in the Nayaka style.
• the temple structure was filled with intricate carvings.
Example: Meenakshi temple, Madurai, etc.

Styles of Temple
Architecture:
Nagara
Dravida
Vesara
Substyle→
Nayaka
Hoysala
Vijaynagar
Pala and Sena

East India
Locations ?
-North- East→ Assam
-Bengal and
-Odisha.
Each of these three areas produced distinct types of
temples.
It appears that terracotta was the main medium of

construction, and also for moulding plaques which
depicted Buddhist and Hindu deities in Bengal until the
seventh century.
A large number of sculptures have been found in Assam

and Bengal which shows the development of important
regional schools in those regions.

Temple, Sibsagar, Assam
▪6th century sculpted door frame from DaParvatia near

Tezpur and another few stray sculptures from Rangagora Tea
Estate near Tinsukia in Assam bear witness to the import of
the Gupta idiom in that region.
▪This post-Gupta style continued in the region well into the 10th
century.
▪However, by the 12th to 14th centuries, a distinct regional
style developed in Assam. The style that came with the
migration of the Tais from Upper Burma mixed with the
dominant Pala style of Bengal and led to the creation of what
was later known as the -
Ahom style in and around Guwahati.
Dah Parbatiya is a small

village,Tezpur, Assam. In the village there
are significant architectural remnants of an
ancient temple of the sixth century
overlying the ruins of another Shiva temple
built of bricks during the Ahom period.

Kamakhya temple
•at Guwahati, Assam.

•The temple is located on the Nilachal hill in
Guwahati.
•dedicated to the tantric goddesses
•There is no statue, idol or image of Devi in
the temple, but in the corner of the cave in
the temple, there is sculptured image of the
yoni or Vagina of the goddess, which is the
object of worship and reverence.
▪Kamakhya temple, a Shakti Peeth, is

dedicated to Goddess Kamakhya and
was built in the 17th century.

Temple, Sibsagar, Assam
Sivasagar Sivadol ( Sibsagar

district of Upper Assam) >
comprising three Hindu temples of Sivadol,
Visnudol and Devidol, other shrines, and a
museum.

Bengal: Region Bengal including

Bangladesh and Bihar
the Pala style, 9th to 11th C. Pala style

the Sena style 11th to 13th C. Sena kings
While the Palas are celebrated as patrons of many Buddhist monastic sites, the temples
from that region are known to express the local Vanga style.
Siddheshvara Mahadeva temple
➢The 9th C.
➢in Barakar in Burdwan District > shows a tall
curving shikhara crowned by a large amalaka and
is an example of the early Pala style.
➢It is similar to contemporaneous temples of
Odisha.

This basic form grows loftier with the passing of centuries.

Many of the temples from the 9th to the 12th century were located at Telkupi in Purulia
District(WB). They were submerged when dams were built in the region. These were
amongst the important examples of architectural styles prevalent in the region which showed
an awareness of all the known nagara sub-types that were prevalent in the rest of North
India.
➢The black to grey basalt and chlorite stone pillars and arched niches of
these(Purulia) temples heavily influenced the earliest Bengal
sultanate buildings at Gaur and Pandua.

➢prominent feature The Bangla roof

➢the shape of the curving or sloping side of the bamboo
roof of a Bengali hut.
➢This feature was eventually even adopted in Mughal
buildings, and is known across North India as the Bangla roof. ➢In the Mughal period > terracotta
brick temples were built across Bengal
Q. Location of these temples ? and Bangladesh in a unique style that
▪These can be widely found in and around had elements of local building
▪Vishnupur, techniques seen in bamboo huts
▪Bankura, which were combined with older
▪Burdwan and forms of the Pala period and with the
▪Birbhum > dated to 7th c. forms of arches and domes that
were taken from Islamic architecture.
Note→
Pala + local hut + islamic
archi
Terracotta temple, Vishnupur

Styles of Temple
Architecture:
Nagara
Dravida
Vesara
Substyle→
Nayaka
Hoysala
Vijaynagar
Pala and Sena

The Hills
Temple complexes in
Hills -

A unique form of architecture developed in the hills of

Kumaon, Garhwal, Himachal and Kashmir.
Q. How the Evolution of temples took place ?

➢Kashmir’s proximity to prominent Gandhara sites (such as Taxila, Peshawar and the northwest
frontier) lent the region a strong Gandhara influence by the 5th century CE.
➢This began to mix with the Gupta and post-Gupta traditions that were brought to it from
Sarnath, Mathura and even centres in Gujarat and Bengal.
➢Brahmin pundits and Buddhist monks frequently travelled between Kashmir, Garhwal, Kumaon
and religious centres in the plains like Banaras, Nalanda and even as far south as Kanchipuram.
As a result both Buddhist and Hindu traditions began to intermingle and spread in the hills.
The hills also had their own tradition of wooden buildings with pitched roofs.
➢At several places in the hills,

➢main garbhagriha and shikhara are made in a rekha-prasada or
latina style, the mandapa is of an older form of wooden
architecture. Sometimes, the temple itself takes on a pagoda
shape.

Pandrethan temples
The Karkota period of Kashmir > Pandrethan

temples ,
built during the 8th and 9th centuries.
In keeping with the tradition of a water tank

attached to the shrine, this temple is built on a
plinth built in the middle of a tank.
➢This temple is a Hindu one, possibly dedicated

to Shiva.
➢The architecture of this temple is in keeping with
the age-old Kashmiri tradition of wooden
buildings.
Due to the snowy conditions in Kashmir, the roof
is peaked and slants slowly outward.
➢The temple is moderately ornamented, moving
away from
the post-Gupta aesthetics of heavy carving.
A row of elephants at the base and a decorated
doorway are the only embellishments(अलंकरण) on
the shrine.

Laksna-Devi Mandir @ Chamba
Q. Features?
Like the findings at Samlaji, the sculptures at Chamba also show an
amalgamation of local traditions with a post-Gupta style.
Bharmour, formally known

as Brahmpura, was the Chaurasi Temple @ chamba
ancient capital of Chamba 1) Lakshana Devi Temple - old architectural features of wooden
district, Himachal P. temples. Durga is represented here in her aspect of four armed
Mahishasuramardini, the slayer of the demon Mahishasura.
2) Narsingh (Narasimha) Temple: Narasimha is an incarnation of

Vishnu in which the god is represented in therianthropic form as
it is popularly spoken of as Shiva
Bhumi, abode नििास of lord Shiva.half man and half lion. The bronze image of this god, which is
exquisitely cast, is awe-inspiring.
It lies between the Pir-Panjal and
Dhauladhar
range,between Ravi and Chenab val
3) Manimahesh (Shiva) Temple: Manimahesh temple which stands
ley.
in the centre of Chaurasi temple, is main temple, enshrining a
huge Shiva linga. = नििास of lord Shiva

Laksna-Devi Mandir @ Chamba
✓The images of Mahishasuramardini and

✓Narasimha at the Laksna-Devi Mandir
✓ - are evidences of the influence of the
post-Gupta tradition.
✓Both the images show the influence of the metal
sculpture tradition of Kashmir.
✓The yellow colour of the images > due to an alloy of zinc and copper
which were popularly used to make images in Kashmir.
✓This temple bears an inscription that states that it was built during the
reign of Meruvarman who lived in the 7th century.

Of the temples in Kumaon(UK),

(only names in NCERT)
1. Jageshwar temple,Almora and

2. Champavat temple, Pithoragarh
- are classic examples of nagara
architecture in the region.
Jageshwar temple,Almora
Nagesh in Jageshwar > Nagesh
Jyotirlinga > one the twelve
Jyotirlingas
Champavat temple,
Pithoragarh

THANKS!
Medieval Architecture
About Me
teaching

Art & Culture
Culture



2500 BCE- 1600 BCE)
Aryans & Vedic Age Development we find
(1500 BCE-600 BCE) changes in Architecture
600 BCE-350 BCE
Buddhism & Jainism Q. What Changes took
place in Medieval
Mauryan Age (325-185 BCE) Architecture ?

Early Medieval -



Simultaneous History Development we find
Provincial Kingdoms – Vijayanagar, changes in Architecture
Bhakti & Sufi Movement Q. What Changes took

Indo-Islamic Culture Entry of Europeans place in Medieval
(Modern topic) Architecture ?
Marathas (1628-1680, 1707-1761)

British Conquest of
Understanding History https://t.me/UPSC_PDF
Medieval India- 1200 CE Onwards

1192 1206
1526
Delhi Sultanate
September
Ghurid Bhakti-Sufi 2019
Invasion Slave Dynasty Movement
(1206-1290)
Provincial Kingdoms-
Khiljis (1290-1320) Vijayanagar Empire,
Gujarat, Malwa , Bahmani
Tughlaq (1320-1414) Kingdom, Deccan
Sultanate
Sayyid (1414-1451) Entry of

Europeans
Lodhi (1451-1526)
Medieval Architecture
Mausoleum/Tomb Palaces/Forts
Mosque Monumental Water Bodies
Buildings

Size and scope
Material used
Principle
Example

Classification of Medieval Architecture

Types of Monuments→ Location→
Kings - Persian
Mosque Places & Sites - Indian
Forts
- Other
Palace

Architecture In Medieval India
Design
Features
Rulers
Materials
Starting of Indo-Islamic Architecture

How it all Started ?

Arab conquest of Sindh→ 712 CE
Invasion of Ghazni→ 1026 CE
Invasion of Ghori→ 1191-1192 CE
Starting of Islamic influence on Architecture

• local architects retained certain flavours of the local
architectural traditions as well
• a confluence of Persian style with the Indian style
• Indo-Islamic Architecture
• Indo-Persian Architecture

Arch and Dome Method

number of advantages
-provided a pleasing skyline
-need for a larger number of pillars to support the roof
Use of Superior Mortar

arch and the dome→ strong material for the bonding
Mortar provided strength
Decoration
-Turks eschewed representation of human and animal
figures in the buildings
-used geometrical and floral designs,
-combining them with panels of inscriptions containing
verses from the Quran
-Arabic script itself became a work of art
-borrowed Hindu motifs such as the bell motif, lotus
-decorative devices was called arabesque
-added colour to their buildings by using red sand stone,
yellow sand stone and marble

Some of the features of Indo-Islamic architecture are given as

follows:
• Arcuate Architecture
• use of minars around.
• Mortar usage
• Floral designs and geometrical elements, no human designs
used.
• spaciousness, massiveness and breadth to it.
• Calligraphy designs
• Arabesuque design used
• Jali work
• Waterbody inside the premises
• Pietra Dura Art→ later additions

Basis Trabeat Arcuade
Entrance Characterised by the use Characterised by the use

of Lintel. of arches and domes.
Top The use of shikhara on top The use of domes on top

of the temples. They were of the mosques. Domes
generally conical or were generally
curvilinear. hemispherical.
Minar Minars were absent. Minars were present on the

four corners of the
mosques.
Building Stone was the primary Brick, lime plaster and

material component of all mortar started being used
constructions for constructions.

RULERS AND BUILDINGS
Changes in Construction ???
Engineering Techniques changed
Two technological and stylistic developments are noticeable from the twelfth
century.
(1) The weight of the superstructure above the doors and windows was sometimes
carried by arches.
This architectural form was called “arcuate”.
(2) Limestone cement was increasingly used in construction.
This was very high quality cement, which, when mixed with stone chips hardened
into concrete.
This made construction of large structures easier and faster.

?
Describe what the labourers are doing, the tools shown,
and the means of carrying stones.



Water Bodies ?
At the same time, making precious water available by constructing tanks

and reservoirs was highly praised.
Where they were built ?

Sometimes these tanks and reservoirs were
• part of a temple,
• mosque (the small tank in the jami masjid in or
• a gurudwara (a place of worship and congregation for Sikhs,
• Because kings built temples to demonstrate their devotion to God and

their power and wealth, it is not surprising that when they attacked one
another’s kingdoms, they often targeted these buildings.
•
Importance of water
The Persian terms abad, populated,
prosperous, and abadi, flourishing,
are both derived from the word ab,
meaning water.
Architecture during Delhi Sultanate Period:
During the period of Delhi Sultanate, i.e. 1206-1526 A.D., architecture can be categorised into two broad categories:
1. Imperial Style: Patronised by the rulers of the Delhi.
2. Provincial Style: Patronised by local rulers and fiefs.

Delhi Sultanate Features of Architecture?
Religion and Architecure ?
Muslim Sultans and Padshahs did not claim to be incarnations of god but
Persian court chronicles described the Sultan as the “Shadow of God”.
An inscription in the Delhi mosque explained that God chose Alauddin

as a king because he had the qualities of Moses and Solomon, the great
law-givers of the past.
The greatest law-giver and architect was God Himself.

He created the world out of chaos and introduced order and symmetry.
As each new dynasty came to power, kings wanted to emphasise their

moral right to be rulers.
Constructing places of worship provided rulers with the chance to

proclaim their close relationship with God, especially important in an age
of rapid political change.

Delhi Sultanate Features of Architecture?
Q. Who were the architects ?
Rulers also offered patronage to the learned and pious, and tried to transform
their capitals and cities into great cultural centres that brought fame to their
rule and their realm.
It was widely believed that the rule of a just king would be an age of plenty
when the heavens would not withhold rain.
At the same time, making precious water available by constructing tanks

and reservoirs was highly praised.
Sultan Iltutmish won universal respect for constructing a large reservoir just
outside Dehli-i kuhna. It was called the hauz-i Sultani or the “King’s
Reservoir”.
Rulers often constructed tanks and reservoirs – big and small – for use by
ordinary people.

THE DELHI SULTANS
Art & Culture→ Why Mosque was built ?
Mosque→ ?
• The Delhi Sultans built several mosques in cities all
over the subcontinent
• demonstrated their claims to be protectors of Islam
and Muslims
• Mosques also helped to create the sense of a
community of believers
• shared a belief system and a code of conduct.
• necessary to reinforce this idea of a community
because Muslims came from a variety of
backgrounds

THE DELHI SULTANS
Art & Culture→
Mosque→ ?
The Delhi Sultans built several mosques in cities all
over the subcontinent
• mosque is called a masjid in Arabic
• place where a Muslim prostrates in reverence to
Allah
• a “congregational mosque” (masjid i jami or jama
masjid) Muslims read their prayers (namaz)
together
• Members of the congregation choose the most
respected, learned male as their leader (imam) for
the rituals of prayer
• He also delivers the sermon (khutba) during the
Friday prayer
• Qibla
During prayer, Muslims stand facing Mecca. In
India this is to the west
Imperial Style:
Each ruler imparted certain flavours of his own, but the broad stylisation remained the
same.
Slave dynasty:
The Slave dynasty or the Ilbari dynasty remained in power from 1206 to 1290 A.D.
Mameluke style of architecture.
the constructions were remodellings of the existing Hindu structures.
Qutub Minar being a prime example.
initiated by Qutb-ud-din Aibak,.
completed by Iltutmish and by Feroze Shah Tughlaq.
Example: Quwat-ul-Islam mosque in the Qutub Minar Premises,

which was converted from a Jain temple, Arhai-din-ka-Jhopra, etc.

Slave Dynasty :
first converted temples and other existing buildings into Mosuqes
Use of old materials
Hiring locally available craftsmen
Quwwat-ul-islam mosque
erected with the
carved columns and architectural members of 27 Hindu and Jaina temples
which were demolished by Aibak as recorded in the inscriptions on the
eastern entrance
Originally been a Jaina temple, then converted into
a Vishnu temple by some Hindus, and finally into the mosque by the Turks
only new construction in the mosque in Delhi was a façade of three elaborately carved
arches
Arhai Din Ka Jhonpra (which had been a monastery)

Located in Ajmer
Qutb Minar-
71.4 metres was dedicated to the Sufi saint,
Qutub-ud-din Bakhtiyar Kaki
use of red
and white sand stone and marble in panels and in the top stages, and the
ribbed effect
Qutb Minar
first balcony of the Qutb Minar. Qutbuddin Aybak had this constructed around
1199.
The pattern→ created under the balcony by the small arches and geometrical
designs.
Significance ?
Findings of two bands of inscriptions under the balcony
Inscription→ Language
These are in Arabic. the surface of the minar is curved and angular. Placing an
inscription on such a surface required great precision.
Nagari Inscription also found
Only the most skilled craftsperson could perform this task.


THE DELHI SULTANS
Art & Culture→
Mosque→ ?
Quwwat al-Islam mosque and minaret built during the last
decade of the twelfth century
This was the congregational mosque of the first city built by the
Delhi Sultans
described in the chronicles as Dehli-I kuhna (the old city)
mosque was enlarged by Iltutmish

and Alauddin Khalji
minar was built by three Sultans→ Whom ?
Qutbuddin Aybak,
Iltutmish and Firuz
Shah Tughluq

Khilji dynasty: 1290- 1320

Seljuk style of architecture.
Use of of red sandstone.
Arcuate style
Mortar cement used in construction
Alaluddin Khilji-
Built a Fort at Siri
Jamat-i-Khana Mosque- built with fresh material
Alai Minar→ Planned a tower twice the height of

Qutb Minar, but couldn’t complete it
added an entrance door to the Qutub, called the

Alai Darwaza
Dome which, for the first time, was built on
correct scientific lines
first building employing Islamic
principles of construction and ornamentation

Tughlaq dynasty:
Crises period of architecture .
used the cheaper and more easily

available Greystone
Hard stone→ hence less carvings
Focus on Strength .
Sloping walls- bater- gives strength
Not found in the buildings of Feroz Shah Tughlaq
attempted to combine the principles of the arch and the

dome with the slab and beam in their buildings
Hauz Khas alternate stories have arches and

the lintel and beam

Tughlaq dynasty:
Ghiyasuddin Bin Tughlaq→ Tughlaqabad

Mohammed Bin Tughlaq→ Jahanpanah
tomb of Ghiyas-uddin, built by Muhammad Tughluq
Built the Begampuri Mosque
Feroz Shah Tughlaq→ Ferozabad

Firoz Shah Tughluq redeveloped the famous Hauz Khas (a
pleasure resort)
Ferozabad- located on North, only city on banks of
Yamuna
Shams Siraj Afif, who lived during Feroz Shah's reign,
described the city as very well and distantly established
Population- 1.5 lakhs
Timur’s authors wrote about the palce
Wooden carving architecture
Brought the pillar of Asoka from Topara to Delhi

THE DELHI SULTANS
Lodi dynasty:
combining many of the new devices brought by the Turks with
indigenous forms
Arch and dome along with slab & beam
Balconies, kiosks and caves→ Gujarat & Rajasthan
architecture continued to take a back seat.

tombs, on a high platform, thus giving the
building a feeling of size as well as a better skyline
Located in the Gardens
double domes.
It consisted of a hollow dome inside the top dome.
Octagonal tomb design
Features of tome architecture ?

Example: Lodi gardens, the city of Agra was established by
Sikandar Lodi, etc.

THE DELHI SULTANS
Art & Culture→
Mosque→ ?
Moth ki Masjid
Built during the times of Sikander Lodhi
By one of Ministers
Mosque of Jamali Kamali, built in the late 1520s

mosque and the other is the tomb of two persons with
the names Jamali and Kamali
Sufi saints
Shaikh Jamil Kamboh

Origin of Provincial Kingdoms
Timur’s invasion ?
हमाल नाम तैमरु वा है
Disintegration of empire took place मेला वचन ही शाछन है
How ?
Deccan-
Bahmani, Vijaynagar
East –Bengal, Bihar, Jaunpur ,

Odissa
Assam
West- Gujarat, Malwa, Mewar

Provincial Schools of Architecture:
Where developed?
• Bengal,
• Bijapur,
• Jaunpur and
• Mandu.
• Gujarat
• Rajasthan

Provinicial Schools of Architecture:
• Gujarat-
• City of Ahmedabad- King Ahmedshah
• Jami Masjid
• Mehmud Begarha- Muhammadabad

• City of Champaner – UNESCO World Heritage Site
• Saat Kaman

Malwa School: Pathan School of architecture
The cities of Dhar and Mandu in the Malwa plateau

different coloured stones and marbles.
large windows→European influence Jami Masjid, which was planned
stylised use of arches and pillars. and begun
Stairs→ Enhacement of Aesthetics by Hoshang Shah and completed
minars were not used. by Mahmud Khalji
Good environmental features: the Hindola Mahal,

• Large windows→ ventilated rooms the Jahaz Mahal,
• Arch→ cooling Hoshang Shah’s tomb, and
• Baulis→ step wells→ water conservation Baz Bahadur’s and
• Local material used Rani Rupamati’s palaces
• use of lofty plinth
• largescale use of coloured and glazed tiles
• Sloping walls used for construction
Example: Raani Roopmati pavilion, Jahaz Mahal, Ashrafi Mahal etc.


Jaunpur School:
Patronised by the Sharqi rulers
Malik Sarwar→ Sharqi style
Jaunpur- Shiraz of the East

avoided the use of minars, as the Pathan style.
the use of bold and forceful characters painted on huge screens

in the centre and side bays of the prayer hall.
Example: Atala Mosque, Jaunpur etc.
Converted from a Hindu Temple

Bijapur School:
the Bijapur style or the Deccan style of architecture developed.

patronage of Adil Shah,
Features→
mosques, tombs and palaces
3-arched facade and bulbous dome,
treatment of its ceilings, which were without any

apparent support.
Iron clamps and a strong plaster of mortar were used to give
strength to the buildings.
system of supporting the dome on intersecting arches was something
the Bijapur masons were surprisingly familiar with as this system is
almost unheard of elsewhere, the only other example being on a much
smaller scale, in the sanctuary cupola in the cathedral of Cordova in
Spain,
built some six centuries earlier.
The walls were decorated by rich carvings.

Example: Gol Gumbaj, the mausoleum of Adil Shah, in Bijapur

Provinicial Schools of Architecture:
• Bengal School: bricks and black marble.
• the use of sloping ‘Bangla roofs’
Examples: Qadam Rasul mosque in Gaur,

Adina mosque in Pandua, etc.

Rajasthan- Rana Kumbha
special interest in military architecture. He

strengthened the defences of Chittor, built 32 forts and laid the
foundation
of a new fort at Kumbhalgarh. He also built a number of temples.
The
greatest architectural monument of his reign was, however, the
Kirtistambha (Tower of Fame) built by him at Chittor in
commemoration
of his victory over Malwa
Rana Kumbha→ five forts of

Kumbhalgarh, Achalgarh,
Maddan, Kolana, and Vairat

1. Mughal Architecture
2. Provincial Style→ Rajputs, and Sikhs

1192 1526 1707 2019

1761
Delhi Mughals The rise of the Marathas

Sultanate (1628-58, 1707-1761)
Babur (1526-30)
Humayun Afghan
(1530-40,1555) Interregnum
Later Mughals Europeans Struggle
Suris (1540-
1707-1857 for Supremacy-
Akbar (1556-1605) 1555)
Jehangir (1605-28)
Shahjahan (1628-58) The rise of the Marathas
Aurangzeb (1658-1707)

1. Mughal Architecture
2. Provincial Style→ Rajputs, and Sikhs
Q. Main theme of the Mughals ?

-Features of the Mughal architecture
- Gardens Tombs and Forts

Q. Features ? Q. Garden-Landscape Architecture ?

- Combination of the Persian elements of - Influence from the Persian architecture
grandeur and originality with the - Babur built Kabul Bagh in Panipat after victory
grace and decoration of Indian or Hindu over Ibrahim lodhi
architecture. - Independent spacious gardens were also
- Uniform architecture style- in all areas of the created- not associated with any monuments
Mughal empire . - Shalimar Bagh, Nihat gardens
- Construction of mausoleums- high platform, - Shalimar Bagh- by Shah Jahan
Charbagh .
- Double Dome architecture used in - Water channel inside the Charbagh
Mausoleums.
- Other features like the cupolas at the
corners standing on slender pillars,
magnificent palace halls and the lofty
vaulted gateway
Gardens Tombs and Forts
Under the Mughals, architecture became more complex.
Role of Kings ?
Babur,
Humayun,
Akbar,
Jahangir, and especially
Shah Jahan were personally interested in literature, art and architecture.
In his autobiography, Babur described his interest→

in planning and laying out formal gardens,
placed within rectangular walled enclosures and divided into four quarters by
artificial channels.
These gardens were called chahar bagh, four gardens, because of their
A 1590 painting of Babur supervising workers laying out a
symmetrical division into quarters. chahar bagh in Kabul. Note how the intersecting channels on
the path create the characteristic chahar bagh design.


Gardens Tombs and Forts
Under the Mughals, architecture became more complex.
Role of Kings ?
Charbagh
Beginning with Akbar, some of the most beautiful chahar baghs were
constructed by Jahangir and Shah Jahan in Kashmir, Agra and Delhi

There were several important architectural innovations during Akbar’s reign.
For inspiration, Akbar’s architects turned to the tombs of his Central Asian
ancestor, Timur.
The central towering dome and the tall gateway (pishtaq) became important
aspects of Mughal architecture, first visible in Humayun’s tomb.
It was placed in the centre of a huge formal chahar bagh and built in the
tradition known as “eight paradises” or hasht bihisht – a central hall
surrounded by eight rooms.
The building was constructed with red sandstone, edged with white marble.

Region and Empire
The creation of large empires that brought different

regions under their rule helped in this crossfertilisation
of artistic forms and architectural styles.
In Vrindavan, near Mathura, temples were constructed

in architectural styles that were very similar to the
Mughal palaces in Fatehpur Sikri.
Mughal rulers were particularly skilled in adapting

regional architectural styles in the
construction of their own buildings.
In Bengal, for example, the local rulers had developed a

roof that was designed to resemble a thatched hut.
The Mughals liked this “Bangla dome” so much that

they used it in their architecture.

Mughal Architecture
Sher Shah
Babur→
Mosque at Panipat and Qila-e-Quhunah (Mosque of the Old Fort) mosque in Delhi.
Rohilkhand Rohtas Fort in Pakistan.
Sher Shah Suri Masjid in Patna in Afghan style
Sadak-e-Azam (Great Road) which was later called as Grand Trunk Road.
Humayun:
Features of this road→
Struggle with Sher Shah Suri Sarais .
Built Dinpanah City
Sher Shah suri’s tomb→ Sasaram Bihar

Mughal Architecture
Sher Shah
Qila-e-Quhunah (Mosque of the Old Fort) mosque in Delhi.

Rohtas Fort in Pakistan.
Sher Shah Suri Masjid in Patna in Afghan style
Sadak-e-Azam (Great Road) which was later called as Grand
Trunk Road.
Features of this road→

Sarais .
Sher Shah suri’s tomb→ Sasaram Bihar

Mughal Architecture
Akbar
Akbar took a keen interest in the development of art and architecture during his reign.
the use of red sandstone.
introduced the use of ‘Tudor arch’ (four centred arch).
There were several important architectural innovations during Akbar’s reign.
For inspiration, Akbar’s architects turned to the tombs of his Central Asian
ancestor, Timur.
The central towering dome and the tall gateway (pishtaq) became important aspects of
Mughal architecture, first visible in Humayun’s tomb.
It was placed in the centre of a huge formal chahar bagh and built in the tradition known
as “eight paradises” or hasht bihisht – a central hall surrounded by eight rooms.
The building was constructed with red sandstone, edged with white marble.

Akbar Architecture
Labour for the Agra Fort
The impact of other regions was also evident.
Built by Akbar, the Agra Fort
In Akbar’s capital at Fatehpur Sikri many of the buildings bear the impact of required 2,000 stone-cutters,
the architectural styles of Gujarat and Malwa. 2,000 cement and lime-
makers and 8,000 labourers.
Even though the authority of the Mughal rulers waned in the eighteenth
century, the
architectural styles developed under their patronage were constantly used and Superstructure
adapted by other rulers whenever they tried to establish their own kingdoms. The part of a building above
the ground floor.
Humayun’s tomb was also constructed during his time.
The tomb was made by Hamida Begum

Mughal Architecture
Agra Fort
Started by Akbar, completed by Shah Jahan
• Moti Masjid, made by Shah Jahan.
• Diwan-i-aam (Hall of Public audience) by Shah Jahan.
• Diwan-i-khas (Hall of Private audience) by Shah Jahan.
• Jahangiri Mahal
• Sheesh Mahal (Turkish Bath)
Garden→ Charbagh style

Akbar’s Harem- 5000 women were kept

Mughal Architecture
Fatehpur Sikri
“frozen moment in history”

Why ?
Confluence of→ Hindu and Persian styles.
• Pachisi Court in the courtyard
• Buland Darwaza the imposing 40 metre red sandstone structure was Akbar- played chess
built in 1576 AD, to commemorate Akbar’s victory over Gujarat.
• Salim Chisti’s tomb was built in 1581 AD. It has beautiful Jaali work in • Hiran Minar was built in memory
white marble. It has arabesque patterns with inscriptions of Quranic
verses on the walls. It is in the imperial complex which also has Buland of Akbar’s favourite elephant,
Darwaza and Jama Masjid. named Hiran.
• It was further decorated by Jahangir in 1606 AD.
• lighthouse for travellers.
• Panch Mahal is a five-storied structure made of columns and is
inspired by the concept of Persian badgir (wind-catcher).
• Jodha Bai’s palace or Mariam-uz-Zamani’s palace (Mary of the Age)

has beautiful interiors with Hindu motifs of bell and flowers.
• Ibadat Khana Akbar used to meet the leaders of different religions
here to have discussion.

Mughal Architecture

Mughal Architecture
Jahangir:
architecture took a back seat

focused more on paintings and other forms of art.
Akbar’s tomb in Sikandra. He also built his own tomb at Lahore. Shalimar Bagh in
Kashmir.
He also built the Moti Masjid at Lahore.
tomb of Itmad-ud-daulah, father of Noor Jahan,

Mughal Architecture

Mughal Architecture
Shah Jahan
• Taj Mahal:
• Red Fort in Delhi
• Jama Masjid in Delhi
• Shalimar Bagh in Lahore
• City of Shahjahanabad.
• Peacock Throne

ShahJahan
It was during Shah Jahan’s reign that the different elements of Mughal
architecture were fused together in a grand harmonious synthesis.
His reign witnessed a huge amount of construction activity especially in

Agra
and Delhi.
The ceremonial halls of public and private audience (diwan-i-khas or am)

were carefully planned.
These courts were also described as
chihil sutun or forty-pillared halls, placed within a large courtyard.
Shah Jahan’s audience halls were specially constructed to resemble a

mosque.

Shahjahan→ Architecture
The pedestal on which his throne was placed was frequently described
as the qibla, the direction faced by Muslims at prayer, since everybody
faced that direction when court was in session.
The idea of the king as a representative of God on earth was suggested

by these architectural features.
In this the dwelling was not located in the middle of the chahar bagh but at
its edge, close to the bank of the river.
Shah Jahan adapted the river-front garden in the layout of the Taj
Mahal, the grandest architectural accomplishment of his reign.
Here the white marble mausoleum was placed on a terrace by the edge of
the river and the garden was to its south.

Pietra dura
Coloured, hard stones placed in depressions carved
into marble or sandstone creating beautiful, ornate
patterns.
Theory behind Pietra Dura ?
Tajmahal→ Commissioned in 1631

Took 22 years
Architect- Ustad Isa, Isa Muhammad Effendi & dome by
Ismail Khan

A royal Architect
The Mughal emperor Shah Jahan’s
chronicler declared that the ruler was the
“architect of the workshop of empire
and religion”.

Shah Jahan Architecture Design of the city ?
Shah Jahan developed this architectural form as a means to

control the access that nobles had to the river.
In the new city of Shahjahanabad that he constructed in Delhi,

the imperial palace commanded the river-front.
Only specially favoured nobles – like his eldest son Dara

Shukoh – were given access to the river.
All others had to construct their homes in the city away from the
River Yamuna.



7 Cities of Delhi

Mughal Architecture
Aurangzeb
• No particular interest
Muhammad Azam Shah

• Biwi-ka-Maqbara in memory of his mother
Begum Rabia Durani, wife of Aurangzeb

Mughal Architecture

Mughal Architecture
Sikh Style:
heavily influenced by the Mughal style of

architecture.
Use of Chattris
fluted domes→ Brass, Copper, Gold covering
Example: Shri Harmandir Sahib or Golden

temple.
Started by Arajan Dev

Mughal Architecture
Rajput Style
Jai Singh-
influenced by the Mughal style
hanging balcony,→ Jharoka Darshan
The cornices were built in the shape of an arch such that the
shadow took the shape of a bow.
Jantar Mantar
Jaipur
Delhi
Ujjain

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Modern Architecture
About Me
teaching

Art & Culture
Culture



2500 BCE- 1600 BCE)
(1500 BCE-600 BCE) changes in Architecture
600 BCE-350 BCE
Buddhism & Jainism Q. What Changes took
place in Medieval
Mauryan Age (325-185 BCE) Architecture ?

Early Medieval -




(Modern topic)
Marathas (1628-1680, 1707-1761)

British Conquest of

Medieval India- 1200 CE Onwards

1192 1206
1526
Delhi Sultanate
September
Ghurid Bhakti-Sufi 2019
Invasion Slave Dynasty Movement
(1206-1290)
Provincial Kingdoms-
Khiljis (1290-1320) Vijayanagar Empire,
Gujarat, Malwa , Bahmani
Tughlaq (1320-1414) Kingdom, Deccan
Sultanate
Sayyid (1414-1451) Entry of

Europeans
Lodhi (1451-1526)

1192
Delhi Entry of Europeans

1526 Sultanate
Feudal States
1707 Mughals
The rise of the Struggle for Development we find
Marathas European changes in Architecture
1761 (1628-58, 1707-1761) Supremacy
Q. What Changes took
The British Political Integration place in Modern
Conquest of India Architecture ?
1857
Indian Response→ Age of

1900 Revolts & Enlightenment
1947 Freedom Struggle
2020 We the People of India Indian Nation

Modern Architecture
Church Monumental Government Buildings Other

Palaces/Forts
Building

Size and scope
Material used
Principle
Example

Classification of Modern

Types of Monuments→ Location→
Name of - Gothic
Forts Places & Sites
Architect - Iberian
Palace
- Indo-Gothic
Government Buildings
- Victorian
Church
- Indo-Sarsanic
Memorials
- Neo-Roman

Modern Architecture
Initial styles of Modern Architecture ?

Difference between Iberian and Gothic Architecture:
Basis Iberian Architecture Gothic Architecture
Material Brick Red sandstone and coarse

used Wood - roofs and stairs limestone
Structural western traditions and no Adopted Indian motifs and

variations structural variations. styles,
Development of → Indo-
Gothic style of
architecture.
Modern Architecture
arrival of the European colonists

Portuguese,
French,
Dutch,
Danish and
the British
Different ways of architectural styles emerged during this period
European architecture—Neo-Classical, Romanesque, Gothic

and Renaissance.
The initial structures were utilitarian warehouses and walled trading posts,
giving way to fortified towns along the coastline

Modern Architecture
Portuguese Influence:
Iberian style of architecture.

built trading posts and ware houses,
remodelled into fortified town along the coastlines.
concept of ‘patio houses’ and ‘Baroque style’

express the strength of the Church.
elaborate, detailed and theatrical design to create a
dramatic effect.
It involved use of contrasting colours

Portuguese Influence: Modern Architecture
Portuguese Architecture:
The Portuguese adapted to India the climatically appropriate Iberian

galleried patio house and the Baroque churches of Goa.
St. Francis Church at Cochin→1510

the first church built by the Europeans in India
Basilica of Bom Jesus (Holy Jesus), Goa-1604

Se Cathedral- 1619
and Arch of Conception of Goa→ Portuguese-Gothic style.
Church of St. Anne, Talaulim in Goa-1695

Modern Architecture
Portuguese Influence:
fort of Castella de Aguanda near Mumbai
fortifications to the Bassein fort built by Bahadur Shah of

Gujarat, in 1532 AD.
The Bassein fort is famous for the Matriz (Cathedral of St. Joseph),
the
Corinthian pillared hall and the Porte da Mer (The Sea Gate).
Diu Fort was built in 1535 AD on the coast of Diu island

Fort complex→ three churches: St. Thomas Church, St. Pauls Church, and
Church of St. Francis of Assisi
Light house

Modern Architecture
Danish Architecture
Initial Settlement at Masulipatnam

Later on Nagapatnam became the majore centre
Tranquebar and Serampore
Town planning-
laid out in squares and canals
Church were also built at tranquebar

New Jerusalem Church

Modern Architecture
French Architecture
urban design to its

applying the Cartesian grid plans and classical architectural
patterns
French towns of Pondicherry and Chandernagore (now

Chandannagar, West Bengal) were built using the
Cartesian grid plans and scientific architectural designs.
coastal towns of Mahe (Kerala), Karaikal (Tamil Nadu) and

Yanam (Andhra Pradesh)
buildings as a show of power.
simple facade without much ornamentation or design,
Example: Church of Sacred Heart of Jesus in

Puducherry, the Sacred Heart Church of Chandannagar

Modern Architecture
British Architecture:
Gothic, Imperial, Christian, English Renaissance and Victorian
Gothic style of architecture→ Initially

Indo-Gothic style of architecture (Victorian Style)→ Later Phase
Neo-Roman architecture→ 20th Century
first buildings → simple designs- built by the engineers

were factories but later courts, schools, municipal halls and dak
bungalows
Later on Church, forts other Monuments were built from the mid of
the 18th Century CE onwards

Modern Architecture
Initial buildings→ modelled on the monuments
St. Mary’s Church in Fort St. George in Chennai

Based on the Churches of London
Church of St. John at Calcutta was built in 1787
Indian Government Mint in Calcutta is a half-scale replica of the

Temple of Minerva at Athens
Buildings were built mostly of brick and stuccoed with lime plaster,
sometimes “facades” incised to look like stones

Modern Architecture
Neo-Gothic architecture
city of Bombay
Governor Sir Bartle Frere
Town hall in Bombay during 1820 to 1835

inspired by the Houses of Parliament in London
Other places
Calcutta- High Court Building
Fort William

Modern Architecture
Indo-Gothic Style: Victorian

Indo-Saracenic architecture
blend of Indian, Persian and Gothic styles of architecture.
Large Constructions,
Large Windows
Pointed Arches
Crucified planning
Use of Modern Structural design→ Hence Thinner walls
hybrid style
elements of Hindu and Mughal
with Gothic cusped arches, domes, spires, tracery, minarets and
stained glass.
Indo-Saracenic style was Indian on the outside and British inside
Designers→ F. S. Growse, Sir Swinton Jacob, R.F. Chisholm

and H. Irwin

Modern Architecture
Indo-Gothic Style: Victorian Chepauk Palace in Chennai designed by Paul Benfield

Indo-Saracenic architecture
Victoria Memorial in Kolkata,

Gateway of India in Mumbai
Prince of Wales Museum
Maharaja’s Palace at Mysore
Lakshmi Villas
Palace at Baroda

St. Paul’s Cathedral, Kolkata LakshmiVilas Palace

Modern Architecture
Indo-Gothic Style:
Victorian style→ blend of Indian, Persian and Gothic styles of

architecture.
Large Constructions,
Large Windows
Pointed Arches
Crucified planning
Use of Modern Structural design→ Hence Thinner walls
Example: Victoria Memorial in Kolkata, Gateway of India in
Mumbai, etc
Victoria Terminus → Victorian Gothic style

architect Frederick Willaim Stevens
Modern Architecture
Neo-Roman Style:
The Making of New Delhi
Robert Byron → New Delhi as “The Rome of Hindostan”
Neo-Roman style or Neoclassical style. The architecture of New

Delhi, done by Edwin Lutyens and Herbert Baker
Western architecture
with Oriental motif was realized with chajjas, jalis and chhattris, as
stylistic devices in the Viceroy’s House
• Rome of the East .

• Hybrid Architecture
• circular buildings..
• The concept of upturned dome

Modern Architecture
Neo-Roman Style:
Herbert Baker South Block and the

North Block,
Robert Tor Tussell Connaught Place
St Martin’s Garrison Church huge monolith with a high

square tower

Modern Architecture
Neo-Roman Style:
Lutyens’ Delhi
the Rashtrapati
Bhavan (President’s House)→ Raisina hill.
the Parliament,
the Raj Path from the President’s house to the India Gate and the
Canopy beyond for the statue of King George.
Offices of the British Resident, the North and the South Blocks,
east-west axis – the Kingsway (now Raj Path) – proceeds from

Raisina to the Yamuna and the oldest city of all (Indraprastha). It
is cut at right angles by the other axis of the city – the Queensway
(now Janpath).
straight, tree lined boulevards the city has often been

compared to Paris
20 years to construct these and the 112 bungalows

Modern Architecture
Neo-Roman Style:
Neo-Roman style or Neoclassical style. The architecture of
New Delhi, done by Edwin Lutyens and Herbert Baker
• Rome of the East .

• Hybrid Architecture
• circular buildings..
• The concept of upturned dome


Modern Architecture
Post-independence Architecture:
2 groups emerged→
– the Revivalist and the Modernist.
Revivalist→ advocated “continuity with the past”

Not break the shackles of the colonial legacy
Modernists→ depended heavily on the European and American

Models
adopt them in India without taking into consideration
the regional aspirations, diversities and requirements
other problems
like population explosion,
lack of vision among the planners,
lack of support from the government
less than satisfactory standard of architecture education
By 1956→ new buildings and cities were constructed

Jawaharlal Nehru invited Architects for the design
Asoka Hotel- built by BE Doctor from Bombay
Chandigarh- Le Corbusier

Modern Architecture
Post-independence Architecture:
Chandigarh
Le Corbusier
city was divided into three sections
‘head’ consisted of political, bureaucratic and judicial buildings, the

administrative parts of the city
‘body’ housed the university and residential complexes in the heart of the city
feet’ consisted of industrial sectors and the railway station
Several other buildings

Modern Architecture
Laurie Baker:
Poor man’s architect
Low cost Housing @ Kerala
Nominated for Plitzker prize kerala

Modern Architecture
Charles Correa:
, Mahatma Gandhi Memorial Museum in Ahmedabad,

awarded Padma Vibhusan in 2006.

Modern Architecture
Bal Krishna V Doshi

IIM Bangalore,
Hussian-Doshi Gufa
Got Awarded-
Padma Shri, Padma Bhushan
Aga Khan Award
Plitzker Prize
Revival of Nalanda

Modern Architecture
Bimal Patel
Padma Shri
Lutyen’s Delhi- Redevelopment


UNESCO – Heritage list
UNESCO Convention- 1972
1. Intangible Heritage
2. Tangible Heritage
3. Natural Heritage
What is tangible Cultural Heritage ?

That is physically perceptible
Artefacts, monuments, historical places
Article 1- Convention Concerning the Protection of World

Cultural and Natural Heritage
Legal Protection to World Heritage Sites

Geneva Convention

1983→
Ajanta Caves (Maharashtra)
Ellora Caves (Maharashtra)
Taj Mahal (Uttar Pradesh)
Agra Fort (Uttar Pradesh)

1984→
Sun Temple, Konark (Odisha)
Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram (Pancha Ratha,
Shore
Temple, Arjuna’s Penance or Descent of the Ganges, Caves
Temples, etc) (Tamil Nadu)

1986→
-Churches & Convents of Goa
-Group of Monuments at Khajuraho
-Fatehpur Sikri
-Group of Monuments at Hampi

1987→
-Elephanta Caves
-Pattadakal Monuments
-Chola Temples
1989→
- Sanchi Stupa
1993→
-Humayun’s Tomb
-Qutb Minar & its monuments


1999→
-Darjeeling toy train
2002→
- Mahabodhi temple
2003→
- Bhimbetka rock shelters
2004→
-Chatrapati Shivaji Terminus
-Champaner- Gujarat


2005→
- Niligiri railwayas
2007→
- Redfort complex
2008→
- Kalka-Shimla Railway
2010→
Jantar Mantar (Jaipur)

2013→
- Hill forts of Rajasthan
- (Chittorgarh, Ranthambhore, Jaisalmer, Kumbhalgarh,
Amber, Gurgaon)
2014→
- Rani-ki-vav- Gujarat
2016→
- Capital Complex- Chandigarh
- Nalanda – Historical Site


2017→
Ahmedabad
Heritage City
2018→ Victorian Gothic and Art

Deco Ensembles of Mumbai

(Natural Sites)
-Manas Wildlife Sanctuary (Assam), 1985
-Kaziranga National Park (Assam), 1985
-Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur (Rajasthan), 1985
-Sundarban National Park (West Bengal), 1987
-Nanda Devi National Park (1988) and Valley of Flowers
(Uttarakhand), 2005
-Western Ghats, 2012 (Sub-clusters include Agasthyamalai,
Periyar, Anamalai, Nilgiri, Talakaveri, Kudremukh and
Sahyadri)
-Great Himalayan National Park (Himachal Pradesh), 2014
-Khangchendzonga National Park (Sikkim) (2016)
(Mixed)

THANKS!
Indian Paintings
About Me
teaching



2500 BCE- 1600 BCE)
(1500 BCE-600 BCE) changes in Paintings
600 BCE-350 BCE
Buddhism & Jainism Q. What type of Painting
forms we find in Ancient
Mauryan Age (325-185 BCE) India ?

Early Medieval -

Art & Culture
Culture

Classification of Paintings
Based on the Art form Based on the Technique Origin Phases Narrative Art Fom
Location→ Purpose→
Types of Paintings→ Art Forms Who made it ?
West India Religious
-Murals Merchants
East India Secular
-Miniatures Kings
North India Natural
Missionaries
South India

Indian Paintings
INTRODUCTION
Types of Paintings
Design of Paintings
Nature of Colours used
Theme of paintings
Location based
Principles of Paintings

Indian Paintings
Classification
Mural Art Miniature Art
Where it was
done ?
Walls-Roof :-
Temples
Caves
Palaces

Indian Paintings
Based on the technique of Paintings
Fresco Art Form Tempera Art Form
Generally Painted on Moist Surface tempera, is a permanent, fast-drying

Lime Plaster painting medium consisting of
Process ? colored pigments mixed with a water-
soluble binder medium, usually
glutinous material such as egg yolk

Fresco Art Form
✓Fresco is a technique of mural painting executed

upon freshly laid lime plaster.
✓A mural is any piece of artwork painted or applied

directly on a wall, ceiling or other large permanent
surface.
✓Fresco is a very old technique. What happens is the painting

actually becomes part of the wall where as with a mural, the
painting is done on top of the wall.
✓As a result really old fresco painting can be restored much

easier than a mural done, using egg and oil as a binding for
pigments because the paint will not flake off with age and time.

Indian Paintings
Classification of Paintings- Fresco
•The technique employed in the frescoes was to spread on the rough surface of
the rock a layer of clay mixed with cow- dung and rice-husks. Sometimes pounded
brick mixed with fibre was added.
•Over the plaster was spread a coating of white lime plaster, and the surface was
kept moist while the colour was applied.
• The outlines were first drawn in red.
•The colours used were local pigments and all the colours except blue could be
obtained from neighbouring hills.
•The paintings sought their inspiration from the Jatakas, legendary Buddhist stories.

Indian Paintings
Principles of Painting→
Vatsayana→ Shad Anga of Paintings
The six Principles
Variety of form Rupabheda
Portrayal of likeliness of the subject Sadrisyan
Creation of luster and gleam with the colours Bhava
Mixing of colours to resemble the effects of Varnikabhanga

modelling
Proportion of the object or subject Pramanam
Immersion of emotions Lavanyayoganam

Indian Paintings
PRE-HISTORIC PAINTINGS:
executed on rocks and these rock engravings were called Petroglyphs.

Found @ Bhimbetaka caves in Madhya Pradesh.
Findings by → V.S. Wakankar.
Theme of Paintings→ animals like bison, beers and tigers etc.
They have been called the ‘Zoo Rock Shelter’ because it depicts elephant,
rhinoceros, cattle, snake, spotted deer, barasingha, etc.
There are three major phases of pre-historic paintings:
Upper Palaeolithic
Mesolithic period
Chalcolithic period

Significance of Pre Historic India
Q. Impact of Prehistoric India??
Prehistory or prehistoric times - The distant past when there was no paper or
language or the written word, and hence no books or written documents is called.
•when the basic needs of food, water, clothing and shelter were fulfilled people felt the
need to express themselves.
•Painting and drawing were the oldest art forms practiced by human beings to
express themselves, using the cave walls as their canvas.

•Lower Palaeolithic people - haven't found any art objects.

•The Upper Palaeolithic times - proliferation of artistic activities.
•In India- the earliest paintings- reported from the Upper Palaeolithic times.
•The subjects of their drawings-

•human figures,
•human activities,
•geometric designs and symbols.

The drawings and paintings can be catagorised into seven historical periods.
Period I, Upper Palaeolithic;
Period II, Mesolithic; and
Period III, Chalcolithic.
After Period III there are four successive periods.

But we will confine ourselves here only to the first three phases.

Upper Palaeolithic Period
-paintings are - linear representations,

-in green and dark red,
-of huge animal figures, such as bisons, elephants, tigers, rhinos and boars besides
stick-like human figures
-A few are wash paintings but mostly they are filled with geometric patterns.
-The green paintings are of dancers and the red ones of hunters.

Indian Paintings
Upper Paleolithic Period (40000–10000 BC):
Red and White paintings

ochre or geru mixed with lime and water.
Use of different minerals.
human figurines, red was used for hunters and the
green mostly for dancers.

Mesolithic Period
•largest number of paintings

•the paintings are smaller in size.
•Hunting scenes predominate.
The Mesolithic artists loved to paint animals. In some pictures, animals are chasing
men. In others they are being chased and hunted by men.
Though animals were painted in a naturalistic style,
humans were depicted only in a stylistic manner.
•Women are painted both in the nude and clothed.

•The young and the old equally find place in these paintings. Children are painted running,
jumping and playing.
•Community dances provide a common theme.
There are paintings of people gathering fruit or honey from trees, and of women grinding
and preparing food.
Some of the pictures of men, women and children seem to depict a sort of family life.
In many of the rock-shelters we find hand prints, fist prints, and dots made by the fingertips.

Indian Paintings
Mesolithic Period (10000–4000 BC):
use of red colour.

the size of the paintings also became
smaller during this period.
group hunting and several other paintings
depict grazing activity and riding scenes.

Chalcolithic Period
-The paintings of this period reveal the association, contact, and

mutual exchange of requirements of the cave dwellers of this area > with
settled agricultural communities of the Malwa plains.
-cross-hatched squares, lattices,
-Pottery and metal tools.
-But the vividness and vitality of the earlier periods disappear from these
paintings.

Indian Paintings
Chalcolithic Period:
green and yellow colour.

battle scenes. men riding
horses and elephants.
bow and arrow→ indicate
preparedness for skirmishes.
Other locations→ Narsinhgarh

(MP)

Artists of Bhimbetka
Palaeolithic and Mesolithic remains > in the

Vindhya hills at Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh
Themes of paintings :
include hunting, dancing, music,
horse and elephant riders,
animal fighting, honey collection, decoration
of bodies, and other household scenes.

white and red were their favourite colours

•paints were made by grinding various rocks and minerals.
oThey got red from haematite (known as geru in India).
ogreen came from a green variety of a stone called chalcedony.
oWhite might have been made out of limestone.
•This may then have been mixed with water and also with some
thick or sticky substance such as animal fat or gum or resin
from trees.
•Brushes were made of plant fibre.

Q. what is amazing ?
colours have survived thousands of years-It is believed that the colours
have remained intact because of the chemical reaction of the oxide
present on the surface of the rocks.
Painting showing a man

being hunted by a beast,
Bhimbetka

HUNTING SCENE
One of the few images showing

only one animal, Bhimbetka
Hunting scenes predominate in Mesolithic paintings. This is one such

scene where a group of people are shown hunting a bison. Some injured
men are depicted lying scattered on the ground. These paintings show
mastery in the skill of drawing these forms

These prehistoric paintings help us to
understand about early human beings,
their lifestyle, their food habits, their
daily activities and, above all, they help
us understand their mind—the way
they thought.
Dancing scene
In this picture hand-linked figures in dancing mode are
shown. In fact, this is a recurrent theme.
It also recalls the dancing scene from the Lakhudiyar
rock painting found in Uttarakhand.

Q. Where paintings were made?
-The artists here made their paintings on the walls and ceilings of the rock shelters.
-Some of the paintings are reported from the shelters where people lived.
-But some others were made in places which do not seem to have been living spaces at
all.
-Perhaps these places had some religious importance.
Q. Where ? Why ?
Some of the most beautiful paintings are very high up on rock shelters or close to the
ceilings of rockshelters.
One may wonder why early human beings chose to paint on a rock in such an
uncomfortable position.
The paintings made at these places were perhaps for people to be able to notice them
from a distance.

Artists of Bhimbetka Confused painter haha !
Why did the artists paint in the same place again and
again?
•Maybe, this was because the artist did not like his
creation and painted another painting on the previous
one, or
•some of the paintings and places were considered
sacred or special or
•this was because the area may have been used by
different generations of people at different times.

Lakhudiyar paintings
SITE : Kumaon hills, Uttarakhand- Almora dist. (UK)
at Lakhudiyar
oon banks of the River Suyal
obear these prehistoric paintings
oLakhudiyar literally means one lakh caves
Paintings- divided into three categories:

man, animal and geometric patterns in white, black and red ochre.
oMan = Humans are represented in stick-like forms.

oAnimal = A long-snouted animal, a fox and a multiple legged
lizard are the main animal motifs.
oGeo pattern = Wavy lines, rectangle-filled
geometric designs, and groups of dots can also
be seen here.
One of the interesting scenes depicted here is of hand-linked

dancing human figures.
•There is some superimposition of paintings :

The earliest are in black;
over these are red ochre paintings and
the last group comprises white paintings.
From Kashmir two slabs with engravings have been

reported.
Engraved stone slab from Burzahom – this is the
first attempt at art in Kashmir during Neolithic
period
1- The earliest attempt at art in the Neolithic period is
evidenced by the discovery of an engraved stone slab
found, fixed in a rectangular structure forming some sort
of a tank.
The engraving depicts a hunting scene showing an antler
being pierced from behind with a long spear by a hunter
and an arrow being discharged by another hunter from
the front .
The topmost portion shows two suns and a dog.

Showing two suns may probably have some symbolic
value and perhaps may indicate hunting in daylight. If the
presumption is correct then one sun may be depicting
the rising sun and another the setting sun.

The granite rocks of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh provided Prehistoric States
suitable canvases to the Neolithic man for his paintings. painting sites
more famous among them are Lakhudiyar Uttarakhand

Kupgallu, Piklihal and Tekkalkota.
Kupgallu Telangana
Three types of paintings have been reported from here— Piklihal and in Karnataka
paintings in white, Tekkalkotta
paintings in red ochre over a white background and Bhimbetka Madhya
paintings in red ochre and Jogimara Pradesh
These paintings belong to late historical, early historical

and Neolithic periods.
The subjectsvdepicted are bulls, elephants, sambhars,

gazelles, sheep, goats, horses, stylised humans, tridents
(= trishul), but rarely, vegetal motifs.

Indian Paintings
Around 1000 BCE→

Narinshpura
Jogimara Cave Paintings

Indian Paintings
Paintings in Indus Valley Civilisation
painting on a jar resembling the

story of the cunning fox
narrated in the Panchatantra
Pottery- Red & Black Ware

Indian Paintings
Vedic Age Paintigs

Pottery- Painted Grey Ware

Indian Paintings
Mahajanapada- Buddhism and Jainism

Starting of Cave Architecture
Paintings found at different places
Jataka Stories

Indian Paintings
Mauryan Age Paintings → ???
Post Mauryan Age→ Development of Cave Architecture
Satvahana Period
Ajanta Cave → Paintings
cave No. IX and X of which the only surviving one is a group on the left wall of cave X
a king with attendants in front of a tree decked with flags.
The King has come to the sacred Bodhi tree for fulfilling some vow connected with the prince who is attending close
to the king.
There is a close resemblance in the representation of human figures with regard to their dress, ornaments and
ethnical features between this painting and the sculptures of Amaravati and Karle of early Satavahana rules of circa
2nd century B.C.
composition of Shaddanta Jataka along the right wall of the same cave (cave No.X) belonging to circa 1st century
A.D.


Indian Paintings
Post Mauryan Age→ Evidences of Paintings

Sangam Age
Manimegalai
court dances, popular dances, singing, playing on the
lute and flute, cookery, perfumery, painting, flower-work and
many other fine arts
Next Painting Development

Indian Paintings
Gupta Age-
Brihat Samhita
(6th century AD) and the Vishnudharmmottara (7th century AD) introduce such
technical details and classification of painting according to themes
Kamasutra of Vatsyayana
lists painting as one of the sixty-four kalas or fine arts
works of
Bhasa, Kalidasa, Vishakhadatta, Bana and Buddhaghosha- mentions Paintings
Ajanta
Bagh
Ajanta and Bagh shows the ‘Madhyadesa School’ of painting

Indian Paintings
Some important paintings at Ajanta are:

Scenes from the Jataka stories of the Buddha’s former lives as a bodhisattva, the life of the
Gautama Buddha, etc.
• Paintings of various Bodhisattvas in tribhanga pose in Cave 1: Vajrapani (protector and
guide, a symbol of Buddha’s power), Manjusri (manifestation of Buddha’s wisdom) and
Padmapani (Avalokitesvara) (symbol of Buddha’s compassion).
• The Dying Princess in Cave.no 16.
• Scene of Shibi Jataka, where King Shibi offered his own flesh to save the pigeon.
• Scene of Matri-Poshaka Jataka where the ungrateful person saved by an elephant, gives
out his whereabouts to the king.

Indian Paintings
How the Paintings in Ajanta were Made ?

Confused painter haha !
mud plaster in two coats:-
1. first was rough to fill in the pores of the rocks
2. final coat of lime plaster over it
painting was done in stages

outline in red ochre
renewed the contours in brown, deep red or black
attenuated poses, supple limbs, artistic features, a

great variety of hair styles, all kinds of ornaments and
jewellery
Human emotions and character are depicted
styles of the later murals reveal a merging of two

streams of art;
Satavahana of Andhra and Gupta of North India

Indian Paintings
Gupta Age Paintings→

Ajanta Cave Paintings:
29 Caves
Murals in cave no. 9 and 10 belong to the Sunga period, while the rest
belong to the Gupta period.
The paintings in cave no. 1 and 2 are the most recent of the caves in
Ajanta.
No.XVI, XVII, II and I executed between the 5th and 7th century A.D
Style of Paintings
Fresco Art
Important→
mural paintings of Ajanta are not true frescoes, for a fresco is painted
while the plaster is still damp and the murals
of Ajanta were made after it had set

Indian Paintings

'the dying princess' in cave No.XVI painted in the early part of the 5th
century A.D.
Nanda who was passionately in love with this girl was tricked away from
her by the Buddha and carried up to heaven.
Overwhelmed by the beauty of the Apsaras, Nanda forgot his earthly love
and consented to enter the Buddhist order as a shortcut to heaven.
In time, he came to see the vanity of his purely physical aim and became
a Buddhist but the Princess, his beloved, was cruelly left to her fate
without any such consolation

Indian Paintings

Flying apsaras in the cave No. X belonging to the late 6th century A.D
flight of the apsara
rich ornamentation
portrayed in her turban decked with pearls and flowers

Indian Paintings

mid 6th and 7th century A.D. and are in cave No.II and I
Mahajanaka Jataka in cave No.1

Prince Mahajanaka - the future Buddha, discusses the problems of
the kingdom with his mother
seeking his mother's advice before beginning his march to
reconquer his kingdom which has been usurped by his uncle
Series of Paintings→ depicted with different scenes

Indian Paintings
painting of Bodhisatva Padmapani from cave

wearing a crown adorned with sapphires, his long black
hair falling gracefully
right hand a lotus flower

Indian Paintings

cave No.XVII
represents Buddha's visit to the door of Yashodhara's abode in the
city of Kapilavastu while she herself has come out with her son
Rahula to meet the Great King
figure of the Buddha on a large scale

Indian Paintings

cave No.XVII
Indra, a Hindu divinity, is depicted flying amid clouds together with
celestial nymphs holding musical instruments
Cave 10
some 50 elephants are painted in different poses
bringing out the skill of the artist
Other Paintings ?
decorative designs on ceilings and pillars of these cave temples
ceiling decoration is from cave No.XVII

Indian Paintings
JATAKA STORIES
The Jataka tales relate to the previous births of Gautama Buddha in both
human and animal form. The future Buddha may appear as a king, an
outcast, a god, an elephant—but, in whatever form, he exhibits some virtue that
the tale thereby inculcates. Famous Jataka tales include:
• The Ass in the Lion’s Skin (Sihacamma Jataka)
• The Cock and the Cat (Kukkuṭa Jataka)
• The Foolish, Timid Rabbit (Daddabha Jataka)
• The Jackal the Crow (Jambu-Khadaka Jataka)
• The Lion and the Woodpecker (Javasakuṇa Jataka)
• The Ox Who Envied the Pig (Muṇika-Jataka)
• The Swan with Golden Feathers (Suvaṇṇahaṃsa Jataka)
• King Shibi (Shibi-Jataka)
• The Turtle Who Couldn’t Stop Talking (Kacchapa Jataka)

Indian Paintings
Bagh Cave Paintings

correspond to those paintings of Ajanta in cave No.I and II
paintings of Bagh are executed in tempera & half Fresco
process and colors employed at both places

seems to be have been the same
less care has been taken over the preparation of the first
rough coat
Cave no. 4, known as Rang Mahal

Indian Paintings
Post Gupta Paintings→
Chalukyan Age
Badamai Rock-cut cave paintings
Paintings of Chalukyan kings, Jain saints giving up
worldly life, Shiva and Parvati, Puranic events
Also had contribution to Ajanta Cave Paintings

Persian

Indian Paintings
Post Gupta Paintings→

Rashtrakuta Period
Ellora Cave Paintings:
five caves, mostly limited to Kailasa

temple.
the time of carving the caves and the

subsequent Series
Vishnu and Lakshmi borne through the

clouds by Garuda

Indian Paintings
Pallava Paintings / Pandya Paintings
inscription at Mandagapattu mentions Mahendravarman I with
numerous titles such as Vichitrachitta (curious-minded),
Chitrakarapuli (tiger among artists), Chaityakari (temple builder),
Sittanavasal Cave (Arivar Koil) Paintings:

Caves built around 2nd Century CE
elevated beds and pillows carved out of rock, for
use of the monks
Jain temples. These murals have close resemblance to Bagh and

Ajanta paintings. The paintings are not only on the walls but also on
the ceiling and pillars.
theme of Jain Samavasarana (Preaching hall).
regarded
as a surviving link between the Ajanta paintings (6th century) and the
Chola paintings of Thanjavur (11th century)

Indian Paintings
Pallava Paintings / Pandya Paintings
Panamalai Temple
Contains Murals
Tirumalapuram- Pandya dynasty

Contains jain cave paintings
Paintings at Kanchipuram

Indian Paintings
Armamalai Cave Paintings:
Vellore district of Tamil Nadu, these natural

caves were converted into Jain temple in 8th
century. Astathik Palakas (deities protecting
eight corners) and Jainism.
Ravana Chaya Paintings→

Built during 6-8th Century @ Odisha

Indian Paintings
Early Medieval India-8th Century CE

onwards
Miniature Paintings:
Mural art continued
Latin word ‘Minium’, → red lead paint.
Miniature art form also developed This paint was used in the illuminated
manuscripts during the Renaissance period.
Smaller in size
Detailed depection Miniatures are small and detailed paintings.
Where painted ?
Palm leaf preconditions
Cloth
• should not be larger than 25 square inch.
Marble
Later on cloth • The subject of the painting should be painted
in not more than 1/6th of the actual size.
Developed in different regions

Indian Paintings
Pala School of Art

8th Century to 11th Century Ce
Climax period 11th Century
Buddhist Kings→ hence Buddhist Paintings
Buddha, Bodhisattva and other literature
Mahavihara- Nalanda, Vikramshila,

Odantpuri, Somapura , Jagdalla
Emerged as important centres
Paintings made on palm leaf
Manuscript Paintings-
Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita (Nalanda)
Six pages Heads – flat
➢ Nature – banana and coconut trees
Later on declined due to Islamic Invasion

Indian Paintings
Western India
10th to 13th Century CE

Chalukyan Kings
Jain Paintings – Apabrahmsa School

Made from Jain texts
Patronised by the Merchants
Executed on Palm leaf and later on Paper
Stories from- Kalpasutra and Kalchakra

Katha
Vaishanava Paintings
concept of Gita Govinda and secular love into
these paintings
➢ Double chin
➢ Pointed nose
Use of Vigorous colours
➢ Predominant chests
Protruding and elongated eyes

Indian Paintings
Chola Period
Temple Buildings
- Brihadeshwara Temple
- Raja Raja Mural with his Guru
- Two layers of paintings discovered

- Chola period & Nayaka period
- Paintings of Shiva- Nataraj

- Mount Kailash- Shiva
- Dancing figures also found

Indian Paintings
Kashmir
Bihlhana
Charupanchsika
Caurapâñcâśikâ, a fifty-stanza love poem,




(Modern topic)
Marathas (1628-1680, 1707-1761)

British Conquest of
Indian Paintings
Medieval Indian Paintings→

Delhi Sultanate
Mughals
Rajasthani Art→ Murals and Miniatures
Pahari Art
Deccan Style of Paintings

Vijaynagar→ Murals
Nayaka Style
Indian Paintings
Miniature Art during Delhi Sultanate:
persian elements + the Indian traditional elements.

illustrated manuscripts
the Nimatnama (a book on cookery) during the reign

of Nasir Shah who ruled over Mandu.

Indian Paintings
Vijayangar Art
Murals on the walls-
Tiruparakunram (near Trichy)- 14th Century CE
Virupaksha Temple- Hampi

Paintings on the ceilings
Scenes from Ramayana & Mahabharata
Lepakshi Temple- Hindurpur

Walls of Shiva Temple
Human Images
Two dimensions


Nayaka paintings Nayaka paintings were more or less an extension of the

Vijayanagara style with minor regional modifications and
incorporations.
Nayaka dynasties emerged after the
downfall of Vijayanagara Empire. (mainly
near Madurai)
Nayaka paintings of the seventeenth and eigtheenth centuries

are seen in Thiruparakunram, Sreerangam and Tiruvarur.
1- In Thiruparakunram, paintings are found of two

different periods—of the fourteenth and the seventeenth
century.
Early paintings depict scenes from the life of Vardhaman White Gopuram at
Mahavira. Srirangam Temple
The Nayaka paintings depict episodes from the
Mahabharata and the Ramayana and also scenes from
Krishna-leela.

2- In Tiruvarur, there is a panel narrating the story of

Muchukunda.
3- In Chidambaram , there are panels of paintings

narrating stories related to Shiva and Vishnu— Shiva
as bhikshatana (भिक्षाटन) murti, Vishnu as Mohini,
etc.
4- In the Sri Krishna temple at Chengam in Arcot

District there are sixty panels narrating the story of
the Ramayana which represent the late phase of
Nayaka paintings.
Muchukunda (rishi) burns Kalyvan

to ashes .

Indian Paintings
Deccan Paintings
Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golkonda and Hyderabad
flat manner and the dress and human outlines are demarcated in black.
The landscapes are full of trees, rocks and other designs
1. Ahmednagar- King Hussain Nizam Shah-I
Illustrated Manuscripts- Tarif-i-Hussain Shahi
Use of golden colours- Persian Influence
2.Bijapur- Adil Shah-I

Najum-al-Ulum→ Stars of Sciences
Miniature Painting
Influences from lepakshi and Persian style
3. Golconda- Quli Qutb Shah

Generally Court Scenes
Absorbed Styles of Vijaynagar & Mughal Styles
Q. Mughal Era Paintings
Q. Rajasthani Paintings
Q. Rajput Paintings

Indian Paintings
Features of Medieval Paintings→
side profile. bulging eyes,

pointed nose and
slim waist.
Women→ long hair
Traditional cloth for men and women
Sri Krishna→ blue colour
Mughals→ fairer shade for skin
Rajasthan→ brown shade for skin

Indian Paintings
Mughal Era Miniature Painting:

Persian antecedents.
change in colour palette, themes and forms.
glorifying the ruler and showing his life.
hunting scenes,
historical events and
other court related paintings.
Initially→ Illustrated art continued
Diversity of themes
Accuracy of lines

Indian Paintings
Early Mughal Painters:
Babur→ not much time

Patronized Persian artist Bizhad
Humayun→ sent to exile→ Persia by suri

Came back to India in 1555, brought along painters
Abdus Samad and Mir Sayyid Ali
Ilustrated Paintings Started
art got influenced by the local
styles and vice-versa, and gradually it gave rise to the Mughal
painting
Abdus Samad gave drawing lessons to little Akbar

Indian Paintings
Akbar:
Tasvir Khana Kuch Paintings

banao yaar…
Separate department
New designs started
Indian painters invited for work
3D Effect
calligraphy in the paintings.
Many Indian Painters worked in his court.

hundreds of artists
Mahabharata, Ramayana and Persian epics
4-5 painters made the paint work

tarrah (sketch), another the ami (painting).
third did the chira numa (portrait) and
fourth made the sural (figure drawing)
fifth artist did the rangamezi (colouring)
chief painters were Mir Sayyid Ali, Abd-al-Samad

Indian Paintings
Akbar:
Indian painters ?
Baswan, Miskina and Daswant
Mentioned in Ain-i-Akbari
Baswan→ Razm Namah (Mahabharata),

Persian version of the Ramayana
Mughal illustrated manuscript, the Dastan-i-Amir Hamza

1375 paintings, took 25 years to complete
Started in 1550 during Humayun’s time
Hamza Namah series, illustrating

Started by Mir Sayid Ali, completed by Abdus-Samad
Series of Paintings
Abdus Samad→ title of Shirin- Kalam or “Sweet-pen”.
By1580- came in contact with the Portuguese

Gifted him Polyglot Bible illustrated with Flemish
Engravings
Akbar→ asked painters to copy
Western influence in the Paintings started
3D Paintings also started
Indian Paintings
Akbar:
Tuti Namah (the parrot’s tale) and Ammr-i-Suhaili show

each bird and animal
Tarikh-i-Alft (history of the world),

Jamiut-Tawarikh m Jami-al-Tawarikh (history of the Mongols by
Rashid-uddin),
Darab Namah, Shah Namah,
Timur Namah and Babur Namah
Akhar Namah
Sankar, Daulat, Govardhan, Inayat and Pidarat
-Yoga Vasisht
(Hindu Vedanta Philosophy) and
-Najhat-ul-Uns (breaths of fellowship),
A prose treatise by Jami on Sufi saints

Indian Paintings
Jahangir:
Was a painter himself
Climax period.
refinement in brushwork, along with the use of much lighter
and subdued colours
pictorial illustrations of the Jehangir-nama,
Natural paintings → flora and fauna, i.e. birds, animals,

trees and flowers.
portrait painting.
Decorated
Zebra, the turkey and the cock

Indian Paintings
Jahangir:
residence at Allahabad as Salim
Group portraits as well as court scenes and different episodes
of his life.
Jahangir witnessing Akbar
‘Jahangir embracing Shah Jahan’
Paintings with Sufi Saints

by Painter Bichtr
Shaikh Hussain, the head of the shrine of Khwaja Moin-ud-in
Chisti in Ajmer. Next to him, the Ottoman Sultan humbly folds
his hands,
while below him waits James I, king of England

Indian Paintings
Jahangir:
residence at Allahabad as Salim
book illustrations became outdated
Some animal fables were still practised
lyar-i-Danish and Anwar-i- Suhaili
Bishan Das, Madhu, Anant, Manohar, Govardhan and Ustad

Mansur
European influence manifested

colors became softer and less enamel
Colours harmoniously together
JahangirNama→
co-operation of several painters on one work continued, but
Jahangir could distinguish
which part each artist had contributed

Indian Paintings
Shah Jahan:
artificial elements in the paintings.

reduce the liveliness of the paintings and bring in unnatural stillness
inspired by the European influence.
use of charcoal to draw
sketch using a pencil.
increase the use of gold and silver in the paintings.
visit of the emperor with his nobles and royal ladies to ascetics and
Dervishes
Night scenes were also painted

pale colours and gold and known as Siyahi Qalam

Indian Paintings
Aurangzeb:
Decline of Paintings
bearded old man hunting or holding a copy of the

Quran in his hand
Therefore emergence of Regional school of Paintings

Post Aurangzeb- 18th Century CE
Rajasthani Paintings Pahari Paintings

Indian Paintings
Painting for Patrons: The Tradition of Miniatures.
Rajasthan Paintings
With the decline of the Mughal Empire, many painters moved out to
the courts of the emerging regional states
As a result Mughal artistic tastes influenced the regional courts of the

Deccan and the Rajput courts of Rajasthan.
At the same time, they retained and developed their distinctive

characteristics.
Early Paintings belong to the Charupanchasika Style

Indian Paintings
Themes of the Paintings ?
great epics of Ramayana

and the Mahabharata,
the life of Lord Krishna,.
Gita Govinda- Jayadeva

Rasmanjari- Bhanudutta
Rasikpriya- Kesavadasa
Ragmala- Bihari
Bihari Satasayee
the Amaru Sataka
the Naishadacarita
landscapes and humans
Court Scenes
Portraits of rulers and court scenes came to be painted, following the

Mughal example.
Q. Places where Rajput paintings of India are found ?

-are the walls of palaces,
-inner chambers of the forts, havelis

Indian Paintings
Rajasthani Paintings
side profile. bulging eyes,

pointed nose and
slim waist.
Women→ long hair
Traditional cloth for men and women
Sri Krishna→ blue colour
Mughals→ fairer shade for skin
Rajasthan→ brown shade for skin
Bold Drawing
Contrasting coours
Fat figures
Natural landscapes also included

Indian Paintings
Rajasthani Schools of Painting:

Rajput courts began to patronise painting in emulation
of the practices of the Mughal court
Bikaner, Jodhpur, or Kishangarh of artists from the
Mughal
local and indigenous artistic

traditions pre-dated the arrival of Mughal influence

Indian Paintings
Rajasthani Schools of Painting:

Locations→
Mewar
Marwar
Bundi
Amer
Bikaner
Malwa
Kota
Kishangarh

Indian Paintings
Mewar School of Painting:
the city of Udaipur.
Patronised by the king Jagatsinh
Famous Painter→
Sahibdin, Manohar, Kruparam
literary texts – the Rasikapriya, the Ramayana and the Bhagavata

Purana.
Bihari-Sattsai, Panchtantra life at court in Mewar.
‘tamasha’ paintings that show court ceremonial and city views
Lalita Ragini→ The heroine is lying on a bed with her eyes closed under a painted
pavilion with a door, while a maid presses her feet. Outside, the hero is seen carrying a
garland in either hand. In the foreground is a caparisoned horse with a groom sitting
near the steps of the pavilion.

Indian Paintings
Kishangarh School of Painting:
romantic legends – Sawant Singh and his beloved Bani Thani,

Painter→ Nihal Chand
‘bani thani’ is said to resemble the character of Radha.
distinctive profile and large and lustrous eyes,
thin lips and a pointed chin.
odhni or headgear defines her side profile.
Many Paintings→ devotional and amorous relations between Radha
and Krishna.

Indian Paintings
Bundi School of Painting:
kingdoms of Bundi and Kota are collectively known as Hadoti.
splitting the older Bundi kingdom between two brothers,
they declared themselves to be mere regents, ruling on behalf of the god who
was the true king
Krishna bhakti.
series of the Rasikapriya of the late 17th century, has a scene which represents
Krishna trying to collect butter from a Gopi, but finding that the pot contains a
piece of cloth and some other objects and no butter he rea1ises that he has been
duped by the Gop
Focus→ local vegetation
Human faces were round with pointed nose in the paintings.
Colour of sky is painted in different colours and mostly a red ribbon is visible in
the sky.
Other Prominent colours→ red and green
Famous Painters-
Surjan, Ahmadali, Ramlala
Indian Paintings
Amber-Jaipur School of Painting:
associated with the Mughals.

“Amber School” also called the ‘Dhundar’ school
earliest evidences come form the wall paintings at Bairat in
Rajasthan.
Amer palace in Rajasthan.
menfolk are shown wearing mughal style clothing and headgear, folk
style dressing
Sawai Pratap Singh in the 18th century→ suratkhana.

Indian Paintings
Marwar School of Painting:
series of the Ragamala in the collection of Kumar Sangram

Singh, painted by an artist named Virji in 1623 A.D.

Indian Paintings
Jodhpur and Bikaner→ ruled by the Rathods

and Jaisalmer → ruled by the Bhatis.
close links with the Mughals.
the men wore colourful clothing and so did the women.
Man Singh (1803-1843) and after.
He commissioned extensive series of paintings including

the Shiva Purana, Natacharitra, Durgacharitra, Panchtantra,
etc.
Famous Painters-
Ali Raza
Ruknuddin
Rahim
Green & Red colours are prominent
Famous Painting→ Shahjahan on an Elephant

Indian Paintings
Kotah
Akin to the Bundi style

Themes of tiger and bear hunt
space is occupied by the hilly junglehemes of tiger
and bear hunt

Indian Paintings
Malwa
influence of the Mughal painting and ornaments and

costumes consisting of black tassels and striped skirts
series of the Rasikapriya dated 1634 A.D.,

a series of the Amaru Sataka painted in 1652 A.D. at a
place called Nasratgarh and
a series of the Ragamala painted in 1680 A.D. by an artist

named Madhau Das
Megha Raga
blue-complexioned Raga dancing with a lady to the
accompaniment of music played by three female musicians
Ravana begging alms from Sita

Indian Paintings
Points of Rajput Style Mughal Style

Difference
Type
Themes
Peculiarity
Time period

Indian Paintings
Pahari Styles of Painting:
sub-himalayan states that

many schools flourishing in smaller kingdoms, which came under the blanket of ‘Pahari
Paintings’.
22 princely states stretching from Jammu to Almora.
Pahari paintings can be grouped into two groups:
• Jammu or Dogra School: Northern Series
• Basholi and Kangra School: Southern Series
• from mythology to literature

• Nainsukh and Manaku

The Making of Regional Culture
Painting for Patrons: The Tradition of Miniatures.
Pahari Paintings
seventeenth century this region had developed a bold and intense

style of miniature painting called Basohli.
The most popular text to be painted here was Bhanudatta’s

Rasamanjari.
Nadir Shah’s invasion and the conquest of Delhi in 1739 resulted in

the migration of Mughal artists to the hills to escape the uncertainties
of the plains.
Here they found ready patrons which led to the founding of the
Kangra school of painting.
By the mideighteenth century the Kangra artists developed a style

which breathed a new spirit into miniature painting.
The source of inspiration was the Vaishnavite traditions. Remember that ordinary women and men painted as
well – on pots, walls, floors, cloth – works of art that
Soft colours including cool blues and greens, and a lyrical treatment have occasionally survived, unlike the miniatures that
of themes distinguished Kangra painting. were carefully preserved in palaces for centuries.

Indian Paintings
Basholi School:
in the 17th century were called the Basholi School.

expressive faces with a receding hairline and big eyes
that are shaped like lotus petals characterise it.
red, yellow and green.
Theme→ Bhanudatta’s Rasamajari, Gita Govinda and the
Ramayana drawings.
Famous Painter→ Devi Das

Indian Paintings
Kangra School:
patronage by Raja Govardhan Singh in

1774.
Guler- Kangra School of paintings.
Patron→ Raja Sansar Chand.
Theme→ the Gita Govinda, Bhagwata
Purana, Satsai of Biharilal and Nal Damyanti.
Love scenes of Krishna was very

prominent theme. All the paintings had an
other worldly feel about them.
Developed in kullu and mandi as well

Indian Paintings
Bilaspur
Bilaspur was the epicenter of growth of the Pahari paintings
around the mid-17th century.
illustrations of the Bhagavata

Purana, Ramayana and Ragamala series,
paintings on rumal (coverlets) for rituals and ceremonies.
Chamba
The style of Chamba paintings finds a strong mix of Mughal
style of paintings, with the Deccan and the Gujarat styles.
The late 17th century witnessed Chamba paintings of

Himachal being dominated by Basohli style,
which ultimately gave way to Guler painting tradition
Jammu Jammu paintings of the late 18th and early 19th

century are very similar to the Kangra style.
The painting Shangri Ramayana of the late 17th
and early 18th century was produced in Jammu itself

Indian Paintings
Garhwal
paintings originated in Himachal.
Mughal style used to first dominate the Garhwal paintings.
Garhwal painting started reflecting the cruder version of

Kangra traditions
Mandi It witnessed the emergence of a new style

under Raja Sidh Sen
portraits showed the ruler as a large
figure with huge heads, hands and feet.
Mankot Mankot paintings of Jammu and Kashmir
Nurpur Nurpur paintings of Himachal Pradesh

usually used bright colours and flat backgroundsa

Indian Paintings
RAGAMALA PAINTINGS
amalgamation of art, poetry and classical music in

medieval India.
Pahari Ragamala, Rajasthan or Rajput Ragamala,

Deccan Ragamala, and Mughal Ragamala.
each raga is personified by a colour describing
the story of a hero and heroine (nayaka and nayika)
in a particular mood.
Hindu deities attached with the raga, like

Bhairava or Bhairavi to Shiva, Sri to Devi etc.
The six principal ragas present in the Ragamala

are Bhairava, Deepak, Sri, Malkaush, Megha and
Hindola.

Indian Paintings

Indian Paintings
Tanjore Paintings:
Thanjore paintings are locally known is 'Palagai Padam
meaning wooden plank and padam meaning picture
special style of decorative paintings.
The Maratha rulers patronized.
Glass Paintings
brilliant colour patterns and use of gold leaf.
depicted smiling Krishna in various.
patronage of Sarfoji Maharaj
adornments of semi-precious stones, pearls and glass pieces

Indian Paintings
Mysore Painting:
patronised by the rulers of the Mysore province

depiction of Hindu gods and goddesses.
two or more figures in each painting and one figure predominates all the
others in size and colour.
use the ‘gesso paste’, which is a mixture of zinc oxide and Arabic gum.

Indian Paintings
Modern Painting:
Company Painting:
combined the elements of Rajput, Mughal and other Indian styles of

painting with European elements.
British Company officers employed painters who had been trained
in Indian styles.
the use of water colour and in technique by the appearance of linear
perspective and shading.
Use of oil colours
This style of painting originated in Kolkata, Chennai, Delhi, Patna,

Varanasi and Thanjavur.
Patronised by→ Lord Impey and Marquess Wellesley

Indian Paintings
Bazaar Paintings:
influenced by the European encounter in India.

different from the Company paintings.
did not take any Indian influence but took the Roman and
Greek influence.
prevalent in the Bengal and Bihar region.
paintings on everyday bazaar that showed Indian bazaars
with European background.
depicting Indian courtesans dancing before the British officials.
painted religious themes.

Indian Paintings
Raja Ravi Verma:
brought together elements of South Indian painting with the western
techniques of colour and style.
‘Raphael of the East’ because of his brilliant brush strokes
Subjects/Theme of Paintings→ Indian

Scenes of Ramayana & Mahabharata
• Shakuntala
• Damyanti- Harsha Samvaad
• Rama Conquers Varuna
• Jatayu vs Ravana
• Lady in the Moonlight

Indian Paintings

Indian Paintings
Bengal School of Art:

EB Havell- Principal
Abindranath Tagore → Bharat Mata, Arabian Nights

Nandlal Bose
Gaganendranath Tagore
Paintings by Rabindranath Tagore

centers in Calcutta and Shantiniketan
nationalism and the search for an Indian identity

Indian Paintings

Indian Paintings
Indian Paintings
Progressive Artists Group:
FN Souza
SH Raza
MF Hussain
these artists wished to escape the limits of both ‘colonial’

academic art and the ‘nationalist’ revival of the Bengal
School

Indian Paintings
Progressive Artists Group:
MF Hussain
assimilating influences from and experimenting with both Western
and Indian models
Cubist style of Paintings
Ganga Yamuna
Horsers
Mother Teresa
Zameen

Indian Paintings
Baroda Group
guidance of N.S. Bendre
founding of the Faculty of Fine Arts
Delhi School
Painter-sculptor K.S. Kulkarni founded the avant
garde Delhi Shilpa Chakra in 1947
Madras School
D.P. Roy Chowdhury
K.C.S. Panikar

Indian Paintings
Famous Painters of India →
1. Raja Ravi Verma
2. Abindranath Tagore
3. Nandlal Bose
4. Jaimini Roy-
Incorporated Kalighat Style & Patua Style of Bengal
Paintings→ Santhal Dance, Mother & Child, Three Ladies
5. Amrita Shergill-
Initially Western Style, later on Indian influence started
Brahmacharis, Bride’s Toilet
6.FN Souza-The last Supper

7. Syed Haider Raza-
8. Maqbool Fida Hussain

Indian Paintings
Famous Painters of India →

9. Satish Gujaral
10. Tyeb Mehta- Kali, Falling Bull, Mahisasura
12. Vasudo S. Gaitonde- Abstract Paintings

Translucent beams of light

Indian Paintings
FOLK PAINTING:
Madhubani Paintings:
small village, known as Maithili, of the Bihar state of India
paintings on the walls of their home
Later on cloth and other materials
King Janaka ordered that the paintings would be

created for his daughter Sita's wedding
Diversity of themes→ religious, weddings, court scenes
the colors derived mainly from plants

cotton around a bamboo stick
double line is used for outlines and the space between them is
filled with either cross or straight tiny lines
Famous artist→ Sita Devi

Indian Paintings
Pattachitra: Odissa
Painting done on canvas/cloth
Palm leaf→ Talpatachitra

Images of Lord Jagganath
Scenes from Geet Govinda

Indian Paintings
Patua Art:
Also known as Jharna Patachitra
Belongs to Bengal
Series of Painting on a long vertical

scroll of paper

Indian Paintings
Kalamkari Paintings-s
Also known as Vrathapani
Kalam made of bamboo

Kari-artistry
2 styles
Srikalahasti
Machilipatnam

Indian Paintings
Kalighat Painting:
Calcutta
Around Kalighat Temple
Images of Hindu Gods &

Goddess
Rural folk scenes also

included
Artist- Jaimini Roy

Indian Paintings
Warli Painting:
Rice Paste with→ Red ochre

colour used
Painting on walls
Scenes of daily life

Indian Paintings
Phad Painting:
Based in Rajasthan
Scroll Paintings
Heroic tales & Folk Stories

Indian Paintings
Manjusha Painting:
Based in Bihar
Also known as Angika Art
Snake Motif used in Paintings

Indian Paintings
Cheriyal Scroll paintings:
version of Nakashi art, rich in the local motifs

peculiar to the Telangana
a narrative format, much like a film roll or a

comic strip, depicting stories from Indian
religion

Indian Paintings
Pithora Paintings:
Pithora paintings are highly enriched

folk art culture of Gujarat done on the walls
by several tribes such as the Rathwas and
Bhilalas
Pithora paintings are more of a ritual than

an art form

Indian Paintings
Thangka Painting:
thangka paintings are not only valued for

their aesthetic beauty,
primarily for their use as aids in

meditational practices
Tibetan Buddhist painting

on cotton, silk appliqué, usually depicting
a Buddhist deity, scene, or mandala

THANKS!
About Me
teaching

Art & Culture
Culture

Classification of Textiles
Based on the Art form Based on the Technique Mainly developed in Early Folk Art form
Based on Material Modern period
Location→ Purpose→
Types of Textile Art ? Who made it ?
West India Aesthetic
-Weaving Communities
East India At times nature
-Dying Based
North India and other
-Embroidery South India
-Hand Printing things included
-Applique work

Oldest Art form

Fabrics & Clothes used since Indus Valley Civilisation→ Gupta
Age
Exports to Egypt, Rome and other places
Medieval era→ Indian cloth was famous in European markets

Islamic Art→ Zardozi
Modern Era→ Textiles and Handicrafts exported from Bengal,

Silk, Muslin etc.
By 19th Century→ India became a Textile Hub, but for the

British Interest
By 20th Century→ National Movement- Khadi was popularised

Q. Communities based weaving Started ?
- Vankars- Gujarat
- Mehers- Odissa
- Ansari- Uttar Pradesh
- Saliyas- Kerala
- Devangas & Padmashalis- South India

Q. Weaving Art?
- Based on the fabrics used
Fabrics ?
Cotton Silk Wool Other Mixture

Q. Cotton Fabrics-
Dhake ka Malmal ?
Calico
Indian Muslin- wore by the Muhglas
Khadi- Handspun
Chikan- Lucknow
Dhanikhali Saree- West Bengal (GI)

Q. Silk ? Indian Textiles & Handicrafts
Origin from China→ later on India
Evidences in India→
Harappa & Chanhudaro- use of Silk Threads
Development of Seri Culture
- Types of Silk ?
- Mulberry Silk→ 90% production – Karnataka, Andhra

Pradesh, Tamilnadu
- Eri Silk- Castor Silk Worm
- Tissar Silk (Kosa Silk)
- Muga Silk- Only in Assam, costume built→ Mehkela Chadar

Q. Where this silk fabric is used ?

- Used in Saree Making
- Combination of Dyeing, weaving
etc.
- Q. Examples of Silk Sarees ?

Q. Silk Sarees ?
1. Assam Silk Sarees – Muga Silk- hand-woven
2. Assam Pat/Paat silk Saree-used in Sattria Dance
3. Banarasi Silk – varanasi, Gold/Silver Brocade (GI)
4. Baluchar Silk- Baluchar, Muradabad, Bengal (GI)
5. Bomkai silk- Ganjam, Odissa
6. Bhagalpuri- Tussar Silk type, Bihar

Q. Silk Sarees ?
7.Banglori Silk- Basavanagudi, Karnataka
8.Chanderi Silk- Madhyapradesh
9.Kanjivaram Silk- Tamilnadu (GI)
10.Mysore Silk- Karnataka (GI)
11.Patola Silk- Patan, Gujarat (GI)
12.Paithani- Aurangabad, Maharashtra (GI)
13.Pochampally- Andhrapradesh
14. Tanchoi Silk
15. Ikat- Odissa (GI)
16. Salem- TN (GI)
17. Dharmavaram- Anantpur, AP (GI)

Q. Wool Fabrics ?
- Angora Wilk
- Shahtoosh- made from hair of the Himalayan Ibex
- Pahmina shawl made from this fabric
- Other Products ?
- Jamawar Shawls (Kashmir)
- Dhabalas (Kutch)
- Pheran (Kashmir)
- Kullu Headgear (Himachal Pradesh)
- Kani Shawl (Kanimora, Kashmir)
- Tangaliya Shawl (Gujarat)

Q. Textile Techniques- for decoration ?

- During Loom
- Imparting technique during the loom process
- Weft and Warp technique
- Use of thread, patterns
- Post Loom Post Loom ?
Dyeing & Tie Hand Embroidery Applique &

Dyeing Printing & Patch Work
Painting

Q. Dyeing & Tie Dyeing

Colouring of the fabric, fibre etc.
Uses of vegetable and mineral colours
Tie dyeing→ cloth fabric tied into small dots at several places
Pattern is created wherever, the fabric has been tied
Bandhej- Rajasthan
Bandhani- Gujarat

Q. Hand Printing & Hand Painting ?
Hand Printing-
Done by means f blocks- hence called as block printing
Blocs made of wodd/metal- intricate design on the base
Dipped in the colours
Eg.
Bagh Prints- MP (GI)
Dhamadaka- Kutch Guj
Floral Buti design- Sanganer- Raj
Bagru- Rajashtan (GI)
Paisley- Farrukhabad – UP (GI)

Q. Hand Printing & Hand Painting ?
Q. Hand Painting-
Kalamkari- Andhrapradesh
Srikalahasti
Machilipattnam
Now a days-
Madhubani, Warli art also made

Q. Embroidery ?
Creating patterns and designs on the Fabric
Using of Neddle & thread (yarn)
Mentioned by Marco Polo
Q. Types of Embroidery
→Aari- Kashmir & Kutch
Use of beads
→Banjara- Done by the Community

Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh
Bead work, applique
→ Chamba Rumal – Himachal Pradesh

Done on Handkerchief,
Animals, Birds, floral patterns
→ Chikan- Lucknow (GI)

Origin during Noorjahan’s period
Intricate design- flower, paisleys, stars

→Kantha- West Bengal
Thousands of Stiches on the fabric
Nakshi Kantha- GI Tag
→ Kasuti- Karnatka (GI)

Design based on the pictorial character
→ Kashida- Kashmir
On wollen rugs, Phiran
Natural patterns
→ Kutchi- Kutch (GI)

Done on clothing, shawl
Use of mirror work & design
→ Kamdani- also called as Mkeish –

Lucknow
Use of metallic thread on the fabric
→ Phulkari- Punjab (GI)

- Flower work, handspun Khadi
→ Sozani Tilla- Kashmir (GI)

- Done on shawls, use of flora and fauna
→ Sujni- Bihar (GI)

- Narrative themes & stories
→ Zardozi- Lucknow (GI)

- Use of Zari work
- Gold, silver, sil threads
→ Zari Work- Surat Zari (GI)

- Use of gold and silver nto fabric

Q. Applique & Patchwork
Applique→ design patterns are created by stitching smaller

pieces of fabric to a larger piece
Contrasting colours
Patchwork→ sewing of smaller pieces of fabric to create large

piece
Q. Examples ?
Gota work- Rampur (Lucknow)
Small pieces of zari ribbon- intricate designs
Strips of gold and silver ribbons
Pipli- Odissa (GI)

Bright colour pieces joined together
Khatwa- Bihar (GI)

Q. Handicrafts ?
Variety of traditional products made by the artisans→
craftsmen
Skilled art form

Passed on from generations
Local communities→ speciality
Located in a particular area
Types of Handicraft
Gems & Pottery Metal Work- Leather Glass Wooden Terracotta

Jewellery Brass, Products ware Products craft
Bronze Toys
Copper Paper Art

Q. Gems & Jewellery ?
- Traditional- antique Jewellery → 2 types- made of Gold

- 1. Kundan work
- Gemstone based jewellery
- Gold and silver base
- 2. Minakari
- Enamelling & decorating jewellery by attaching or fusing
pieces of different stones
- Done at different places- Delhi, Jaipur, Varanasi
- Gulabi Minakari- Varanasi (GI)
- Silver Jewellery → 2 types

- 1. Filigree work→ use of silver metal wires to make jewellery
designs
- Cuttack- Odissa→ Tarakasi
- Karimnagar- Telangana- GI Tag
- 2.Bidri work-
- Bidar- Karnataka
- GI Tag

Q. Pottery Work ?
- Origin→ from ancient time
- Glaze Pottery-
- Chunar- UP – glazed & red terracotta
- Blue Pottery- Jaipur (GI)
- Black Pottery- Manipur

- Known as Longpi- made from black stone
- Black Pottery- Azamgarh

- Location-Nizamabad (GI)
- Fired local clay used
- Dal Gate- Kashmir

- Glazed pottery
- Colours- deep blue, green, brown, ochre
- Kagzi- Alwar
- Thin size , hence name→ Kagzi

Q. Terracotta Handicrafts ?
- Clay based ceramics, heating & firing

- Glazed & Unglazed pottery
- Origin→ Indus Valley Civilisation-

- Later on- terracotta temples- Bengal
- Still the art form continues
- Bankura Horse or Panchmura Horse (GI)

- Name based on village
- Villianur- Pondicherry (GI)

- Fine green clay
- Molela Clay work- (GI)

- Rajsamand District, Rajasthan
- Teracotta plaques bought by tribals
- Gorakhpur terracotta- GI Tag

- Latest, 2020

Q. Leather Products ?
- Juttis- Punjab
- Embroidery based
- Mojari- Rajasthan
- Kolhapuri- (GI)-Maharashtra
- Slipper footwear
- Usta & Manoti- Rajasthan

- a generic term for the Manoti-Naqqashi (embossed and
unembossed floral and geometric patterned objects layered with
gold) media produced by Usta family master artisans of Bikaner
- Artefacts made from Camel leather
- Also performed on walls, ceilings, glass, wood
- Leather Toys- Indore- GI Tag

- Stuffed toys
- Realistic images were made

Q. Leather Products ?

Q. Glass ware?
- Origin- Ancient times

- Impetus during Medieval era – Mughals
- Glass beads, Bangles, Toys

- Chandeliers, lamps, bottles,
- Glass Bangles→ Hyderabad
- Glass Art → Firozabad (GI)

- Chandeliersm Itra Bottles, flower vase,
etc.
- Glass beads→ Varanasi

- Very thin glass used

Q. Wooden Handicrafts?
- Bastar Wooden Craft- Chattisgarh

- Muria, Badhai Tribes- Made of Bamboo
- GI Tag
- Cane Handicrafts- Tripura & Other NE

States
- Sandalwood- Handcrafted, Mysore

- Mysore Rosewood
- Sankheda- Gujarat (GI)

- Teak wood furniture
- Marron and gold polish
- Walnut carving- Kashmir

- GI Tag
- Screw pine- Kerala (GI)

- Artisans using screw pine plants


Q. Wooden Toys, Puppetry and other art forms ?
- Shadow puppets- Andhrapradesh
- Thanjavur Dolls- Tamilnadu (GI)
- Chanapatna Toys- Bangalore
- Kondapalli Bommalu- Andhra Pradesh
- Nirmal Toys – Telangana

- GI
- Varanasi toys-


Q. Metal Art ?
- Origin→ Ancient India

- Bronze- lost wax technique
- Moradabad- brass ware

- Naqshi engravings, (GI)
- Dhokra- Bastar
- GI, lost wax technique
- Bell Metal Art- Datia/Tikamgarh

- GI Tag, Tribal art form
- Talashi & Koftagari- Jaipur

- Laying of barss-copper in wood
- At times steel with gold used→ Koftagari
- Swamimalai – Tamilnadu
- Bronze statues, GI Tag
- Thathera- Punjab


THANKS!

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Pratik Nayak- Unacademy Educator

Indian Textiles & Handicrafts

Cave Architecture in Ancient India

Presented by - Pratik Nayak

BE Civil, M. Planning (CEPT University)

Cleared GPSC, Worked at Govt. of Gujarat

Pratik Nayak -Unacademy

Pre Historic India- Stone Age

Indus Valley Civilisation –

Gupta Age (320-550CE)

Post Gupta-(600-750 CE)

Pratik Nayak -Unacademy

Art & Culture

Pratik Nayak -Unacademy

Caves Temples Pillars Stupa Sculpture Palaces/Forts

Independent Part of Architecture-

Pratik Nayak -Unacademy

Difference between Architecture and Sculpture

Point of difference Architecture Sculpture

Size and scope

Pratik Nayak -Unacademy

Types of Caves→ Who made it ? Purpose→

Pratik Nayak -Unacademy

Part of the Rock-Cut Architecture

creating a structure by carving it out of the natural rock

Q. How the origin of cave architecture took place ? Based on Design ?

Pratik Nayak -Unacademy

divided into 3 different phases

1st phase (2nd B.C.E to 2nd Century CE)

Ajanta, Karla, Bhaja, Kanheri, Nasik, Bedsa

2nd phase (5th to 7th century CE.)

3rd Phase (7th to 10th Century CE)

Q. Design based classification of Cave Architecture

Pratik Nayak -Unacademy

Q. Design based classification of Cave Architecture→ Evolution

Pratik Nayak for Unacademy

A variety of mithun couples were carved on the gates, the pillars

o Double storeyed viharas came up at Karle and triple storeyed at

Pratik Nayak -Unacademy

1st phase (2nd B.C.E to 2nd Century CE)

Ajanta, Karla, Bhaja, Kanheri, Nasik, Bedsa

2nd phase (5th to 7th century CE.)

3rd Phase (7th to 10th Century CE)

Pratik Nayak -Unacademy

In the first century BCE some modifications were

where the hall becomes rectangular like at Ajanta

It is also found at Bedsa, Nashik, Karla and Kanheri.

Cave 9, an early chaitya hall

Entrance of cave no. 9 @Ajanta

Pratik Nayak -Unacademy

Bedsa Caves > Pune, Maharashtra > 1st century BC.

trilogy of the caves (Karla -

▪The viharas are excavated in all the cave sites.

oSome of the important vihara caves are

oMany of the early vihara caves are carved with

Pratik Nayak -Unacademy

oThe vihara caves at Nashik were excavated with front pillars

The stupas in the fourth and fifth centuries CE have Buddha

Pratik Nayak -Unacademy

▪Chronological Development of Cave Architecture in India

Pratik Nayak -Unacademy

Pre Historic India- Stone Age

Indus Valley Civilisation –