Notetaker: Eva van Dijk Class: 91161 Cell Biology and Genetics Date: 30/08/17

Lipids and Membranes

 Learning Objectives – Lipids
o Describe the structure and function of:
 Fatty acids
 Triglycerides
 Phospholipids
 Sterols
 Lipids are:
o Biomolecules including fatty acids, their derivatives and sterols.
 We have already encountered other biomolecules. There are 4 major types:
proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and nucleic acids.
o Soluble in organic solvents but not water – they are hydrophobic
o Named for Greek “lipos” = fat
o Extracted from cells using organic solvents
o Important in long-term storage – very stable structure helps with this
o Made of mainly carbon and hydrogen atoms linked by nonpolar covalent bonds: C-C
and H-H
 Lipids
o Fatty acids
 Prostaglandins
 Waxes
 Triglycerols
 Glycophospholipids
o Steroids
 Today we will focus on cholesterol, fatty acid, triglycerols and phospholipids.

Fatty Acids
 Simplest form of lipid
 Long-chain carboxylic acids.
o Can see typical carboxyl groups -COOH
 Are insoluble in water
 Can be saturated or unsaturated
 The difference between fatty acids is determined by the length and shape of their tails. If
there are some double bonds the tail will have a bend/kink and this will mean it is
unsaturated.
 Saturated fatty acids
o Single C-C bonds
o Molecules fit closely together in a regular pattern because of their linear structure
o Strong attraction between fatty acid chains
o High melting points, so they are solid at room temperature.
 A freezing/melting/boiling point can also be called a transition temperature.
o Some examples of saturated fatty acids:
 Capric acid
 Lauric acid
 Palmitic acid
 Stearic acid

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Notetaker: Eva van Dijk Class: 91161 Cell Biology and Genetics Date: 30/08/17

o The melting point of the fatty acid goes up as the tail grows longer.
 Unsaturated fatty acids:
o Have one or more C=C bond, sometimes triple bonds
o Usually exist in a cis format – hydrogens on the same side. When hydrogens are on
either side of the double bond it is a trans unsaturated fatty acid.
o Have kinks in the fatty acid chains.
o Do not pack closely.
o Have few attractions between chains.
o Have low melting points.
o Are liquids at room temperature.
o Examples:
 Oleic acid
 Linoleic acid
 Linolenic acid
 Arachidonic acid

Fats and oils – Tri-acyl-glycerides

 Formed when hydroxyl groups of glycerol react with the carboxyl groups of fatty acids in a
dehydration reaction. They bond together with an ester linkage.
 They contain carbonyl groups. The carbonyl group with the tail is referred to as an acyl
group.
 Fat molecules are usually one glycerol linked to three fatty acids. The fatty acids can be all
saturated, mixed, or all unsaturated.

Phospholipids
 Most abundant lipids in cell membranes
 Composed of glycerol, two fatty acids, phosphate and an amino alcohol.
o Similar to a triglyceride but one of the hydroxyls of the glycerol is not linked to a
fatty acid but instead a phosphate group.
 They are amphipathic – hydrophilic on one end and hydrophobic on the other. The head is
hydrophilic and the tail is hydrophobic. This is a very unique characteristic that helps it serve
its purpose.
 Lecithin and cephalin are phospholipids
o Abundant in brain and nerve tissue
o Found in egg yolk, wheat germ, and yeast

Sterols
 Lipids with a steroid nucleus.
 Consist of:
o 4 fused rings – extremely rigid and planar structure
o Attached to this is a long fatty acid chain
o Also amphipathic.
o Extremely high melting temperature.

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Notetaker: Eva van Dijk Class: 91161 Cell Biology and Genetics Date: 30/08/17

Membranes
Learning Objectives

 Understand the biochemistry of phospholipids and how they are organised into membranes
 Know the function of each of the components of a cell membrane: phospholipid bilayer,
transmembrane and peripheral proteins
 Differentiate between diffusion, facilitated transport, facilitated diffusion, osmosis, and
active transport
 Describe solution and solute movement into and out of a cell under hyperosmotic,
hypoosmotic, or isosmotic conditions.
 Describe the processes of endocytosis, phagocytosis, pinocytosis and exocytosis
 Understand the importance of selective permeability in biological systems
 Describe the operation of the sodium potassium pump and the proton pump

Most subcellular components are surrounded by membranes. There are intracellular membranes
and the plasma membrane which is the outer boundary of the cell, separating it from its
environment. The plasma membrane also lets the cell stay in homeostasis.

Function of the Cell Membrane

 Separates cell components from environment
 “Gatekeeper” of the cell – regulates the flow of materials in and out. It is selectively
permeable so it can do this. It can’t be completely sealed, because then no exchange would
happen – however if it was freely permeable the cell would die as well.
 Helps maintain homeostasis – a stable internal balance

The plasma membrane exists as a “fluid mosaic”

 Phospholipids are the most abundant lipid in the plasma membrane.

 They are amphipathic with hydrophobic tail and hydrophilic head – therefore they self-
assemble with tails to the inside and heads to the outside.
 The fluid mosaic model states that the membrane is a fluid structure with components
embedded within it.

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Notetaker: Eva van Dijk Class: 91161 Cell Biology and Genetics Date: 30/08/17

Fluidity of Membranes
 Phospholipids in the membrane can move within the bilayer
 Most of the lipids and some of the proteins drift around laterally, rotate, or flex
 Flipping from one side to the other is rare
 As temperatures become cooler, membranes switch to a more solid state
 The temperature where the membrane solidifies depends on what type of lipid it is.
 Membranes that are rich in unsaturated fatty acids are more fluid than ones with saturated
fatty acids.
 Membranes have to be fluid to work properly.
 Cholesterol is also present in the plasma membrane. It plays a role in maintaining proper
fluidity in the membrane.
o Cholesterol is very rigid and has a high melting temperature. When the temperature
is warm, cholesterol restrains the movement of phospholipids. When it is cool, it
keeps it more fluid by preventing phospholipids from packing together.

Membrane Proteins and their Functions

 Peripheral proteins
o Anchored to a phospholipid in one layer of the membrane
o Possess nonpolar regions that are inserted into the bilayer
o Free to move around within one layer of the bilayer
 Integral proteins
o Span the whole lipid bilayer (transmembrane)
o Non-polar region is embedded
o Polar region is sticking out on either side.
 Membrane proteins are often grouped together and embedded in the bilayer.
 Perform many functions:
o Enzymatic activity
o Attachment to cytoskeleton and extracellular membrane – membrane is supported
by cytoskeleton, helping the cell keep or change shape according to what is needed.
o Signal transduction
o Transport – both active and passive
o Intercellular junctions
o Cell-cell recognition

Movement of Materials Across Cell Membranes

 A cell must exchange materials with its surroundings.
 Plasma membranes control this and are selectively permeable.
o Small molecules e.g. O2, H2, CO2 can pass through easily, as can
water/glycerol/ethanol
o Large uncharged polar molecules cannot pass through on their own, and neither can
ions.
 There are two mechanisms to get these molecules in:
o Passive transport – does not require energy, all molecules go from high
concentration to low concentration
 Also known as passive diffusion. Diffusion refers to the tendency of
molecules to spread evenly. It is the simplest transport process and will
always try to reach an equilibrium.

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Notetaker: Eva van Dijk Class: 91161 Cell Biology and Genetics Date: 30/08/17

 Diffusion does not require a membrane. However, when there is a

membrane it would need holes which would allow the molecules to
go past. Once an equilibrium is reached there will be no net
movement to either side.
 Osmosis
 The diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane.
 Most membranes are freely permeable to water – it will diffuse
from a high water concentration to a low one.
 High water concentration = low solute concentration
 Low water concentration = high solute concentration
 Facilitated Diffusion
 Transport proteins speed up passive movement of molecules,
allowing the passage of hydrophilic molecules through their
channels.
 Carrier proteins alternate between conformations to move the
molecule through but they do not require energy.
 Tonicity describes the behaviour of a cell when placed in solution. The cell
volume will change so that its concentration matches that of the
surrounding solution.
 Isotonic solution: solute concentration is the same on both sides
 Hypertonic: solute concentration is more outside of the cell – water
will move out.
 Hypotonic solution: solute concentration is less outside of the cell.
Water will move in.
o Active transport – requires energy
 Active transport uses energy to move solutes against their gradient.
 E.g. – high Na outside, low K and opposites inside cell. ATP is used to move 3
Na out and moves 2 K in. ATP phosphorylates and causes the protein to
change its confirmation.
 Another example: proton pump to maintain the membrane potential
 Cotransport = coupled
 Exocytosis and Endocytosis – for bulk materials
o Exocytosis for export
 Vesicles enclose the material with a membrane – this membrane fuses wit
the plasma membrane and then the material is released.
o Opposite process for endocytosis
 Phagocytosis is a form of endocytosis

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