DCA6101-Unit 14-TCPIP and Internet

Fundamentals of Computers and IT Unit 14
Unit 14 TCP/IP and Internet

Structure:
14.1 Introduction
Objectives
14.2 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
Architecture, History, Standards, and Trends
TCP/IP Architectural Model
Internetworking
The TCP/IP protocol layers
TCP/IP applications
IP Addressing
14.3 History of Internet
Chronological Development of the Internet
14.4 Concepts of Internet
14.5 Internet backbones
14.6 How Internet Works
14.7 Requirements of Internet
14.8 Uses of Internet
14.9 Internet Explorer
14.10 Internet Applications
14.11 Summary
14.12 Terminal Questions
14.13 Answers
14.1 Introduction
Computer is an information tool. Networks enhance the computer’s ability to
exchange, preserve, and protect information. Networks make it easier to
share expensive hardware and software. The type of information changes
from business to business. The way that information is stored and worked
with also varies.
Computers connected over a Network can make the information exchange
easier and faster. The information moves directly from computer to
computer rather than through a human intermediary. Due to this, people can
concentrate on getting their work done rather than on moving information
around the company. A group of computers and other devices connected
Manipal University of Jaipur Page No. 322

together is called a Network, and the concept of connected computers

sharing resources is called Networking.
The Internet is the publicly available worldwide system of interconnected
computer networks that transmit data by packet switching over the Internet
Protocol (IP).
The Internet is a computer network made up of thousands of networks
worldwide. No one knows exactly how many computers are connected to
the Internet. It is certain, however, that these number in millions.
No one is in charge of the Internet. There are organizations which develop
technical aspects of this network and set standards for creating applications
on it, but no governing body is in control of it. The Internet backbone,
through which Internet traffic flows, is owned by private companies.
The Internet is “a network of networks”. It is a global collection of high-
powered computers that are connected to each other with network cables,
telephone lines, microwave dishes, satellites etc. Some computers (Servers)
on the Internet store documents, sound files, video clips, program files,
electronic shopping centers, animations, pictures, interactive contents and
other information that can be stored and presented electronically. All these
resources are available to all computers connected to the Internet.
You can communicate with anyone on the Internet by sending e-mail,
posting messages in newsgroups, chatting in various chat areas and even
telephoning and video-conferencing over the Net.

The Internet mainly connects networks of computers. In a corporate wide

network, each department has a Local Area Network that allows sharing of
files, databases, printers and other peripheral devices. Several departments
working together interconnect their networks so that the information may be
shared more easily among the departments. This type of arrangement is
called a regional network. These regional networks are interconnections
based on geography or function. The regional networks are connected to
the corporate network, this is also called a backbone.
Objectives:
After completion of this unit you would be able to:
 Describe TCP/IP Protocol Suite
 Brief concepts of Internet
 Explain Internet Backbones
 Utilize the Internet application
14.2 TCP / IP Protocol Suite

The TCP/IP protocol suite has become a staple of today's international
society and global economy. Continually evolving standards provide a wide
and flexible foundation on which an entire infrastructure of applications are
built. Through these we can seek entertainment, conduct business, make
financial transactions, deliver services, and much more.
The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) suite has
become the industry-standard method of interconnecting hosts, networks,
and the Internet. As such, it is seen as the engine behind the Internet and
networks worldwide.
Although TCP/IP supports a host of applications, both standard and
nonstandard, these applications could not exist without the foundation of a
set of core protocols. Additionally, in order to understand the capability of
TCP/IP applications, an understanding of these core protocols must be
realized.
14.2.1 Architecture, History, Standards, and Trends
Today, the Internet and World Wide Web (WWW) are familiar terms to
millions of people all over the world. Many people depend on applications
enabled by the Internet, such as electronic mail and Web access. In

addition, the increase in popularity of business applications places additional

emphasis on the Internet.
The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) protocol suite
is the engine for the Internet and networks worldwide. Its simplicity and
power has led to its becoming the single network protocol of choice in the
world today. In this section, we give an overview of the TCP/IP protocol
suite. We discuss how the Internet was formed, how it developed, and how
it is likely to develop in the future.
14.2.2 TCP/IP Architectural Model
The TCP/IP protocol suite is so named for two of its most important
protocols: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP). A
less used name for it is the Internet Protocol Suite, which is the phrase used
in official Internet standards documents.
Internetworking
The main design goal of TCP/IP is to build an interconnection of networks,
referred to as an internetwork, or internet, that provide universal
communication services over heterogeneous physical networks. The clear
benefit of such an internetwork is the enabling of communication between
hosts on different networks, perhaps separated by a large geographical
area.
The words ‘internetwork’ and ‘internet’ are simply a contraction of the phrase
interconnected network. However, when written with a capital “I”, the
Internet refers to the worldwide set of interconnected networks. Therefore,
the Internet is an internet, but the reverse does not apply. The Internet is
sometimes called the connected Internet.
The Internet consists of the following groups of networks:
 Backbones: Large networks that exist primarily to interconnect other
networks. Also known as network access points (NAPs) or Internet
Exchange Points (IXPs). Currently, the backbones consist of commercial
entities.
 Regional networks connecting, for example, universities and colleges.
 Commercial networks providing access to the backbones to
subscribers, and networks owned by commercial organizations for
internal use that also have connections to the Internet.
 Local networks, such as campus-wide university networks.
In most cases, networks are limited in size by the number of users that can
belong to the network, by the maximum geographical distance that the
network can span, or by the applicability of the network to certain
environments. For example, an Ethernet network is inherently limited in
terms of geographical size. Therefore, the ability to interconnect a large
number of networks in some hierarchical and organized fashion enables the
communication of any two hosts belonging to this internetwork.
Figure 14.1 below shows two examples of internets. Each consists of two or
more physical networks.
Figure 14.1: Internet examples: Two interconnected sets of networks, each

seen as one logical network.
Another important aspect of TCP/IP internetworking is the creation of a

standardized abstraction of the communication mechanisms provided by
each type of network. Each physical network has its own technology-
dependent communication interface, in the form of a programming interface
that provides basic communication functions (primitives). TCP/IP provides
communication services that run between the programming interface of a
physical network and user applications. It enables a common interface for
these applications, independent of the underlying physical network. The
architecture of the physical network is therefore hidden from the user and
from the developer of the application. The application need only code to the
standardized communication abstraction to be able to function under any
type of physical network and operating platform.
As is evident in figure 14.1, to be able to interconnect two networks, we
need a computer that is attached to both networks and can forward data
packets from one network to the other; such a machine is called a router.
The term IP router is also used because the routing function is part of the
Internet Protocol portion of the TCP/IP protocol suite.
To be able to identify a host within the internetwork, each host is assigned
an address, called the IP address. When a host has multiple network
adapters (interfaces), such as with a router, each interface has a unique IP
address. The IP address consists of two parts:
IP address = <network number><host number>
The network number part of the IP address identifies the network within the
internet and is assigned by a central authority and is unique throughout the
internet. The authority for assigning the host number part of the IP address
resides with the organization that controls the network identified by the
network number.
14.2.3 The TCP/IP protocol layers
Like most networking software, TCP/IP is modeled in layers. This layered
representation leads to the term protocol stack, which refers to the stack of
layers in the protocol suite. It can be used for positioning (but not for
functionally comparing) the TCP/IP protocol suite against others, such as
Systems Network Architecture (SNA) and the Open System Interconnection
(OSI) model. Functional comparisons cannot easily be extracted from this,
because there are basic differences in the layered models used by the
different protocol suites.
By dividing the communication software into layers, the protocol stack
allows for division of labor, ease of implementation and code testing, and
the ability to develop alternative layer implementations. Layers communicate
with those above and below via concise interfaces. In this regard, a layer
provides a service to the layer directly above it and makes use of services
provided by the layer directly below it. For example, the IP layer provides
the ability to transfer data from one host to another without any guarantee to
reliable delivery or duplicate suppression. Transport protocols such as TCP

make use of this service to provide applications with reliable, in-order, data
stream delivery.
Figure 14.2 shows how the TCP/IP protocols are modeled in four layers.
Figure 14.2: The TCP/IP protocol stack: Each layer represents a package of
functions.
These layers include:

(i) Application layer: The application layer is provided by the program that
uses TCP/IP for communication. An application is a user process
cooperating with another process usually on a different host (there is also a
benefit to application communication within a single host). Examples of
applications include Telnet and the File Transfer Protocol (FTP). The
interface between the application and transport layers is defined by port
numbers and sockets
(ii) Transport layer: The transport layer provides the end-to-end data
transfer by delivering data from an application to its remote peer. Multiple
applications can be supported simultaneously. The most-used transport
layer protocol is the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which provides
connection-oriented reliable data delivery, duplicate data suppression,
congestion control, and flow control. Another transport layer protocol is the
User Datagram Protocol. It provides connectionless, unreliable, best-effort
service. As a result, applications using UDP as the transport protocol have
to provide their own end-to-end integrity, flow control, and congestion
control, if desired. Usually, UDP is used by applications that need a fast
transport mechanism and can tolerate the loss of some data.

(iii) Internetwork layer: The internetwork layer, also called the internet
layer or the network layer, provides the “virtual network” image of an internet
(this layer shields the higher levels from the physical network architecture
below it). Internet Protocol (IP) is the most important protocol in this layer. It
is a connectionless protocol that does not assume reliability from lower
layers. IP does not provide reliability, flow control, or error recovery. These
functions must be provided at a higher level. IP provides a routing function
that attempts to deliver transmitted messages to their destination. A
message unit in an IP network is called an IP datagram. This is the basic
unit of information transmitted across TCP/IP networks. Other internetwork-
layer protocols are IP, ICMP, IGMP, ARP, and RARP.
(iv) Network interface layer: The network interface layer, also called the
link layer or the data-link layer, is the interface to the actual network
hardware. This interface may or may not provide reliable delivery, and may
be packet or stream oriented. In fact, TCP/IP does not specify any protocol
here, but can use almost any network interface available, which illustrates
the flexibility of the IP layer. Examples are IEEE 802.2, X.25 (which is
reliable in itself), ATM, FDDI, and even SNA. TCP/IP specifications do not
describe or standardize any network-layer protocols per se; they only
standardize ways of accessing those protocols from the internetwork layer.
A more detailed layering model is included in Figure 1.9.
Figure 14.3: Detailed Architectural Model

14.2.4 TCP/IP applications

The highest-level protocols within the TCP/IP protocol stack are application
protocols. They communicate with applications on other internet hosts and
are the user-visible interface to the TCP/IP protocol suite.
All application protocols have some characteristics in common:
 They can be user-written applications or applications standardized and
shipped with the TCP/IP product. Indeed, the TCP/IP protocol suite
includes application protocols such as:
– Telnet for interactive terminal access to remote internet hosts
– File Transfer Protocol (FTP) for high-speed disk-to-disk file transfers
– Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) as an internet mailing system
These are some of the most widely implemented application
protocols, but many others also exist. Each particular TCP/IP
implementation will include a lesser or greater set of application
protocols.
 They use either UDP or TCP as a transport mechanism. Remember that
UDP is unreliable and offers no flow-control; so in this case, the
application has to provide its own error recovery, flow control, and
congestion control functionality. It is often easier to build applications on
top of TCP because it is a reliable stream, connection-oriented,
congestion-friendly, and flow control-enabled protocol. As a result, most
application protocols will use TCP, but there are applications built on
UDP to achieve better performance through increased protocol
efficiencies.
 Most applications use the client/server model of interaction.
14.2.5 IP Addressing
IP addresses are represented by a 32-bit unsigned binary value. It is usually
expressed in a dotted decimal format. For example, 9.167.5.8 is a valid IP
address. The numeric form is used by IP software. The mapping between
the IP address and an easier-to-read symbolic name, for example,
myhost.ibm.com, is done by the Domain Name System (DNS).
To identify a host on the Internet, each host is assigned an address, the IP
address, or in some cases, the Internet address. When the host is attached
to more than one network, it is called multihomed and has one IP address
for each network interface. The IP address consists of a pair of numbers:

IP address = <network number><host number>

The network number portion of the IP address is administered by one of
three Regional Internet Registries (RIR):
 American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN): This registry is
responsible for the administration and registration of Internet Protocol
(IP) numbers for North America, South America, the Caribbean, and
sub-Saharan Africa.
 Reseaux IP Europeans (RIPE): This registry is responsible for the
administration and registration of Internet Protocol (IP) numbers for
Europe, Middle East, and parts of Africa.
 Asia Pacific Network Information Centre (APNIC): This registry is
responsible for the administration and registration of Internet Protocol
(IP) numbers within the Asia Pacific region.
IP addresses are 32-bit numbers represented in a dotted decimal form (as
the decimal representation of four 8-bit values concatenated with dots). For
example, 128.2.7.9 is an IP address with 128.2 being the network number
and 7.9 being the host number. Next, we explain the rules used to divide an
IP address into its network and host parts.
The binary format of the IP address 128.2.7.9 is:
10000000 00000010 00000111 00001001
IP addresses are used by the IP protocol to uniquely identify a host on the
Internet (or more generally, any internet). Strictly speaking, an IP address
identifies an interface that is capable of sending and receiving IP datagrams.
One system can have multiple such interfaces. However, both hosts and
routers must have at least one IP address, so this simplified definition is
acceptable. IP datagrams (the basic data packets exchanged between
hosts) are transmitted by a physical network attached to the host. Each IP
datagram contains a source IPaddress and a destination IP address. To
send a datagram to a certain IP destination, the target IP address must be
translated or mapped to a physical address. This might require
transmissions in the network to obtain the destination's physical network
address.
Class-based IP addresses
The first bits of the IP address specify how the rest of the address should be
separated into its network and host part. The terms network address and

netID are sometimes used instead of network number. Similarly, the terms
host address and hostID are sometimes used instead of host number.
There are five classes of IP addresses as shown in Figure 1.10.
Figure 14.4: Assigned classes of IP addresses
Where:
Class A addresses: These addresses use 7 bits for the <network> and 24
bits for the <host> portion of the IP address. This allows for 27-2 (126)
networks each with 224-2 (16777214) hosts – a total of more than 2 billion
addresses.
Class B addresses: These addresses use 14 bits for the <network> and 16
bits for the <host> portion of the IP address. This allows for 214-2 (16382)
networks each with 216-2 (65534) hosts – a total of more than 1 billion
addresses.
Class C addresses: These addresses use 21 bits for the <network> and 8
bits for the <host> portion of the IP address. That allows for 2 21-2 (2097150)
networks each with 28-2 (254) hosts – a total of more than half a billion
addresses.

Class D addresses: These addresses are reserved for multicasting (a sort

of broadcasting, but in a limited area, and only to hosts using the same
Class D address).
Class E addresses: These addresses are reserved for future or
experimental use.
Class A address is suitable for networks with an extremely large number of
hosts. Class C addresses are suitable for networks with a small number of
hosts. This means that medium-sized networks (those with more than 254
hosts or where there is an expectation of more than 254 hosts) must use
Class B addresses. However, the number of small- to medium-sized
networks has been growing very rapidly. It was feared that if this growth had
been allowed to continue unabated, all the available Class B network
addresses would have been used by the mid-1990s. This was termed the IP
address exhaustion problem.
The division of an IP address into two parts also separates the responsibility
of selecting the complete IP address. The network number portion of the
address is assigned by the RIRs. The host number portion is assigned by
the authority controlling the network. As shown in the next section, the host
number can be further subdivided: This division is controlled by the authority
that manages the network. It is not controlled by the RIRs.
Reserved IP addresses
A component of an IP address with a value of all bits 0 or all bits 1 has a
special meaning:
 All bits 0: An address with all bits zero in the host number portion is
interpreted as ‘this’ host (IP address with <host address>=0). All bits
zero in the network number portion is this network (IP address with
<network address>=0). When a host wants to communicate over a
network, but does not yet know the network IP address, it can send
packets with <network address>=0. Other hosts in the network interpret
the address as meaning this network. Their replies contain the fully
qualified network address, which the sender records for future use.
 All bits 1: An address with all bits 1 is interpreted as all networks or all
hosts. For example, the following means all hosts on network 128.2
(Class B address):
128.2.255.255

This is called a directed broadcast address because it contains both a

valid <network address> and a broadcast <host address>.
 Loopback: The Class A network 127.0.0.0 is defined as the loopback
network. Addresses from that network are assigned to interfaces that
process data within the local system. These loopback interfaces do not
access a physical network.
Special use IP addresses: RFC 3330 discusses special use IP addresses.
We provide a brief description of these IP addresses in Table 1.1.
Table 14.1: Special use IP addresses
Self Assessment Questions

1. The TCP/IP protocol suite is so named for two of its most important
protocols _________ and ___________ .
2. The highest-level protocols within the TCP/IP protocol stack are
__________.
3. IP addresses are represented by a 8-bit unsigned binary value.
(True/False).
14.3 History of Internet

The concept of the Internet was devised about 40 years ago to address the
U.S. military's need to maintain communications during a national disaster.
Since there were no satellite links at that time, there was concern that

national defense measures would gravely suffer if one or more of the

existing communication channels were destroyed by a terrorist attack.
By this time scientists at some West Coast universities had already wired
their computers together as a way of sharing research. This original network
was referred to as the ARPANet (Advanced Research Projects Agency
Network).
Seeing the need for a communication system that could withstand damage
at numerous points and still function, the military sought the help of the
day's computer experts. These experts came up with a plan for modifying
their basic ARPANet idea to create a national network – the Internet. The
military considered the idea, and then rejected it as unworkable. Fortunately,
once the idea of the Internet was formulated, the universities went forward
on their own.
The professors, who originally used their network to link large mainframe
university computers, soon saw the advantage of accessing this information
from their homes and offices via modems. At about the same time,
corporations saw advantages in networking computers to share information
with employees throughout the country. They then set up their own internal
and external networks. Soon, more and more people got into the act – and,
the rest is history.
Upto that point all Internet information was shared in the form of basic lines
of text referred to as ASCII (American Standard Code for Information
Interchange) characters. These consist of all the upper and lower case
letters of the alphabet, plus a dozen or so symbols and special characters.
Internet information exchanged at that time primarily centered in e-mail and
newsgroups (information exchange and Internet postings among people
sharing similar interests).
Specialized newsgroups eventually grew to 10,000 in number, covering
every imaginable topic. Individuals could post newsgroup messages under
topic headings and read what everyone else had to say.
It has only been rather recently that the popularity of these non-Worldwide
Web discussion groups has waned. Once the GUI environment was
introduced, it was simply much easier (although not necessarily faster) to
use a browser such as the Internet Explorer or Netscape or to access

Worldwide Web discussion groups and e-mail. Even so, e-mail programs
such as Outlook Express, which come free as a part of the Microsoft's
Internet Explorer program, still allow users to log on to these newsgroups.
14.3.1 Chronological Development of the Internet
 1969 – ARPANET:
The first attempt to link computers into a network.
 1973-1983 – The Internet:
A network made up of smaller networks linked together. Data is
transmitted in packets of information that are sent using TCP/IP
(Transport Control Protocol and the Internet Protocol). The packets can
take different routes getting to their destination.
 1992 – Mbone:
Multicast Backbone. A networked system with a major increase in
bandwidth that allows things such as movies to be sent in real time.
Unlike the Internet where data is sent to a single recipient, MBone
allows numerous people to receive the transmission at the same time.
 1996 – Internet 2:
A high-performance network linking more than 200 universalities by fiber
optic links. Using this system a entire movie can be transmitted in about
35 seconds.
 1996 – The Grid:
A supercomputer network linking a collection of public and private
research centers.
 2000 – Abone:
Active Network Backbone. A high-speed network stripped of nearly all
file-handling intelligence. The data packets being sent incorporate their
own software and delivery instructions.
 2002 – PlanetLab:
A much "smarter" technical approach to the Internet where the software
can protect itself against worms and viruses, and relieve bottlenecks
automatically.
4. ARPAnet Stands for __________
5. The Grid is a ___________ network linking a collection of public and
private research centres.

6. Internet2 is a low-performance network linking more than 200

universalities by fiber optic links.(True/False)
14.4 Concepts of Internet

14.4.1 Clients and Servers
Most of the millions of computers that regularly access the Internet are
clients; i.e., they basically seek and display Internet information. But there
must also be computers that supply this information. These are normally
large computers, referred to as servers that store information and make it
available to large numbers of clients. (Of course, in the era of Napster and
similar music sharing programs, almost any computer can be configured as
both a client and a server.)
In computing, a server is:
A computer software application that carries out some task on behalf of
users. This is usually divided into file serving, allowing users to store and
access files on a common computer; and application serving, where the
software runs a computer program to carry out some task for the users. This
is the original meaning of the term. Web, mail, and database servers are
what most people access when using the Internet.
In computing, a client is:
A system that accesses a (remote) service on another computer by some
kind of network. The term was first applied to devices that were not capable
of running their own stand-alone programs, but could interact with remote
computers via a network.
The client-server model is still used today on the Internet, where a user may
connect to a service operating on a remote system through the Internet
protocol suite. Web browsers are clients that connect to web servers and
retrieve web pages for display. Most people use e-mail clients to retrieve
their e-mail from their ISP's mail storage servers. Online chat uses a variety
of clients, which vary depending on the chat protocol being used.
14.4.2 Router
A router is a computer networking device that forwards data packets toward
their destinations through a process known as routing.

A Linksys NAT (Network Address translation) Router, popular for home and
small office networks.
They are devices that forward traffic between networks, using information
from the network layer and from routing tables. Some routers are dedicated
i.e. they are used only for shuffling the traffic. Some routers are also used
for other purposes including file storage. A Routing Table is a table or
database of routing path and decision variables that allow routers to send
packets on to the correct destination.
A router must be connected to at least two networks, or it will have nothing
to route. A router which connects end-users to the Internet is called Edge
router; A router which serves to transmit data between other routers is
called Core router.
Routers are also now being implemented as Internet gateways, primarily for
small networks like those used in homes and small offices. This application
is mainly where the Internet connection is an always-on broadband
connection like cable modem or DSL (Digital Subscriber Line).
14.4.3 ISP (Internet Service Providers)
The cheapest way to surf the Internet is to get a connection from your local
Internet Service Provider (ISP). The ISP takes you to the Internet. ISP will
charge you periodically for the Internet access. Your ISP may also charge
you an initial set up fee. If you are accessing the Internet from within
Windows, you will require SLIP (Serial Line Input Protocol) or PPP (Point to
Point Protocol) connections. VSNL [Videsh Sanchar Nigam Ltd.], MTNL and

Satyam Online are the popular Internet Service Providers in India. They
have DNS servers in many cities throughout India.
ISPs provide connections into the Internet for home users and businesses.
There are local, regional, national, and global ISPs. However, the regional
and national providers that provide bandwidth, transit, and routing services
are more appropriately called NSPs (network service providers). The
interconnection scheme is hierarchical in most cases, with local ISPs
connecting into regional NSPs that, in turn, connect into national or global
NSPs.
An ISP is usually a local service provider that is in the business of providing
customers with Internet access and customer support. In contrast, the NSPs
are more interested in network infrastructure and reselling bandwidth. Many
ISPs are small offices with very little equipment.
SLIP and PPP are two popular protocols that allow home computer users to
connect their computers to the Internet as peer hosts. In this mode of
connection host computer will be able to browse the network individually
without any interruption from the server.
14.4.4 Modems
Modems (modulators/demodulators) are data communication devices that

convert digital signals to analog signals, and vice versa. Modems allow
digital transmissions over analog telephone lines. They allow people to
connect their computers with other computers, corporate office LANs, and
the Internet. A Modem is required when connecting to Internet using
telephone lines. It is an essential link between the computer running Internet
browser and Dial-up service provider. The modem must be connected to the
computer and to the telephone on both ends.

Modem speeds are measured in terms of BPS (Bits Per Second). Speeds
available are 9600 BPS, 28800 BPS, 33600 BPS etc. Connecting speed is
dependent on the telephone service. There is a telephone service called
ISDN, (Integrated Services Digital Network) which can allow a modem to
connect at 128 KBPS. This service is provided by DOT and costs more than
the regular analog connection. It also requires additional hardware. However
ISDN connection provides fastest access and highest quality connection. It
combines voice and digital network services in a single medium, making it
possible to offer customers digital data services and voice connections
through a single wire. There are two types of ISDN services, PRI (Primary
Rate interface) and BRI (Basic Rate Interface).
Wireless “modems”
Wireless modems come in a variety of types, bandwidths, and speeds.
Wireless modems are often refered to as transparent or smart. They
transmit information that is modulated onto a carrier frequency to allow
many simultaneous wireless communication links to work simultaneous on
different frequencies.
Transparent modems operate in a manner similar to their phone line modem
cousins. Typically, they are half duplex, meaning that they cannot send and
receive data at the same time. Typically transparent modems are polled in a
round robin manner to collect small amounts of data from scattered
locations that do not have easy access to wired infrastructure. Transparent
modems are most commonly used by utility companies for data collection.
7. The computers that supply this information are referred to as _______.
8. A _________ is a computer networking device that forwards data
packets toward their destinations through a process known as routing.
9. Modems are data communication devices that convert digital signals to
analog signals, and vice versa.(True/False)

14.5 Internet Backbones

14.5.1 Optical Fiber
The optical fiber can be used as a medium for telecommunication and

networking because it is flexible and can be bundled as cables. Although
fibers can be made up of either plastic or glass, the fibers used in long-
distance telecommunications applications are always glass, because of the
lower optical absorption of glass. The light transmitted through the fiber is
confined due to total internal reflection within the material.
14.5.2 Hub
A concentrator that joins multiple clients by means of a single link to the rest
of the LAN.
A hub has several ports to which clients are connected directly, and one or
more ports that can be used to connect the hub to the backbone or to other
active network components. A hub functions as a multiport repeater; signals
received on any port are immediately retransmitted to all other ports of the
hub.

14.5.3 Switches
A switch is a device into which you can connect all devices on a home
network so that they can talk together. Unlike a hub, traffic sent from Server
A to Server B will only be received by Server B.
Switches regulate traffic, thereby eliminating the possibility of message
garbling. Switches therefore provide more efficient traffic flow.
10. The light transmitted through the fiber is confined due to _________
within the material.
11. A hub functions as a ________.
14.6 How Internet Works

In a network if you wish to send mail, enter the name of the user (i.e., the
user name to whom you wants to send the mail). The E-mail system of the
network sends the mail to the concerned address. This arrangement is
similar to calling a local telephone number. Anyone wanting to access a
telephone number from outside city limit must enter the area code and the
telephone number. Similarly if the two people are not in the same E-mail
system, they must enter fully qualified addresses. Between these two
persons there may be many networks. Once the e-mail is sent, the message
is broken into small pieces called “packets”. Packets are the basic unit of
measurement on the Internet. There are special purpose computers called
“Routers” on the Internet, which will decide what is the best path to the
destination to send these packets. Once these packets reach their
destination they are reassembled into the original message.
The Internet has been described as co-operative anarchy. Each individual
network has its own rules. Communication between networks is possible
because of co-operation. There is no central administration of the Internet
but there are formal bodies within the Internet that perform co-ordinating
functions.
12. _________ are the basic unit of measurement on the Internet.
13. The _________ of the network sends the mail to the concerned
address

14.7 Requirements of Internet

 An account with Internet Service Provider (ISP) is a must to connect to
the Internet. In India Airtel, BSNL\ and VSNL are the Internet Service
Providers.
 Individual computers can establish the connection with ISP’s servers. A
username and a password restriction are used to connect to the main
server. Direct cable connection and dial-up networking (using telephone
lines and modem) are the ways to connect your machine to ISP’s
servers.
 In case of dial-up networking, telephone lines and modems are used to
connect to local ISP. In this kind of connection, user must dial the ISP’s
phone numbers to establish the connection. In copper wires (telephone
lines) digital data cannot travel. So digital data is converted into analog
signals and transmitted. The speed of the connection is determined
based on the status of the telephone system. If telephone system uses
copper wires, the speed of the data flow cannot exceed 64Kbps.
 Internet Browser brings the Internet to your system. Web browsers
enable you to use most of the Internet features like sending and
receiving mail, downloading files from the Internet, browsing documents
on the Net and reading and posting messages in News Groups.
Netscape Navigator and Microsoft Internet Explorer are the two most
popular Web browsers. These browsers can be used to watch videos on
the Web, listen to music, read a book and even to shop.
14.7.1 Connection Types
 In a host/terminal connection or shell account, your computer acts as if
it were a terminal directly connected to an internal host. Terminal
emulation programs (Windows Terminal) can be used to make your
computer act as a terminal. The terminal program signals the modem
to dial and handles the transfer of characters from your computer to
the host computer and back. This account does not permit the
download of graphics, video or audio from web sites. It is less
expensive.
 TCP/IP link allows your computer to function as an Internet host.
These links are called either SLIP (Serial Line Internet Protocol) or
PPP (Point- to-Point Protocol) links. Using this account direct e-mail,
some sort of news group access, FTP, Telnet and running browser
software is possible. This account is more expensive and allows for

graphics download.
14.7.2 Connecting to the Internet:
1. Obtain software from an Internet service provider (ISP). Your computer
may already have one or more such programs included on its hard disk.
2. Follow the ISP's instructions for installing the software.
3. The installation program will most likely guide you through the process
of registering and setting up your online account. You'll be asked to
provide information such as your name, address and billing information.
Once you've input your information, many ISPs will configure
themselves automatically. If not, the ISP will provide instructions for what
to do.
4. If the ISP has given you instructions for configuring Windows, you will
first need to open the Internet Options control panel. Open the Start
menu, then click Settings, then click Control Panel. Double-click Internet
Options and click the Connections tab.
Click on
Internet
Options

5. Your first step is to create a Connection file with the access phone
number given to you by the ISP. In the Dial-Up Settings pane of the
window, click Add, then follow the instructions.

6. After you add the phone number, select the connection you just made,
then click the Settings button.
7. Enter a name, password, and other information your ISP has given you.
8. Click on connect option bottom of the box to set your Internet settings.


14. In India Airtel, BSNL\ and VSNL are the Internet Service Providers.
(True/False).
15. Internet Browser brings the Internet to our system. (True/false)
14.8 Uses of Internet

 Search for information: In the Internet, there are sites that have
electronic versions of classic literature pages and pages of movie facts,
stock quotes, collection of music and other interactive contents and
mountains of additional information. Since there is awful lot of
information, you may have trouble finding a place to start.
 Electronic Mail: One of the widely used features on the Internet is
electronic mail (e-mail). With e-mail you can send and receive mails
without even leaving the keyboard. Messages can be sent globally just
by paying local telephone charges. When someone sends you an
e-mail, it is stored in your mailbox (on service provider’s computer).
Using the e-mail program, connect to your ISP, download your message
to your local hard disk. E-mail eliminates the need of postage stamps
and greatly reduces the time taken to send and receive messages.
 Chat with Other People: If you like talking to complete strangers and
making new friends, Internet is the best place. With chat programs you
can chat with a group of people, whose geographical location you need
not know.
 Telnet to other Computers: With telnet program, you can connect to
another computer and use it as if you were sitting at its keyboard. When
the telnet program connects your computer to a remote computer, the
remote computer usually asks you to enter a user name and a
password. On telnet sites that allow anonymous access you can enter
anonymous as your user name and your e-mail address as the
password.
16. When someone sends an email it is stored in _________.
17. With _________ program, you can connect to another computer and
use it as if you were sitting at its keyboard.

14.9 Internet Explorer

A popular Web browser, created by Microsoft, used to view pages on the
World Wide Web. When Internet Explorer is first opened up on your
computer, the main screen of the program will appear. This main window
has many parts to it, these parts are described in detail below.
The "Title Bar" at the very top of the window tells you what the title of the
page you are viewing is. The "Title Bar" will also tell you what Internet
Explorer application is currently active.
Directly under the "Title Bar" is the "Main Menu Bar". This bar has many
different sub-menus which control all options, functions, and commands for
the entire Internet Explorer program. Some of the browsing controls can
also be found in these sub-menus.
Beneath this menu is the "Internet Explorer Toolbar". This toolbar contains
all of the most frequently used commands and all of the browsing functions.

The Main Explorer Toolbar

Under the toolbar is the "Address Bar". This will tell you the exact
HTTP/URL location of the page you are currently viewing. You can also type
a Web address directly into this bar and then press enter to go to that site.
Below the "Address Bar" is the "Link Bar". These buttons will take you to
pages at Microsoft's Main home site where they have applications and
information specifically designed for your easy use.
Underneath the "Link Bar" is the "Main Browser Window". This window will
display all of the information that is located at the Web site you are currently
located at. Any text, images, movies, animation, links, or any other
application files will be shown in this window. The scroll bars located on the
right side and on the bottom of this window allow you to continue viewing
the page you are located at even when the page is too large to fit in your
screen.
The very bottom of the page is the "Status Bar". This bar tells you what the
progress of the browser is while it downloads files to the page, where links
go to when you move over them, whether or not a document is secure, and
any other information that the program feels is necessary for you to know.
Other Internet Explorer Functions
 Viewing Documents while not on the web
 Printing Web Documents
 Using Internet Mail
Self Assessment questions
18. A Web browser created by Microsoft is ________.
19. _________ tells the exact HTTP/URL location of the page we are
currently viewing.
14.10 Internet Applications

Regular use of the Internet is strongly related to education and race.

Note in the above graph that while only about 22% of people without a high
school education use the Internet, almost 90% of people with a college
education regularly surf the Net. Age is also strongly related. In some cases
grade school youths are much more comfortable with computers and the
Internet than even their elder brothers and sisters who are in college.
Although some families may consider the Internet a luxury, savvy
businesses now see it as a necessity in today's competitive business
environment. Thousands of college classes depend on the Internet for
reading materials and course research, and the number of complete
courses on the Internet now totals several hundred-thousand. Several
institutions grant degrees solely on the basis of Internet coursework.
Another indication of the rapid growth of computer use has been the
increase in bill paying over the Internet. Millions of people no longer make
out checks, address envelopes, and lick stamps to pay their bills – they
simply do it all by mouse clicks. Some banks exist only on the Internet,
which often means that the money they save on offices, facilities, etc., can
not only be passed on to users in the form lower fees, but these institutions
can also pay higher interest rates on accounts.

Although Internet advertising trails the other media in total revenue, as you
can see on the above, it is showing the most rapid growth.
Advertising on the Internet has a controversial history. Many purists
originally felt that the Internet should be free of advertising clutter and
influence. (The same views were originally lodged against broadcast
advertising.)
Even with all of these developments, the Internet is still in its infancy. As
bandwidth limitations and standards problems are resolved, many of the
barriers to the more effective use of the Internet will be removed. A major
problem for education is the inability to transmit full-screen, full-motion video
– a problem that should soon be resolved.
Compared to the traditional classroom, research has shown that students
can do just as well, and sometimes better, by taking well-designed Internet
courses. For students, Internet classes not only save time and money, but
they can fit into difficult work schedules.
Self Assessment questions
20. Several institutions grant degrees solely on the basis of Internet
coursework.(True/False)
21. For students, Internet classes not only save time and money, but they
can fit into difficult work schedules.(True/false).

14.11 Summary
 The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) protocol
suite is the engine for the Internet and networks worldwide. Its simplicity
and power has led to its becoming the single network protocol of choice
in the world today.
 The main design goal of TCP/IP is to build an interconnection of
 networks, referred to as an internetwork, or internet, that provide
 universal communication services over heterogeneous physical
 networks.
 Like most networking software, TCP/IP is modeled in layers. This
layered representation leads to the term protocol stack, which refers to
the stack of layers in the protocol suite.
 The TCP/IP protocols are modeled in four layers these are:
 Application layer,Transport layer,Internetwork layer, and Network
interface layer.
 IP addresses are represented by a 32-bit unsigned binary value. It is
usually expressed in a dotted decimal format. For example, 9.167.5.8 is
a valid IP address.
 The Internet is the publicly available worldwide system of
interconnected computer networks that transmit data by packet
switching over the Internet Protocol (IP).
 Technically, when you connect two or more computers together that’s
called a network.
 Packets are the basic unit of measurement on the Internet.
 Original network was referred to as the ARPANet (Advanced Research
Projects Agency Network).
 Of basic lines of text referred to as ASCII (American Standard Code for
Information Interchange) characters.
 Most of the millions of computers that regularly access the Internet are
clients.
 Normally, large computers, referred to as servers, store information and
make it available to large numbers of clients.
 A router is a computer networking device that forwards data packets
toward their destinations through a process known as routing.
 The cheapest way to surf the Internet is to get a connection from your
local Internet Service Provider (ISP).

 Modems (modulators/demodulators) are data communication devices

that convert digital signals to analog signals and vice versa.
 Hub is a concentrator that joins multiple clients by means of a single link
to the rest of the LAN.
14.12 Terminal Questions

1. Explain TCP/IP Protocol layers.
2. Write a short note on modems.
3. Write a note on various Internet Service Providers.
4. Write a note on Internet Explorer.
5. Write steps to connect to the Internet.
14.13 Answers
Self Assessment Question
1. 1.Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol
2. Application protocol
3. False
4. Advanced Research project Agency
5. Supercomputer
6. False
7. Server
8. Router
9. True
10. Total Internal reflection
11. Multiport Repeater
12. Packet
13. The email system
14. True
15. True
16. Mail box
17. Telnet
18. Explorer
19. Address Bar
20. True
21. True

Terminal Questions
1. Like most networking software, TCP/IP is modeled in layers. This
layered representation leads to the term protocol stack, which refers to
the stack of layers in the protocol suite. Refer Section 14.2.3
2. Modems (modulators/demodulators) are data communication devices
that convert digital signals to analog signals, and vice versa.Refer
Section 14.4.4
3. The ISP takes you to the Internet. ISP will charge you periodically for
the Internet access. Refer Section 14.4.3.
4. A popular Web browser, created by Microsoft, used to view pages on
the World Wide Web. Refer Section 14.9.
5. Obtain software from an Internet service provider (ISP). Your computer
may already have one or more such programs included on its hard disk.
Refer Section 14.7.2.
References:
 Introduction to Digital Media by Tony Feldman.
 Kaye, Barbaka K.Norman J Medoff (2001), The World Wide Web – A
mass communication perspective, Mc Graw Hill Higher Education, New
York.
 Feldman, Tony – Introduction to Digital Media
 Digital Computer Fundamentals by Bartee, Thomas C.
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Fundamentals of Computers and IT Unit 14

Unit 14 TCP/IP and Internet

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together is called a Network, and the concept of connected computers

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The Internet mainly connects networks of computers. In a corporate wide

14.2 TCP / IP Protocol Suite

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addition, the increase in popularity of business applications places additional

Figure 14.1: Internet examples: Two interconnected sets of networks, each

Another important aspect of TCP/IP internetworking is the creation of a

reliable delivery or duplicate suppression. Transport protocols such as TCP

These layers include:

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Figure 14.3: Detailed Architectural Model

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14.2.4 TCP/IP applications

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IP address = <network number><host number>

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Figure 14.4: Assigned classes of IP addresses

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Class D addresses: These addresses are reserved for multicasting (a sort

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This is called a directed broadcast address because it contains both a

Self Assessment Questions

14.3 History of Internet

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national defense measures would gravely suffer if one or more of the

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6. Internet2 is a low-performance network linking more than 200

14.4 Concepts of Internet

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Modems (modulators/demodulators) are data communication devices that

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14.5 Internet Backbones

The optical fiber can be used as a medium for telecommunication and

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14.6 How Internet Works

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14.7 Requirements of Internet

software is possible. This account is more expensive and allows for

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Self Assessment Questions

14.8 Uses of Internet

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14.9 Internet Explorer

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The Main Explorer Toolbar

14.10 Internet Applications

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 Modems (modulators/demodulators) are data communication devices

14.12 Terminal Questions

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