Structure of the Atmosphere

The Earth's atmosphere is composed of several layers of gases, each with its own
unique characteristics and properties. These layers differ from one another with respect
to density and temperature. Our atmosphere can be broadly divided into five layers:

(A) Troposphere
The troposphere is the lowest layer of the Earth's atmosphere, located between the
surface of the Earth and the stratosphere. It is the layer in which all weather occurs and
where most of the Earth's air mass is contained.

Here are some key characteristics of the troposphere:

 1. Height: The height of the troposphere varies with location and season, but on
average it extends from the Earth's surface to about 7-20 kilometers (4-12 miles)
above sea level. The height of the troposphere is greatest at the equator and
decreases towards the poles due to the upward transportation of heat by strong
conventional currents. The height of the troposphere at a given latitude is greater
in summer than in winter.
2. Temperature: The temperature of the troposphere decreases with altitude, at a
rate of about 6.5 degrees Celsius per kilometer (3.5 degrees Fahrenheit per 1,000
feet). This temperature gradient is known as the lapse rate and is caused by the
cooling effect of the Earth's surface on the overlying air.
3. Pressure: The pressure of the troposphere also decreases with altitude, but at a
slower rate than temperature. At the top of the troposphere, the pressure is only
about 10% of the pressure at sea level.
4. Composition: The troposphere is primarily composed of nitrogen (78%) and
oxygen (21%), with trace amounts of other gases such as argon, carbon dioxide,
and neon.
5. Weather: The troposphere is where all weather occurs. The movement of air
masses, the formation of clouds, and the occurrence of precipitation are all driven
by processes that take place within the troposphere.
6. Human impact: The troposphere is also affected by human activities such as
burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and agriculture. These activities release
greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and methane, which contribute to
global warming and climate change.

Overall, the troposphere is a critical layer of the Earth's atmosphere that is essential for
supporting life and regulating the Earth's climate.
Tropopause
The tropopause is the boundary between the troposphere and the stratosphere,
marking the transition between the lowest and second lowest layers of the Earth's
atmosphere. It is defined as the level in the atmosphere above which the temperature
stops decreasing with height and starts to increase, known as the "temperature
inversion". The tropopause varies in height from around 8 km (26,000 ft) at the poles to
around 18 km (59,000 ft) at the equator. This is a very unstable and thin layer of 1.5 km
thickness only. The air temperature at the tropopause is about -80*C over the equator
and about -45*C over the poles.
It acts as a barrier to the exchange of air and pollutants between the troposphere and
stratosphere. This is because the air in the stratosphere is relatively stable, while the air
in the troposphere is subject to turbulence and mixing. The height of the tropopause is
influenced by several factors, including latitude, season, and weather conditions. For
example, tropopause is generally higher in the summer than in the winter, and it tends
to be lower in the polar regions than at the equator. The height of the tropopause also
varies depending on weather conditions such as the presence of a warm or cold front.
(B) Stratosphere
The stratosphere is a layer of the Earth's atmosphere that is located above the
troposphere, extending from about 10 kilometers (6.2 miles) to 50 kilometers (31 miles)
above the Earth's surface. It is thicker at the poles than at the equator. It is
characterized by a stable temperature gradient in which temperature increases with
altitude due to the presence of the ozone layer, which absorbs ultraviolet radiation
from the sun. There are practical, no clouds, convection currents, thundering,
lightening, water vapors, dust particles, etc. in this layer. The air moves in a horizontal
direction.

Here are some key features of the stratosphere:

1. Ozone Layer: The stratosphere is home to the ozone layer, a region containing
a high concentration of ozone (O3) molecules. Ozone is produced when
ultraviolet radiation from the sun reacts with oxygen (O2) molecules in the upper
atmosphere. The ozone layer is important because it absorbs harmful ultraviolet
radiation, protecting life on Earth from its damaging effects.
2. Temperature: The temperature in the stratosphere increases with altitude due
to the presence of the ozone layer, which absorbs solar radiation and heats the
surrounding air. Stratopause, which is the boundary between the stratosphere and
the mesosphere, marks the point where the temperature stops increasing (
remains constant) and begins to decrease with altitude.
3. Atmospheric Pressure: Atmospheric pressure in the stratosphere is much
lower than in the troposphere due to the lower density of air at higher altitudes.
However, the pressure is still sufficient to support the flight of some high-altitude
aircraft and balloons.
 4. Jet Streams: The stratosphere contains high-altitude jet streams, which are fast-
moving, narrow bands of air that circulate in the upper atmosphere. Jet streams
are created by differences in temperature and pressure between the polar and
equatorial regions of the Earth, and they have a significant impact on weather
patterns.
5. Air Traffic: The stratosphere is an important region for commercial air travel, as
it provides a stable environment with little turbulence. However, the effects of
aviation on the stratosphere, such as the release of greenhouse gases and
nitrogen oxides from aircraft engines, can have negative impacts on the ozone
layer and climate.
6. Weather Balloons: The stratosphere is also a region of interest for scientific
research, and weather balloons are often used to collect data on temperature,
pressure, and other atmospheric variables at high altitudes.

Overall, the stratosphere plays an important role in regulating the Earth's climate and
protecting life on our planet. Its unique properties and characteristics make it an area of
ongoing study and exploration for scientists and researchers around the world.

Stratopause
The stratopause is a region of the Earth's atmosphere located between the stratosphere
and the mesosphere, at an altitude of approximately 50-55 km (31-34 miles) above the
Earth's surface. It is characterized by a sudden increase in temperature with height,
which is caused by the absorption of ultraviolet radiation from the Sun by ozone in the
stratosphere. stratopause also marks the boundary between two layers of the Earth's
atmosphere that have different chemical compositions. Below the stratopause, the
stratosphere contains a high concentration of ozone, which absorbs most of the Sun's
harmful ultraviolet radiation and protects life on Earth. Above the stratopause, the
mesosphere contains very little ozone and instead has a higher concentration of
molecular oxygen and nitrogen.

In addition to its important role in protecting life on Earth, the stratopause is also of
interest to scientists studying the Earth's atmosphere and climate. Variations in the
temperature and composition of the stratopause can have significant effects on the
behavior of the Earth's upper atmosphere, including the formation and dissipation of
auroras and other atmospheric phenomena. Scientists also study the stratopause to
better understand the dynamics of the Earth's atmosphere and its interactions with the
Sun's radiation.
(C) Mesosphere
The mesosphere is the layer of the Earth's atmosphere that is located above the
stratosphere and below the thermosphere, extending from an altitude of about 50 km
to 85 km above the Earth's surface. It is the third layer of the atmosphere and is
characterized by a decrease in temperature with increasing altitude and low
atmospheric density, and the presence of the aurora borealis and meteor showers. It is
an important area of research for scientists studying a range of atmospheric and space-
related phenomena.
Temperature: The temperature in the mesosphere can range from about -90°C at
lower altitudes to around -140°C at higher altitudes. This is due to the fact that the
mesosphere is the region of the atmosphere where the temperature decreases with
increasing altitude due to the cooling effect of the decreasing air pressure.
Atmospheric composition: The mesosphere contains a variety of gases including
nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and others in small amounts. It also contains trace
amounts of water vapor and ozone. The density of the atmosphere in the mesosphere
is very low, about 1/10,000th the density of the air at the Earth's surface.
Auroras: One of the most well-known phenomena that occur in the mesosphere is the
aurora borealis, also known as the northern lights. This is a beautiful light display
caused by charged particles from the Sun interacting with the Earth's magnetic field in
the upper atmosphere, including the mesosphere. When these particles collide with the
gases in the atmosphere, they cause the gases to emit light, producing colorful auroras.
Meteors: The mesosphere is also the reg
ion where most meteors burn up upon entering the Earth's atmosphere. These meteors
are typically small pieces of space debris that burn up due to the high temperatures
generated by the friction between the meteor and the air in the mesosphere.
Research: The mesosphere is an important area of study for scientists, as it provides a
natural laboratory for studying a range of phenomena, including atmospheric dynamics,
chemical reactions, and the interactions between the Earth's atmosphere and the space
environment. Researchers use a variety of techniques to study the mesosphere,
including satellites, balloons, and ground-based instruments.

Mesopause
The mesopause is the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere,
located at an altitude of about 85 km above the Earth's surface. It is the coldest point in
the Earth's atmosphere, with temperatures reaching as low as -143°C.

(D) Ionosphere
The ionosphere is a region of the Earth's upper atmosphere that is ionized by solar
radiation. It is located approximately 60 to 1,000 kilometers (37 to 620 miles) above the
Earth's surface and is a part of the Earth's thermosphere. The ionosphere is named for
its high concentration of ions, which are atoms or molecules that have lost or gained
electrons and have a net electrical charge.
The ionosphere is important because it plays a crucial role in the propagation of radio
waves, which are used for communication and navigation purposes. Radio waves can
travel through the ionosphere because the ionized particles in the ionosphere reflect
and refract them, allowing them to travel long distances.
The ionosphere is divided into several layers, each with different characteristics and
ionization levels. The ionosphere is also affected by solar activity, particularly by solar
flares and coronal mass ejections. These events can cause disturbances in the
ionosphere, which can affect radio communication and navigation systems on Earth.
The ionosphere is also affected by the Earth's magnetic field, which can cause
irregularities in the ionosphere's electron density.
In addition to its importance for communication and navigation, the ionosphere also
plays a role in the Earth's climate system. It is an important source of ionization for the
upper atmosphere and is involved in the formation of the aurora borealis and aurora
australis.
Overall, the ionosphere is a complex and dynamic region of the Earth's atmosphere that
is important for a variety of scientific and technological applications.
(E) Exosphere
The exosphere is the outermost layer of the Earth's atmosphere, extending from an
altitude of about 500 km to the edge of space, which is about 10,000 km above the
Earth's surface. It is the least dense part of the atmosphere and is composed mainly of
hydrogen, helium, and other light gases. This layer is extremely rarefied and gradually
merges with outer space. It is the highest layer of the atmosphere, where the density of
air is extremely low and the gas molecules are very far apart.
The exosphere is an extremely thin layer, with very few molecules per cubic centimeter.
The temperature in the exosphere can vary widely, ranging from hundreds of degrees
Celsius during the day to hundreds of degrees below zero at night. This is because
there are very few molecules in the exosphere to absorb and retain heat.
The exosphere is divided into two regions: the lower exosphere and the upper
exosphere. The lower exosphere is where most of the Earth's atmospheric gases are
found, while the upper exosphere is mainly composed of hydrogen and helium.
The exosphere is also home to a number of interesting phenomena, including the Van
Allen radiation belts, which are regions of charged particles trapped by the Earth's
magnetic field. The exosphere is also where many satellites orbit the Earth, and it is,
therefore, an important part of the space environment.
Overall, the exosphere is a unique and important part of the Earth's atmosphere,
providing a transition zone between the Earth and space. Despite its thinness and lack
of density, it plays a vital role in shaping our planet's environment and protecting us
from the harshness of space.
Chemical composition of the Atmosphere
Homosphere
The homosphere is the lower part of the Earth's atmosphere where the composition of
gases is relatively uniform. It extends from the Earth's surface up to an altitude of about
80-100 km, where the heterosphere begins. This zone has been named a homosphere
because a proportion of gases constituting it is homogeneous throughout this zone.
Natural homogeneity of the major gases of the homosphere has been distributed to
great extent by some of the economic activities of mankind. The main economic
activities are industrialization, transportation, and urbanization.
With the increase in economic activities, the use of fossil fuels has increased
dramatically leading to a larger concentration of carbon dioxide. human beings have
consumed large quantities of oxygen and depleted larger quantities of ozone. The
ozone layer is depleted largely by the consumption of chlorofluorocarbons and
halogenated gases. Based on thermal conditions, the homosphere contains important
layers of the atmosphere which include the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and
lower part of the thermosphere.

The homosphere is primarily composed of nitrogen (about 78%) and oxygen (about
21%), with trace amounts of other gases such as argon, carbon dioxide, neon, helium,
methane, and hydrogen. These gases are well-mixed due to the constant mixing caused
by atmospheric circulation and turbulence.
Heterosphere
The heterosphere is the region of the Earth's atmosphere where gases are separated
based on their molecular weight. This separation occurs due to the variation in
atmospheric pressure with altitude, with heavier gases settling at lower altitudes and
lighter gases rising to higher altitudes.
The heterosphere is located above the homosphere, which is the lower part of the
atmosphere where the composition of gases is relatively constant. The boundary
between the homosphere and the heterosphere is called turbopause. The composition
of gases in the heterosphere varies with altitude. The lighter gases, such as hydrogen
and helium, are found at higher altitudes, while the heavier gases, such as oxygen and
nitrogen, are found at lower altitudes. This variation in gas composition is important for
understanding the behavior of the Earth's atmosphere and its interactions with the Sun
and other celestial bodies.

This zone has four distinct layers of gases:

(1) Molecular nitrogen layer extends from 90km to 200km and is dominated by
molecular nitrogen.
(2) Atomic oxygen layer extends from 200km to 1100km and is dominated by atomic
oxygen.
(3) Helium layer extends from 1100km to 3500km and its major gas is helium.
(4)Atomic hydrogen layer is the topmost layer and extends beyond 3500m up to the
outermost limit of the atmosphere. This layer is dominated by hydrogen gas.