Tilahun Azagegn

Groundwater Dynamics in the Left Bank Catchments of the Middle Blue
Nile and the Upper Awash River Basins, Central Ethiopia
Tilahun Azagegn
A Thesis Submitted to
The School of Earth Sciences
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree of Doctor

of Philosophy in Earth Sciences (Hydrogeology)
Addis Ababa University
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
December, 2014
Addis Ababa University,
School of Graduate Studies
This is to certify that the thesis prepared by Tilahun Azagegn entitled: Groundwater
Dynamics in the Left Bank Catchments of the Middle Blue Nile and the Upper Awash
River Basins, Central Ethiopia and submitted in partial fulfillment of the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy in Earth Sciences (Hydrogeology)complies with the regulations of
the university and meet the accepted standard with respect to originality and quality.
Signed by the Examining Committee
Prof. Tenalem Ayenew _______________ ___________________

Principal advisor Signature Date
___________________________ _______________ ___________________

Examiner (Internal) Signature Date
___________________________ _______________ ___________________

Examiner (External) Signature Date
___________________________ _______________ ___________________
Chair of School or graduate Signature Date
program coordinator
Abstract
Groundwater Dynamics in the Left Bank Catchments of the Middle Blue Nile and the
Upper Awash River Basins, Central Ethiopia
Tilahun Azagegn
Addis Ababa University, 2014
Integrated geological, geophysical, hydrodynamic, hydrogeochemical and environmental

isotopic studies together with simple regional groundwater flow model help
conceptualize aquifer distribution, groundwater dynamics and relationship between
aquifer systems of the Middle Blue Nile and the Upper Awash basins. A distinctive
aquifer geometry reconstructed from regional stratigraphy, regional fault systems and
geophysical evidences controls the size of recharge area for aquifer systems and aquifer
distributions in the groundwater sub-basins. The NW-SE trending horsts beneath thick
volcanic layers and ridges control aquifer distribution in the Middle Blue Nile basin into
Guder, Muger and Jema groundwater sub-basins.The E-Wtrending impermeable
mudstone capped horst underlying the volcanic aquifers controls aquifer distribution and
constitutes a groundwater divide between the Blue Nile and the Upper Awash basins,
channeling recharged water in the former to the latter. Among various recharge
estimation methods employed, results from base flow separation that utilizes records
from adequate river gauges better represent recharge distribution in the area. The overlay
analysis made between base flow amount, lineament density and geological materials
indicated that rock units exposed along the Yerer Tulu Wolel Volcanic Lineament zone
and the Main Ethiopian Rift marginpromote more recharge than the rock units exposed
away from these zones.Groundwater contours generally follow surface topography for
flows considered at a catchment or sub-basin level. However, unique groundwater flow
pattern that indicates interbasin groundwater flow from the Blue Nile to the Upper Awash
basin has been obtained at a regional scale, which is attributed to the interplay between
regional faults. δ18O and δD-depleted waters with high TDS, NaHCO3water types,
positive residual alkalinity and low 14C activityobserved along the water divide between
the Blue Nile and the Upper Awash together with horizontal annual groundwater inflow
of 152Mm3to the Upper Awash groundwater basin obtained from the regional
groundwater flow model, substantiate the interbasin groundwater flow conceptualized
from litho-structural and hydrodynamic characterization.
Keywords: Blue Nile, Upper Awash, Interbasin, sub-basins, groundwater dynamics

Acknowledgements
The author is thankful to the school of Earth Sciences, Addis Ababa University for the
opportunity to pursue the study and for facilities. The greatest appreciation goes to Prof.
Tenalem Ayenew (principal advisor), Dr. Asfawossen Asrat and Dr. Seifu Kebede(co-
advisors) and Dr. Mulugeta Alene(graduate program coordinator)for their support
throughout the study.Thanks also go to AtoDagmawi Shiferaw,a chemist in the Isotope
Hydrology Laboratory and all school members.
The German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) is acknowledged for funding part of
this work.Field work and laboratory analyses have been done in collaboration with the
Addis Ababa Water and Sewerage Authority. Thanks go to the drilling
companies,government water works design and supervision enterprises,Ministry of
Water, Irrigation and Energy andMeteorological Agencyfor providing relevant data.Many
institutions, which supplied relevant data, deserve special appreciation.
The author is grateful to the useful comments of Dr. Dessei Nidaw, Dr. Wakgari Furi,
Ato Engida Zemedagegnehu, Ato Kasahun Aberaand Ato Behailu Birhanu.All friends,
who directly or indirectly supported the study, deserve special appreciation.
Gratitude and love goes to my wife Roman Abate, for her all-rounded support. I honor
my LORD, Jesus Christ for everything.
Table of Contents
Abstract .............................................................................................................................. iii
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ iv
Chapter One: Introduction .................................................................................................. 1
1.1. Background .................................................................................................................. 1
1.2. Previous Works ............................................................................................................ 2
1.3. Site Description ............................................................................................................ 4
1.4. Objective ...................................................................................................................... 5
1.4.1. General objective ............................................................................................... 5
1.4.2. Specific objectives ............................................................................................. 5
1.5. Methods and Materials ................................................................................................. 6
1.6. Significance of the Research ........................................................................................ 9

Chapter Two: Geology...................................................................................................... 10
2.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 10
2.2. Lithostratigraphy ........................................................................................................ 12
2.2.1. Sedimentary rock units .................................................................................... 12
2.1.2. Volcanic rock units .......................................................................................... 13
2.2. Geological Structures ................................................................................................. 14
2.2.1. Fractures and joints .......................................................................................... 15
2.2.2. Regional fault systems ..................................................................................... 18

Chapter Three: Geophysics ............................................................................................... 22
3.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 22
3.2. Electrical Signatures along the Profiles ..................................................................... 24
3.3. Correlation between Geo-electric Sections ................................................................ 25

Chapter Four: Groundwater Recharge .............................................................................. 28
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4.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 28
4.1. Data Analysis ............................................................................................................. 31
4.2. Estimation of Hydro-meteorological Variables ......................................................... 35
4.2.1. Potential evapotranspiration ............................................................................ 36
4.2.2. Actual evapotranspiration ................................................................................ 37
4.2.3. Runoff .............................................................................................................. 38
4.2.4. Recharge .......................................................................................................... 39

Chapter Five: Hydrogeology............................................................................................. 51
5.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 51
5.2. Aquifer Hydrodynamic Characteristics ..................................................................... 52
5.2.1. Hydrodynamic data availability and quality .................................................... 52
5.2.2. Hydrogeologic units ........................................................................................ 53
5.2.2.1. Regional aquifers .......................................................................................... 53
5.2.2.2. Regional aquicludes ...................................................................................... 58
5.2.2.3. Groundwater flow barriers............................................................................ 58
5.2.3. Groundwater movement .................................................................................. 58
5.3. Hydrogeochemistry .................................................................................................... 61
5.3.1. Data availability and methods of analysis ....................................................... 62
5.3.2. Geochemical evidences for aquifer hydrodynamic condition ......................... 63
5.3.3. Water quality ................................................................................................... 75
5.4. Isotope Hydrology ..................................................................................................... 76
5.4.1. Water sample collection and analysis methods ............................................... 76
5.4.2. Stable isotopes of oxygen and hydrogen ......................................................... 78
5.4.3. Radio isotopes.................................................................................................. 82

Chapter Six: Groundwater Flow Modeling....................................................................... 91
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6.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 91
6.2. Conceptual Model ...................................................................................................... 91
6.3. Numerical Model ....................................................................................................... 93
6.3.1. Model selection................................................................................................ 93
6.3.2. Spatial model discretization............................................................................. 93
6.3.3. Boundary conditions ........................................................................................ 93
6.3.4. Input parameters and flow packages ............................................................... 94
6.4. Model Simulation and sensitivity analysis .............................................................. 101
6.5. Model Calibration and Results................................................................................. 101
6.6. Water Budget Results .............................................................................................. 105
6.7. Modeling Result Summary ...................................................................................... 105

Chapter Seven: Conclusions and Recommendations ...................................................... 108
7.1. Conclusions .............................................................................................................. 108
7.2. Recommendations .................................................................................................... 111

References ....................................................................................................................... 112
Appendices ........................................................................................................................... i
Appendix 1. Borehole data data ........................................................................................... i
Appendix 2. Spring data ...................................................................................................... i
Appendix 3. Water quality data ........................................................................................... i
Appendix 4. Stable isotope data........................................................................................... i
Appendix 5. Geophysical survey data ................................................................................. i
Appendix 6. Published article .............................................................................................. i
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List of Figures
Figure 1. Location map ....................................................................................................... 5

Figure 2. Simplified Geological map ................................................................................ 10
Figure 3. Geological cross-sections having hydrogeological significance ....................... 11
Figure 4. Lineament density distribution map. ................................................................. 15
Figure 5. Rose diagrams of joint orientations ................................................................... 16
Figure 6. Schematic Illustrations of sedimentary rock units............................................. 21
Figure 7. Geophysical survey stations .............................................................................. 22
Figure 8. Pseudo-sections. ................................................................................................ 26
Figure 9. Geo-electric sections. ........................................................................................ 27
Figure 10. Hydro-meteorological stations. ....................................................................... 29
Figure 11. Long-term mean monthly flows (Modified from BCEOM, 2000).................. 29
Figure 12. Land use/land cover and soils map (Modified from FAO, 1984). .................. 34
Figure 13. Hydrograph analysis for Awash River at Melka Kunture using RAP............. 44
Figure 14. Hydrograph analysis for Awash River at Melka Kunture using time plot. ..... 44
Figure 15. Relation of base flow with lineament density. ................................................ 46
Figure 16. Relationship between amounts of base flow with different geologic units. .... 47
Figure 17. A raster map of base flow distribution. ........................................................... 48
Figure 18. Hydrogeological map. ..................................................................................... 54
Figure 19. Relative distribution of surface water and groundwater basins....................... 60
Figure 20. Conceptual groundwater flow model of the Upper Awash Groundwater basin.
........................................................................................................................................... 61
Figure 21. Ionic balance error distribution in the hydrochemical data. ............................ 63
Figure 22. Groundwater types and TDS distribution. ....................................................... 64
Figure 23. TDS versus Na++K+ (a), Ca+2+Mg+2 (b) and (Ca+2+Mg+2)/( Na++K+) (c). ..... 66
Figure 24. Piper plot applied to all water samples of the study area ................................ 68
Figure 25. Residual Alkalinity (a) TDS versus positive residual alkalinity (b)................ 72
Figure 26. Chloride and fluoride ionsa) andfluoride in shallow and deep wells (b) ........ 73
Figure 27. Sampling sites for isotope study ...................................................................... 77
Figure 28. Distribution of stable isotopes of water. .......................................................... 80
Figure 29. Variation in δ18O in the sub-basins.................................................................. 82
Figure 30. 14C age distribution .......................................................................................... 86
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Figure 31. 222Rn measuring site (a) 222Rn activity profile along Awash River course (b) 90
Figure 32. Model grid, boundary conditions and flow packages ...................................... 92
Figure 33. Hydraulic conductivity zones in the model domain. ....................................... 96
Figure 34. Recharge zone map generated from base flow separation results. .................. 98
Figure 35. Recharge variations in different geologic units from base flow separation. ... 99
Figure 36. Geologic units (a) and lineament density distribution (b). .............................. 99
Figure 37. Simulated head distribution in the model domain ......................................... 102
Figure 38. Simulated head distribution with groundwater flow lines. ............................ 103
Figure 39. Comparison between observed and model simulated head patterns. ............ 103
Figure 40. Measured versus model simulated heads ...................................................... 105
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List of Tables
Table 1. Lithologic logs of boreholes used for calibration of VES data........................... 23
Table 2. Meteorological stations and measured variables. ............................................... 30
Table 3. River gauge stations location, year of records and catchment areas. ................. 30
Table 4. Depth of aerial precipitation (mm). .................................................................... 31
Table 5. Long-term mean monthly and annual temperature (oC). .................................... 32
Table 6. Mean monthly relative humidity (%).................................................................. 32
Table 7. Mean monthly and annual wind speed (m/s). ..................................................... 33
Table 8. Mean monthly sun shine hours (hrs/d). .............................................................. 33
Table 9. Proportions of land use land cover, soils and topography. ................................. 34
Table 10. PET values obtained from Penman Combination method (mm). ..................... 36
Table 11. PET values from Thornthwaite formula (mm). ................................................ 36
Table 12. Summary of PET from Penman Combination and Thorthwaite formula(mm). 37
Table 13. Annual AET values from Turc formula (mm). ................................................. 37
Table 14. AET values from SMB (mm). .......................................................................... 37
Table 15. Summary of annual AET from Turc formula and SMB method (mm). ........... 38
Table 16. Runoff estimates (mm). .................................................................................... 38
Table 17. Hydrological variables and annual recharge to from the WBM (mm). ............ 41
Table 18. Annual inflow to the Upper Awash groundwater basin from WBM (mm). ..... 41
Table 19. Hydrologic variables and annual recharge to the Upper Awash from WBM. .. 42
Table 20. Annual recharge from CMB method (mm). ..................................................... 43
Table 21. Mean annual base flow for gauged rivers. ........................................................ 45
Table 22. Summary of annual recharge estimates from different methods (mm) ............ 49
Table 23. Hydrodynamic data. .......................................................................................... 52
Table 24. 14C activity and groundwater ages (years) ........................................................ 85
Table 25. Summary of lumped sum calibration errors ................................................... 104
Table 26. Summary of annual water budget results (Mm3). ........................................... 107
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List of Acronyms
AAWSA Addis Ababa Water and Sewerage Authority
AET Actual Evapotranspiration
BFS Base Flow Separation
Bq/m3 Becquerels per cubic meter
CMB Chloride Mass Balance
DEM Digital Elevation Model
DIC Dissolved Inorganic carbon
EC Electrical Conductivity
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
GHB General head boundary
GMWL Global Meteoric Water Line
GPS Global Positioning System
GSE Geological Surveys of Ethiopia
Hrs/d Hours per day
l/s liters per second
LMWL Local Meteoric Water Line
m.a.s.l. meters above sea level
m/s meters per second
m2/d meter square per day
m3/s meter cubic per second
MA Meteorological Agency
meq/l Mili-equivalent per litre
MER Main Ethiopian Rift
mg/l Milligram per litre
Mm3 Million meter cube
MoWIE Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Energy
NWP North Western Plateau
PET Potential Evapotranspiration
R Runoff
RAP River Analysis Package
RH Relative Humidity
SEP South Eastern Plateau
SMD Soil Moisture Deficit
SRTM Shuttle Radar Topography Mission
SSH Sun shine Hour
SWL Static Water Level
TDS Total Dissolved Substances
VES Vertical Electrical Sounding
WS Wind Speed
YTVL Yerer Tulu Wolel Volcanic Lineament
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Chapter One: Introduction
1.1. Background
The Ethiopian landmass is divided into three major physiographic regions widely known
as the NWPand associated lowlands, the SEPand associated lowlands and the MER. The
southern flank of the Middle Blue Nile basin and the Upper Awash basin fall partly in the
NWP and partly in the MER.
The area is underlain by geologic units that are strongly affected by tectonic activities
(Tsegaye Abebe, 1995, Tsegaye Abebe et al., 1998). Rocks ranging in age from the
Precambrian basement to Tertiary and Quaternary volcanics with cover of alluvial
sediments outcrop in the area. Precambrian basement rocks are covered in most parts by
rare Paleozoic and dominantly Mesozoic sedimentary successions which in turn are
overlain by thick Tertiary volcanic rocks.
Sedimentary rocks of the area are found in a rugged eroded terrain; beds are dislocated
and highly affected by normal faults of big magnitude of displacement. Moreover, fine
grained clastic terrigeneous beds are intercalated in sandstone and limestone rock units.
Hence, sedimentary rocks in the area form less productiveaquifer compared to aquifers in
similar geological terrains, notably the extensive karst and clastic sedimentary rock
aquifers in China, Mexico, USA, Israel and Nubian sandstone aquifers of northern Africa
(Dafny et al., 2010; Franscesco et al., 2013, Ma et al., 2013, Nasir et al, 2011).
Extensive and multiphase volcanic and tectonic activities led to the complexity of
volcanic rocks in the NWP including the study area.Hence, volcanic rocks of the area
form complex aquifers, compared to the relatively simpler volcanic and tectonic
architecture of the vast trap series volcanic lava flows elsewhere in the world (e.g.,
horizontal to sub horizontal Deccan basalts of Western India (Kulkarni et al., 2000),
Karoo basalts of South Africa (Bristow et al., 1983), slightly dipping Colombia River
flood basalts of the USA (Kahle et al., 2009) and Parana basalts of Brazil (Foder, 1989).
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1.2. Previous Works
Studies on geology, geomorphology and hydrogeology have been conducted in the NWP,
MER and the surroundings. Related articles, maps and reports in the area and the
surrounding region have been reviewed.
A number of studies have been conducted in relation to geological, structural and

geomorpholical set up of the NWP and the MER including the study area (e.g., Zanettin
et al., 1974, 1978; Kazmin, 1980; Getaneh Assefa, 1981, 1991; TsegayeAbebe, 1995;
TsegayeAbebe et al., 1998; Boccaletti et al., 1998; Pik et al., 1998, 2003, 2008; Dereje
Ayalew et al., 2002, 2009; Kieffer, 2004; Tesfaye Korme et al., 2004; Gani et al., 2006,
2007, 2009; Genene Mulugeta et al., 2007; Ahmed Wolela, 2008, 2009). Some of the
studies showed that the basins have outcrops ranging from Precambrian metamorphic
basement rocks, Mesozoic sedimentary successions, and multipleCenozoic volcanic
successions to Quaternary volcanics and alluvial deposits.
The Blue Nile gorge exposes a total of 2 – 3km thick sedimentary rock succession (e.g.,
Kazmin, 1980; Getaneh Assefa, 1981, 1991; Ahimed Wolela, 2008, 2009).The litho-
stratigraphic units from oldest to youngest are the Adigrat (or Lower) Sandstone,
Gohatsion Formation, Antalo Limestone, Mugher Mudstone and Debrelibanos (or Upper)
Sandstone.The sedimentary rock units thin and pinch out to the northwest direction and
show slight dipping towards the south and southeast directions (Getaneh Assefa, 1981,
1991).
The studies conducted in the volcanic terrain showed that the Ethiopian flood basalts
form up to 2km thick sequences of diverse volcanic products (Keiffer et al., 2004; Dereje
Ayalew et al., 2002, 2009). Though various studies (e.g., Visentin et al., 1974; Zanettin et
al., 1974, 1978; Kazmin, 1980; Pik et al., 2003; Gani et al., 2007) classified the volcanic
sequences of the NWP differently, recent studies (e.g., Keiffer et al., 2004) reclassified
the same volcanic sequence into two major units: the flood basalt volcanics and shield
volcanics, with spatial variations in age and composition between the two units.
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The geometry of the Mesozoic sedimentary succession, Tertiary trap series flood
volcanics and the shield volcanics has been strongly modified by tectonic activities
notably related to the regional uplift. Tectonic activities and regional uplift eventually led
to the formation of the MER, and subsequent reactivation of the rift bounding faults. The
structural and morphological frameworks of the area have been shaped by mantle
upwelling and subsequent continental break up, magmatic eruption, faulting and rifting
(e.g., Chorowicz et al., 1998; Pik, et al., 2008; Beccaluva et al., 2009).
Some of the studies conducted on tectonic and geomorphic set up of the NWP and MER
including the study area verified two prominent structural zones: the YTVL system
crossing the study area in the southern part, and MER bounding the study area from the
east (Fig.1).Erosion and incision also play significant role in modifying the land escape
of the region (Gani et al., 2007).
Some hydrogeological studies have been conducted in the NWP and MER including parts
of the Middle Blue Nile and the Awash basins (e.g., Birhanu Melaku, 1982; Tesfaye
Cherinet, 1993; BCEOM, 1997, 1998; Birhanu Gizaw, 2002; Seifu Kebede et al., 2005,
2007, 2012; WWDSE, 2008; Tenalem Ayenew et al., 2008; Molla Demlie, et al., 2008,
Andarge Yitbarek, 2009;Andarge Yitbarek, et al., 2012;Sima, 2009; Tewodros Rango et
al., 2010; Wakgari Furi, 2011, Bretzler et al., 2011and references therein).
Most of the previous hydrogeological studies characterize the aquifer systems at a

catchment, sub-basin or river basinlevels. However, some studies have been dealing with
interbasin groundwater transfer between the aquifer systems of the NWP and the MER
(Seifu Kebede et al., 2007, WWDSE, 2008, Andarge Yitbarek, et al, 2009, Wakgari Furi,
2011). Among the works,Seifu Kebede et al. (2007), based on hydrochemical and
environmental isotope evidence pointed out that tectonic structures formhydrologic
window between NWP and the MER that control rift ward transfer of groundwater from
NWP. On the other hand, regional dip of sedimentary strata controls rift-ward transfer of
groundwater from the NWPvolcanic and sedimentary rock aquifers (WWDSE, 2008).
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Though the hydraulic connection between aquifer systems of the Middle Blue Nile and
the Upper Awash basin has been addressed, recharge boundary, aquifer distribution, and
groundwater flux between adjacent river basinsare poorly understood. Factors that
control themalso remain generally unexplained. Hence, detailed investigation of the
lithostratigraphy, tectonicregime andgroundwater flow patternsbelieved to help
systematically conceptualize hydrogeological system. Converging evidencesfrom
hydraulic properties of rocks together with hydrochemicaldata and environmental
isotopes supported with simpleregional numerical groundwater flow model also help
conceptualize thesystem(Freeze and Cherry, 1979; Anderson and Woessner, 1992; Clark
and Fritz, 1997; Singhal and Gupta, 1999; Fetter, 2001).
1.3. Site Description

The study area is located in central Ethiopia, surrounding the city of Addis Ababa. It
includes the three central left-bank sub-basins of the Middle Blue Nile basin (Guder,
Muger, Jema) and the Upper Awash basin. The area is approximately bounded within
8°45’14” to 10°54’50”N latitude and 37°11’11” to 39°44’40”E longitude. The total area
is 38,000 square kilometers out of which Guder, Muger, Jema and Upper Awash sub-
basins cover 7088, 8263, 6760 and 16111 square kilometers, respectively.
The nearly parallel Guder, Muger and Jema Rivers flownortheast and join the Blue Nile
River that flows nearly in the southwest direction. The Upper Awash River flows
towards the MER in a southeast direction draining the YTVL zone (Fig. 1).
Surface elevations in the study area range between1000 m.a.s.l. in the Blue Nile gorge to
over 4000 m.a.s.l.at rift margins. The study area, controlled by the extreme physiographic
variations, is characterized by contrasting climatic zones ranging from hot and humid
lowlands to cold and dry highlands. Average annual precipitation varies between 800 and
1200mm. The extreme mean monthlyminimum is 2.1oC and extreme mean monthly
maximum temperature is 31.1°C(FAO, 2013; IWMI, 2009).
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Figure 1. Location map
1.4. Objective
1.4.1. General objective
The general objective of the study is to characterize the barely known hydrogeological
system of the area with emphasis given to amount of recharge, aquifer distribution,
groundwater flow pattern, hydraulic connection and flux between aquifer systems of
adjacent basins and the factors that control the groundwater dynamics.
1.4.2. Specific objectives
The specific objectives include:

 Characterization of litho-structural set up of the area from geological and structural
studies, borehole lithologic logs and supplementary geophysicsso as to reconstruct
sub-surface geometry that controls aquifer distribution, groundwater flow pattern
and groundwater divides,
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 Estimation of recharge to the aquifer systems of the sub-basins and quantify
groundwater flux between the Blue Nile and the Upper Awash basins,
 Characterization of aquifer systems and groundwater flow patterns from litho-
structural analysis, pumping test data and water level measurement in boreholes and
dug wells and spring discharge survey,
 Characterization of the hydrochemical evolution of groundwater and major
geochemical processes responsible for the changes so as to interpret flow patterns
and aquifer distribution in the area,
 Identify recharge source for different aquifer systems and to characterize
groundwater dynamics in the area from stable isotopes of water,
 Characterize groundwater dynamics in the area from groundwater age estimates
made from radioactive carbon isotopes,
 Identifygroundwater discharge zones in the Upper Awash basin from measurements
of on 222Rnmade on Awash River and its tributary streams and
 Implement the conceptual model into simple regional numerical groundwater flow
model and to help interpretation of the groundwater system.
1.5. Methods and Materials

To describe complex volcanic and underlying sedimentary rock aquifersin the area, the
studyhas been conducted in an integrated approach using converging evidencesfrom
geological, geophysical, structural, hydrodynamic, hydrochemical and environmental
isotope studies Simpleregional groundwater flow modeling has been also conducted.
Hydro-meteorological data has been usedto estimateresources annually added into the
sub-basins and a groundwater flux between aquifer systems of the river basins.
Prior to the field work, existing water well drilling logs, pumping test data, water quality
data, reports, maps, DEM from SRTM, images and scientific papersfrom the area and
similar geologic terrains were reviewed. Problems and data gaps were identified.
Meteorological and river discharge data were collected from MA and
MoWIErespectively. Land use/land cover and soil information has been extracted and
modified from FAO Land use land cover and soil maps of Ethiopia (FAO, 1984).
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Geological study
The field work for geological characterization was conducted along selected traverses
and where access is possible. Along these traverses: i) all important outcrops and contacts
between lithologic units were geo-referenced and their elevations measured;ii) attitudes
(strike and dip) of beds, joints, fractures, and faults were measured; and iii) lineament
patterns extracted from DEM and images were verified where observable in the field.
Rocks were characterized and named based on uniquenessof field observed properties.
Lineaments were extracted from DEM using Geomatica (version12)with some manual
corrections. Different lineament density zones were mapped using kriging interpolation
tools in ArcGIS10. Regional structures were identified from measurements of elevations
of contacts between marker beds or geologic units in the field, observed from DEM and
images and correlation with boreholelithologiclogs. Field measured data of attitudes were
processed using Stereo32(version 1.0.2) to produce rose plots as indicative of regional
structures. Some regional structures were also inferred from the trends of the observed
regional structures.Geological map and cross sectionswere produced using ArcGIS10 and
AutoCAD07 respectively. Schematic 3D models of sedimentary rock units underlying
Tertiary volcanics were also produced using Surfur14.
Geophysical survey
Geophysical survey of electrical method wasconducted at some selected place along five
profilesto supplement the litho-structural analysis and interpretation to verifyan E-W
oriented impermeable mudstone caped horst. A total of 21 VES stations were selected for
sounding survey with AB/2 separation between 1000m and 1500m. The survey was
conducted using Terrameter SAS4000 and Syscal resistivity measuring deviceswith
schlumberger electrode array. The raw geo-electric data were processed and interpreted
by using, Win RESIST (Version 2004) and RESIX-IP (version 1990). Estimated
resistivity and thickness of layers calibrated with borehole data were used as input
parameters for starting model in the inverse modeling. True resistivity values and depths
from the measured apparent resistivity data for all stations were obtained.Results were
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then presented in geo-electric cross sections and pseudo sections. Correlations made
between geo-electric sections help schematize the general orientation of mudstone caped
horst.
Hydro-meteorological study
Rechargeestimation to the aquifer systems of the four sub-basins have been conducted
using meteorological data from 13 stations (P, RH, T, WS, SSH), river discharge data
from 34 river gauge stations. Soil types, land use and land cover maps were also used
from modified FAO Land use/land cover and soil maps of Ethiopia (FAO, 1984).
Prior to the recharge estimation, water balance variables (AET, runoff and withdrawal by
pumping) were estimated using different estimation techniques. Recharge to the sub-
basins has been estimated using water balance, chloride mass balance and base flow
separation methods. Figures representative to the sub-basins from the methods were
given in tables. A map showing different recharge zones has been produced from the
result of base flow separation method using kriging tool in ArcMap.
Hydrodynamic Hydrochemical and isotopes studies
The field works for water point inventory for hydrogeological, hydrochemical and
isotope studieswere conducted in all parts of the area where dug wells, springs
andboreholes are available.During the field work, depth to the groundwater level was
measuredwherever possible and spring discharges were estimated.Pumping test data
obtained from drilling companies were processed using aquitest software, version 2.5to
evaluate hydraulic parameters for aquifer materials. Hydrogeological map with
groundwater contours and groundwater flow directions together with plots showing
spring discharge and transmissivity was produced using tools in ArcGIS10.
During the field work, insitu measurement for EC, pH and water temperature have been
conducted. Water samples were collected forchemical and isotope analysis in the
laboratory. Hydrochemical resultshave been interpreted using diagrames version 3.1 and
aquachem version 3.7 to calculate charge balance error and to identify water
types.Different tools in ArcMap10 have been used for analysis spatial distribution and
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Statistica 8.0 for statistical analysis of chemical data. Results were presented in maps
graduated point plots.
Results for stable isotopes of water were plotted and interpreted on excel. Radiocarbon
data has been also interpreted using the Pearson model. In situ counting for radon was
conducted at different reaches of the Awash River and its tributary streams. Spatial
variations in isotopic signature of the groundwater were plotted on maps.
Groundwater flow modeling
Prior to the numerical modeling, conceptual groundwater flow model has been produced
and boundary condition has been established for the Upper Awash groundwater basin
from the findings of other methods employed.Simple regional numerical groundwater
flow model has been run using MODFLOW-2000. Results were presented in tables and
maps.
1.6. Significance of the Research

The study significantly contributes to the understanding of the geometric set up of
volcanic and sedimentary rocks that control groundwater dynamics and predominantly
shed light on the hydraulic relationships and groundwater flux between the aquifer
systems of the Middle Blue Nile and the Upper Awash basins. The new data generated in
the course of the research will also enable further research at a larger scale in the area and
the surrounding.
Since the research area is located in the central part of the country, surrounding the
capital city of Addis Ababa, where groundwater is becoming a major source of water for
domestic, industrial and agricultural purposes, it will play important role for sustainable
utilization of the groundwater system in the area.
9|
Chapter Two: Geology
2.1. Introduction
The geological mapping, structural measurements and lineament extraction approaches
using GIS techniques helped characterize rock units, their spatial distribution and
stratigraphic relationship. It also helped visualize and present sub-surface geometry of the
geological units resulted from rock forming and palaeo-geodynamicprocesses.
In the study area, different lithostratigraphic units with distinctive stratigraphic set up in
both sedimentary and volcanic terrains were identified (Figs. 2 and3). Zones with
different lineament densities and regional structure with varying orientations and ages
were also delineated (Figs. 4 and 5). Sub-surface geometry of volcanic and sedimentary
rocksin the areahas been reconstructed and schematized in 3Dmodels (Fig. 6).
Figure 2. Simplified Geological map
10 |
v
Figure 3. Geological cross-sections having hydrogeological significance
11 |
2.2.Lithostratigraphy
Five distinct sedimentary rock units and nine volcanic rock units are exposed in the study
area (Fig. 2). The alluvial deposits in the area rarely exceed a few meters in thickness and
are not mapped as a separate unit, while the basement rocks are rarely exposed.
2.2.1. Sedimentary rock units
The Mesozoic sedimentary rock units exposed in the area are the Lower fine grained
Sandstone, Shale, Limestone, Upper coarse grained Sandstone and Mudstone from the
oldest to the youngest.
The Lower fine grained Sandstone unit forming part of the Adigrat Sandstone (Mengesha
Tefera et al., 1996) is composed of sandstone with thin lenses of siltstone and
conglomerates. This unit outcrops in the deep gorges of the Blue Nile River where it is
underlain by the basement and overlain by the Shale unit. It also outcrops on the vast
plain of the Guder sub-basin. The maximum thickness of this unit as observed in the Blue
Nile gorge is about 400m. The sandstone beds exposed in the Blue Nile River gorge show
slight dip in a nearly southeast direction.
The Shale unit, composed dominantly of shale with intercalations of thin layers of
gypsum, limestone and sandstone, forms part of the Gohatsion Formation (Mengesha
Tefera et al., 1996). This unit outcrops in the gorges of the Blue Nile and its tributaries.
The maximum thickness observed in the Blue Nile gorge is 580m. It thins and finally
pinches out along the northwest direction towards the Guder sub-basin.
The Limestone unit which forms part of the Antalo Formation (Mengesha Tefera et al.,
1996), is composed dominantly of slightly jointed and fractured limestone intercalated
with thin beds of marl, shale and occasionally fine grained bands of sandstone. It
outcrops overlying the Shale unit, in the gorges of the Blue Nile and its tributaries. The
12 |
thickness of this unit is over 440m in the Blue Nile and Muger River gorges. This unit
shows slight dipping in the southeast direction (1-2°).
The Upper coarse grained Sandstone unit is composed dominantly of sandstone with
thick beds of conglomerates, thin beds of mudstone and shale, generally coarsening
upward. Its thickness in the Muger River gorge reaches to over 400m and progressively
thins to the northwest direction. The unit shows slight dip towards the south and
southeast. In most parts of the basin, this unit outcrops below 2000m a. s. l. However,
along the water divide between the Muger and Jema sub-basins north of Fiche town, this
unit outcrops at relatively higher altitude (over 2400m a. s. l.), attributed to its uplift
before the eruption of Miocene shield volcanic centers located in the proximity. Regional
faults also strongly disrupted the original stratgraphic position of this unit.
The Mudstone unit is composed dominantly of mudstone with very thin beds of
sandstone and shale. It outcrops in the Muger sub-basin underlying the volcanic rock
units, and where it outcrops; its thickness reaches 110m, while a thickness of 216m is
recorded from borehole lithologic logs.
2.1.2. Volcanic rockunits
The volcanic rock units exposed in the basin include Trap series columnar Basalt,
Weathered vesicular Basalt, Pyroclastic deposits, Trachytes and Rhyolites, as well as
Scoreaceous Basalts, Rhyolite and Trachyte domes, Rift Basalts, Ignimbrites and Ashes
and Tuffs.
The Trap series columnar Basalt unit is characterized by conspicuous columnar blocks of
varying diameter and lengths. It outcrops in the northern part of the Muger and Jema
River gorges overlying the sedimentary rock units, representing the earliest flood basalt
volcanism in the area. The lower part of inter-planar spaces among columns, are filled
with secondary minerals (zeolites and clay).
The Trap series weathered vesicular Basalt unit consists dominantly of highly weathered
and altered basalts. Vesicular spaces in its lower domain are completely filled with
13 |
amygdales of zeolites and silica. It outcrops in the central parts of the area underlain by
the Lower fine grained Sandstone in the Guder River gorge, and by the Trap series
columnar basalts in the Muger and Jema sub-basins.
The Trap series Pyroclastic deposits consist dominantly of ash and tuff with minor
ignimbrites, scoria and basalt layers. This unit outcrops in the Jema sub-basin overlying
the Trap series columnar and weathered basalt units. It is overlain in some parts by
fractured trachyte and rhyolite and in other parts by scoriaceous basalt units.
The Trap series Trachyte and Rhyolite unit consists dominantly of trachytes and rhyolites
with thin layers of basalt. This unit outcrops in the Jema sub-basin overlying the Trap
series weathered vesicular basalt and pyroclastic deposits, and overlain by scoriaceous
basalts. The latter (scoriaceous Basalt unit) consists dominantly of fresh to slightly
weathered scoria and scoriaceous basalts with thin intercalations of tuff. The unit
outcrops along the rift margins and the YTVL zones. It directly overlies the Trap series
volcanic rock units.
The Rift Basalt unit is composed of vesicular basalt with minor trachytes, exposed along
stream banks and beds in the Upper Awash basin and southern part of the Muger sub-
basin. The overall thickness of this unit is over 600m as observed from lithologic log of
existing boreholes. The Rift Ignimbrite unit is composed of ignimbrites, with minor tuff
and ash intercalations. It outcrops in the northeastern part of the Upper Awash basin
forming extensive flat topography. The Rift Ash and Tuff unit is composed of tuff and
ash forming a relatively undulating topography in the northeastern part and flat plains,
dotted with small isolated rhyolite/pumice domes, in the northwestern part of the Upper
Awash basin. The Rhyolite and Trachyte domes form isolated silicic domes and
associated tuffs along rift margins and rift shoulders.
2.2. Geological Structures

The study area has a complex structural setting marked by extensional tectonics
(fractures, joints and normal faults) related to the evolution of the active MER and the
older YTVL zones (TsegayeAbebe, 1995; TsegayeAbebe et al., 1998). Fractures, joints
14 |
with varying density and normal regional faults with varying orientations were identified
in the area (Figs. 4 and 5).
Figure 4.Lineament density distribution map.
2.2.1. Fractures and joints
Lineament (fracture and joint) density is high on lithologic units outcropping close to the
margin of the MER and along the reactivated older tectonic zone of the YTVL (Fig. 4).
The older units, notably the Lower fine grained Sandstone, Shale, Limestone, and the
Upper coarse grained Sandstone units, as well as the Trap series columnar and weathered
Basalt units are affected by lineaments dominantly oriented NW-SE. The younger
volcanic rock units overlying the Trap series volcanics are highly fractured and jointed as
they are mostly exposed along the MER margin and YTVL zones, with major lineament
orientations along N-S, E-W and NE-SW directions.
15 |
The Lower fine grained Sandstone is slightly to moderately fractured with low lineament
density (Fig. 4). The unit is affected by sparsely distributed, slightly penetrative to non-
penetrative, dominantly non-extensive, variously oriented joint sets. The dominant joint
set is oriented in a nearly E-W direction (strike of 105°) parallel to the orientation of the
YTVL. To a lesser extent joints oriented in a NE-SW direction (strike of 75°) are
observed (Fig. 5a). Similarly, the major fault systems that cause significant disruption of
the structural blocks are NW-SE and E-W running (Fig. 3).
Figure 5. Rose diagrams of joint orientations
(a) Lower fine grained Sandstone, (b) Shale, (c) Limestone, (d) Upper coarse grained Sandstone,
(e) Trap Series columnar Basalt, (f) Trap Series weathered vesicular Basalt, (g) Trap Series
Pyroclastic Deposits, (h) Trap Series Trachyte and Rhyolites, (i) Scoriaceous Basalts along the
rift, (j) Scoriaceous Basalt along YTVL, (k) Rhyolites and Trachytes domes and (l) Rift
Ignimbrites and Basalts.
16 |
Lineament density in the Shale unit is very low (Fig. 4). The unit is affected by sparsely
distributed, slightly penetrative to non-pentrative, non-extensive, variously oriented
joints. The dominant joint set orientation is nearly NW-SE (strike of 140°) and to a lesser
extent NE-SW (strike of 65°; Fig. 5b). Similarly, the Limestone and intercalated marl
unit is affected by variously oriented joint sets and fractures of different sizes. Penetrative
joints with extensive strike length terminating in marl layers are common. The dominant
joint set orientation is nearly N-S (strike of 5°). To a lesser extent, joints oriented in a
NW-SE direction (strike of 130° and 140°) also exist in the unit (Fig. 5c). The major fault
systems that cause significant disruption of the limestone blocks are E-W, NW-SE and N-
S running (Fig. 3).
Highly penetrative joints with extensive strike length are common in the Upper coarse
grained Sandstone. The dominant joint set orientation is nearly NW-SE (strike of 125°),
and to a lesser extent joints oriented in a N-S direction exist (Fig. 5d). On the other hand,
the fault systems and sparsely distributed lineaments affecting the Mudstone unit are
oriented in NW-SE and E-W directions (Fig. 3).
The Trap Series columnar Basalt unit is slightly jointed with dominant joint set
orientation of nearly NW-SE (strike of 145°) and to a lesser extent SW-NE (Fig. 5e),
while fractures in the Trap Series weathered vesicular Basalt are generally masked by
weathering effect and where observed they are densely distributed with increasing trend
towards the MER and YTVL zones. The dominant joint set orientation is nearly NW-SE
with strike of 140° (Fig. 5f).
The Trap series Pyroclastic deposits are characterized by densely distributed fractures.
However, highly penetrative joints with extensive strike length are rare, as most of the
fractures are truncated by the overlying ash and weathered tuff layers. The dominant joint
set orientation is N-S (Fig. 5g). Regional fault systems oriented NE-SW and N-S affected
the unit (Fig. 3). Similarly the Trap series Trachyte and Rhyolite unit is affected by
variously oriented, densely distributed, highly penetrative joint sets and fractures of
variable sizes, commonly with extensive strike length. The dominant joint set orientation
is nearly N-S with strike of 20° (Fig. 5h).
17 |
The Scoriaceous Basalt unit is moderately to highly jointed and fractured in some
localities. Though joint orientations in this unit vary depending on its geographic location
relative to the MER and YTVL systems, the dominant joint orientations are N-S and SW-
NE along the MER and E-W along the YTVL zones (Figs. 5i and j).
The Rift Basalt and Rift Ignimbrite units are commonly affected by variously oriented,
densely distributed, highly penetrative joints of variable sizes with extensive strike
lengths are common. The dominant joint set orientation is SW-NE with a strike of 65°
and to a lesser extent N-S (Fig. 5l). Joints and fractures are hardly observed on the Rift
Ash and Tuff unit. On the other hand, densely distributed, variously oriented joint sets
and fractures of variable size with dominant joint orientations of N-S, and E-W are
observed on the Trachyte and Rhyolite domes (Fig. 5k).
2.2.2. Regional fault systems
Four principal fault systems have been identified in the area by previous workers (e.g.,
Tsegaye Abebe, 1995;TsegayeAbebe et al., 1998) and confirmed by the current analysis:
the Red sea (NW-SE), the Gulf of Aden (E-W), the MER (NE-SW), and the reactivated
Precambrian basement system (N-S).
The NW-SE oriented fault system affects mostly the Mesozoic sediments and older units
of the Trap series volcanics, suggesting their Pre-Tertiary to early Tertiary age. These
normal faults significantly displacethe affected blocks of these units exposed along
Guder, Muger and Jema River gorges (Figs. 2 and 3). The faulted blocks are downthrown
towards the NE in most cases, although SW dipping is not uncommon, resulting in the
formation of some graben and horst structures generally oriented NW-SE.
Detailed geological maps, borehole lithologic logs and structural analysis show that
normal block faulting associated with the older E–W oriented structural regime and partly
with the Main Ethiopian Rift occurred leading to disruption and disaggregation of the
sedimentary units, eventually forming typical horst and graben structures.The E-
Woriented fault system affects the Mesozoic sediments and the overlying volcanic rock
units along the reactivated YTVL zone. The faulted blocks are downthrown towards the
18 |
south in most cases, although North dipping is also observed, resulting in the formation
of a horst structure oriented E-W. A horst of Mudstone formed by these faults is covered
by early episodes of the Tertiary volcanic units in the eastern part and outcrops on the
surface in the westcentral part of the Muger sub-basin. This tectonic element together
with the NW-SE oriented graben and horst structures likely controlled the geometric
setting of the Mesozoic sediments underlying the Tertiary volcanics. This fault system
has also been later reactivated, as its trace is clearly marked as a prominent lineament
along the water divide between the Blue Nile and the Upper Awash, affecting the
Tertiary and younger rock units.
The NE-SW fault system is common along the MER margin and field relationships
confirm that this system is younger than the NW-SE and E-W fault systems. The faults
are mostly dipping to the SE, throwing the Mesozoic sedimentary and Tertiary volcanic
rock units to lower levels and later overlain by rift volcanic rock units.
The N-S fault system, which is mostly with short strike length and small magnitude of
displacement, represents reactivated older Precambrian structures with clear surface
manifestation.
Mode of emplacement, thickness and the geometric architecture of volcanic rock units
depend on the geometry of the underlying Mesozoic sedimentary rock units; magnitude
of displacement of fault systems; erosion and locations of eruption centers. The
conceptual schematic illustrations constructed from geometric relationships between
regional fault systems shows surfaces of Mesozoic sedimentary rock units before the
emplacement of Tertiary volcanic rocks which help to systematically schematize the
geometry of the overlying volcanic rock units (Fig. 6).
19 |
20 |
Figure 6.Schematic Illustrations ofsedimentary rock units
a) Lower fine grained Sandstone,b) Shale, c) Limestone, d) Mudstone and adjacent coarse grained
Sandstone
21 |
Chapter Three: Geophysics
3.1. Introduction
The electrical resistivity method provides sufficient information about deep subsurface
hydraulic condition as the method takes into account the conductance of the geological
materials as an indicator of stratification of zones with different hydraulic properties
(Kirsch, 2008).Sites for geophysical data acquisition were selected taking the orientation
of mudstone caped horst observed from litho-structural analysis into account so as to
better track its lateral extent and thickness of the overlying volcanic rocks (Fig. 7).
For calibration of VES data, lithologic logs of nine deep boreholes, ranging in depth from
216m to 600m were used. Some of the boreholes penetrated into volcanic rock units. One
borehole drilled totally into sedimentary rock units. Some boreholes penetrated into the
volcanic rock units and the underlying sedimentary rock units (Table 1).
Figure 7.Geophysical survey stations
22 |
Based on the correlation between the VES results and the lithologic log information from
the boreholes (Table 1) and geological contacts, different resistivity layers were
recognized.Thesurvey mainly focuses to identifycontacts between the top most
sedimentary unit and the overlying volcanic rocks. Very high and very low resistivity
values that could likely be responses of sandstone and mudstone respectively, were
obtained along three profile lines from the five. Along the remaining two profile lines,
moderate resistivity that could represent volcanic rocks was recognized throughout the
investigated depth. Hence, geo-electric cross-sections and pseudo sections were
constructed along these three profile lines (AB, CD and EF) to schematize the lateral and
vertical litho-structural variations in the area (Fig. 7).
The profiles are oriented in a nearly N-S direction. The spacing between VES, along
profile AB and EF were made wide for regional observation but along profile CD, where
there is a deep borehole that penetrated into sedimentary rock unit, the spacing between
VES stations were made smaller for detail observation to definelateral extent of the
mudstone caped horst structure (Figs. 8 and9). For each geo-electric section,VES data
from 5 to 6 stations were used. See appendix 5,for the raw VES data.
Table 1.Lithologic logs of boreholes used for calibration of VES data

No Locality BH ID UTME UTMN Depth, m Summarized lithologic description
1 Chancho BHT207 473911 1031930 0-324 Fractured and scoriaceous basalts
Massive, fractured and scoriaceous
2 Holota BHT113 440303 1006061 0-300 basalts
0-88 Ash/Ignimbrite
88-268 Fractured basalt
268-296 Ignimbrite
296-336 Massive basalt
3 Legadadi BHT121 496269 1004908 336-600 Scoraceous basalt
0-530 Massive, fractured and scor basalts
4 Muger BHT1378 433672 1023691 530-602 Silty mudstone
Segno 0-250 basalts
6 Gebeya BHT206 455620 1026514 250-273 Clayey mudstone
0-110 Rhyolite/Trachyte
7 Sululta BHT214 474421 1013070 110-304 basalts
BHT139 0-220 Rhyolite
8 Wosberi 7 466306 1008828 220-460 Ignimbrite
0-54 Sand/weathered sandstone
9 Inchini BHT1377 424332 1036895 54-216 Silty mudstone
23 |
3.2. Electrical Signatures along the Profiles
Geo-electric section AB
This geo-electric section profile covers about 35 km. Along the profile at VESstations 7
and 23, the interpreted apparent resistivity value is very high below222m depth (925
ohm-m). This high resistive layer (Figs. 8 and 9) observed below depth 222m, is
interpreted assandstoneor sand layer intercalated in the mudstone unitas explained by
Getaneh Assefa (1981, 1991).This high resistive geophysical signature was not observed
in the north and south of the VES stations mentioned, along the profile line. Overlying
the high resistivity layer at the VES points mentioned and throughout the investigated
depths at the remaining stations along the profile, apparent resistivity of layers are
generally less than 470 ohm-m. These layers were interpreted as volcanic rock units with
varied degree of fracturing, weathering and saturation with water. Boreholes used for
calibration of the VES data located along this profile are BHT1397, BHT214and
BHT207(Table 1).
Geo-electric section CD
This geo-electric section covers about 5km distanceand used for detailed observation of
the mudstone caped horst. Along thisprofileat VES stations9 and 10,the interpreted
apparent resistivity values are very low below a depth of 234m, less than 20 ohm-m.On
the contrary; along the same profile in the southern side at VESstations 11 and 12, the
interpreted apparent resistivity values are very high belowa depth of 213m, over 1000
ohm-m as it is clearly observed from the abrupt change of resistivity at the pseudo-
section (Fig. 8). The very low resistivity is attributed to the mudstone but the very high
resistive layer at the same depth is interpreted as sandstone both intercalated in the
Mudstone unit. Overlying the very low and very high resistive layers at the points
mentioned and throughout the investigated depths at the remaining stations along the
profile, apparent resistivity of layers are generally less than 472 ohm-m. These layers
were interpreted as volcanic rock units with varied degree of fracturing, weathering and
saturation with water. A borehole used for calibration along this profile is BHT206.
24 |
Geo-electric Section EF
This geo-electric section extends for40 km distance. Along the profile at VESstation16,
the interpreted apparent resistivity value is very low below500m depth (11-17 ohm-m).
Along the same section in the northern side at VES station 17, the interpreted apparent
resistivity values are also generally low where the survey was conducted on the exposed
part of the mudstone.The Mudstone unit is the upper most layer in this area (Getaneh
Assefa, 1991). Except at VES station 18 where the mudstone is overlain by thin volcanic
rock, the electrical signature is nearly similaralong the profile, where very low resistivity
is observed starting from the surface and extends to a depth of 200m with observed
resistivity variationsattributed to intercalation of different layers in the Mudstone unit.
Underlying the mudstone, high resistivity value is attributed tolimestone unit (124-322
ohm-m) and low value toshale (43-52 ohm-m). Similar to the other profiles, overlying the
sedimentary rock units, there are geo-electric layers with moderate resistivity values (less
than 454 ohm-m), which are attributed to volcanic rock units with varied degree of
fracturing, weathering and saturation with water. Boreholes used for calibration along
this profile are BHT113, BHT1378 and BHT1377.
3.3. Correlation between Geo-electric Sections

The correlations made between the three geo-electric sectionstogether with the geological
evidences from borehole logs give a general E-W trend of the mudstone caped horstin the
central part of the Muger sub-basin extending to the southern tip of Jema sub-basin. The
mudstone capped horst exposedin the Muger sub-basin may gradually grade into
sandstone caped horst to the east towards Jema sub-basin.
25 |
Figure 8. Pseudo-sections.
26 |
Figure 9.Geo-electric sections.
27 |
Chapter Four: Groundwater Recharge
4.1. Introduction
Recharge is one of the components in the hydrologic cycle and an important issue for
hydrogeological characterization of aquifer systems. Characterizing recharge is also one
of the major objectives in hydro-meteorological studies (Shaw, 1994).
In the current study, data used for recharge estimation includemean monthly
meteorological data up to 20 years and daily river discharge data of upto 15 years (Tables
2, 3). Before analysis and interpretation, allthe data from MA and from MoWIE were
checked for their quality.Only records with complete measurements were considered for
analysis. Soil and land use/land cover maps were also used from modified FAO Land
use/land cover and soilmaps of Ethiopia (FAO, 1984).
One of the major challenges in the hydro-meteorological characterization was absence of

river discharge data for the three sub-basins (Guder, Muger and Jema) at their outlet from
the study area or at their confluence with the Blue Nile River.Water availability
estimation made by BCEOM (2000) shows that very low flow is available for the Muger
and Guder Rivers during the dry season, while it is high for Jema River during the dry
season.
Awash River draining the upper Awash basin, on the other hand has river discharge
measuring station at Melka Kunture at its outlet from the study area, where it has high
flows during the dry season.This has been verified by the observations made in March
(mid of dry season) at Guder, Muger and JemaRivers where the former two have little
flow or flow limited to river bed sediments.
During the same period, Jema River has big flow. For the same period,Awash River
hashigh flow,as observed and revealedfrom measurements(Fig. 11). Hence, significant
amount of groundwater emerge as base flow into Jema and Awash Rivers at the
downstream reaches of the rivers.However, groundwater that recharges Guder and Muger
28 |
Rivers as base flow at their downstream part especially in the gorges close to the
confluences with the Blue Nile River is insignificant.
Figure 10. Hydro-meteorological stations.
Figure 11.Long-term mean monthly flows (Modified from BCEOM, 2000).
29 |
Table 2. Meteorological stationsand measured variables.
Sub- Stations Year Coordinate P T RH WS SSH
basin from to UTME UTMN
Guder Ambo 1990 2010 372808 993137 √ √ √ √ √
Tikur ichini 1990 2010 354551 973030 √ √
Jema Debre Berhan 1990 2010 558016 1069602 √ √ √ √ √
Gohastsion 1990 2010 415187 1101284 √ √
Sheno 1990 2010 531558 1030973 √ √
Muger Fiche 1990 2010 470704 1082302 √ √ √ √
Aleltu 1990 2010 516212 1016421 √ √
Derba 1990 2010 461179 1043408 √
Upper AAU observatory 1990 2010 473600 997565 √ √ √ √ √
Awash Akaki 1990 2010 √ √
477583 980437
Bonoya 1990 2010 461179 974616 √
Busa 1990 2010 420962 985993 √
Ginchi 1990 2010 405616 997900 √
√ - symbol refers availability of data
Table 3.River gauge stations location, year of records and catchment areas.
Coordinates Year of record
Sub-basin Station name UTME UTMN from to
Bello at Guder 353747 980652 1959 2009
Guder Fato at Guder 359246 980633 1959 2009
Guder at Guder 362576 989468 1959 2010
Indris at Guder 359297 984114 1986 2010
Tiliku Duber at Duber 377408 1044706 1997 2010
Tinishu Duber at Duber 377414 1046549 1997 2010
Aleltu at Chancho 428623 1033519 1980 2010
Aleltu at Muketuri 494514 1066619 1983 2008
Jema Beresa at Debre Berhan 556683 1068505 1963 2010
Chacha at Debre Berhan 549376 1062967 1962 2010
Robi Gumero at Lemi 500000 1077674 1983 2008
Robi Jida at Muketuri 500000 1066619 1983 2008
Selji at Kabe 545922 1188261 1979 2010
Shy at Mehal Meda 561920 1133160 1980 2010
Wenchi at Alem Ketema 475798 1114110 1996 2010
Wizer at Mehal Mda 561523 1132366 1980 2010
Deneba at Chancho 475658 1031853 1981 2008
Muger
Gerbi at Sululta 464842 1012465 1970 2010
Gorfo at Gorfo 481337 1043408 1998 2010
30 |
Coordinates Year of record
Sub-basin Station name UTME UTMN from to
Muger at Chancho 470347 1027938 1956 2010
Roba at Chancho 472540 1022408 1980 2008
Sibilu at Chancho 472538 1020197 1980 2010
Awash at Belo 435120 977126 1986 2010
Awash at Ginchi 406571 995976 1993 2010
Awash at Melka Kuntre 455998 961621 1966 2008
Upper Awash
Berga at Addis Alem 434087 1000552 1975 2010
Big Akaki at Akaki 468808 967255 1981 2009
Holota at Holota 447365 1006556 1975 2008
Jemjem at Wolonkomi 415362 994851 1998 2009
Kela at Wolonkomi 418660 994844 1997 2009
Kesem at Beke 507332 1012975 1986 2010
Little Akaki at bridge 467055 1031257 1989 2004
Mutinicha at Legadadi 490610 1000486 1989 2006
Teji at Asgori 426313 971613 1975 2010
4.1. Data Analysis

Precipitation
A number of meteorological stations are available in the area. However, only few stations
have complete set of precipitation records. To calculate aerial depth of precipitation of
the sub-basins, point measurements with complete data found in each sub-basin were
averaged by using arithmetic mean and Theissen polygonmethods (Table 4). Maximum
monthly mean precipitations: 532mm, 607, 496mm and 428mm for Guder, Muger, Jema
and the Upper Awash sub-basins respectively have been recorded during the period of the
measurements.
Table 4.Depth of aerial precipitation (mm).

Sub-basin Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual
Guder 31 37 63 103 118 225 286 284 186 62 18 13 1424
Jema 12 13 42 59 40 114 321 272 109 32 6 5 993
Muger 19 32 61 75 70 167 321 292 114 29 14 8 1201
Upper Awash 17 28 52 76 74 150 267 274 132 25 9 8 1112
31 |
Temperature
Since temperature is one of the most important parameters to consider in hydro-

meteorological characterization and recharge estimation, monthly minimum, maximum
and mean temperature records wereused for analysis.Temperature ranges between
extreme mean monthly minimum (-2.1oC) in Debre Berhan station to extreme mean
monthly maximum (31.1oC) at Ambo station have been recorded during the study period.
To get representative monthly and annual means, point measurements with complete data
found in each sub-basin were averaged (Table 5). Generally, November and December
are the coldest months in all stations in the area, while April and March are the warmest
months.
Table 5.Long-term mean monthly and annual temperature (oC).

Guder 17 17 18 18 17 16 15 15 15 16 15 16 16
Jema 13 13 13 14 14 14 13 13 13 12 12 12 13
Muger 18 18 19 19 19 18 16 16 16 17 17 17 17
Upper Awash 18 19 20 20 20 19 18 18 18 18 17 17 18
Relative Humidity
At any given temperature, air can hold a maximum amount of moisture; the saturation
humidity and this is directly proportional to the air temperature. Relative humidity is
the ratio between the amount of water the ambient air actually holds and the
amount it could hold at the same temperature (Shaw, 1995). It is a dimensionless
quantityand is commonly given as a percentage. The relative humidity expresses the
degree of saturation of the air.Monthly and annual means of humidity inthe sub-basins
were taken from available point data(Table 6)
Table 6. Mean monthly relative humidity (%).

Guder 39 40 41 44 44 67 74 76 72 51 44 40 53
Jema 66 59 59 60 53 51 75 78 70 63 59 62 63
Muger 51 43 52 52 47 55 80 82 74 61 55 49 59
Upper Awash 41 41 43 50 48 61 75 76 69 49 43 43 53
32 |
Wind Speed
Rate of evaporation and evapotranspiration has a direct relation to and is strongly

affected by wind speed. As water vaporizes into the atmosphere, the boundary layer
between earth and air becomes increasingly more saturated so that the water vapor
has to be removed and replaced with drier air continuously. This movement of the air and
moisture transfer is directly proportional to wind speed and turbulence (Shaw,
2005).Monthly and annual means of wind speed in the sub-basins were taken from
available point data (Table 7).
Table 7.Mean monthly and annual wind speed (m/s).

Guder 2.1 2.5 2.1 2.1 1.7 1.3 1.0 0.9 0.9 1.6 2.1 2.4 1.7
Jema 2.4 2.7 2.6 2.3 2.6 2.2 1.6 1.5 1.7 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.2
Muger 2.3 2.6 2.5 2.2 2.5 2.1 1.5 1.4 1.6 1.7 2.0 2.3 2.1
Upper Awash 1.6 1.8 1.8 1.8 2.0 1.8 1.5 1.5 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.5 1.6
Sunshine hours
Although evaporation takes place almost without interruption during the day light and the
night, the process is most active under direct radiation from the sun. Therefore variation
in sunshine hour is important factor for evapotranspiration. Monthly and annual means of
ET in the sub-basins were considered from available point data (Table 8).
Table 8. Mean monthly sun shine hours (hrs/d).

Guder 9.2 8.3 7.5 6.8 8.1 7.5 5.4 5.4 6.1 8.3 9.0 9.2 7.6
Jema 8.8 7.8 7.7 6.9 7.4 4.9 4 3.8 4.8 8.9 9.1 9.5 6.9
Muger 8.5 7.7 7.6 7 8.8 7.6 5 5.1 7 9.1 9.3 9.1 7.7
Upper Awash 8.5 8.4 7.5 6.5 6.9 5 3 3.4 5.1 8.2 9.2 9.4 6.8
Land use land cover, soils and topography
The land cover of an area is controlled by its geographic, climatic, ecological and
anthropogenic factors. Flat topography dominates Guder and the Upper Awash sub-
basins while rolling topography dominates Jema and Muger sub-basins.Sandy
33 |
soilsdominate the area. The dominant part of the area of the sub-basins is cultivated for
cereal crops. Grass lands constitute some portions of the sub-basins area. Very small
parts of the sub-basins area are covered with forests.
Figure 12.Land use/land cover and soils map(Modified from FAO, 1984).
Due to large size of the area occupied by the city of Addis Ababa, built physical features
constitute significant portion of the Upper Awash but it is negligible for the other sub-
basins. Proportions of soils and land use/land cover of the sub-basins were modified from
FAO soil and Land use/land cover map of Ethiopia (FAO, 1984). (Fig. 12, Table 9).
Table 9.Proportions of land use land cover, soils and topography.

Sub-basin Precipitation, mm Land use land cover, soils and slopes Proportion of area, %
Cultivated & Semi-cultivated, sandy soil, flat 69
Guder 1425
Grass lands and lawns, flat 27
Forests and woodlands, hilly 4
Muger 1202 Cultivated & Semi-cultivated, sandy soil, rolling 60
Grasslands or lawns, rolling 3
34 |
Sub-basin Precipitation, mm Land use land cover, soils and slopes Proportion of area, %
Forests and woodlands, flat 37
Cultivated & Semi-cultivated, sandy soil, rolling 74
Jema 992
Grasslands or lawns, rolling 1
Forests and woodlands, hilly 25
Cultivated & Semi-cultivated, sandy soil, flat 82
Awash 1112 Grasslands or lawns, flat 5
Forests and woodlands, flat 5
Urban areas 8
4.2. Estimation of Hydro-meteorological Variables

Except surface runoff in a well-defined geometric boundary, variables included in a
general water balanceequation cannot be directly evaluated but estimated using different
approaches (Jr and Lewis, 2003).
Evapotranspiration is influenced by various physical and aerodynamic factors as well as

the availability of water. Physical factors include land use/land cover, soils, topography
and geological set up. Aerodynamic factors include input solar energy, vapor pressure,
and movement of air. The common hydro-meteorological variablesrelated to
evapotranspiration are: T, RH, WS and SSH.Runoff from precipitation is affected by land
use/land cover, soils and topographic set up of the area.
In addition to surface process that determines magnitude of evapotranspiration and runoff

from precipitation, recharge rate is affected by subsurface geological structures and depth
to the groundwater. Once recharged water has infiltrated into the soil, its passage
downwards to join the groundwater storage depends on the geological structure as well as
the nature of geologic material.
Prior to recharge estimation, values for PET, AET and runoff were quantified.Penman
Combination method and Thornthwaite formula were employed to calculate PET of the
four sub-basins. The methods take only aerodynamic factors into consideration. Turc
empirical method and calculation made using SMD methods were applied to calculate
representative AET values of the sub-basins. Runoff coefficient method has been
employed to estimate runoff.
35 |
To minimize errors and for the sake of comparison, water balance, chloride mass balance
and base flow separation methods have been employed for recharge estimation using the
water balance variables. Base flow separation has been carried out using RAP software
Version 3.0.3 and time plot program on excel sheet.
4.2.1. Potentialevapotranspiration
Employing the Penman Combination method using the meteorological elements such as
T, RH, WS and SSH, mean monthly and annual PET values were calculated and results
are given inTable 10.
Table 10. PET values obtained from PenmanCombination method (mm).
Guder 94 100 106 101 99 69 56 53 59 86 87 93 1004
Muger 91 99 107 99 116 92 54 52 69 85 84 90 1038
Jema 68 83 88 82 91 79 49 48 59 72 72 68 859
Upper Awash 85 92 106 96 103 77 55 54 68 89 83 82 990
Thornthwaite formulahas been also employed to calculate PET values for the sub-basins
from mean monthly temperature records, with an adjustment being made for the number
of daylight hours (Shaw, 1994).The mean monthly and annual PET values calculated
using the method are given in Table 11.
Table 11.PET values from Thornthwaiteformula (mm).
Guder 73 81 89 88 92 75 69 67 67 71 64 65 901
Muger 76 82 86 93 105 89 67 65 68 70 72 72 945
Jema 61 67 68 71 79 73 69 69 65 58 55 54 790
Upper Awash 74 83 92 97 111 91 80 78 79 77 71 69 1003
Results from Penman Combination method and Thornthwaiteformulaare nearly close to

each other. Hence, results from the two approacheswere averaged to get representative
PET values for the sub-basins (Table 12).
36 |
Table 12.Summary of PET from Penman Combination and Thorthwaiteformula(mm).
Guder 83 90 97 95 96 72 62 60 63 78 75 79 952
Muger 83 90 97 96 110 90 61 58 69 77 78 81 991
Jema 64 75 78 76 85 76 59 58 62 65 63 61 824
Upper Awash 80 87 99 97 107 84 68 66 73 83 77 75 997
4.2.2.Actual evapotranspiration
The Turc method uses empirical relations for calculating the annual AET from mean
annual values of precipitation and temperature. The results obtained using themethod
aregivenin Table 13.
Table 13.Annual AET values from Turc formula (mm).

Sub basin Mean annual Precipitation, (mm) Mean annual temperature, (0C) AET
Guder 1424 16.3 786
Muger 1201 17.3 780
Jema 993 12.9 598
Upper Awash 1112 18.5 792
A soil moisture budget calculation has been carried out to evaluate AET values of the
sub-basins. The values of soil moisture deficit and AET vary with soil type and
vegetation (Shaw, 1994). Accordingly, the sub-basins have been classified into three
land use/land cover units and vegetation with varying root depths (Fig. 12). The
combination of land use/land cover and soilswith proportion of area coverage has been
recognizedfrom FAO land use/land cover and soil maps of Ethiopia and given in Table
9. Cultivated lands with cereals, grass and forest were characterized with root constants:
75 mm, 150 mm and 250 mm respectively (Shaw, 1994). Hence soil moisture budget
has been made on a monthly basis for these classes of land use/land cover according to
their root constants using monthly mean precipitation and mean monthly PET from the
Thornthwaite formula. The AET values calculated for each land cover units (root
constants) were weighted with the proportion of their aerial coverage to get mean
AETvalues of the sub-basins from the SMD method (Table 14).
Table 14. AET values from SMB (mm).
37 |
Guder 43 45 67 88 92 75 69 67 67 62 54 37 766
Muger 32 41 64 77 74 85 136 125 60 63 45 30 831
Jema 25 24 43 58 43 73 69 69 65 53 34 22 578
Upper Awash 23 31 54 76 75 91 80 78 79 59 34 20 700
Nearly similar results were obtained from Turc formula and SMD method to the sub-
basins. Values from the Turc formula and SMD method were then averaged to get
representative AET values for the sub-basins (Table15).
Table 15.Summary of annual AET from Turc formula and SMBmethod (mm).
Sub-basin SMB method Turc formula Average
Guder 766 786 776
Muger 831 780 806
Jema 578 598 588
Upper Awash 700 792 746
4.2.3. Runoff
Estimating runoff (Ro) from precipitation measurement is very much dependent on the
time scale being considered (Shaw, 1994). In this work, annual runoff for each sub-basin
has been estimated. Due to absence of river discharge data in Guder, Muger and Jema
sub-basins at their outlet or at the confluence with the Blue Nile River, the volume of
runoff was determined by using runoff coefficients (ratio of runoff to precipitation).
Runoff coefficients that vary between 0.17 and 0.35 were used depending on the land
use/land cover, nature of soil and slope(ODOT, 2005). Proportions of land use/land cover
and soiltypes(Table 9)together with mean annual precipitation in the four sub-basins were
used to calculate mean annual runoff.
Table 16.Runoff estimates (mm).

Sub-basin Annual runoff
Guder 421
Muger 233
Jema 272
Upper Awash 274
38 |
4.2.4. Recharge
Precipitation is the principal source for replenishment of moisture in the soil water
system to recharge groundwater.The amount of moisture that will eventually reach the
water table is going to recharge aquifer system in sub-surface. The amount of recharge to
the aquifer system depends upon the rate and duration of precipitation, topography, soil
texture and moisture conditions, depth to the water table and underlying litho-structural
setting (Shaw, 1994). Due to many factors involved in affecting recharge, its estimation is
subject to large errors.
Water balance method
The basic concept of water balance method is: Input to the system - outflow from the
system = change in storage of the system (over a given period of time). Not only water
balance computation but also computation of water balance variables always
involveserrors, due to shortcomings inherent to the techniques used. Net change in soil
moisture storage assumed to be zero on annual bases for water balance calculation.
In the study area, the inflow components include recharge from precipitation and
groundwater inflow from other sub-basins. The outflow components include AET,
runoff, groundwater outflow to other sub-basins and groundwater withdrawal by
pumping.Considering the above inflow and outflow components, the general
groundwaterbalance equation to estimaterecharge in the area for a given time period is
given as:
R = P+Gi-ET-Ro- Go-W ………….. (1)
Where:R is annual recharge (mm)

P is mean annual precipitation (mm)
ETismean annual actual evapotranspiration (mm)
Roismean annual runoff (mm)
Gi is groundwater inflow (mm)
Go is groundwater outflow (mm)
W is annual withdrawal of groundwater from the aquifer by pumping (mm)
39 |
Groundwater is being consumed by sparsely distributed settlements, villages and small
towns, withdrawal of groundwater for consumptive purpose by pumping is negligible for
Guder, Muger, and Jema sub-basins. On the other hand, significant amount of
groundwater has been pumped from the Upper Awash basin for domestic, industrial and
agricultural purposes.
It is difficult to quantify groundwater abstraction from the aquifer systems of the area for
different reasons. Individuals, organizations, community and even towns except AAWSA
don’t have a record for groundwater abstraction. Due to this limitation, amount of annual
extraction of water from the groundwater source has been estimated based on daily
groundwater abstractioninformation from AAWSA and rough estimation made using the
following assumption for other groundwater users.
 For dug wells fitted with hand pump discharge rate of 0.5 l/s for 8 hrs/d,
 For shallow wells fitted with hand pump discharge rate of 1 l/s for 8 hrs/d,
 For deep private wells used for households fitted with submersible pump,
discharge rate of 1.5 l/s for 8 hrs/d,
 For deep private wells used for hotels, small farms and water consuming factories,
fitted with submersible pump, discharge rate of 5 l/s for 8 hrs/d.
The above assumptions are based on communications and information from groundwater
users in the area. In total, data from 551 wells were used to quantify daily and annual
abstraction from the aquifer in the Upper Awash groundwater basin. Annually, about 64
Mm3 water has been pumped out, which is equivalent to 9.5 mm/year.
Neglecting groundwater inflow and outflow, recharge to the sub-basins has been
calculated from the hydrological variables using the following relation and the results are
given in Table 17.
R = P -ET- Ro- W…………………. (2)
40 |
Table 17.Hydrological variables and annual recharge to from the WBM (mm).
Sub-basin P AET Ro W R
Guder 1424 776 421 Negligible 227
Muger 1201 806 233 Negligible 162
Jema 993 588 272 Negligible 133
Upper Awash 1112 746 274 9.4 82.6
The evidence based conceptual model from geological characterization confirms that
significant portion of Muger sub-basin and some portion of Jema sub-basin contribute
groundwater inflow to the Upper Awash groundwater basin. However, evidences from
geological characterization show that surface watershed and groundwater basins match
for the Guder sub-basin. Hence, groundwater outflow from and inflow to the sub-basin is
negligible. Hence, recharge to the Guder sub-basin is equal to recharge to the Guder
groundwater sub-basin.
Recharge to the Muger and Jema and the upper Awash sub-basins has been calculated
from hydrological variables using equation 2 and the results are given in table 17.
However; evidence based conceptual model from geological characterization confirms
that recharge area of 1770km2 and 304km2 from Muger and Jema sub-basins respectively,
are contributing groundwater flux to the Upper Awash groundwater basin.
Total volumetric recharge to the Muger and Jema groundwater sub-basins is therefore
equal to the difference between total volumetric recharge into the respective sub-basins
minus volumetric recharge in the contributing areas.This groundwater outflow from the
Muger and Jema sub-basins has been calculated using the size of recharge areas of the
two sub-basins contributing groundwater flux to the Upper Awash groundwater basin as a
factor of the mean annual recharge in the respective sub-basins. Hence, annual recharge
to the Muger and Jema groundwater sub-basins get smaller with the amount equal to the
groundwater flux to the Upper Awash groundwater basin (Table 18).
Table 18.Annual inflow to the Upper Awash groundwater basin from WBM (mm).
Sub-basin Recharge (mm) Contributing area (km2) Total groundwater inflow to Upper Awash (Mm3)
Muger 162 1770 286.7
Jema 133 304 40.3
41 |
Sub-basin Recharge (mm) Contributing area (km2) Total groundwater inflow to Upper Awash (Mm3)
Total 327
Due to groundwater flux from the Muger and Jema sub-basins, the water balance
equation for the Upper Awash groundwater basinhas a form:
R = (P -ET-Ro- W)+Gi …………………. (3)
Using the hydrologic variables estimated to the Upper Awash basin and, inflow from
muger and Jema sub-basins, volumetric recharge to the Upper Awash groundwater basin
has been calculated (Table 19).
Table 19.Hydrologic variables and annual recharge to the Upper Awash from WBM.
Sub-basin P AET Ro W R (mm) Area (km2) Total (Mm3)
Upper Awash basin 1112 746 274 9.4 82.6 6760 558
Groundwater out flow from Muger and Jema
sub-basins equal to inflow to the Upper Awash basin 327
Upper Awash groundwater basin 885
Chloride mass balance
The CMB method assumes that the flux of tracer (Cl-) input at the surface equals the flux
of tracer reaching the groundwater table. This conservative nature of chloride ion made it
to be chemically retained in solutions (Hem, 1985). The technique regards chloride as an
inert element, and compared with other inorganic ions, it is not added or removed by
water rock interaction. The element is considered as an inert in the hydrological cycle
having its source from the atmosphere. It has the advantage over tracers involving water
molecules in a sense that atmospheric inputs are conserved during recharge processes
allowing a mass balance approach to be used.
As described bySomaratne and Smettem(2014), the basic equation applicable for the
estimation of recharge using chloride mass balance method is:
R = (P.Clp)/Clg
Where: R is the annual recharge (mm),
P is the mean annual precipitation (mm),
42 |
Clpis chloride concentrations of the precipitation (mg/ l),
Clgis chloride concentrations of the groundwater (mg/ l).

Since chloride concentration becomes higher as the groundwater vertically percolates and
crosses clay layers and fault gauges due to retardation and concentration of chloride ions,
valuesfrom deep wells were excluded. Only average concentration of chloride in
groundwater from shallow wells has been considered. Chloride concentrations of the
precipitation samples collected from the four sub-basins at the same time were used as
representative of chloride concentrations of the precipitations of the sub-basins.
The estimated recharge values using the CMB method vary with the chloride content in the
groundwater and precipitation. Taking the mean values of chloride content in the
groundwater into consideration, average annualrecharge values to the sub-basins were
estimated (Table 20).
Table 20.Annual recharge from CMBmethod (mm).
Chloride concentration (mg/l)

Sub- Groundwat Recharg
P In In In In
basin er data e
(mm) precipitatio groundwat groundwat groundwateravera
points
n er er ge
minimum Maximum
Guder 1424 0.94 3.60 7.57 5.4 5 247
Muge 0.88 2.20 10.60 7.1 7
r 1201 148
Jema 992 0.97 2.00 13.10 7.9 11 122
Upper 1112 0.84 3.90 13.80 6.9 11 135
Awas
h
Base flow separation
Base flow has been used as an approximation of recharge with the acknowledgement that
it is probably less than the amount recharging the groundwater system (Daniel, 1996).The
base flow separation method attempts to separate and quantify part of the streamflow
hydrograph attributed to groundwater discharge. Daily river discharge records ofover ten
years from 34stations were used for the analysis.
The separation of surface runoff and base flow has been made using a computer code
RAP (version 3.0.3) and time plot.Base flow results from the two computer codes
43 |
become similar for the attenuation coefficient of 0.93 for RAP instead of default value
0.975. Daily river discharge data from more than 6 stations for each sub-basin were used
for the analysis.
The weighted meanbase flows, representative of the sub-basins, were obtained from the
base flows of the gauged streams weighted with their respective catchment
areas.Estimated mean annual recharge from base flow separation over the Guder, Muger,
Jema and the Upper Awash are 272mm, 158mm, 86mm,103mm, respectively. Base flow
results obtained for different gauged streams in the four sub-basins are given in Table
20.Sample base flow separation graphs using RAP and time plot for Awash River at
Melka Kunture station is also given (Figs. 13 and 14).
Figure 13.Hydrograph analysisfor Awash River at Melka Kunture using RAP.
Figure 14.Hydrograph analysisfor Awash River at Melka Kunture using time plot.
44 |
Table 21. Mean annual base flow for gauged rivers.
Base Base Weighted
Arrea flow flow mean
Sub-basin Station name UTME UTMN (km2) (Mm3) (mm) (mm)
Bello at Guder 353747 980000 350 60 354 69
Fato at Guder 361000 979500 96 18 390 21
Guder at Guder 363800 992600 741 120 347 143
Guder
Indris at Guder 361000 984114 140 22 268 21
Tiliku Duber at
Duber 377408 1044706 387 12 68 15
Tinishu Duber at
Duber 377414 1052549 87 13 98 5
Total 1801 272
Aleltu at Muketuri 494514 1066619 447 19 113 18
Beresa at Debre
Berhan 556683 1068505 135 15 209 10
Chacha at Debre
Berhan 543100 1062967 90 15 354 11
Robi Gumero at
Jema Lemi 500000 1077674 887 25 70 22
Robi Jida at
Muketuri 500000 1066619 762 11 33 9
Selji at Kabe 555922 1188261 30 2 138 1
Shy at Mehal Meda 561920 1143160 68 9 239 6
Wenchi at Alem
Ketema 475798 1114110 286 13 57 6
Wizer at Mehal Mda 561523 1132366 150 7 82 4
Total 2855 86
Aleltu at Chancho 468623 1030200 29 2 152 4
Deneba at Chancho 475658 1031853 86 8 203 16
Muger
Gerbi at Sululta 464842 1012465 65 6 217 13
Gorfo at Gorfo 480100 1039000 49 5 236 10
Muger at Chancho 470347 1027938 480 38 107 46
Roba at Chancho 472540 1022408 30 3 194 5
Sibilu at Chancho 472538 1020197 375 29 191 64
Total 1114 158
Awash at Belo 435700 977126 2568 84 63 17
Upper
Awash Awash at Ginchi 406571 995976 76 7 116 1
Awash at Melka
Kuntre 457500 961621 4456 223 105 48
Berga at Addis Alem 434087 1000552 248 18 142 4
Big Akaki at Akaki 468808 967255 884 51 95 9
Holota at Holota 445365 1006556 119 13 163 2
Jemjem at
Wolonkomi 415362 994851 148 14 194 3
Kela at Wolonkomi 418660 994844 60 5 127 1
45 |
Base Base Weighted
Arrea flow flow mean
Sub-basin Station name UTME UTMN (km2) (Mm3) (mm) (mm)
Kesem at Beke 507332 1012975 50 3 150 1
Little Akaki at bridge 471913 980522 131 5 114 2
Mutinicha at
Legadadi 490610 1000486 447 56 276 13
Teji at Asgori 427000 971613 662 29 77 5
Total 9849 103
Base flow relationship with geological structures
The boundary between surface runoff and base flow is difficult to define and strongly
depends on the geological structure and nature of geologic materials. Permeable aquifers
sustain high base flow contributions but impervious clays and built-up areas provide little
or no base flow to a river (Shaw, 1994).
Figure 15.Relation of base flow with lineament density.
Base flows calculated for different catchments show wide range of values. Hence, the
relationship between the amount of the base flow with the geologic material through
46 |
which the dominant part of the river flows and lineament density were found to be
important factors to look for.
The highest values of mean annual base flow have been observed for streams that flow
through scoriaceous basalt unit along the highest lineament density zone. This zone is
located along the water divide between the Blue Nile and the Upper Awash River basins
and the rift margins. Likewise, streams that flow through the lower fine grained
sandstone that outcrops along the highest lineament density zone also show very high
base flow.
Moderate to high mean annual base flow is associated with moderate lineament density
zone on the rift basalt and ignimbrite units. Streams dominantly draining the limestone
(with marl intercalation), shale, ash, tuff and pyroclastic depositreceive very low base
flow. Hence, recharge to the groundwater in these rock units is very low (Figs. 15, 16 and
17). Low base flow of the big and little Kaki Rivers could be associated to the built up
physical features in Addis Ababa city.
Figure 16.Relationship between amounts of base flow with different geologic units.
47 |
Figure 17.A raster map of base flow distribution.
Contrasts between recharge estimates from different methods
The three methods used to estimate recharge to the sub-basinsgave a wide range of values
(Table 22). These methods produce estimates of recharge that reflect different spatial and
temporal scales; have different data requirements, strengths, and limitations. In general,
comparing the results may be difficult because of differences inherent in the methods.
The WBM is attractive because it can be applied almost anywhere meteorological data
are available. A major drawback of the method is that recharge is estimated as the
residual term in an equation where the other budget terms (P, AET, R and groundwater
withdrawal) usually are estimated with considerable error, which can result in large errors
in the recharge estimate. On top of that sparsely distributed data from 13 meteorological
stations were used to calculate water balance variables and to estimate recharge to the
sub-basins.The WBM method therefore gives a very rough estimation of rechargeas data
48 |
from few stations were used for analysis to estimate representative values for very large
areas.
Despite the fact that the CMB method is simple, there are a number of uncertainties
associated with the method in estimating recharge. One of the uncertainties arises from using
a onetime record of chloride concentration in precipitation as a representative. Another
uncertainty source for the chloride mass balance approach is the sampling density of the
groundwater.The biggest uncertainty is also associated with the analytical precision of the
determination of chloride concentrationof precipitation and groundwater.The CMB method
also gives a very rough estimation of recharge to the sub-basins.
River discharge data from gauged streams of varying catchment areas for streams flowing
through different geologic units were used for the analysis of the base flow component. As
the probability of a stream to drain different geologic units with varying hydraulic properties
increases with increasing catchment area, leading toa noticeable differencein the estimate of
mean annual base flow.However, when compared with the WBM and CMB, the BFS method
is supported bysufficient data from 36 river gauge stations in the study area. Hence, recharge
estimates from the BFS method are more reliable than the values from the other two as they
were calculated from river discharge data representing small catchment areas, as well as
nearly uniform geology and land uses/land cover features. Further hydrogeological
characterization in this work considers recharge estimates from the BFS method.
Table 22.Summary of annual recharge estimates from different methods (mm)

Sub-basin Recharge
WBM CMB BFS
Guder 227.0 247.0 272.0
Muger 125.0 148.0 158.0
Jema 130.0 122.0 86.0
Upper Awash 131.0 135.0 103.0
For Guder sub-basin, the three methods give nearly similar but very high values of recharge.
The two available closely located meteorological stations used to calculate the mean have
very high precipitation (Tables 3 and 4). Hence, the high value obtained from WB and CMB
methods for the sub-basin is attributed to the exaggerated mean monthly and annual
precipitation.River discharge records used in the sub-basin were obtained from streams
49 |
draining the high lineament density zone, where the dominant geologic material is sandstone,
basalt and scoriacious basalts along the YTVL zone. The high value obtained from the BFS
method is therefore attributed to the high lineament density and more permeable rock units of
the catchments the streams drain. The values obtained from the three methods, therefore
over-estimate rechargefor the other part of the sub-basin further from the high lineament
density zone.
For Muger sub-basin, the three methods give different values. Of all, the result from BFS
method is the highest. River discharge records used in the sub-basin were obtained from
streams draining the high lineament density zone, where the dominant geologic material is
scoriacious basalts along the YTVL zone. The high value obtained from the BFS method is
therefore attributed to the high lineament density and more permeable scoriaceous basalt rock
units the streams drain. The value obtained from the BFS methods represent the sub-basin’s
area closer to the YTVL zone but over-estimate recharge for the other part of the sub-basin
further from the high lineament density zone.
For Jema and Upper Awash sub-basins, results from BFS method are generally low. The
plausible explanation for these is that most of the river discharge records used for the Jema
and the Upper Awash sub-basins were obtained from streams draining dominantly trap series
pyroclastic deposit and rift ash rock units respectively both bearing low lineament
density.Hence, the value obtained from the BFS method under-estimate recharge for the other
part of the sub-basins where the geologic units are permeable and lineament density is high.
50 |
Chapter Five: Hydrogeology
5.1. Introduction
Aquifer properties and groundwater flow patterns have been characterized using
hydraulic properties of rocks from geological studies and pumping test; chemical data,
stable isotopes of water and radioactive isotopes.
Both primary and secondary porosities of rocks play significant role in groundwater
occurrence, localization and flow, particularly in hard rock terrains(Todd, 1976). All
aquifers contain some degree of heterogeneity and the fundamental characteristics of
fractured rock aquifers are extreme spatial variability in hydraulic conductivity, and
hence groundwater flow rate and pattern (Cook, 2003). Lthostratigraphic and structural
framework of geologic units control aquifer hydrodynamic characteristics, aquifer
productivity and boundary conditions (Singhal and Gupta, 1999).
In most cases, water table is a subdued replica of the land topography where groundwater
divide matches with surface water divides. However, under certain circumstances,
groundwater flows across surface water divides. The flow may continue through adjacent
basins and to any intervening ranges, as long as the permeable rocks are continuous and
sub-surface geometric architecture is favorable for groundwater movement (Fetter, 2001).
Starting fromthe precipitation source the chemical behaviour of groundwater would keep
on changing with time. Major geochemical processes can be derived and hydrogeological
system can also be conceptualizedfrom the changes groundwater underwent along flow
paths in sub-surface (Hem, 1985).
In addition to conventional hydrogeological approaches, isotope hydrology was

employed in the current study. As environmental isotopes are useful in tracing
groundwater provenance evidences from stable isotopes of water (18O and 2H) are
potential tools to complement groundwater flow characterization from water level,
hydraulic properties of rocks and geochemical data. In addition, radioactive
environmental isotopes (14C and 3H) are useful tools to estimate the groundwater age and
51 |
groundwater circulation mechanisms. Evidences from radioisotope of radon (222Rn) helps
to systematically characterize the interactions between groundwater and surface water
bodies (Clark and Fritz, 1997).
5.2. Aquifer Hydrodynamic Characteristics
Evaluation of the hydrodynamiccharacteristics of an arearequires understanding the

hydraulic properties of rock units and their geometric set up and depth to the groundwater
measurements.Depth to groundwater has been characterized from the groundwater level
information from field measurements in boreholes and dug wells as well as available
information from drilling results. Groundwater level contours were generated from depth
to the groundwater measurements and groundwater flow patterns conceptualized. Finally
groundwater flow boundaryas well as aquifer distribution into groundwater sub-basins
has been conceptualized. Accordingly,geological units were further characterized for
their hydraulic properties using information from pumping test data and spring
discharges. Hydrogeologic units with varying hydraulic properties were then mapped.
5.2.1. Hydrodynamic data availability and quality
Data for hydrodynamic characterization have been generated from water point
inventory in the field, from drilling companies, water works consulting organizations,
and water supply organizations. The water point data includes dug wells, drilled wells
and springs (Table 20).
Table 23.Hydrodynamic data.

No Data type Water Characteristics of water points Remark
points
1 Dug wells 33 Depth range 5 – 20m Dug wells data were used
SWL range 4 - 19m only at places drilled wells
are scarce
2 Boreholes 721 Depth range 20 – 602m Most of the drilled deep
SWL range 0 – 144.4m wells are found in the
Transmissivity range 1.2 – 17,000 m2/d Upper Awash. They are
Discharge range 0.5– 140 l/s (pumping few in Guder, Muger and
test) Jema sub-basins.
Artesian over flow up to 125 l/s
Dry well up to 250m depth
3 Springs 280 Discharge range 0.5– 100 l/s
52 |
No Data type Water Characteristics of water points Remark
points
Spring types – depression, contact, fault
and thermal
5.2.2. Hydrogeologic units
Regional extensive aquifers,aquicludes and barriers to the groundwater flow have been
recognized from hydrogeological characterization.
5.2.2.1. Regional aquifers
Based on hydraulic characteristics of rock units, depth to the groundwater and mode of
recharge and groundwater intake to their system, the following seven regional aquifer
units were recognized (Fig. 18).
Lower fine grained Sandstone aquifer
This aquifer unit is constituted by sandstones which have low primary, as well as
secondary porosity, except at places closer to the YTVL zone, where they are more
fractured. In the Guder sub-basin, this unit forms a vast plain with gentle slope where it
receives direct precipitation recharge through pore spaces, fractures and joint planes, and
indirect recharge from runoff on the volcanic highlands. In the gorges of the Muger sub-
basin and the steep gorges of the Blue Nile, this unit is overlain by impermeable shale. In
the latter case, direct recharge from precipitation or groundwater inflow from the
overlying units is negligible.
Transmissivity value of very few partially penetrating water wells into the unit ranges
from13m2/d to 56m2/d (Fig. 18). Except along some regional faults and intersections of
fault systems, discharge from few available springs emerging from the unit is very low.
Depth to water in boreholes sunk into this unit varies from artesian condition to 52m. In
general, a portion of this aquifer unit along the YTVL zone has good groundwater
potential due to secondary porosity (Fig. 18).
53 |
Figure 18.Hydrogeological map.
Limestone aquifer
The limestone aquifer is composed dominantly of jointed and fractured limestone

intercalated with marl, with no signs of karstification. The thick intercalated marl,
dominant in the lower levels of the unit, limits the hydraulic conductivity of this unit.
Hence, only the upper part of the aquifer unit can receive recharge and store water
provided that either it is exposed on the surface to direct recharge from precipitation, or
the overlying unit is permeable to allow groundwater inflow. However, this unit forms
cliffs and steep slopes in the gorges of the Blue Nile, limiting direct recharge from
precipitation. In the northern part of the Jema sub-basin, this unit forms gentle slopes
where it receives direct recharge from precipitation and recharge from flood water
draining the surrounding volcanic highlands.
54 |
It also receives groundwater inflow from the overlying sandstone. On the other hand, in
the Muger sub-basin, this unit is overlain by impermeable mudstone and associated
palaeosol layers, which hinder groundwater transfer from the overlying volcanic rock
aquifers. Moreover, away from the two major fault zones (MER and YTVL), lineament
density on this unit is low leading to its low hydraulic conductivity. Transmissivity values
range from 20 to 250 m2/d. A few available springs have low discharge (0.5 to 10 l/s).
The high transmmissivity value is obtained for a borehole located in the deep gorges of
the Muger sub-basin along the NW-SErunning regional fault. Depth to groundwater in
boreholes sunk into this aquifer unit varies from 10 to 41m.
Upper Coarse grained Sandstone aquifer
This aquifer unit is dominantly composed of cemented, coarse grained sand and layers of
conglomerates, with thin lenses of mudstone and shale. The sandstones and
conglomerates have high primary porosity. Where it outcrops on gentle slopes in the
Jema sub-basin, this aquifer unit receives direct recharge from precipitation or from flood
water drainingthe surrounding volcanic highlands. In the northern part of the Jema sub-
basin, the moderate lineament density allows the unit to receive and store a good amount
of groundwater. However, in the Muger sub-basin, the unit is overlain by impermeable
mudstone, forms cliff wheredirect recharge to the aquifer systemis low.
Discharge from springs emerging from this unit is less than 1 l/s, though very high
discharge springs ofup to 100 l/s have been observed from a spring emerging at
intersections of regional faults. Depth to groundwater is shallow where the unit forms
gentle slopes. Its hydraulic properties could not be quantified as pumping test data
representative of the unit are not available. Similar to the underlying limestone aquifer,
this unit shows slight dipping towards the south and SE. However, its general uplift
during subsequent shield volcanism and disruption by NW-SE and E-W oriented regional
faults complicated the geometry of the strata. The NW-SE oriented regional faults and
associated fractures convey groundwater base flow to the Jema flow system as
manifested by high discharge springs close to the Jema River bed.
55 |
Trap series Basalt and Trachyte aquifer
This unit comprises columnar basalts, weathered basalts, trachytes, ignimbrites and
rhyolites. The aquifer unitoutcrops and forms flat to gentle topography and receive direct
recharge from precipitation. However, in the Guder sub-basin, the unit is dominated by
highly weathered basalt altered to clayand direct recharge from precipitation is low.
Part of this unit exposed adjacent to the MER and the YTVL zones has moderate to high
lineament density and hence moderate hydraulic conductivity due to secondary porosity.
Groundwater circulation is shallow along stream courses but relatively deep at ridges,
and depth to the groundwater varies between 1m and 73m depending on the local
geomorphologic setting. The locally varying aquifer lithology (basalt, trachyte,
ignimbrite or rhyolite) as well as the frequency and degree of fracturing determine the
aquifer productivity.
Transmissivity values rangewidely from 4 to 266 m2/d due to strong variations in

lineament density and geomorphic set up. Higher transmissivity is associated with the
borehole sites located close to stream courses along high lineament density zone. A
higher transmissivity value than observed is expected from this unit in the downthrown
blocks within the rift and the Upper Awash basin due to reactivation of faults along
theYTVL zone. Similarly spring discharges range from 0.5 to 20 l/s depending on the
nature of emergence and associated tectonic structures. Springs that emerge along
regional fault lines have high discharges but the depression springs emerging away from
fault zones show low discharge.
Pyroclastic deposit aquifer
The pyroclastic deposit aquifer comprises the pyroclastic rocks within the Trap series
volcanics from the plateau, and the volcanic ash and tuff deposits from the rift. Hydraulic
conductivity of the unit is low, dominantly attributed to the low secondary porosity. The
aquiferunit forms flatto gentle topography in the dominant part of the Upper Awash basin
56 |
and northern part of the Jema sub-basin, where it receives direct recharge from
precipitation but with very slow infiltration rate.
Transmissivityvalues arelow, in most cases less than 20 m2/d. Spring discharges are also
very low, usually less than 1 l/s. Generally, this aquifer unit is poorly productive.
Scoriaceous Basalt aquifer
The quifer unit is composed dominantly of scoria, scoriaceous basalt and boulders of
basalt with very thin layers of trachytes, rhyolites, and palaeosols. This unit is
characterized by high hydraulic conductivity attributed to its high primary porosity, and
secondary porosity associated to the highest lineament density along the MER margin
and the YTVL zone. Except at volcanic peaks, depth to groundwater is shallow, varying
from a few meters to 96m.
Transmissivity values range from 3 to 60 m2/day. Spring discharges are low except along
the contact with the underlying Trap series volcanic rock units and at places where the
unit is affected by regional faults. However, low transmissivity and low spring discharge
may not represent the whole unit as the locations of the available wells and springs are in
mountainous recharge areas.In most cases, the exposed part of this unit is a recharge area
for the underlying aquifer systems or to the downthrown blocks of the same unit, in the
Upper Awash basin.
Lithologic logs from deep wells on the downthrown block of this unit at the rift margin
and close to the YTVL zone are used to verify the extent of this aquifer unit.
Transmissivity values calculated from the pumping test data of these deep wells are very
high, in most cases over 5000 m2/d. The high transmissivity is attributed to the fact that
the downthrown blocks are found in discharge area, receiving groundwater inflow via
densely distributed lineaments along the rift margin and the YTVL zone.
Rift Basalt and Ignimbrite aquifer
The Rift Basalt and Ignimbrite aquifer unit is composed of vesicular basalts with high
primary porosity and ignimbrites with lower primary porosity. Strongly fractured rocks
57 |
forming flat to gentle topography, receive direct recharge from precipitation, or from
flood water draining the mountains in the northeastern part of the Upper Awash basin.
The high lineament density along the MER and YTVL zones promotes fast recharge rate
and increases the hydraulic conductivity of this unit. Groundwater circulation in this unit
is generally shallow;depth to the groundwater varies between artesian flowing
conditionsto 88m. Thermal groundwaters have also been struck by boreholes along some
regional fault lines on this aquifer unit.
5.2.2.2. Regional aquicludes
The basement rocks,shale and mudstone constitute regional aquicludes in the area.
Basement rock aquicludes are exposed in small portion of the gorges of the Blue Nile and
Guder sub-basins at elevation below 1200m.a.s.l. Since shale rock unitis dominantly
composed of thick shale, marl and gypsum intercalations, it forms regional aquiclude.
Hydraulically, it separates the Lower fine-grainedSandstone and Limestone aquifer
systems in Muger sub-basin and eastern part of the Guder sub-basin. It also serves
confining unit for the underlying Lower finegrainedSandstone aquifer.Since mudstone
rock unit is dominantly composed of thick mudstone and thin beds of sandstone
intercalations, it forms regional aquiclude. Hydraulically, it separates the Limestone
aquifer systems from the overlying volcanic rock aquifers
5.2.2.3. Groundwater flow barriers
Unless the trachyte and rhyolite domes are affected by fractures and faults, they form
groundwater flow barriers.The N-S trending fault and associated fractures that affect the
domes can transmit groundwater from the Blue Nile to the Upper Awash basin through
the domes.
5.2.3.Groundwater movement
Shallow groundwater accessed through hand dug and shallow wells at higher elevations
especially in mountainous areas represent localized flows and pass through some clay and
palaeosol lenses. For this reason, water point information representing such localized
58 |
flows in the volcanic units, and those from gorges within the Mesozoic sedimentary
terrain were excluded from regional groundwater flow system characterization.In
addition, water level measurements of a few flowing deep wells found in the Upper
Awash basin were also excluded from analysis, since they are not sufficient to treat
separately. Groundwater found in relatively flat topography and in lower elevations
representing deeper zones of the aquifer forms part of the regional groundwater flow
system. Information from such water points were used to characterize the regional
groundwater flow.
Out of theboreholes and dug wells drilled into the volcanic aquifers 682 wells that
havewater level measurement, have been used to produce groundwater contours and to
characterize groundwater flow patterns. In addition, to characterize the hydraulic
properties of the aquifers, 439boreholes data with transmissivity and 280 springs with
discharge information were used (Fig. 18).
Groundwater flow directions were identified from the pattern of the water level contour
map of the aquifers. Narrow contour spacing corresponding to high hydraulic gradients
indicates rapid change in elevations of water level compared with those of wider spacing
indicating presence of localized aquifers within the regional aquifer domain.
In the Guder and Jema sub-basins, groundwater flows following the general surface
topography and finally converges into the respective river flow directions, where regional
faults convey groundwater to low relief areas and rivers. In the Muger sub-basin, some
irregularities in the flow-path pattern were observed where groundwater partly flows
northward following the general surface topography and finally converges into the Muger
River flow system; however, in the southern part, the groundwater flows southward
together with the Upper Awash groundwater flow system and finally converges to the
Upper Awash flow and the aquifer system in the rift (Fig. 19).
Moreover, local geomorphic setup and subsurface configuration of permeable and

impermeable rock units control depth and pattern of groundwater circulation in the area.
The E-W oriented horst of the impermeable mudstone underlying the Tertiary volcanics
59 |
control aquifer distribution into Muger and Upper Awash groundwater sub-basins where
surface water and groundwater divides do not coincide (Fig. 19).
The NW-SE horsts and local geomorphic setup of the areas are responsible for aquifer
distribution among the Guder, Muger and Jema groundwater sub-basins. Based on
geological and geophysical findings as well asgroundwater flow patterns observed,
conceptual groundwater flow model has been developed for the volcanic aquifer of the
Upper Awash groundwater basin (Fig. 20).
As evidences from lithologic logs of flowing boreholes in artesian condition in the area
confirm, locally and/or regionally confined aquifers are available in the areas where
intercalations of impermeable beds (clay, ash, weathered tuff and massive volcanic rocks)
present. Degree of confinement depends on the thickness and the lateral extent of the
confining beds.
Figure 19.Relative distribution of surface water and groundwater basins.
60 |
Figure 20.Conceptual groundwater flow model of the Upper Awash Groundwater basin.
5.3. Hydrogeochemistry
Due to the complex litho-structural set up of the area, hydrogeological characterization
from analysis of hydraulic properties of aquifer material from pumping test and water
level measurement are not sufficient to characterize flow dynamics. Therefore, chemical
data have been used to provide more reliable information about the groundwater flow
system.
Groundwater chemistry varies between rains to sea water chemistry (Appelo and Postma,
1993). There are several factors that control groundwater chemistry. The major ones
include: mineralogy of the geologic units, structural set up, geomorphology, residence
time, anthropogenic factors and interaction with surface water bodies (Freeze and Cherry,
1979). There are also several processes which are responsible for the changes that
groundwater undergoes along the flow path. From the precipitation source, the chemical
behaviour of groundwater would keep on changing with time. It is this change that help
characterize groundwater dynamics in the aquifer system.
61 |
This section deals with the changes water undergoes along the flow paths, major
geochemical processes, the factors that are responsible for the changes, and their
implication on the hydrodynamic characteristics of aquifer systems.
5.3.1. Data availability and methods of analysis
Water samples were collected for chemical analysis during water point inventory. In
addition, available chemical data have been collected from drilling companies and
previous studies (Andarge Yitbarek, 2009). The following parameters were analyzed in
the laboratory: TDS, EC, pH, NH4+, Na+, K+, Ca+2, Mg+2, total Fe, Cl-, F-, NO2-, NO3-,
CO3-2, HCO3-, SO4-2, PO4-4, total hardness and alkalinity. The following methods were
used: titration method for Ca+2, Mg+2, Alkalinity, hardness, CO3-2, HCO3- and Cl-; Flame
bottom method for Na+ and K+; gravimetric method for TDS; direct measurement for EC
and pH; sulfamer method for SO4-2; Phosphobar method for PO4-4; Ferrobar method for
total Fe; Standness method for F-; Cadmium reduction method for NO3- and Deionization
method for NO2- (NEERI, 2014).
According to the principle of electro neutrality, the sum of cations in meq/l should nearly
be equal to the sum of anions in meq/l for the chemical data to be reliable for further
geochemical characterization and interpretation (Freeze and Cherry, 1979). Therefore
after charge balance calculation, chemical data with charge balance error not exceeding
5% were considered for the geochemical characterization. Out of the total, 328 chemical
data with error percentage less than 5% were used (appendix 3). In addition to the electro
neutrality test, error distribution has been evaluated using error distribution graph (Fig.
21).
The units of concentration used in the text unless specified differently are mg/l. The EC
values are given in µS/cm and residual alkalinity values are given in meq/l. Different
ratios mentioned in the text were calculated using meq/l unit.
The major challenge in hydrochemical characterization is uneven distribution of chemical

data. Sufficient data from shallow and deep groundwater sources is available for the
62 |
Upper Awash. However, chemical data for the Guder, Muger and Jema sub-basins are
sparsely distributed especially from the deep sources.
Figure 21.Ionic balance error distribution in the hydrochemicaldata.
5.3.2. Geochemical evidences for aquifer hydrodynamic condition
Ca+2, Mg+2, Na+ and K+ are the major cation constituents and HCO3- dominates the
negatively charged species. The anion species, F-, Cl-, NO3- and SO4-2 are not uncommon.
TDS value ranges between 38 mg/l to 3220 mg/l. Cold to thermal waters with pH range
between 6.27 and 8.68 are available. To seek geochemical evidences to interpret
hydrodynamic condition in the area, variations in salinity, relations of ion ratio with TDS,
groundwater type distribution, residual alkalinity, and chloride and fluoride distributions
in the area have been evaluated.
Salinity
TDS in water is an important parameter to characterize the changes groundwater

undergoes along the flow path. TDS value in the area ranges between 38 mg/l for cold
water depression springs to 3220 mg/l for thermal deep wells along fault zones. The high
TDS values, over 1000 mg/l are related either to thermal wells and springs along fault
zones, very deep wells in discharge areas, and wells penetrated into and springs emerging
63 |
from sedimentary strata (Fig. 22). Very high TDS waters are from the deep wells in the
upstream part of Guder and the Upper Awash. Most of them are located along regional
fault zones and surface water divides. A high discharge spring emerging from limestone
along regional fault line also shows high TDS value.
The spatial distribution of TDS shows that the deep aquifers in the upstream part of
Guder, Upper Awash close to the water divide with Blue Nile and downstream part of
Jema are highly evolved waters with significant rock-water interaction, long sub-surface
path length and residence time.
Presence of such highly evolved groundwater along the water divide between the Blue
Nile basin (Guder and Muger sub-basins) and the Upper Awash basin marks clear
incident of interbasin groundwater transfer along the water divide. However, the source
of recharge (recharge area) for evolved groundwater in the southern upstream part of the
Guder sub-basin surrounding Ambo town could be a subject of further study (Fig. 22).
Figure 22.Groundwater types and TDS distribution.
64 |
Ionic ratios
Instead of characterizing individual ionic species, molar ratio of dissolved ionic species
and their relationship with TDS helps trace the origin of solutes as well as the
environment and major processes that generate the observed composition of groundwater
(Hem, 1985). Accordingly, relationships of (Na++K+),(Ca+2+Mg+2)and
(Na++K+)/(Ca+2+Mg+2) with TDS were used to characterize the sub-surface environment
and the processes that cause observed changes in groundwater composition.
In general, along the groundwater flow paths, the concentration of the alkaline metals,
Na+ and K+ increase with increasing TDS (Fig. 23a). On the contrary, the concentration
of alkaline earth metals (Ca+2 and Mg+2) gradually increases during early stage of
geochemical evolution due to dissolution reactions from silicate weathering in volcanic
aquifers and dissolution of calcite in sedimentary terrain but start to decline during later
stage of geochemical evolution due to precipitation of calcite from solution when the
groundwater becomes calcite saturated with saturation index greater than 1 (Fig.
23b).The (Ca+2+Mg+2)/(Na++K+) ratio is generally low for low TDS waters (Fig. 23c).
However, some low TDS waters from sedimentary aquifers show slightly higher value of
the ratio due to the dominant calcite and dolomite minerals constituting the rocks.
65 |
Figure 23. TDS versus Na++K+(a), Ca+2+Mg+2(b) and (Ca+2+Mg+2)/( Na++K+)(c).
Despite the fact that the correlation coefficient is poor, the variations in the trends of the
(Ca+2+Mg+2)/(Na++K+) ratio versus TDS gives some geochemical evidences for aquifer
hydrodynamic conditions in the area. Together with low TDS, increasing trend of
(Ca+2+Mg+2)/(Na++K+) ratio in Jema and Muger sub-basins shows that all the waters in
volcanic aquifers are at early stage of geochemical evolution with no sign of calcite
precipitation where saturation index for calcite is less than 1. This in turn reveals that
dominant portion of the two sub-basins constitutes recharge area for aquifer systems in
66 |
their surroundings. However, for waters from Guder and the Upper Awash aquifer
systems, the ratio generally decreases with increasing TDS, especially for thermal waters
and for those from very deep sources. This signifies the fact that these waters are at their
later stage of geochemical evolution where calcite starts to precipitate (Fig. 23c).
The high (Ca+2+Mg+2)/(Na++K+) ratio corresponding to the high TDS were obtained from
deep and thermal wells located in the Upper Awash close to the water divide with Blue
Nile and in the southern part of the Guder sub-basin. From this observation, recharge area
for highly evolved groundwater in the southern deep aquifers of the upstream part of the
Guder sub-basin and the Upper Awash is beyond the surface water divides. This suggests
recharge area for highly evolved groundwater in the southern upstream part of the Guder
sub-basin groundwater surrounding Ambo town may not be limited to the southern
surrounding highlands within the sub-basin. Highly evolved groundwater found along the
water divide between the Blue Nile to the Upper Awash basins substantiates interbasin
groundwater transfer from the former to the latter.
Groundwater types
The piper plot of the chemical data helps to identify different water types (Fig. 24). Four
major groups of water types (CaHCO3,mixed CaNaHCO3and NaCaHCO3, NaHCO3 and
others) were identified in the area. The classification of the waters into group of
groundwater types is based on major and minor cations and anions in the water samples.
From the spatial distribution of groundwater types in the area, hydrogeological system
characterization has been made and dominant hydrochemical processes were also defined
(Fig. 24).
67 |
Figure 24.Piper plot applied to all water samples of the study area
The CaHCO3water type that includes CaHCO3, CaMgHCO3 and MgCaHCO3are

observed in all the sub basins for water samples obtained dominantly from depression
springs, dug wells and shallow drilled wells in parts of the study area. This groundwater
type is characterized by very low TDS, often less than 500 mg/l, hence they represent
early stage of geochemical evolution in recharge area and shallow depths of rapid
circulation, relatively low residence time in sub surface, without significant water–rock
interactions, corroborating similar observations earlier (Seifu Kebede et al., 2005, 2007).
There are a few water samples from deep wells, which belong to this group. This could
be possibly explained by mixing effect, where the sampled portion of the water is
dominated by local recharges in the vicinity of the well. High TDS values were observed
for waters of this type from limestone and sandstone aquifers. This is attributed to the
higher solubility of minerals that constitute limestone. Mineralogy of the aquifer material
68 |
is responsible for the distinction that can be made between CaHCO3 and CaMgHCO3
signature in this water type. The later is common in olivine rich rift basalt aquifers.
The second group of water type is mixed CaNaHCO3 and NaCaHCO3. This group
represents groundwater circulating in intermediate zones (depth and travel distance from
recharge areas). Water samples in this group were obtained from wells ranging in depth
from 50 to 549m and springs emerging along fault lines. The waters in this group have
TDS values ranging from 89 to 848 mg/l. For low TDS samples from some deep wells
belonging to this group, the possible explanation is that the sample is dominated by local
recharge; however, the high TDS values observed in this groupare attributed to
groundwater from limestone (soluble). The water type in this group represents
intermediate stage of geochemical evolution, with considerable travel distance from
recharge area and/or at a relatively deeper part of the aquifer or mixing effect of local
recharge with regional flow system. This in turn signifies that the groundwater belonging
to this group is in the intermediate zone between the recharge and discharge areas.
The third water type group in the area is NaHCO3. Water samples in this group were
obtained from wells ranging in depth from 50 to 600m, cold and thermal fault springs.
The group includes wide range of TDS values (107 – 3220 mg/l). Cation exchange at clay
layer interfaces as water percolates to deeper zones could be a plausible explanation for
few water samples from deep wells with low TDS belonging to this group from Muger
and Jema sub-basins volcanic aquifer. Thus cation exchange is responsible for low TDS
waters to attain NaHCO3 water type in aquifers with clay intercalation and the particular
sites of sampling belonging tothe group is recharge area. Waters with moderate TDS (500
- 1300mg/l)were obtained from limestone and sandstone aquifers in the northern part of
the Muger sub basin and central part of Jema sub-basin. This shows higher level of
geochemical evolution and particular sites of sampling are discharge zones for deep
circulating waters.The high TDS waters from this group are thermal waters circulating
along YTVL zone and south of it in the Upper Awash and in the Guder sub-basins.
Silicate dissolutions are responsible for the high TDS, and the particular site of sampling
is discharge area for regionally circulating waters. The presence of the high TDS
69 |
NaHCO3 water types along the water divide between the Blue Nile and the Upper Awash
again substantiates the interbasin groundwater flow from the former to the later.
The fourth group includes waters of mixed composition with high values of anion species
(NO3-, Cl-, SO4-2). Groundwater with a higher proportion of NO3-is possibly from
anthropogenic sources like animal waste and fertilizer use in the area.The high
concentration of NO3-ions together with low TDS and low pH in groundwater is
indicative of the unconfined nature of the aquifer system and this also suggests that the
groundwater is very young and the particular site of sampling is recharge area for the
shallow aquifer system, observation similar with that of Seifu Kebede et al. (2005). The
in this work include only few water samples from dug wells and unprotected springs in
Jema sub-basin with high NO3-concentration over 50 mg/l.
There may be few cases where water samples from shallow unprotected wells show high
Cl-ion concentration from surface contamination. However, the remaining groundwaters
with a higher proportion of Cl- ion concentration are found in water samples from deep
wells, thermal wells and springs. In volcanic rock aquifers, higher concentrations of Cl-
ion were observed along regional fault zones. In addition to acidic rocks like obsidian,
and evaporates from sedimentary rocks, the high Cl- ion contribution is attributed to
waters circulating through deep seated sedimentary rocks or stagnation and retardation of
the ion due to its large ionic size atfault gauges along regional faults.
Waters rich in SO4-2, observed from limestone and fine-grained sandstone units in Jema,
Muger and Guder sub-basins, resulted from dissolution of intercalated gypsum layers.
However, high SO4-2 observed in volcanic aquifers of the Upper Awash along fault zones
close to the water divide with the Blue Nile are indicative of deep seated limestone and
sandstone units with gypsum intercalation. The high SO4-2could also be due to water
flowing through gypsum containing units as indicated in few geological logs of boreholes
from the YTVL zone.
Though, petrographic analysis has not been done, silicate dissolution contributes the high
concentration of Ca+2, Mg+2, Na+2 cation species and HCO3- from anion species in the
70 |
volcanic terrain. Similarly dissolution of carbonate minerals contributes for the high SO4-
2
concentration in sedimentary terrain. Dissolution of silicate minerals of the olivine group
(forsterite), plagioclase (anorthite), pyroxene group (enstatite) and other ferromagnesian
minerals in volcanic terrains, and calcite dissolution in limestone and sandstone units
were previously reported (Bretzler et al., 2012; Seifu Kebede et al., 2005).
The high TDS and NaHCO3water typesfrom the deep wells located along surface water
divide between the Blue Nile and the Upper Awash basins suggests interbasin
groundwater flow from the former to the later. The higher proportion of Cl- and SO4-2
along the water divide between the mentionedbasinsalso corroborates the idea of
interbasin groundwater transfer. Unlike the Upper Awash and Guder, absence of waters
at highest stage of geochemical evolution even at deeper zones in the volcanic aquifers of
Muger and Jema sub-basins also suggests the volcanic aquifer in the Blue Nile basin
located adjacent to the Upper Awash are recharge areas (see Fig. 22).
Residual Alkalinity
Alkalinity can be defined as the capacity of a solution to neutralize acids (Hem, 1985).
Residual alkalinity (RA), the difference between concentration of HCO3-and the sum of
concentration of Ca+2 and Mg+2, all in meq/l is used for understanding the changes
affecting the chemical composition of the groundwater along the flow path. Together
with TDS, it helps to identify recharge area from discharge area and inflow of meteoric
water from precipitation along the groundwater flow paths.
Regardless of depth, waters from volcanic aquifers of Jema and Muger sub-basins and
shallow groundwater from Guder and the Upper Awash are characterized by negative
RA. Negative RA distributed all over the area indicates presence of active recharge.
Some deep wells with negative RA values indicate interconnection of deep aquifers with
shallow groundwater through fractures at high lineament density zone. For the waters
leaching volcanic rocks of the rift in discharge zone, positive value of RA were obtained
(Tesfaye Cherinet et al.,2001).Likewise, for the deep wells under artesian condition in the
Upper Awash and southern part of Guder, RA is positive and increases with increasing
71 |
TDS (Fig. 25a,b). High discharge fault spring emerging from limestone aquifer also
belongs to this group. The positive RA for deep wells, most of them in artesian condition
signifies that mixing from meteoric water to the deep aquifers is negligible.
Figure 25. Residual Alkalinity (a) TDS versus positive residual alkalinity (b)
The high RA values from deep sources along the water divide between the Blue Nile,
mainly Muger sub-basin and the Upper Awash basin substantiate the interbasin
groundwater transfer which is in agreement with Seifu Kebede et al. (2007). The high
residual alkalinity together with high TDS observed at a high discharge fault spring
emerging along regional fault from limestone in Jema River gorge showspresence of
regional aquifer discharging into this zone (Jemo River gorge). A high RA value together
with high TDS along the water divide between the Upper Awash and the Blue Nile
provespart of the Upper Awash along the divide and south of is a discharge zone for the
regional deep aquifers
72 |
Fluoride and chloride distribution
Acidic rocks (obsidian, ash, tuff) exacerbated by heat anomaly generated along regional
faults or from recent hot eruption centres favour high fluoride incorporation into the
groundwater (Hem, 1994). Recent acidic volcanic centres in the area especially along the
MER margin and the YTVL zones are responsible for the higher concentration of
fluoride (Birhanu Gizaw, 2002). Recent studies categorize, the MER and adjacent
highlands into 3 fluoride concentration zones: zones with low fluoride (<1.5 mg/l);
intermediate fluoride zone along rift escarpment (1.55 – 5 mg/l); and high fluoride zone,
along rift axis and rift floor calderas (> 5 mg/l)(MoWIE, 2013).
Figure 26.Chloride and fluoride ionsa) andfluoride in shallow and deep wells(b)
In this work, it has been verified that at rift margins in the Upper Awash, high fluoride
concentration is associated with some regional fault systems provided that the fault
systems favour deeper groundwater to emerge as thermal springs or the deep zone of the
73 |
aquifer is penetrated by drilling along these fault zones.Fluoride concentrations are
generally low in trap series volcanic rock aquifers (Fig 26a). Moreover, it is low in rift
volcanic rock aquifers, provided that their locations are far from the regional faults and
acidic volcanic centres and depth of penetration is shallow.
For deep wells located away from regional fault zones and acidic eruption centres in the
Upper Awash basin, fluoride concentration is slightly higher than the concentration in
shallow wells in the same area. The plausible justification for relatively high fluoride
concentration in the deep wells of the Upper Awash is mixing effect of fluoride reach
groundwater that crosses fault zones and acidic centres along the YTVL as the evidence
is seen in the comparison made between shallow and deep wells in the southern part of
Addis Ababa in Akaki Well field (Fig. 26b).As the case in the Upper Awash from Akaki
well field, rift ward flowing groundwater from plateau may intensify the fluoride
concentration in the aquifer systems of the rift and rift margins if the flowing
groundwater encounters acidic rocks with heat anomaly along the flow path.
However, fluoride concentration or depletion scenarios could be complex and depending

on the groundwater flow paths. During plateau-rift transfer of groundwater heat anomaly
together with acidic rock media, are responsible for fluoride concentration changes in
aquifers of the rift margins like the aquifers in the study area.
Volcanic rocks generally yield little concentration of chloride to normally circulating

groundwater. However, sedimentary rocks like evaporates are more important sources
(Hem, 1985). Few groundwater samples from the sandstone and limestone aquifers show
relatively higher Cl-concentration due to intercalated evaporates. In the volcanic rock
aquifers, higher concentrations of Cl-were observed alongregional fault zones. Deep
seated sedimentary rocks or stagnation and retardation of the large size Cl-ion while the
groundwater is crossing clay gauges along regional faults could be possible explanation
(Fig. 26a).
74 |
5.3.3. Water quality
Chemical quality of water from precipitation is altered before infiltration through

evaporation if it stays for some time on surface water bodies, in vadose zone during
infiltration and percolation and during movement as groundwater along flow path from
recharge area to discharge areas, via several geochemical processes(Appelo and Postma,
1999). In addition, human activities, problems associated to well construction and well
site locations have strong bearing on natural groundwater quality deterioration. Water
quality problem in the study area is related to the high values of F -, TDS, NO3-, SO4-2,
and sodium hazards.
The average nitrate concentration in some of the well waters exceeding the WHO
guideline was observed in Addis Ababa regions and surrounding highlands.In the study
area, higher concentration of nitrate in the water samples as a result of contamination
from agricultural runoff, refuse dump, human and animal waste(20.5mg/l)exceeding the
threshold valuehas been reported (Andualem et al.,2014). The highly fractured bare rocks
in Addis Ababa areaand its surrounding permit fast circulation of the pollutants over
large distances and to a great depth. The widespread uncontrolled waste disposals
promote pollution of groundwater resources as observed from the high level of nitrate
and other contaminants in the shallow aquifers of Addis Ababa and its
surrounding(Tamiru, 2001, Tamiru et al., 2005). NO3-concentrationis high in recharge
areas where nitrogen fertilizers are commonly used. Some poorly constructed wells and
wells fed by contaminated water bodies in urbanized areas such as Addis Ababa also
suffer from NO3- contamination.
High TDS, F-, SO4-2 and sodium hazard are common problems of thermal waters from
the deep sources as observed from wells located along regional faults. In addition, very
high SO4-2 concentrations up to 1383 mg/l were observed for water samples collected
from aquifers insedimentary terrain.
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5.4. Isotope Hydrology
Often, hydrogeological and hydrochemical studies are not sufficient to shed light on the
groundwater hydrodynamics of complex volcano-sedimentary terrain. Since
environmental isotopes can produce a more reliable conceptual model of a groundwater
flow system and a useful tracer for groundwater recharge, stable and radioactive isotopes
have been used to bridge information gapform other methods.
5.4.1. Water sample collection and analysis methods
Water samples were collected and analyzed for stable isotopes of water (δ18O and δD)and
14 14
C. In total, analyses for 206 water samples for stable isotopes and 12 samples for C
have been conducted. In situ measurement was conducted for 222Rn at10 different reaches
of Awash River and its tributary streams. Samples for δ18O,and δDwere collected from
14 222
all parts of the study area. However,sampling for Cand Rn measurement sites were
restricted to the area surrounding of the water divide line between the Middle Blue Nile
and the Upper Awash basins and the E-W mudstone caped horst structure identified from
geological and geophysical studies(Fig. 27).
76 |
Figure 27. Sampling sites for isotope study
The following sampling, preparation and laboratory analysis methods were used for
stable and radio isotopes (Clark and Fritz, 1997):
 After taking measurements of EC and pH in the field, samples of 1 liter volume

were collected for δ18O and δD analyses. Laboratory measurement for δ18O and
δDwere conducted by using an equipment called LOS Gatos Research DLT-100
leaser instrument configured with auto sampler together with standards at 5 sample
interval, keeping one of the standards an intermediate isotope composition to the
other two standards.
 After measuring EC, pH and titration for alkalinity, samples of volume between 50
14
and 60 liters were collected for C analysis. The pH levels of the water sample
were adjusted to 11 using NaOH salt, BaCl2 salt of 100 to 115 gm has been added
and the sampleswere shacked and left for a day for inorganic carbon to precipitate.
77 |
The precipitated inorganic dissolved carbon in the form of BaCO3 was then kept in
a plastic container of 1 liter size and sealed in order to avoid contamination with
atmospheric CO2. These samples were sent to the laboratory D’Avignon, France.
14
The C of the extracted DIC was measured using benzene analysis and liquid
scintillation counting method with +0.1pmc and δ13C were determined using mass
spectrometry with uncertainty of +0.1%o.
 Counting for 222Rn is straightforward, and a relatively simple counting device called
Rad7 has been used to measure the radon activities in the field at some selected
reaches of Awash River and its tributary streams. In total, radon activities were
counted at 10 systematically selected points along the flow paths of the Awash
River and its tributary streams. Each measurement was carried out for one hour
including four cycles of 15 minutes duration. Three measurement points are located
in Rift basalt and ignimbrite units where Awash River and its tributary streams
emerge; four measurement points are located in the rift ash and tuff unit, two
measurement sites are located at downstream part of the Awash River where the
geologic unit is dominantly basalt and ignimbrite.
5.4.2. Stable isotopes of oxygen and hydrogen
Most cold groundwater resources are of meteoric origin (meteoric groundwater). There is
a strong relationship between the δ18O and δD values of precipitation reflected in the
Meteoric Water Line (IAEA, 2000). The slope is 8 and deuterium excess is 10. In areas
where the relative humidity immediately above the ocean is or was below the present
mean value, d is greater than +10 . The value of d is primarily a function of the mean
relative humidity of the atmosphere above the ocean water. The coefficient d in
groundwater study can therefore be regarded as an indicator of climatic condition during
recharge. The higher d-excess is related to significant evaporation of local surface waters
under low humidity, and the vapour mass mixes with atmospheric reservoirs and re-
condenses (Clark and Fritz, 1997).
78 |
The monthly rains of Addis Ababa at IAEA station plot, gives a local meteoric line
(LMWL) defined by: δD = 7.2 δ18O + 11.9 with weighted mean summer precipitation for
δ18O and δD composition of -1.56 and +1.48, respectively and spring precipitations of
+0.47 and +17.36, respectively(Seifu Kebede et al., 2012). The δ18O and δD values of
various water groups from the area (surface waters, shallow and deep groundwaters) were
plotted against the GMWL and the LMWL adapted from Seifu Kebede et al. (2012).
Different ranges of values were observed for the water groups categorized into surface
waters, shallow groundwater, and deep groundwater. Based on the observed value ranges,
fractionation processes attributed to evaporation of meteoric water before recharge are
highlighted and the effects of mixing from different sources within the hydrologic
systemare also addressed.
Surface waters
Major theme of sampling surface waters for isotopic study is to characterize interaction
between surface water and groundwater of the area.Precipitation on the Ethiopian
highlands is generally a result of the clouds from oceans, which arrive after several
rainout effects (Seifu Kebede et al., 2012). Evaporation from surface water causes
enrichment in δD and δ18O and the trend line of surface waters plots with slope less than
slop of LMWL (Fig. 28).
In reference to summer rain of Addis Ababa at IAEA station, surface water bodies are
enriched in both δ18O and δD due to evaporative process. This is evident in the figure
above for samples taken from surface water bodies, rivers and a lake. In this area,
evaporation plays a significant role in modifying the isotopic signature of residual surface
waters which are enriched both in δ18O and δD. The evaporation effect which results in
an enrichment of the heavy isotopes in the liquid phase with respect to the vapor phase
allows to identify the admixture of superficial water like dam, lake and river waters to
groundwater and to identify groundwater that has previously been subjected to
evaporation before recharge.
79 |
Figure 28.Distribution of stable isotopes of water.
Few samples collected from groundwaters that have some link with surface water bodies
systematically diverge from GMWL/ LMWL and their slopes assume evaporation
line.Thus, the isotopic signatures of few shallow groundwaters located close to rivers and
thermal spring located very close to Lake Wonchi in Guder sub-basinshow deviation
from the LMWL and fall nearly along the evaporative line. Signature from shallow
groundwater suggests possibility of groundwater and surface water inter-connection
where depth to the groundwater is shallow. The Wonchi thermal spring signature
suggests possibility of deep groundwater and surface water inter-connection along
regional faults.
Shallow groundwaters
The isotopic signatures of shallow groundwaters from Muger,Jema and the highland part
of the Upper Awash and Guder range from -6.1 to +0.39 and -35.9 to +11.41,
80 |
respectively for δ18O and δD. Generally, the average values of δ18O and δD are nearly
similar with the average values of summer rainof the IAEA station at Addis Ababa,
observation similar with Seifu Kebede et al. (2007). On the other hand, winter rains show
little resemblance with the groundwaters (Fig. 29). Hence the aquifer system in the area
gets recharge dominantly from summer rain. The range in δ18Oand its resemblance with
summer rain for shallow groundwaters suggests connection of shallow groundwater to
local recharge from present day (modern) precipitations.
In addition to evaporative effect associated to surface water connected aquifers, wide

range of values in δ18O and δD are explained by amount effect for some highly depleted
waters from shallow aquifer in Jema sub-basin (Figs. 28 and29). This is attributed to
fractionation due to amount effect associated to intense rain fall events in the area where
monthly mean precipitation sometimes exceeds 500mm at Fiche and DebreBirhan
meteorological stations.
Generally, the isotopic signature of water samples from shallow aquifer system in all
parts of the research area suggests the aquifer systems are connected to local recharge
from modern precipitations.
Deep groundwaters
Non evaporated or slightly evaporated meteoric waters are generally recognized by their
proximity to the meteoric water line whereas waters directly altered by evaporation or
mixed with water enriched through evaporation, plot to the right of it (IAEA, 2000).
Results of the study also show that deep groundwaters from Guder and Upper Awash
basin are characterized by lighter isotopic signature (depleted). The δ18O and δD values
generally range from -5.28 to -2.87 and -31.71 to -9.0, respectively. Almost all samples
plot to the left of the GMWL and highly depleted compared to the summer rain of Addis
Ababa IAEA station (Figs. 28 and 29). This suggest that the deep aquifer in the Upper
Awash have some signature of records of a cold time recharge with low evaporative
effect or it indicates recharge that might have occurred during wetter periods than the
81 |
current period and/or that the precipitation altitude was higher which is in agreement with
the observation of Seifu Kebede, 2007; Molla Demlie et al., 2008; Rango et al., 2008 and
Bretzler et al., 2011.
Figure 29. Variation in δ18O in the sub-basins
Highly depleted waters from deep wells from the Upper Awash and Guder sub-basins
including thoselocated very close to and along the water divide between the Blue Nile
and the Upper Awash basin supports the conceptual model developed from other
methods(evidence for interbasin groundwater transfer). In summary, recharge for the
deeper part of the aquifers in the upper Awash is dominated by sources either relatively
far or at a higher altitude in cold climate and not limited to the basin alone.
5.4.3. Radio isotopes
Determining groundwater residence times is critical to the understanding of

hydrogeological systems and to characterize groundwater and surface water interactions.
82 |
14
Radioactive isotopes such as Cand 3H are produced by the interaction of atmospheric
gases with cosmic radiation and are commonly used to determine groundwater residence
times while 222Rn is used to evaluate interaction between surface water and groundwater
(Clark and Fritz, 1997; IAEA, 2000). In this work, to meet the objectives, the radiogenic
14 222
isotopes:, C, Rnand 3H with half-lives 12.3 years, 5730 years, 3.8 days respectively
have been used.
Radiocarbon
Groundwater ages are difficult to define because water flowing into a well may not travel
with pure piston flow; rather, it is a mixture of waters, recharged at different locations
and times. Hence, groundwater age can be considered a mean residence time in sub-
surface. Because of its capacity to date old groundwater, up to 30,000years and due to its
presence in dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) in groundwater, 14C is the most widely used
radiogenic dating tool in regional aquifers (Clark and Fritz, 1997). The activity of 14C is a
measure of the abundance of 14C relative to total carbon, and the reduction (decay) in 14C
with time along groundwater flow path is used to estimate groundwater residence times.
Conventional groundwater age, if the initial concentration of the parent is known and has
been remained constant in the past and the system is closed, can be calculated using the
relation:
14 14
However, dilution of C due to addition of old C-free carbonates from the aquifer
14
matrix and diffusion of C into the aquifer matrix may happen along the flow path. The
14
dilution of C through reaction is accounted for in the decay equation by the dilution
factor, q and the equation then becomes:
83 |
14
Hence, various schemes and spread sheet models to calculate q for correcting C ages
based on d13C values of DIC have been proposed (Clark and Fritz, 1997). For this study,
Pearson correction model, that accounts interaction of groundwater with soil CO2, has
been used. The model considers processes that adds, removes or exchanges carbon from
14 13
the DIC pool and which thereby alters C concentrations will also affect the C
concentrations.
Where: q is the dilution factor
d13CDIC is a measured 13C in groundwater
d13Ccarbisd13C of the calcite being dissolved
d13Csoil isd13C of the soil CO2
The groundwaters from the escarpment, including the study area are characterized by low
dissolved oxygen, no signs of H2S and sulphate reduction and corresponding oxidation of
14
organic matter. Hence it could not play a role in the dilution of the C signature of
sampled groundwater (Bretzler et al., 2011). Since the aboveclosed system relation
precludes isotope exchange with the soil gas, thed13Csoil value is replaced withan initial
value of recharge water (d13Crech) using the relation:
The dilution factor then becomes:
84 |
Since, values for d13Csoil, pH of recharge water and d13Ccarb were not generated by this
work, they were taken fromBretzler et al. (2011). The value for d13Csoil is -17 forpH
6.5 and for d13Ccarbis+2%0.Corresponding value of enrichment factor from graph
is2%0.and d13Crech becomes -14%0(Clark and Fritz, 1997). These values together with
d13CDIC results for the groundwater samples were used to estimate dilution factor for
each sample so as to calculate 14C age with Pearson model (Table 22).
Table 24.14C activity and groundwater ages (years)

Age from
ID Locality T°C pH Alk a14C (pmc) d13C (%o) Conv. age Pearson
BHT1001 Legadadi 28 8.10 225.46 15.80 -10.05 15505 12910
BHT1002 Muketure 19 7.30 188.44 90.20 -11.96 1072 Modern
BHT1003 Akaki 22 7.86 345.90 66.00 -8.79 3708 178
BHT1004 Jemo BH24 22 7.84 197.64 59.80 -9.57 4510 1571
BHT1005 Ginchi 21 8.23 384.30 66.60 -7.76 3650 Modern
BHT1006 Melkakuture 31 7.71 319.47 49.00 -10.10 6148 3588
BHT1007 CMC 22 7.98 209.80 74.90 -8.08 2674 Modern
BHT1008 Sululta 18 7.30 85.05 80.9 -9.65 2010 Modern
BHT1009 Derba 19 7.50 183.00 49.10 -9.06 6148 2828
BHT1010 Salayish 22 8.02 274.50 24.90 -9.21 11759 8552
BHT1011 Inchini 17 7.10 143.30 90.90 -12.00 1008 Modern
As shown above in the table, d13C and j14C values vary between -12.0%o to -8.0%o and
15.8pmc to 90.9pmc respectively.
The elevated j14C valuesof the groundwater over50 pmc (Fig. 30, Table 24)represents
aquifers with very young ages in unconfined condition receiving modern recharge in
Jema, Muger and the Upper Awashsub-basins.Samples in this category are also
characterized by low pH and low alkalinity. This is attributed to mixing effect of modern
recharge through fractures, joints and fault systems and availability of recharge in all
parts of the area for shallow part of the aquifers.
Samples from artesian wells (aquifers in confined and semi-confined condition) in the
Upper Awash basin withj14C value less than 50 show relatively older ages. These
85 |
samples have relatively higher pH and alkalinity. Some of the samples in this category
weretaken from wells located very close to the water divide between the Blue Nile and
the Upper Awash. The old ages for deep wells (BHT1010 and BHT1001) located
northeast and north of Addis Ababa, at distances of 5 to 10km from the surface water
divide between the Blue Nile and the Upper Awash basins, suggests recharge source for
deep circulating groundwater in the Upper Awash is beyond the water divide in Blue
Nile. This also suggests the travel distance of the regional groundwater in a confined
condition in the Upper Awash is beyond the water divideand hence attests the conceptual
model developed from geological and geophysical methods and later supported with
geochemical evidence and other environmental isotopes.
Figure 30.14C age distribution
The quantitative dating information obtainedbefore correction for dilution varies between
1,008 to 15,505 years. It varies between modern and 12,910 years after 14C age correction
using Pearson model. The mean resident time of deep circulating waters from the
86 |
volcanic aquifers in the area are dominated by pre-Holocene origin (between 11,000 and
12,000 years), which is in a general agreement with the observation of Bretzler et al.,
(2011) for escarpment deep aquifers in the area.High degree of closed system
phenomenon is not expected in the study area since the rock units are highly affected by
fractures, joints and faults through which water from modern recharge contaminate older
waters.
Tritium
Since the mid-eighties, the tritium values in rain water have been about 10 TU in the
northern hemisphere, except for some local anthropogenic releases of tritium from the
nuclear industry and other uses of tritiated materials and helps date groundwaters younger
than 150 years. (IAEA, 2000).
Regarding the tritium concentrations in the area, for Akaki catchment, (part of the Upper
Awash) concentrations ranging from 0 TU for thermal wells to 20 TU for shallow aquifer
has been reported (Birhanu, 2002). Molla et al. (2009) reported tritium values ranging
from 0.4 TU for deep wells tapping lower basaltic aquifer to 5.7TU for shallow aquifers.
Andarge (2009) reported tritium concentrations ranging from 0.4 TU for deep wells
tapping lower basaltic aquifer to 2.8TU for shallow aquifers. Tritium concentration below
detection limit for deep wells to 5.2 TU for shallow aquifer in the Upper Awash and rift
floor have been reported (Brezler et al., 2011).
According to the observation of the authors, measurable tritium concentration from the
shallow part of the aquifer in the area suggests mixed modern and submodern
watersrecharged after atomic explosion of 1960s.However, highly evolved waters with
very low tritium concentrations show typical pre-bomb tritium signature, signifies deep
circulation, longer travel distance and residence time.
According to the authors, the groundwaterevolves from tritium-containing, low TDS-

CaHCO3 water type showing recently rechargeon the plateau and escarpments totritium-
free groundwater,highly depleted in stable isotopes, high TDS-NaHCO3 water type
dominating deep circulating escarpment and rift floor aquifers.
87 |
The tritium-containing, low TDS-CaHCO3 groundwater types, enriched in stable isotopes
are observed in all parts of the study area, mostly from shallow part of the aquifer system.
However, spatial distribution of tritium-freehighly depleted in stable isotopes and high
TDS-NaHCO3 groundwater type has been observed along the water divide between the
Blue Nile and the upper Awash basins. The unique spatial variation in geochemical
evolution together with pre-Holocene radiocarbon signature from wells drilled into the
confined portion of the aquifer, located very close to the water divide between the basins
helps realize the existence of deep circulating water with long residence time and travel
distance as evidence of interbasin groundwater flow.
Radon
Radon (222Rn), the daughter of 226

Ra, is a radioactive noble gas with a half-life of 3.8
days. Radium is easily soluble in water and is gained by dissolution from rocks. As a
noble gas, it is not being absorbed by solids. Moreover, it is highly soluble in water;
consequently, 222Rn is likely to accumulate in groundwater. Because of its short half-life,
222
when groundwater with Rn discharges into surface water bodies like rivers and lakes,
its activity decreases by radioactive decay. This feature of 222Rn is a qualitative indicator
for groundwater-surface water interaction (IAEA, 2000).
Radon degasses completely after it discharges to the surface water bodies, hence low
radon count in the rivers shows that the water in the river is not the result of the base flow
in the same area or nearby. On the contrary, the presence of the short-lived radon in
surface water always means that the groundwater is feeding the river at its measured
reach.
The Upper Awash groundwater basin is chosen for regional groundwater modeling
among the groundwater basins. Knowledge of groundwater and surface water interactions
are important for model input to set different boundary conditions. In the Upper Awash
basin, poorly permeable ash covers very wide area where floodwater resides for long time
after the rainy season. Moreover, streams that flow through the ash unit have base flow
lowerthan the base flow of streams that flow through other geologic units with better
88 |
permeability (scoriaceous basalts, vesicular basalts, ignimbrites).Hence, radon
measurement has been conducted at different reaches of the Awash River and its tributary
streams that flow through different geologic units to determine interactions of surface
waters and groundwater and to characterize relationship between base flow of rivers and
rock units with different permeability.To avoid contamination from precipitation, the
measurement has been conducted in the month of May/2014.
222
With Rn activity measurement mechanismof surface water of Awash River and its
tributary streams interact with the groundwater has been schematized, and the effects of
permeability of various geologic units on the interactions between surface water bodies
and groundwater have been appraised.
The highest reading, 600 to 800 Bq/m3 is from the downstream part of the Awash River
where the geologic unit is dominated by rift basalts and ignimbrites and lineament
density is high. This zone is identified as discharge zone for the regional groundwater
into the Awash River flow system. From the highest values in this zone, it can be
concluded that the groundwater that discharge into the Awash River flow system in areas
at its outlet from the study area has relatively longer residence time flow path length.
Moderate reading, 100 to 200 Bq/m3,is from the upstream part of the Awash River where
the geologic unitsare dominantly composed of scoriaceous basalt, rift basalts and
ignimbrites, with the highest lineament density. This zone is identified as discharge zone
for local groundwater into the tributary streams of the Awash River flow system where
the resident time of the groundwater is so small to dissolve and incorporate sufficient
222
Rn into the groundwater.
The lowest reading, less than 100 Bq/m3 is observed in the mid way of the Awash River
and its tributary streams, where the geologic unit is dominantly Rift ash(Fig. 31).
89 |
Figure 31.222Rn measuring site (a) 222Rnactivity profile along Awash River course (b)
The result clearly shows that tributary streams that cross the high lineament density zone
in YTVL emerging from and flow through highly fractured scoriaceous basalt, rift basalt
and ignimbrite units are linked with local groundwater flows in recharge areas. In the
downstream reach, as it is flowing through highly fractured basalt and ignimbrite units
around its outlet from the study area, the Awash River receives groundwater discharged
into its flow system, where it is a gaining river. However; Awash River and its tributary
streams flowing through the ash unit are poorly connected to the groundwater system.
(Fig. 31).
90 |
Chapter Six: Groundwater Flow Modeling
6.1. Introduction
In the study area especially in the Upper Awash basin, due to rapid urbanization and
industrialization, groundwater use for domestic and agricultural purposes is rapidly
growing. Despite such a voluminous extraction, proper regional-scale groundwater
resource evaluation has not been done in the area. This might lead to decrease in the
groundwater levels and deterioration of the water quality.
A regional-scale hydrogeological study has been carried out to properly evaluate the
groundwater system and to lay a basis for further detail studies. To characterize and
determine the aquifer proprieties, all possible investigation methods and available
geological, geophysical, hydrodynamic, geochemical and environmental isotopic data
were used.
Simple regional groundwater flow model has been conducted for the Upper Awash
groundwater basin. This basin has been chosen for this study because data required for
the modeling are more available in this basin, and this basin is affected by significant
extraction of the groundwater.
The main objective of the groundwater flow modeling is to implement the conceptual
model into a numerical groundwater flow model and to help interpret the groundwater
system (Anderson and Woessner, 1992).Because of the heterogeneities in geologic
materials and structural complexities in the study area (e.g., local-scale variations of
aquifer properties, presence of numerous surface water bodies, etc.), due care has been
given to consider assumptions, to logically categorize some geologic units, and
extrapolate or interpolate values for some parameters based on the few existing data in
parts of the study area.
6.2. Conceptual Model

The evidence based conceptual model shows that groundwater localized in volcanic
aquifers in the southern part of the Muger sub-basin and the upper Awash basin flows
91 |
generally to the south, finally discharging into the Awash River flow system defining the
Upper Awash groundwater basin(see Fig. 19).
For the flow model, DEM from SRTM of 30m spatial resolution was used as a base map
to visualize model area characteristics and boundary conditions (Fig.32).
Figure 32.Model grid,boundary conditions and flow packages
92 |
6.3. Numerical Model
6.3.1. Model selection
A modular three-dimensional finite-difference groundwater flow model (MODFLOW)

was chosen for simulating the 3-D groundwater flow system of the Upper Awash
groundwater basin. This deterministic numerical model basedon Darcy’s law and mass
conservation concept was developed by McDonald and Harbaugh (1988) and Harbaugh
etal. (2000).
6.3.2. Spatial model discretization
The numerical model domain is assumed as a rectangle of 130km x120km and an area of
15,600km2.Itislocatedbetweenthe parallelsof 920000 and 1040000 UTM northand
390000and 520000UTM east.
Themodelinggridconsistsof60 rowsand 65 columns (Fig.32). Eachcellhasadimensionof

2km by 2km. A few cells with rhyolitic domes (acidic volcanic centers) in the model
area, are considered to be “inactive”. A single layer steady state model of volcanic rock
aquifer underlain by regional impermeable mudstone has been assumed in a confined or
unconfined condition with variable transmissivity values.
6.3.3. Boundary conditions
Layer top or surface elevations were extracted from DEM of 30m spatial resolution.
Layer bottom elevations were obtained by subtracting aquifer thickness from layer top
elevations. Aquifer thickness of 900m is considered, as the maximum available drilling
depth is 882m. Groundwater head information was derived from water level
measurements in the field and pertinent data obtained from drilling companies.
The “no flow boundary” condition in the north has been defined primarily based on
geological evidences. It has been set along the loci of points in East-West trending
mudstone horst underlying volcanic aquifer in the eastern side and exposed on the surface
towards the west. Tuff and ash dominated Mt.Wonchi and Gurage highlands; in the
western and southwestern side of the model area respectively forms a no flow boundary
93 |
due to their poor hydraulic conductivity. Likewise, in the northeastern part of the model
area, trachytic Mt. Yerer forms a no flow boundary. The outside part of the model
domain is also considered as no flow boundary. Mt. Entotoand Mt. Wochecha from
inside the model domain form no flow boundary.
The General-Head Boundary package used to simulate head-dependent ﬂow conditions

(Cauchy boundary), where groundwater flows into or out of a cell from an external
source is provided in proportion to the difference between the head in the cell and the
head assigned to the external source. The GHB has been setbased on available measured
222
head information and results from Rn measurement in the Upper Awash River and its
tributary streams. It has been set in the southeastern part of the model domain.
6.3.4. Input parameters and flow packages
The parameters or flow package inputs into the model include head information,
horizontal hydraulic conductivity, recharge, pumping wells, conductance of river bed
sediments, and GHB cells. Due to their small sizes (less than model grid) and for the
reasons that their bottom part is lined with clay, reservoirs in the area are not included in
the simulation. The reservoir package in MODFLOW is designed for cases where
reservoirs are much greater in area than the area represented by individual model cells,
which is not the case in the study area.
Hydraulic heads
MODFLOW requires initial hydraulic heads at the beginning of a flow simulation. For
steady-state flow simulations, the initial headsare used as starting values for the iterative
equation solvers. The initial heads introduced arbitrarily into active cells were defined
based on depth to water and groundwater flow condition in the area.
Horizontal hydraulic conductivity
The geologic formations in the area significantly vary from massive to highly fractured, over
distances as short as a kilometer. Materials exposed on the surface vary fromfresh bedrock to
loose pyroclastic deposit. Hence, heterogeneity of lithology, variation in lineament density
94 |
and geomorphological set up of borehole sites are important factors that affect values of
transmisivity calculated from the pumping test data.
Transmissivity values and resultant hydraulic conductivity calculated from pumping test
data can also be affected by a number of factors associated to well construction. In this
case, screens may be put against impermeable part of the aquifer and the aquifer may be
covered with blind casings. It may also be associated with drilling fluids used, inefficient
well development and improper gravel pack. In addition, most of the wells are shallow
and could not penetrate the whole aquifer thickness. Hence, defining spatial distribution of
hydraulic conductivitiesis one of the most challenging aspects of subsurface hydrology.
Therefore, due attention has been given to lithostratigraphy, lineament density and
geomorpholoical set up of the area, to assign particular K value or mean of K values to
different zones. Geological maps, cross sections, geophysical results and borehole logs
together with pumping test data were used to define distribution of hydraulic conductivity
(Fig. 33).
In this work an attempt has been made to calculate transmissivity from pumping test data
of 145 deep wells. Transmissivity values obtained from drilling reports were also used.
The transmisssivity values obtained range between 13m2/d and17,000 m2/d. The
transmissivity value together with aquifer thickness (screen length in the boreholes) were
used to estimate average hydraulic conductivity (K) at a specific site and was found to
range between 1.3 m/d and 295 m/d. Model area wide hydraulic conductivity zone map
has been produced from the K-values using kriging interpolation tool in ArcGIS. While
using the hydraulic conductivity zone map, due attentions were given to lithostratigraphy,
lineament density and geomorpholoical set up of the area.
95 |
Figure 33.Hydraulic conductivity zones in the model domain.
General head boundary
The GHB, package requires the input of GHB hydraulic conductance and head on the
external source. Cells assigned as GHB are chosen based on the groundwater flow
222
direction, depth to the groundwater level in the boreholes and information from Rn
measurements in Awash River and its tributary streams. The input values of hydraulic
conductivity have been obtained from pumping test data analysis from available
boreholes in the area. The length of the GHB within a celland head on the external source
at active vertices of the external sources were considered in order to calculate hydraulic
conductance of the GHB. The hydraulic conductance of the GHB has been calculated
using the relation:
Cb = K.L
96 |
Where: Cb is hydraulic conductanceof the GHB (m2/d)
K is hydraulic conductance of the GHB (m2/d)
L is length of the GHB (m)
Recharge
The Recharge package is designed to simulate distributed recharge to the groundwater

system. Recharge is defined by assigning recharge flux data to each vertical column of
cells in the highest active cell in each vertical column. Meteorological, pedological and
river discharge data together with chemical tracers were used to characterize recharge in
the area.
Rechargeestimates from the BFS better represent recharge distribution in the model
domain and were used to produce recharge zone map for the model input. An estimated
recharge distribution surface map of seven zones has been generated from a scattered set
of base flow values in the model area using kriging tool in ArcGIS (Fig.34). The recharge
distribution surface map with minor correction based on the geological, lineament density
and topographic set up has been used in the model input.
Correlation has been made to investigate base flow relation with geologic units through
which the river flows. Ranges of values were obtained forgiven geologic units. In
addition, a given base flow value calculated from river discharge record may represent
more than one geologic unit the river crosses. Some geologic units do not have
representative gauged river to characterize (Fig. 35).
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Figure 34. Recharge zone map generated from base flow separation results.
98 |
Figure 35.Recharge variations in different geologic units from base flow separation.
Figure 36.Geologic units (a) and lineament density distribution (b).
99 |
Due consideration has been given to the factors that affect base flow values calculated
from river discharge data. These factors include proportion of the geologic unit through
which the river flows, lineament density, soil, land use/land cover, slope and size of
catchment area. Minor corrections have been made on the recharge zone map generated
from the base flow results based on geologic unit, lineament density and topography.
Highly permeable rock units such as scoriaceous basalt and rift basalts correlate with
high base flow. Likewise, high lineament density zones correlate with high base flow
(Figs. 35 and 36).
Well package
A pumping well is defined by using the Cell-by-Cell input methods of assigning negative
sign to model cells. MODFLOW assumes that a well penetrates the full thickness of the
cell.In case more than one pumping wells are located in a given grid cell, the sum of well
discharges has been considered for the input (Fig. 33). To characterize and quantify water
abstraction from the aquifer system through dug and drilled wells, the estimations and
assumptions have been followed for water balance were used.
About 530 wells with water level information were used for head observation anddata
from 550 wells were used to quantify daily and annual abstraction from the aquifer. Total
annual abstraction from the aquifer of the Upper Awash groundwater basin is roughly
about 64.5 Mm3.
River package
The purpose of the River package is to simulate the effect of exchange between
groundwater systems and surface water features. Rivers were defined by using the Cell-
by-Cell input method.The input parameters include hydraulic conductance of river bed
material, head in the river and elevation of the river bed in a cell (Fig. 33).
Based on some sample site observation and estimation, river bed sediment thickness has
been assumed to vary between 0.1 to 0.5m.River widths range from 2 to 50m. River
length in a cell has been roughly considered to be equal to the side of the cell size
(2000m), since tracing and measuring the river length in a cell is difficult. Hydraulic
100 |
conductivity of river bed sediments was not characterized and measured in the field,
instead the hydraulic conductivity of the underlying formation has been considered. The
hydraulic conductance of the river bed sediments has been calculated using the relation:
Criv= (K.L.W)/M
Where: Criv is hydraulic conductance of river bed material (m2/d)
K is hydraulic conductivity of the river bed material (m/d)
L is length of the river in the cell (m)
W is width of the river (m)
6.4. Model Simulation and sensitivity analysis

In groundwater flow modeling,equilibrium solution is desired for heads such that inflow
and outflow to and from the aquifer are in a perfect match (Andreson and Woessner,
1992). Due to the limitation of MODFLOW pro, sensitivity analysis using single run
method by multiplying a single parameter zone by a given multiplication factor has been
made to identify the most sensitive parameter among hydraulic conductivity, recharge
and river bed conductance. Doing so, hydraulic conductivity has been identified as the
most sensitive parameter for model calibration.
6.5. Model Calibration and Results

It refers to a demonstration in finding set of parameters (recharge rates, hydraulic
conductivity, specific conductance of river beds), boundary condition and stresses that
the model is capable of producing field measured heads and flows (Kresic,
1997).Calibration target is hydraulic head. Hydraulic conductivity values were used as
calibration parameters.
Manual inverse trial and error method based on head information has been used for
calibration. Field measured water levels or heads at 530 wells were used for head
observation duringcalibration. The final simulation result gives head distribution as
shown below (Figs. 37 and 38).Calibration results are evaluated by using qualitative and
101 |
quantitative performance measures. Qualitatively, calibration results are evaluated using
pattern matching of raster surfaces of measured and simulated headswhich gives very
good match(Fig. 39).
Figure 37. Simulated head distribution in the model domain
102 |
Figure 38.Simulated head distribution with groundwater flow lines.
Figure 39.Comparison between observedand model simulated head patterns.
103 |
Quantitative calibration measures involve statistical lumped sum description of the
average differences of residuals between simulated and measured heads (mean error,
mean absolute error, root mean square error and correlation coefficient).
 The mean error is the mean of the differences between measured heads and
simulated heads.
 The mean absolute error is the mean of the absolute values of the differences
between measured heads and simulated heads.
 The root mean square error is the square root of the averages of the squared
differences between measured heads and simulated heads.
 The correlation coefficient between measured heads and simulated heads
The results for the lumped sum statistical calibration show a good calibration level of
such a regional model in rugged terrain (Table 25). The correlation coefficient (R2 =
0.953) between measured heads and simulated headsis also one of good indicator of
calibration quality (Fig. 40).
Table 25.Summary of lumped sum calibration errors

No Statistical parameters Values, m
1 Mean error -8
2 Mean absolute error 30
3 Root mean square error 39
104 |
Figure 40. Measured versus model simulatedheads
6.6. Water Budget Results

To check the accuracy, MODFLOW calculates a volumetric water budget for the entire
model at the end of each time step. The water budget provides an indication of the overall
acceptability of the numerical solution. Change in storage in water balance approach
close to zero assures calibration quality, for steady state models (Rushton, 2005). The out
flow from and the inflow into the groundwater basin are nearly equal, with percent
discrepancy less than 0.01%. This very low calculated water balance error, assures good
level of the model calibration (Table 26).
6.7. ModelingResult Summary

The water budget calculation gives inflows to and out flows from the system. It also
provides amount of flux between the groundwater basins and relative importance of
components to the total budget.
To estimate flux between the Blue Nile and the Upper Awash basins, water budget
calculation has been made for two sub-regions and for the entire model domain. Sub-
105 |
region-I in the model domain is portion of the Blue Nile basin (Muger and Jema sub-
basins) and sub-region-II is the Upper Awash basin (Figs.38 and 39).
In sub-region-I, recharges from precipitation and river leakage are major components of
inflow to the aquifer system. River leakage contributes smaller proportion. Horizontal
exchange (flux to the Upper Awash basin) and river leakageare major components of the
out flow. Outflow through groundwater abstraction is negligible in this sub-region of the
model domain.
In sub-region-II, recharges from precipitation, horizontal exchange and river leakage in

orderof their significance are major components of inflow to the aquifer system. Head
dependent flow contributes small amount to the system. The outflow is dominantly
through river leakage. Groundwater abstraction by pumping and head dependent flows
contributes to the out flow from the sub-region.
For the entire model domain, recharges from precipitation and river leakage are the major
inflow components. As river leakage is dominant inflow component, it is also the
dominant component of the outflow. Groundwater leaving the aquifer, across the
southeastern general head boundary and abstraction by pumping for domestic, industrial
and agricultural purpose also contribute some proportions to the outflow from the Upper
Awash groundwater basin. The water budget for the two sub-regions and the entire model
domain shows that the Blue Nile portion of the model domain receives a total inflow of
186Mm3 annually. Out of the total, 152Mm3 is an outflow by horizontal exchange that
contributes inflow to the Upper Awash basin and 33Mm3 is an out flow through river
leakage that feeds surface flows of the Muger River through its tributary streams.
A regional groundwater flow model for the Upper Awash groundwater basingives a total
volumetric annual inflow of nearly 590Mm3 into the system of the Upper Awash
groundwater basin. Of the total recharge to the Upper Awash groundwater basin, nearly
26% is an inflow from the Blue Nile basin through horizontal exchange(Table 26).
106 |
Table 26. Summary of annual water budget results (Mm3).
Sub Region: 1 (Blue Nile basin Portion) Inflow Out flow
Horizontal exchange 151.87
Wells 0 1.26
Recharge 182.82 0
River leakage 0.35 32.89
Sum 186.02 186.02
Flux to the Upper Awash
Sub Region: 2 (Upper Awash basin) Inflow Out flow
Horizontal exchange 151.87
Wells 0 63.20
Recharge 288.46 0
River leakage 101.95 452
Head dependant boundary 15.39 39.8
Sum 557.67 557.64
Water Budget of the Entirre Model Domain Inflow Out flow
Wells 0 64.50
Recharge 471.28 0
River leakage 102.30 482.64
Head dependant boundary 15.39 39.82
Sum 588.97 588.94
Discrepancy 0.001%
107 |
Chapter Seven: Conclusions and Recommendations
7.1. Conclusions
Lithostratigraphic set up of the Middle Blue Nile and adjoining Upper Awash basin is so
complex that, the inter-relationships of lithological and structural factors, geomorphic
setting and hydrostratigraphy are difficult to reasonably evaluate. Converging evidences
from geology, geophysics,hydrogeology, hydrogeochemistry, stable and
radioisotopeshave been used to conceptualize the aquifer systems. A simple regional
groundwater flow model has also been used for the Upper Awash groundwater basin to
implement the conceptual model into numerical model and to characterize groundwater
dynamics between the basins. The following are the major conclusions of this study:
1) Geological and geophysical investigations have clearly indicated the distinctive

geometric architecture of the litho-strata of aquifers and aquicludes in the sub-basins.
Such a unique geometry is strongly dependent on the interplay between the tectonic
zones defined by the Yere Tulu Wolel Volcanic Lineament zone and the Main
Ethiopian Rift margin. The regional fault systems dislocated sedimentary rock units
and resulted in fragmentation of sedimentary aquifer systems and forms structural
depressions and adjoining highs prior to the formation of the volcanic rock units.
The horsts defined by the NW-SE trending fault system together with adjoining
highs define the groundwater divide and aquifer distribution within the Middle Blue
Nile basin into Guder, Muger and Jema groundwater sub-basins. The E-W trending
mudstone caped horst defines aquifer distribution between the Middle Blue Nile and
the Upper Awash basins. This impermeable mudstone caped horst located across the
middle of the Muger sub-basin and extending to the southern tip of the Jema sub-
basin forms a barrier to the regional groundwater flow in volcanic aquifers. The
barrier channels the regional groundwater flow in volcanic aquifers to its either side
to the north and south. In this manner, significant portion of the Muger sub-basin
(1770 km2) and small part of the Jema sub-basin (304km2) contribute to recharge the
volcanic aquifer of the Upper Awash basin.
108 |
2) Wide range of recharge estimates to the four sub-basins was obtained from water
balance, chloride mass balance and base flow separation methods. Results from base
flow separation method that utilizes records from more adequate river gauges than
the sparsely distributed meteorological stations better represent recharge distribution
in the area. Due to low analytical precision, together with small number of
precipitation and groundwater samples for chloride analysis, recharge estimates from
chloride mass balance also look less reliable. The overlay analysis made between
base flow values, lineament density and lithology indicated that rock units exposed
along the Yere Tulu Wolel Volcanic Lineament zone and the Main Ethiopian Rift
margin promote more recharge than the rock units exposed away from these zones.
3) Local geomorphic set up, sub-surface configuration of rock units and the interplay
between tectonic structures control depth and pattern of the groundwater movement.
Scale of observation was found important for hydrodynamic characterization in the
area. The groundwater contours for local groundwater flows give flow patterns that
assume surface topography when observed at small catchment or sub-basin level. At
a regional scale, a unique groundwater flow pattern indicative of interbasin
groundwater flow from the Blue Nile to the Upper Awash basin has been observed.
This unique regional groundwater flow pattern, obtained from groundwater level
measurement is in general agreement with the evidence based conceptual model
from geological and geophysical studies.
4) Groundwater evolves from low TDS, CaHCO3 type and negative residual alkalinity
to high TDS, NaHCO3 facies with positive residual alkalinity. However, the unique
spatial distribution of hydrochemical signature has been observed where highly
evolved waters are found along the surface water divide between the Blue Nile and
the Upper Awash basins. The evidence from such evolved waters along the water
divide between the two basins and downstream in the Upper Awash basin
substantiates conceptual groundwater flow model developed from geological,
geophysical and hydrodynamic studies. The high TDS, NaHCO3water types with
positive residual alkalinity located very close to the line limiting surface water flows
109 |
in the southern part of the Guder River also shows recharge area to the Guder sub-
basin aquifer is either from the peripheries within the sub-basin or outside the sub-
basin and could be a subject of further study.
5) The δ18O and δD signature from shallow aquifer systems in all the sub-basins
suggest that the aquifer system is locally recharged from modern precipitations. On
the other hand, the highly depleted waters from deep wells in the Upper Awash and
Guder sub-basins including those located very close to and along the water divide
between the Blue Nile and the Upper Awash basin supports the interbasin
groundwater flow determined from the evidence-based litho-structural model.
6) The radioactive agesshow that recharges to the aquifer systems is dominated by

14
modern waters. Moreover, C modern ages of waters from shallow and deep parts
of unconfined aquifers support the dominance of modern recharge favored by high
lineament density along the Yerer Tulu Wolel Volcanic Lineament zone and the
Main Ethiopian Rift margin. The pre-Holocene waters represent regional aquifers
under confined and semi-confined condition in the Upper Awash basin. The
oldwaters located very close to the water divide between the Blue Nile and the
Upper Awash basin supports the conceptual hydrogeological model which shows
groundwater transfer from the Blue Nile basin to the Upper Awash basin.
222
7) Rn values show that tributary streams of the Awash River that cross the high
lineament density zone flowing through highly permeable rocks have clear
connection with local groundwater flows. In the extreme downstream, the Awash
River is strongly connected to the regional groundwater within the highly fractured
basalts and ignimbrite aquifers. On the other hand, the Awash River and its tributary
streams are poorly connected to the groundwater within poor permeability rocks, at
low lineament density zone.
8) A simple regional groundwater flow model for the Upper Awash groundwater basin
gives a total volumetric annual inflow of 590Mm3 into the system, of which nearly
26% is an inflow from the Blue Nile basin through horizontal exchange (interbasin
110 |
groundwater transfer). On the other hand, significant volume of groundwater
recharge in the Blue Nile portion of the aquifer domain, from local circulation feeds
the Muger River flow through the tributary streams.
In general, the study has provided vital evidence of the complexity of the groundwater
dynamics and aquifer distribution in the volcanic and sedimentary terrains. The study
defined the groundwater flow pattern, the flow boundary, as well as the interbasin
groundwater transfer from the volcanic aquifers of the Blue Nile basin to the Upper
Awash basin.
7.2. Recommendations
 A similar approach to that followed in the current study, i.e., detailed lithostructural
study coupled with all possible methods of hydrogeological investigation has a
paramount importance for better understanding of complex hydrogeological
systems, like those at the Main Ethiopian Rift margins.
 More work at a larger scale is required to differentiate local flows from regional
flows, confined aquifers from unconfined aquifers in the area and to address water
quality issues related to urbanization.
 Hydrogeological characterization of aquifer systems in the rift margin basins and

sub-basins (Guder, Jema and others) need to include investigation for
hydrodynamic relationship of groundwaters with adjacent basins.
 The simple regional groundwater flow model from this work does not have enough
detail to lead decision-making. However, it could serve as a good basis for local and
specific site detail groundwater flow model development in different water supply
and irrigation fields (currently in use or those planned for future use).
111 |
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Appendices
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Appendix 1.Borehole data data
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Appendix 2.Spring data
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Appendix 3.Water quality data
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Appendix 4.Stable isotope data
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Appendix 5.Geophysical survey data
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Appendix 6. Published article
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Groundwater Dynamics in the Left Bank Catchments of the Middle Blue

Nile and the Upper Awash River Basins, Central Ethiopia

The School of Earth Sciences

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree of Doctor

Addis Ababa University

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

School of Graduate Studies

Signed by the Examining Committee

Prof. Tenalem Ayenew _______________ ___________________

___________________________ _______________ ___________________

___________________________ _______________ ___________________

___________________________ _______________ ___________________

Chair of School or graduate Signature Date

Addis Ababa University, 2014

Integrated geological, geophysical, hydrodynamic, hydrogeochemical and environmental

Keywords: Blue Nile, Upper Awash, Interbasin, sub-basins, groundwater dynamics

1.1. Background .................................................................................................................. 1

1.2. Previous Works ............................................................................................................ 2

1.3. Site Description ............................................................................................................ 4

1.4. Objective ...................................................................................................................... 5

1.4.1. General objective ............................................................................................... 5

1.4.2. Specific objectives ............................................................................................. 5

1.5. Methods and Materials ................................................................................................. 6

1.6. Significance of the Research ........................................................................................ 9

2.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 10

2.2. Lithostratigraphy ........................................................................................................ 12

2.2.1. Sedimentary rock units .................................................................................... 12

2.1.2. Volcanic rock units .......................................................................................... 13

2.2. Geological Structures ................................................................................................. 14

2.2.1. Fractures and joints .......................................................................................... 15

2.2.2. Regional fault systems ..................................................................................... 18

3.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 22

3.2. Electrical Signatures along the Profiles ..................................................................... 24

3.3. Correlation between Geo-electric Sections ................................................................ 25

4.1. Data Analysis ............................................................................................................. 31

4.2. Estimation of Hydro-meteorological Variables ......................................................... 35

4.2.1. Potential evapotranspiration ............................................................................ 36

4.2.2. Actual evapotranspiration ................................................................................ 37

4.2.3. Runoff .............................................................................................................. 38

4.2.4. Recharge .......................................................................................................... 39

5.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 51

5.2. Aquifer Hydrodynamic Characteristics ..................................................................... 52

5.2.1. Hydrodynamic data availability and quality .................................................... 52

5.2.2. Hydrogeologic units ........................................................................................ 53

5.2.2.1. Regional aquifers .......................................................................................... 53

5.2.2.2. Regional aquicludes ...................................................................................... 58

5.2.2.3. Groundwater flow barriers............................................................................ 58

5.2.3. Groundwater movement .................................................................................. 58

5.3. Hydrogeochemistry .................................................................................................... 61

5.3.1. Data availability and methods of analysis ....................................................... 62

5.3.2. Geochemical evidences for aquifer hydrodynamic condition ......................... 63

5.3.3. Water quality ................................................................................................... 75

5.4. Isotope Hydrology ..................................................................................................... 76

5.4.1. Water sample collection and analysis methods ............................................... 76

5.4.2. Stable isotopes of oxygen and hydrogen ......................................................... 78

5.4.3. Radio isotopes.................................................................................................. 82

6.2. Conceptual Model ...................................................................................................... 91

6.3. Numerical Model ....................................................................................................... 93

6.3.1. Model selection................................................................................................ 93

6.3.2. Spatial model discretization............................................................................. 93

6.3.3. Boundary conditions ........................................................................................ 93

6.3.4. Input parameters and flow packages ............................................................... 94

6.4. Model Simulation and sensitivity analysis .............................................................. 101

Prof. Tenalem Ayenew _ _____

___________________ _ _____________

___________________ _ _____________

___________________ _ _____________