Clinical Research

Types of Research

I. Observational
A. Case Series
o observes and describes subjects
o can take place over a defined period or at an instant in time
o is purely analytical and requires no research hypotheses
o is commonly used to identify interesting observations for future research or
planning
B. Case-Control
o Selects subjects on the basis of a presence (cases) and absence (controls) of an
outcome or disease
o looks back in time to find variables and risk factors that differ between groups
o can attempt to determine the relationship between the exposure to risk factors
(or any measured variable) and the disease
o Main Issue: Confounding Variables
C. Cross-Sectional
o Identifies a population or sub-population rather than individuals
o takes place at a point in time or over a (relatively) short period
o can measure a range of variables across groups at the same time
o is often conducted in the form of a survey
o can be a quick, easy and a cost effective way of collecting information
o Main Issue: Response Bias, Weak link to causality
D. Cohort
o Begins by identifying subjects (the cohort) with a common trait such as a disease
or risk factor
o observes a cohort over time
o can be conducted retrospectively or prospectively
- Retrospective: existing data to identify a population and exposure
status. Since we are looking back in time both the exposure and
outcome have already occurred before the start of the investigation
- Prospective: identifies subjects comprising a cohort and their exposure
status at the beginning of the study. They are followed over time to see
whether the outcome (disease) develops or not
II. Experimental

- Contains control groups, intervention, blinding, randomization

Meta-Analysis

 Uses pre-existing research studies and combines their statistical results to draw an overall
conclusion
 Centers around a common measurement such as finding an average or mean
 is useful for combining individual studies of inadequate size or power to strengthen results
 Uses inclusion and exclusion criteria to select papers to be analyzed

Systematic Review

 Summarizes a comprehensive amount of published research

 helps you find a definite word on a research question
 can include a meta-analysis
 can use frameworks such as the PRISMA to structure the review

Data Types

Descriptive Statistics