coatings
Article
Effect of Laser Shock Peening on the Fatigue Life of
1Cr12Ni3Mo2VN Steel for Steam Turbine Blades
Zhuolin Tang 1 , Jiashun Gao 2 , Zhilong Xu 1, *, Bicheng Guo 1 , Qingshan Jiang 1 , Xiuyu Chen 1 ,
Jianchun Weng 1 , Bo Li 1 , Junying Chen 1 and Zhenye Zhao 1
Citation: Tang, Z.; Gao, J.; Xu, Z.;
Guo, B.; Jiang, Q.; Chen, X.; Weng, J.;
Li, B.; Chen, J.; Zhao, Z. Effect of
Laser Shock Peening on the Fatigue
Life of 1Cr12Ni3Mo2VN Steel for
Steam Turbine Blades. Coatings 2023,
13, 1524. https://doi.org/10.3390/
coatings13091524
Academic Editor: Michał Kulka
Received: 26 July 2023
Revised: 18 August 2023
Accepted: 28 August 2023
Published: 30 August 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Coatings 2023, 13, 1524. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings13091524
1 College of Marine Equipment and Mechanical Engineering, Jimei University, Xiamen 361000, China;
a1710928140@163.com (Z.T.); guobicheng@jmu.edu.cn (B.G.); 15392169726@163.com (Q.J.);
jdcxy@126.com (X.C.); gingerwjc@163.com (J.W.); libojmu@163.com (B.L.); chenjunying@jmu.edu.cn (J.C.);
jmuzzy@163.com (Z.Z.)
2 College of Marine Engineering, Jimei University, Xiamen 361000, China; gaoshunjia@163.com
* Correspondence: zlx@jmu.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-130-5522-7893
Abstract: In the present study, laser shock peening (LSP) was employed to enhance the rotating bending
fatigue life of 1Cr12Ni3Mo2VN martensitic stainless steel used in steam turbine blades, addressing
the issue of insufficient fatigue performance in these components. The aim of this study was to
investigate the effect of LSP on the microhardness, residual stress, and rotating bending fatigue life of
1Cr12Ni3Mo2VN steel samples. The microhardness of LSP-treated samples was increased by 10.5%
(LSP-3J sample) and 15.3% (LSP-4J sample), respectively, compared to high-frequency hardening
samples. The residual compressive stress of the LSP-4J sample was the largest, reaching −689 MPa,
and the affected layer depth was about 800 µm. Fatigue tests showed that the number of cycles at the
fracture point for the LSP-3J and LSP-4J samples increased by 163% and 233%, respectively. The fatigue
fracture morphology of the four samples showed that the microhardness and residual compressive
stress distribution introduced by LSP could effectively inhibit the initiation of surface cracks, slow
down the crack growth rate, and improve the rotating bending fatigue life of 1Cr12Ni3Mo2VN.
Keywords: laser shock peening; martensitic stainless steel; rotating bending fatigue life
1. Introduction
As an important part of the energy industry, electricity has become an important support
for people’s daily lives and social production. Steam turbines are one of the key equipment
in a power plant, and the steam turbine blade is the key component in the steam turbine that
converts the thermal energy of high temperature steam into mechanical energy [1]. However,
sporadic incidents of turbine blade failures have led to power plant shutdowns and significant
financial losses [2–5]. Failure analysis of many low-pressure last-stage blades of steam
turbines revealed that these blades experienced the combined effects of huge centrifugal
forces, alternating steam loads, and vibrations during service [6–11]. Therefore, the blade
material must possess good toughness, strength, and corrosion resistance to withstand such
complex service environments. Martensitic heat-resistant stainless steel [12] is commonly
used for steam turbine blades due to its high strength, good ductility, toughness, and
corrosion resistance. However, the actual service life of blades fabricated from this material
still does not meet expectations. For example, Yuwei W. et al. [13] found fatigue cracks in 80
out of 98 low-pressure, final-stage blades from a steam turbine operating for less than two
years. Adnyana D.N. et al. [14] documented that the failure of steam turbines within a few
years was due to the cracks in the blades under the combined action of cavitation erosion
and fatigue. Krechkovska H. et al. [8] attributed premature blade failure to fatigue cracks at
the blade edges, leading to a change in the intrinsic oscillation frequency of the blade and
resulting in resonant overload. Hence, specific processes and methods are needed to improve
the fatigue performance of blade materials and ensure their safety during use.
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/coatings
Coatings 2023, 13, 1524 2 of 14

Many theoretical studies have shown that various mechanical surface treatment tech-
niques can significantly improve fatigue life by altering surface hardness and residual stress
to inhibit the generation of cracks, including shot peening, surface carburizing, ultrasonic
surface rolling processing, laser shock peening, etc. [15–17]. While shot peening enhances
the fatigue properties of metallic materials through work-hardening effects and the intro-
duction of residual compressive stresses, it may also induce the formation of microcracks
on the material’s surface due to the introduction of large depths of residual stress lay-
ers [18–20]. Similarly, low-temperature carburizing enhances fatigue performance through
residual compressive stresses, but may result in stress relaxation due to the formation
of microcracks in the outermost layer [21]. Ultrasonic surface rolling processing [22,23],
an advanced surface modification technology, can form a gradient nanostructure on the
metal surface to provide superior mechanical properties and enhance material fatigue
life. However, due to its structure and principle, it may not be adaptable for complex
structural workpieces, such as curved components. As a frontal surface strengthening
technology, laser shock peening reduces the growth rate of fatigue cracks by introducing
high residual compressive stress [24,25]. Moreover, it improves the fatigue life of metals by
enhancing their surface integrity [26]. For example, Li X. et al. [27] found that the residual
compressive stress induced by laser shock peening suppressed the initiation of cracks
by reducing the effective stress intensity factor and improved the fatigue performance
of U75VG steel track welded joints. Compared to shot peening, laser shock peening can
introduce greater residual compressive stress and a deeper residual stress-affected layer
of more than 1 mm [28]. Compared with surface carburizing, laser shock peening does
not compromise the material’s corrosion resistance [29]. Furthermore, laser shock peening
is more suitable for strengthening curved surface components such as aviation blades
than ultrasonic surface rolling processing [30]. Considering the advantages of LSP over
other strengthening methods, researchers have applied LSP to steam turbine blades. For
example, simulation and experimental investigations by Fameso F [31] revealed that the
energy intensity of LSP was the main influencing factor for increasing the residual stress in
blade materials. In addition, Sundar R [32] found that the depth of the residual stress layer
generated in the blade root after LSP treatment was more than 900 µm. However, though
the blade material introduced a large residual stress after LSP, researchers [31–34] did not
perform fatigue experiments on the strengthened blade material to verify its fatigue life,
indicating the need for further research on the influence of LSP.
1Cr12Ni3Mo2VN is a martensitic heat-resistant stainless steel with better high-temperature
oxidation resistance and performance stability than ordinary martensitic stainless steel, which
is mainly used for the manufacturing of the final-stage blades of the 1000 MW supercritical
unit steam turbine [12]. However, the blades made of it had experienced failure prematurely.
Therefore, the failure mode of the blade made of 1Cr12Ni3Mo2VN steel was studied by failure
detection and simulation analysis in this study. Secondly, aiming at the failure mode, the LSP
experiments were designed. The mechanism of LSP to the fatigue life of 1Cr12Ni3Mo2VN
steel was investigated by performing a rotating bending fatigue test and fracture morphology
detection. The purpose of this study is to apply LSP to steam turbine blade materials, and its
effect on improving the fatigue life of 1Cr12Ni3Mo2VN steel is verified, which provides a solid
theoretical basis for the development of high-performance turbine blades.

2. Failure Analysis of Steam Turbine Blades

2.1. Analysis of Blade Fracture Morphology
In this study, the blade that experienced failure was composed of 1Cr12Ni3Mo2VN
stainless steel and had been in service for approximately 35,000 h. Starting from the sixth
year of operation of the steam turbine, cracks were discovered on the inlet edge of 16 out of
94 low-pressure final stage blades, situated 100–140 mm away from the blade shroud band.
Figure 1 displays one of the aforementioned failed blades and indicates the position of the
crack, and the height of the blade is about 909 mm.
 stainless steel
In this and had
study, been in
the blade service
that for approximately
experienced failure was35,000 h. Starting
composed from the sixth
of 1Cr12Ni3Mo2VN
year
stainless steel and had been in service for approximately 35,000 h. Starting fromof
of operation of the steam turbine, cracks were discovered on the inlet edge the 16sixth
out
of 94 of
year low-pressure
operation offinal stage blades,
the steam turbine,situated 100–140
cracks were mm away
discovered on from the edge
the inlet bladeofshroud
16 out
band. Figure 1 displays one of the aforementioned failed blades and indicates
of 94 low-pressure final stage blades, situated 100–140 mm away from the blade shroud the position
Coatings 2023, 13, 1524 of the crack,
band. Figureand the height
1 displays one of
of the
the blade is about 909
aforementioned mm.blades and indicates the
failed 3 ofposition
14
of the crack, and the height of the blade is about 909 mm.

Figure 1. Failed final stage rotor blade (unit: mm).

Figure 1. Failed
Figure final
1. Failed finalstage
stagerotor blade(unit:
rotor blade (unit:mm).
mm).
The fracture, which was 130 mm from the blade tip, was observed under the Cross-
beamThe550
The Zeiss
fracture,
fracture, scanning
which was
which electron
was 130 mm
130 mmmicroscope
from
fromthe (Oberkochen,
theblade
bladetip,tip,
waswas German),
observed
observed and
under thethe
under fracture
Cross-
the Cross-
beam
morphology550
beam 550 Zeiss Zeiss
is shownscanning
scanning electron
in Figure
electron microscope
2. Fatigue
microscope (Oberkochen,
signs(Oberkochen,
were observed German), and
based on
German), the
and fracture
these
the fracture
fracture
morphology
surfaces.
morphology isisshown
Macroscopic shownobservation
in Figure 2. Fatigue
in Figure 2. of Fatigue signs were
the crack were observed
signsfracture shown
observed based
in on these2afracture
Figure
based on these revealed
fracturea
surfaces. Macroscopic observation of the crack fracture shown in Figure 2a revealed a crack
crack initiation
surfaces. region, observation
Macroscopic crack propagation region,fracture
of the crack and transient
shown crack region.
in Figure Figure 2ba
2a revealed
initiation region, crack propagation region, and transient crack region. Figure 2b was a
was
cracka magnified
initiation observation
region, of crack of the yellow
propagation elliptical area b in Figure 2a that revealed
Figurethe
magnified observation the yellow ellipticalregion,
area b inand transient
Figure crack region.
2a that revealed the fracture 2b
fracture
was a as a
magnifieddeconstruction
observation step
of with
the secondary
yellow cracks
elliptical area and
b in fatigue
Figure
as a deconstruction step with secondary cracks and fatigue strips. The fracture morphology strips.
2a that The fracture
revealed the
morphology
fracture
of the as a of
blade the bladethat
deconstruction
indicated indicated
step
the that
with
cracks the cracks
secondary
gradually gradually
cracks
expanded andexpanded
due fatigue
to dueof to
strips.
the action Thethefracture
obvious action
of obvious
morphology
alternatingalternating
of the and
loads, loads,
blade and mode
theindicated
failure thethat
failure
the mode
of the of the blade
cracksfracture
blade gradually fracture was
expanded
was fatigue. duefatigue.
to the action
of obvious alternating loads, and the failure mode of the blade fracture was fatigue.

Figure 2. SEM
Figure 2. SEMimage
imageofofthe
theblade
bladefracture. (a) Macroscopic
fracture. (a) Macroscopic fracture
fracture morphology;
morphology; (b) high
(b) high magnified
magnified
view of 2.
view
Figure fatigue
ofSEM
fatiguecharacteristic
characteristic
image in
of the bladein the
the marked(a)
marked
fracture. area
area b binin (a). fracture morphology; (b) high magnified
(a).
Macroscopic
view
2.2.ofSimulation
fatigue characteristic in the marked
Analysis of Alternating Loadarea b in (a).
2.2. Simulation Analysis of Alternating Load
In Section 2.1, the fracture morphology of the blade indicated that the failure mode of
2.2.the
Simulation
Section Analysis
Inlow-pressure,
2.1,last-stageof Alternating
the fracture Load
blademorphology of theConsidering
was due to fatigue. blade indicated that the
that fatigue failure mode
characteriza-
of the
tionslow-pressure,
In such
Section last-stage
2.1, the
as fatigue fracture
striation blade was
morphology
in Figure due to fatigue.
2 and theofsteam
the blade Considering
turbineindicated
blades arethatthat fatigue
thesubjected
mainly failure charac-
mode
terizations
of the suchforce
to centrifugal
low-pressure,as fatigue
and
last-stagestriation
alternating
blade inwas
steam Figure
loads 2toand
dueduring the steam
operation,
fatigue. itturbine blades
can be inferred
Considering that arethe
that
fatigue mainly
charac-
alternating
subjected
terizations steam
tosuch as load
centrifugal
fatigue played
force a significant
and
striation alternatingrole steam
in Figure in causing
2 and the the
loads fatigue
during
steam failure
operation,
turbine of the
blades blade.
itare
canmainly
be in-
Therefore,
ferred
subjected thatto simulations
the alternating
centrifugal of stresses
steam
force and
andload strains of alternating
played asteam
alternating significant steam
loadsrole
during loads were
in causing
operation, performed
the itfatigue
can befail-
in-
ure on
of the
the blade
blade.model using Abaqus.
Therefore, simulationsThe ofresearch
stressesobject
and was 1Cr12Ni3Mo2VN,
strains of alternating the
steamlow-loads
ferred that the alternating steam load played a significant role in causing the fatigue fail-
pressure, last-stage moving blade steel of the steam turbine. According to the requirements
were performed
ureofofGB/T
the blade. on the simulations
Therefore, blade model using Abaqus.
of stresses and strainsThe research object
of alternating steam loadswas
8732-2014 for blades made of martensitic steel [35], the mechanical properties
1Cr12Ni3Mo2VN,
were the
performed on steel
of 1Cr12Ni3Mo2VN
low-pressure,
the areblade last-stage
shownmodel
in Tableusing
moving
1. TheAbaqus.
blade steel of
The research
elastic modulus
the steam
was 198 GPa,
turbine.
object
the was
According
1Cr12Ni3Mo2VN, to the requirements
the of
low-pressure, GB/T 8732-2014
last-stage for
movingblades
3 made
blade of
steel
Poisson’s ratio was 0.3, and the density was 7800 kg/m . In the simulation calculation, martensitic
of the steam steel [35],
turbine.
According to thethat
it is assumed requirements
the materials ofare
GB/T 8732-2014
isotropic [36]. for
Theblades made
simplified of martensitic
model of the blade steel
is [35],
discretized into 203,002 nodes and 185,678 grid cells using Hypermesh 2021 software, of
which 175,181 are hexagonal grid cells and 10,497 are pentagonal grid cells. The edge
length of the smallest grid cell is 1.32 mm, which is less than the minimum thickness of the
inlet side of 2 mm. The mesh was imported into Abaqus, the completely fixed boundary
conditions were set at the bottom of the wheel in the simplified model, and the contact
 the mechanical properties of 1Cr12Ni3Mo2VN steel are shown in Table 1. The elastic mod-
ulus was 198 GPa, the Poisson’s ratio was 0.3, and the density was 7800 kg/m3. In the sim-
ulation calculation, it is assumed that the materials are isotropic [36]. The simplified model
of the blade is discretized into 203,002 nodes and 185,678 grid cells using Hypermesh 2021
Coatings 2023, 13, 1524 software, of which 175,181 are hexagonal grid cells and 10,497 are pentagonal grid 4cells.of 14
The edge length of the smallest grid cell is 1.32 mm, which is less than the minimum thick-
ness of the inlet side of 2 mm. The mesh was imported into Abaqus, the completely fixed
boundary conditions were set at the bottom of the wheel in the simplified model, and the
pairs were established at the contact surface of the blade and the wheel. An alternating
contact pairs were established at the contact surface of the blade and the wheel. An alter-
steam load with a pressure of 0.3 MPa on the positive arc surface was applied.
nating steam load with a pressure of 0.3 MPa on the positive arc surface was applied.
Table 1. Mechanical properties of 1Cr12Ni3Mo2VN steel.
Table 1. Mechanical properties of 1Cr12Ni3Mo2VN steel.
Tensile
TensileStrength,
Strength, Yield Yield
Strength,
Strength, Elongation,
Elongation, Reduction of Area,
Reduction of Area, Impact,
Impact, Hardness,
Hardness,
Rm (MPa) Rp0.2(MPa) ∆ (%) A (%) Kv2 (J) HB
Rm (MPa) Rp0.2(MPa) Δ (%) A (%) Kv2 (J) HB
≥1100
≥1100 ≥860 ≥860 ≥13 ≥13 40 40 ≥ 54
≥54 ≤331–363
≤331–363

The simulation results of alternating stress and strain of the simplified simplified model are
shown in Figure 3. As shown shown in Figure 3, regarding the increase of steam pressure in a
single cycle,
single cycle,the
thestress
stressand
and logarithmic
logarithmic strain
strain values
values at inlet
at the the inlet
edgeedge
near near
the tipthe
of tip
the of the
blade
blade (120–260
(120–260 mm) weremm)the were the largest.
largest. If the supporting
If the supporting effect
effect of of the wire
the lacing lacing wireconsidered,
were were con-
sidered,
the the maximum
maximum stress position
stress position would move would movetoward
further further the
toward
bladethe blade
tip, tip, coincid-
coinciding with
the
ing actual
with thecrack initiation
actual position. position.
crack initiation Combining the SEM the
Combining morphology of the crack
SEM morphology fracture
of the crack
of the blade
fracture (Figure
of the blade 2) and the
(Figure simulation
2) and results of
the simulation the blade’s
results alternating
of the blade’s load, itload,
alternating was
concluded that due
it was concluded to due
that the alternating stress ofstress
to the alternating the blade
of theduring the rotation
blade during process,process,
the rotation fatigue
cracks
fatiguecould
crackseasily
couldform in form
easily the inlet edge
in the of edge
inlet the blade
of the100–140 mm away
blade 100–140 mm from
away thefrom
shroud
the
band, leading to failure. Therefore, LSP was performed on the blade
shroud band, leading to failure. Therefore, LSP was performed on the blade material, and material, and the
alternating loadload
the alternating waswasequivalent to the
equivalent to rotational bending
the rotational loadload
bending to explore the effect
to explore of LSP
the effect of
on
LSPthe
onrotational bending
the rotational fatigue
bending life oflife
fatigue 1Cr12Ni3Mo2VN.
of 1Cr12Ni3Mo2VN.

Figure 3.
3. (a) The stress distribution cloud diagram of the blade; (b) the
the strain
strain distribution
distribution cloud
cloud
diagram of the blade.
diagram of the blade.

3.
3. Experimental
Experimental Methods
Methods
The
The experimental
experimental work
work plan
plan is
is shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 4.
4. The
The 1Cr12Ni3Mo2VN
1Cr12Ni3Mo2VN samplesample was
was
pretreated and subjected to high-frequency hardening (HFH); then, two
pretreated and subjected to high-frequency hardening (HFH); then, two high-frequencyhigh-frequency
hardening
hardening samples
samples were
were selected
selected for
for laser
laser shock
shock peening.
peening. The
The untreated,
untreated, HFH,
HFH, and
and LSP
LSP
samples were prepared by wire cutting, and the residual stress and hardness were
samples were prepared by wire cutting, and the residual stress and hardness were meas- measured,
respectively. At the At
ured, respectively. samethetime,
samethe fourthe
time, samples of samples
four samples were subjected
of samples to the rotating
were subjected to the
ngs 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW bending fatigue test, the experimental results were recorded, and the 5 of 15morphology
fracture
rotating bending fatigue test, the experimental results were recorded, and the fracture
was analyzed.
morphology was analyzed.

Figure 4. Experimental work program.

Figure 4. Experimental work program.

3.1. Material 3.1.

and Material and Sample Preparation
Sample Preparation
In this study, Inthe
thissteam
study,turbine
the steam turbine
blade blade1Cr12Ni3Mo2VN
material material 1Cr12Ni3Mo2VN steel was selected as
steel was selected
as the research object. After electric furnace smelting and electroslag remelting, it wasit was forged
the research object. After electric furnace smelting and electroslag remelting,
forged into a Φ16 mm round bar. According to the reference standard GB/T 8732-2014
[35], the main chemical compositions of 1Cr12Ni3Mo2VN steel is shown in Table 2. All
samples were quenched and tempered, and their mechanical properties are shown in Ta-
ble 1. Part of the quenched and tempered sample was treated using high-frequency hard-
Coatings 2023, 13, 1524
Figure 4. Experimental work program. 5 of 14

3.1. Material and Sample Preparation

In this study, the steam turbine blade material 1Cr12Ni3Mo2VN steel was selected
into a Φ16 mm round bar. According to the reference standard GB/T 8732-2014 [35], the
as the research object. After electric furnace smelting and electroslag remelting, it was
main chemical compositions of 1Cr12Ni3Mo2VN steel is shown in Table 2. All samples
forged into a Φ16 mm round bar. According to the reference standard GB/T 8732-2014
were quenched and tempered, and their mechanical properties are shown in Table 1. Part of
[35],
the the mainand
quenched chemical
temperedcompositions
sample wasoftreated
1Cr12Ni3Mo2VN steel is shown
using high-frequency in Table
hardening 2. All
to make
samples were quenched
its hardness reach 45 HRC. and tempered, and their mechanical properties are shown in Ta-
ble 1. Part of the quenched and tempered sample was treated using high-frequency hard-
ening2.toThe
Table make
mainits hardness
chemical reach 45 HRC.
compositions of 1Cr12Ni3Mo2VN steel (wt.%).
In accordance with the ISO 1143 standard [37] for rotating bending fatigue testing of
C Si Mn P
metal materials, S
the dimensions Crthe fatigue
of Nisample size Mo(Figure 5)Nwere measured V in
0.1~0.17 <0.3 millimeters.
0.5~0.9 All
<0.02 fatigue samples
<0.015 were
11~12.75 soaked in
2~3 industrial ethanol,
1.5~2 and the
0.01~0.05 surface was
0.25~0.4
cleaned by ultrasonic waves to reduce experimental errors. Five samples were prepared
for each sample in different processes, three of which were used for fatigue experiments.
In accordance
Another was used with the
to test ISO
the 1143 standard
residual [37] for
stress along the rotating bending
radial depth fatigue
at the smalltesting
diameterof
metal materials, the dimensions of the fatigue sample size (Figure 5) were measured in
of the sample, and the remaining one was used to measure the microhardness along the
millimeters. All fatigue samples were soaked in industrial ethanol, and the surface was
radial depth at the small diameter of the sample.
cleaned by ultrasonic waves to reduce experimental errors. Five samples were prepared
for each
Table sample
2. The mainin different
chemical processes,ofthree
compositions of which were
1Cr12Ni3Mo2VN used
steel for fatigue experiments.
(wt.%).
Another was used to test the residual stress along the radial depth at the small diameter
C Si Mn
of the sample, P and the remaining
S one Crwas used toNi measure the MomicrohardnessN alongV the
0.1~0.17 <0.3 radial depth
0.5~0.9 at the small<0.015
<0.02 diameter of the sample. 2~3
11~12.75 1.5~2 0.01~0.05 0.25~0.4

Figure5.5.Schematic
Figure Schematicdiagram
diagramof
ofsample
samplesize
size(unit:
(unit:mm).
mm).

3.2.
3.2. LSP
LSP Principle
Principle and
and Process
Process
The ◦ C). The LAMBER-12
TheLSP
LSPexperiment
experiment waswas carried
carried out
outatatroom
roomtemperature
temperature(25
(25 °C). The LAMBER-12
pulsed
pulsed laser system (Beijing, China) with an output wavelength of 1064 nm
laser system (Beijing, China) with an output wavelength of 1064 nm was
was used
usedto
to
perform LSP treatment on two HFH samples. When the laser beam irradiated the absorbing
perform LSP treatment on two HFH samples. When the laser beam irradiated the absorb-
layer on the surface of the sample, the generated plasma rapidly expanded to form a high-
ing layer on the surface of the sample, the generated plasma rapidly expanded to form a
pressure shock wave, which was propagated into the material through the action of the
high-pressure shock wave, which was propagated into the material through the action of
constraining layer, causing the surface of the material to undergo plastic deformation to
the constraining layer, causing the surface of the material to undergo plastic deformation
obtain residual compressive stress. When the laser-induced plasma shock wave acts on the
to obtain residual compressive stress. When the laser-induced plasma shock wave acts on
surface of the specimen and the peak pressure of the shock wave satisfies the Hugoniot
the surface of the specimen and the peak pressure of the shock wave satisfies the Hugoniot
elastic limit of 2.0 to 2.5 times, the best impact effect can be obtained [38]. The dynamic
elastic limit σHEL of the material is expressed as:

1−υ
σHEL = σ0 (1)
1 − 2υ
In Equation (1): υ is Poisson’s ratio, and υ is taken as 0.3; σ0 is the yield strength
of material, and it is 800 MPa. The dynamic elastic limit of 1Cr12Ni3Mo2VN steel is
1400 MPa, calculated in Equation (1). The laser energies were based on the laser energy
range derived from the peak pressure equation for laser-induced plasma shock waves
studied by Fabbro et al. [39]. The peak pressure Pmax of the laser-induced plasma shock
wave is:
α √ p
r
Pmax = 0.01 Z I0 (2)
2α + 3
 In Equation (1): υ is Poisson’s ratio, and υ is taken as 0.3; σ0 is the yield strength of
material, and it is 800 MPa. The dynamic elastic limit of 1Cr12Ni3Mo2VN steel is 1400
MPa, calculated in Equation (1). The laser energies were based on the laser energy range
derived from the peak pressure equation for laser-induced plasma shock waves studied
by Fabbro et al. [39]. The peak pressure Pmax of the laser-induced plasma shock wave is:
Coatings 2023, 13, 1524 6 of 14
𝛼
𝑃 0.01 √𝑍 𝐼 (2)
2𝛼 3
InEquation
In Equation (2),
(2), α is the efficiency
efficiency of oflaser-induced
laser-inducedplasma plasmainteraction
interactionwith
withthe sample,
the sam-
andand
ple, α is taken as 0.2;asZ0.2;
α is taken is the composite
Z is acoustic
the composite impedance
acoustic of the confining
impedance layer medium
of the confining layer
and the and
specimen, 3.2it×is10
and it isand 5 2 ·s; I2 is the laser power density, its unit is
medium the specimen, 3.2 ×g/cm
105 g/cm 0·s; I0 is the laser power density, its unit
GW/cm 2 . According to 2σ < P < 2.5σ and Equation(1), (1),the
thepeak
peakpressure
pressurerange
range
is GW/cm . According to 2σHEL
2 HEL < Pmax < 2.5σHEL
max HELand Equation
of the 1Cr12Ni3Mo2VN steel material can be obtained
of the 1Cr12Ni3Mo2VN steel material can be obtained as 2800 MPa ≤ Pmax ≤maxas 2800 MPa ≤ P ≤
3500 MPa.MPa.
3500 The
The pulse energy W is calculated
pulse energy W is calculated as follows: as follows:

𝐷D2 ·𝐼I0 ·τ𝜏·π𝜋

𝑊W= (3)
(3)
44
In
InEquation
Equation(3),(3),DDisisthe
the laser
laser spot
spot diameter;
diameter; ττ isis the
the pulse
pulse width.
width. Therefore,
Therefore,during
during
LSP
LSP treatment, parameters were set as follows: a pulse width of 10 ns, alaser
treatment, parameters were set as follows: a pulse width of 10 ns, a laserbeam
beamwith
with
aadiameter
diameter of 3 mm, a pulse energy of 3 J and 4 J, and a repetition rate of 1 Hz. TheLSP
of 3 mm, a pulse energy of 3 J and 4 J, and a repetition rate of 1 Hz. The LSP
schematic
schematicdiagram
diagramisisshown
shown inin Figure
Figure6. Black glueglue
6. Black withwith
a thickness of 0.13
a thickness ofmm0.13was
mmused
was
as the as
used absorbing layer, layer,
the absorbing and a andwater layer with
a water layerawith
thickness of 2 mm
a thickness of 2was
mmusedwas as theas
used con-
the
straining layer to prevent the surface of the sample from being
constraining layer to prevent the surface of the sample from being ablated. ablated.

Schematicdiagram
Figure6.6.Schematic
Figure diagramof
ofLSP.
LSP.

3.3. Surface Integrity Measurements

Microhardness was measured using a FALCON 500 Vickers microhardness tester
(Maastricht, The Netherlands) with a test load of 100 g and a dwell period of 10 s. Cross-
sections of the LSP samples (the yellow area in Figure 6) in the minimum diameter (Φ6 mm)
were prepared for coarse grinding, precise grinding, and polishing.
A high-power HDS-I X-ray diffraction residual stress tester (Handan, China) equipped
with a high-precision Cr target was used to measure the residual stress on the surface of
the sample. The residual stress was measured using the roll fixed Ψ method, and the Ψ
angles were 0◦ and 45◦ . The scanning start angle and end angle of 2θ are 159◦ and 149◦ ,
respectively. The residual stress in the axial direction of different depths was measured
using the electrolytic polishing method, and the area at the minimum diameter (Φ6 mm)
of the sample was taken as the electrolytic area. The black tape was used to protect the
Coatings 2023, 13, 1524 7 of 14

non-measurement area of the arc section, which was conducive to the depth positioning of
the electrolytic area by the micrometer. Layer by layer Electro-polishing was carried out at
a voltage of 15 V using a saturated NaCl solution. The layer removal size was 25 µm in the
first 200 µm depths to get more detailed stress information of the subsurface. Then, the
spacing increased from 50 µm to 100 µm in the depth range of 200–1000 µm.

3.4. Rotating Bending Fatigue Tests

According to the ISO 1143 rotating bar bending fatigue test method, four samples
were tested using QBWP-6000J supported beam rotating bending fatigue testing machine
(Changchun, China). At room temperature (25 ◦ C), the loading force was set to 70 N,
the cycle frequency was 50 Hz, and the stress ratio was −1. The number of cycles of all
fatigue samples under the specified stress conditions was recorded. At least 3 samples were
prepared for each set of experiments to reduce errors. Four sets of fracture samples were
prepared using the wire electric discharge method and subsequently ultrasonically cleaned
with alcohol to prepare scanning electron microscope samples. The fracture surfaces of all
fatigue fractures were observed by a Crossbeam 550 Zeiss SEM at 10–15 kV.

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. Microhardness Distribution
Coatings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 15
It is now understood that the microhardness of a material is one of the indicators that
affect its fatigue life [40]. The microhardness distributions of samples in different processes
are shown
to 100 MPa in Figure
after 50 µm; 7. this
It can be seen that
phenomenon wasthat
duethe
to microhardness
the finishing andofpolishing
the untreated sample
processes
fluctuated
during the between
preparation 540 phase
HV0.1 of
and 550
the HV0.1 [26,42].
sample after high-frequency
In addition, thehardening. After LSP,
surface residual
the surface
stresses hardness
of LSP-3J and of the impact-strengthened
LSP-4J samples reached −646.7 samples
MPa andunder
−689different laser energies
MPa, respectively.
increased by 10.5% (LSP-3J sample) and 15.3% (LSP-4J sample) compared
With increasing depth, the residual stress in the LSP-4J sample gradually approaches with the
theHFH
sample. As of
stress level depicted by the blue
the material’s curve
matrix (LSP-3J sample)
at approximately 800and
µm,the green curve (LSP-4J
corresponding sample),
to its micro-
hardness
the distribution.
microhardness Compared
gradually to the with
decreased untreated and HFH
increased depthsamples, the approached
and finally LSP-treated the
sampleshardness
matrix exhibitedofsignificantly
the HFH sample.larger residual compressive
The surface hardnessstress
of theon the surface
LSP-4J samplelayer.
was the
Moreover,
highest thisHV
(628.5 residual compressive
0.1 ), and stress
the affected extended
layer depth was to aabout
depth800
of approximately
µm. As shown800 µm. 7,
in Figure
However,
LSP couldassignificantly
the depth increased,
increasethethegradient of the residual
microhardness of thecompressive stress and
material surface became
form a
smaller, gradually
hardness decreasingoftowards
field of hundreds micronstheonsubstrate level.
the surface.

Figure 7.
Figure 7. Microhardness
Microhardnessdistribution
distributionofofdifferent processes.
different processes.

4.2. Residual Stress Distribution

It has been established that the laser-induced shock wave creates a residual compres-
sive stress on the material’s surface during the LSP process. This residual compressive
 hardness distribution. Compared to the untreated and HFH samples, the LSP-treated
samples exhibited significantly larger residual compressive stress on the surface layer.
Moreover, this residual compressive stress extended to a depth of approximately 800 µm.
However, as the depth increased, the gradient of the residual compressive stress became
smaller, gradually decreasing towards the substrate level.
Coatings 2023, 13, 1524 8 of 14

stress effectively counteracts tensile stresses and works in conjunction with the surface
hardening layer to prevent the initiation and propagation of fatigue cracks [41]. The resid-
ual stress distribution of samples in different processes is shown in Figure 8. The residual
compressive stresses on the surface of the untreated sample and the HFH sample were
−240 MPa and −360 MPa, respectively, and gradually fluctuated in the range of −80 MPa
to 100 MPa after 50 µm; this phenomenon was due to the finishing and polishing processes
during the preparation phase of the sample [26,42]. In addition, the surface residual stresses
of LSP-3J and LSP-4J samples reached −646.7 MPa and −689 MPa, respectively. With in-
creasing depth, the residual stress in the LSP-4J sample gradually approaches the stress
level of the material’s matrix at approximately 800 µm, corresponding to its microhardness
distribution. Compared to the untreated and HFH samples, the LSP-treated samples ex-
hibited significantly larger residual compressive stress on the surface layer. Moreover, this
residual compressive stress extended to a depth of approximately 800 µm. However, as the
depth increased, the gradient of the residual compressive stress became smaller, gradually
decreasing towards the substrate level.
Figure 7. Microhardness distribution of different processes.

Figure 8. Residual stress distribution of different processes.

Figure 8. Residual stress distribution of different processes.
4.3. Fatigue Life
4.3. Fatigue Life
The rotating bending fatigue test was conducted on the untreated, HFH, and LSP
TheThese
samples. rotating bending
samples fatigue test
were subjected was conducted
to cycling on the untreated,
at room temperature HFH,
(25 °C) with a loadand LSP
samples. These samples were subjected to cycling at room temperature (25 ◦ C) with a load
of 70 N until they experienced failure. As shown in Figure 9, the average fatigue lives of
the untreated samples, the HFH samples, LSP-3J samples, and LSP-4J samples were 59,679,
65,962, 14,932, and 193,264 cycles, respectively. Compared with the untreated samples, HFH,
LSP-3J, and LSP-4J samples exhibited significant improvements in their cycle numbers,
increasing by 10.5%, 163%, and 233%, respectively. The experimental results demonstrated
that though HFH exhibited enhancement in the fatigue life of 1Cr12Ni3Mo2VN, the im-
provements achieved through LSP were more significant. As shown in Figures 7 and 8, the
LSP-treated samples, specifically LSP-3J and LSP-4J, possessed a deep surface-hardened
layer and a large residual compressive stress field, which were absent in the untreated and
HFH samples. These changes were considered key factors contributing to the observed
improvement in fatigue life. Yong W. et al. [26] emphasized the beneficial impact of surface
hardening and the residual compressive stress introduced by LSP, resulting in a great
increase in the fatigue life of their specimens. Combining the data from Figures 7–9, it can
be concluded that both the microhardness and the residual stress distribution significantly
affect the fatigue life of the material. However, the enhancement achieved through the
residual compressive stress field is particularly noteworthy. In conclusion, the reasonable
 sessed a deep surface-hardened layer and a large residual compressive stress field, which
were absent in the untreated and HFH samples. These changes were considered key fac-
tors contributing to the observed improvement in fatigue life. Yong W. et al. [26] empha-
sized the beneficial impact of surface hardening and the residual compressive stress in-
troduced by LSP, resulting in a great increase in the fatigue life of their specimens. Com-
Coatings 2023, 13, 1524 bining the data from Figures 7–9, it can be concluded that both the microhardness and 9 ofthe
14
residual stress distribution significantly affect the fatigue life of the material. However,
the enhancement achieved through the residual compressive stress field is particularly
noteworthy.ofInLSP
application conclusion, the reasonable
can effectively application
improve the of of
fatigue life LSP can effectively improve
1Cr12Ni3Mo2VN the
martensitic
fatigue life
stainless of 1Cr12Ni3Mo2VN martensitic stainless steel.
steel.

Figure 9.
Figure 9. The
The average
average fatigue
fatigue lives
lives of
of 44 groups
groups of
of samples.
samples.

4.4.
4.4. Fracture
Fracture Analysis
Analysis
The
The surface topographies
surface topographies of of fatigue
fatigue specimens
specimens in in different
different processes
processes are are shown
shown in in
Figures
Figures 10–13.
Coatings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10–13. From
From the
the macro
macro view
view ofof the
the fracture
fracture(Figures
(Figures10a, 12a and
10a–13a), the13a), the
material material
10 offatigue
15
fatigue
damagedamagecould becould be divided
divided intoregions,
into three three regions,
namelynamely
the cracktheinitiation
crack initiation
region region
(Region (Re-
I),
gion I), the crack propagation region (Region II), and the transient crack region
the crack propagation region (Region II), and the transient crack region (Region III). These (Region III).
These
regions regions corresponded
corresponded to the to the stages
three stages of crack initiation, crack stable growth, and
load induced the slipping of three
crystal grainsofon crack
the initiation, crack stable
surface, causing stress growth, and crack
concentration,
crack
growth
the
growth out
out ofofthe
formation
of the stable state
stable stateand
microcracks,
experienced
experienced duringof
the development
during
the the fatigue
fatigue
fatigue
failure of the
failure of the material.
sources.
material.
Figure 10 shows the fracture morphology of the untreated sample, with Figure 10b,c
providing enlarged views of the marked areas b and c in Figure 10a, respectively. Addi-
tionally, Figure 10d offers an enlarged view of the marked area d in Figure 10c. As de-
picted in Figure 10a, the macro-fracture of the untreated sample exhibits the characteris-
tics of multiple fatigue sources. Figure 10b provides a closer view of the fatigue striations
in the crack propagation region. Furthermore, Figure 10c reveals the radiation extending
from the crack initiation point into the material, while micro-cracks can be observed in
Figure 10d. This observation suggests that the cracks originated on the surface and then
propagated radially, ultimately leading to instant fracture. In summary, the cyclic bending

Figure 10.
Figure 10. SEM
SEMphotomicrographs
photomicrographsofof the untreated
the untreatedsample. (a) (a)
sample. Macroscopic fracture
Macroscopic morphology,
fracture morphology,
(b) enlarged view of fatigue striations in the marked area b in (a), (c) enlarged view of the marked
(b) enlarged view of fatigue striations in the marked area b in (a), (c) enlarged view of the marked
area c in (a), (d) enlarged view of the crack initiation region in the marked area d in (c).
area c in (a), (d) enlarged view of the crack initiation region in the marked area d in (c).
Figure 11a displays the macroscopic fracture morphology of the HFH sample. Figure
11b,c are the corresponding magnified views of marked areas b and c, respectively, in
Figure 11a. The fatigue source area was visible on the surface in Figure 11a, showing mul-
tiple initiation points for fatigue cracks. The fatigue source area and the crack propagation
 fers an enlarged view of marked area d in Figure 13a, where the discontinuous surface
machining tool mark can be seen. Combining the fatigue fracture diagrams of all four
sample groups, it can be inferred that the LSP-induced residual compressive stress and
microhardness not only improved the local stress concentration caused by discontinuous
tool marks on the surface, but also reduced the spacing of fatigue striations, thereby slow-
Coatings 2023, 13, 1524 10 of 14
ing down the movement of continuous slip bands. As a result, reasonable LSP treatment
could effectively enhance the rotating bending fatigue life of 1Cr12Ni3Mo2VN.

Figure 11.
Figure 11. SEM
SEMphotomicrographs
photomicrographsofof thethe
HFHHFH sample.
sample. (a) (a) Macroscopic
Macroscopic fracture
fracture morphology,
morphology, (b)
(b) high
high
Coatings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW magnified view of fatigue striation in the marked area b in (a), (c) magnified view of
magnified view of fatigue striation in the marked area b in (a), (c) magnified view of the marked the marked
12 of 15
area
area c in (a), (d) magnified view of the crack initiation region in the marked area d in (c).
c in (a), (d) magnified view of the crack initiation region in the marked area d in (c).

Figure 12.
Figure 12. SEM
SEM photomicrographs
photomicrographs of
of LSP-3J
LSP-3J sample.
sample. (a)
(a) Macroscopic
Macroscopic fracture
fracture morphology, (b) high
morphology, (b) high
magnified view of fatigue striation in the marked area b in (a), (c) magnified view of the marked
magnified view of fatigue striation in the marked area b in (a), (c) magnified view of the marked area
area c in (a), (d) magnified view of the crack initiation region in the marked area d in (c).
c in (a), (d) magnified view of the crack initiation region in the marked area d in (c).
Coatings 2023, 13, 1524 Figure 12. SEM photomicrographs of LSP-3J sample. (a) Macroscopic fracture morphology, (b) 11 high
of 14
magnified view of fatigue striation in the marked area b in (a), (c) magnified view of the marked
area c in (a), (d) magnified view of the crack initiation region in the marked area d in (c).

Figure 13.
Figure 13. SEM
SEM photomicrographs
photomicrographs of of LSP-4J
LSP-4J sample.
sample. (a)
(a) Macroscopic
Macroscopic fracture
fracture morphology, (b) high
morphology, (b) high
magnified view of fatigue striation in the marked area b in (a), (c) magnified view of the crack
magnified view of fatigue striation in the marked area b in (a), (c) magnified view of the crack initi-
ation region in the marked area c in (a), (d) enlarged view of discontinuous surface machining tool
initiation region in the marked area c in (a), (d) enlarged view of discontinuous surface machining
mark in the marked area d in (a).
tool mark in the marked area d in (a).

Figure 10 shows the fracture morphology of the untreated sample, with Figure 10b,c
providing enlarged views of the marked areas b and c in Figure 10a, respectively. Addition-
ally, Figure 10d offers an enlarged view of the marked area d in Figure 10c. As depicted
in Figure 10a, the macro-fracture of the untreated sample exhibits the characteristics of
multiple fatigue sources. Figure 10b provides a closer view of the fatigue striations in the
crack propagation region. Furthermore, Figure 10c reveals the radiation extending from the
crack initiation point into the material, while micro-cracks can be observed in Figure 10d.
This observation suggests that the cracks originated on the surface and then propagated
radially, ultimately leading to instant fracture. In summary, the cyclic bending load induced
the slipping of crystal grains on the surface, causing stress concentration, the formation of
microcracks, and the development of fatigue sources.
Figure 11a displays the macroscopic fracture morphology of the HFH sample. Figure 11b,c
are the corresponding magnified views of marked areas b and c, respectively, in Figure 11a.
The fatigue source area was visible on the surface in Figure 11a, showing multiple initia-
tion points for fatigue cracks. The fatigue source area and the crack propagation region
were relatively flat, while the transient crack region appeared non-uniform. The fatigue
crack propagated upward, exhibiting a radiation pattern, until it fractured completely.
Figure 11b shows the typical fatigue striation after the crack propagation region was en-
larged. Figure 11d offers an enlarged view of the marked area d in Figure 11c. The radial
lines in Figure 11c and the notch feature in Figure 11d indicated that the cracks originated
from the discontinuous positions of the machining tool marks. From Figure 11, it was
inferred that the rotating bending load subjected the surface to higher tensile stress than
the interior, resulting in increased stress concentration due to the unevenness of the surface
tool marks. This condition increased susceptibility to the generation of fatigue sources and
the initiation of fatigue cracks.
Coatings 2023, 13, 1524 12 of 14

Figure 12 depicts the fatigue fracture morphology of the LSP-3J sample. It was ob-
served that the fatigue source area covered a significant portion in the lower left corner in
Figure 12a, displaying multiple cracks growing together. These cracks propagated inward
in a radiation pattern until a complete fracture occurred. Compared to the first two groups
of samples, one fatigue source emerged in the subsurface, and the crack propagation region
was relatively larger and flatter. Other fatigue sources exhibited clear fracture steps in
Figure 12a, suggesting that crack initiation resulted from stress concentration caused by
the surface tool mark’s discontinuity. Figure 12b is the magnified view of the marked area
b in Figure 12a and shows the fatigue striation spacing measured about 0.63 µm smaller
than the HFH sample (about 1.12 µm). Figure 12c offers an enlarged view of the marked
area c in Figure 12a,d, which is the magnified view of Figure 12c. It can be seen that the
fatigue source appeared in the subsurface below the surface, indicating that the residual
compressive stress and microhardness introduced by LSP overcame the surface stress
concentration. Consequently, the fatigue source transferred from the sample’s surface to
the subsurface, extending the sample’s life.
Figure 13a displays the macroscopic fracture morphology of the LSP-4J sample. Com-
pared to the LSP-3J sample, the number of fatigue sources in the LSP-4J sample was lower.
The fatigue sources were observed on both the surface and subsurface in Figure 13a, in-
dicating a multi-source fatigue pattern. The surface fatigue source propagated internally
in a splitting manner. Figure 13b shows an enlarged view of the fatigue strips in the
crack propagation region in Figure 13a with a spacing of about 0.53 µm. As shown in
Figure 13c, which is the corresponding magnified view of the marked area c in Figure 13a,
the subsurface fatigue source exhibited a clear radiation trend in the crack propagation
region, eventually leading to an instantaneous fracture in the uppermost area. The spacing
of the fatigue striations on this surface decreased with increasing laser energy. Figure 13c
shows that the fatigue source due to surface stress concentration was also transferred to the
subsurface due to the residual compressive stress and microhardness. Figure 13d offers an
enlarged view of marked area d in Figure 13a, where the discontinuous surface machining
tool mark can be seen. Combining the fatigue fracture diagrams of all four sample groups,
it can be inferred that the LSP-induced residual compressive stress and microhardness
not only improved the local stress concentration caused by discontinuous tool marks on
the surface, but also reduced the spacing of fatigue striations, thereby slowing down the
movement of continuous slip bands. As a result, reasonable LSP treatment could effectively
enhance the rotating bending fatigue life of 1Cr12Ni3Mo2VN.

5. Conclusions
In this study, laser shock peening was first carried out on the 1Cr12Ni3Mo2VN steel
after high-frequency hardening. The microhardness and residual stress of samples subjected
to different processes had been compared and analyzed. Subsequently, rotating bending
fatigue tests were performed on these samples. The results, combined with the fracture
morphology obtained from the fatigue test, demonstrate that laser shock peening can
effectively enhance the fatigue life of 1Cr12Ni3Mo2VN martensitic stainless steel. The key
conclusions drawn from our investigation are as follows:
(1) The LSP process led to a notable rise in surface hardness. Remarkably, the LSP-
4J samples displayed the highest surface hardness of 628.5 HV0.1 , extending to an
approximate depth of 800 µm.
(2) The LSP process introduced high residual compressive stress and large depths of
residual stress layers in the surface. The LSP-4J samples had the highest surface resid-
ual compressive stress of -689 MPa, and the depth of the residual compressive stress
layer in the LSP-4J sample nearly corresponded with the microhardness distribution,
approximately 800 µm in depth.
(3) The fatigue life of 1Cr12Ni3Mo2VN steel had significant enhancement after LSP
treatment. Compared to untreated samples, the increase in cycles to fracture for
Coatings 2023, 13, 1524 13 of 14

HFH samples was not substantial. In contrast, the LSP-3J and LSP-4J samples had
impressive increases of about 163% and 233% in cycles to fracture, respectively.
(4) The microhardness and residual compressive stress induced by LSP were crucial in
mitigating local stress concentration caused by surface discontinuities. Furthermore,
these enhancements reduced the spacing of fatigue striations, resulting in a slower crack
expansion rate, and ultimately improved the fatigue life of 1Cr12Ni3Mo2VN steel.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Z.X., B.G., Q.J., X.C., J.W., B.L., J.C. and Z.Z.; methodology,
Z.T., J.G., B.G., Q.J., X.C., J.W. and B.L.; software, Z.T., J.G. and J.C.; validation, Z.T. and J.G.; formal
analysis: Z.T., J.G., B.G., Q.J., X.C., J.W. and B.L.; resources, Z.T. and B.G.; data curation, J.G. and
B.G.; writing—original draft preparation, Z.T.; writing—review and editing, Z.T., J.G. and B.G.;
supervision, J.G., Z.X., Q.J., X.C., J.W. and B.L.; funding acquisition, Z.X. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by The Natural Science Foundation of Fujian, China (Grant No.
2021HZ024006, 2022HZ024009), Scientific research project of Fujian Provincial Department of Finance,
China (Grant No. B2022462), the Major Science and Technology Project of Xiamen, Fujian, China
(Grant. No. 3502Z20231001).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data that support the findings of this study are available within
the article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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