Review: Racial Equality in America: A Dream Deferred

Author(s): Zina T. McGee

Review by: Zina T. McGee
Source: Journal of American Ethnic History, Vol. 15, No. 3 (Spring, 1996), pp. 52-56
Published by: University of Illinois Press on behalf of the Immigration & Ethnic History
Society
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/27502079
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Review Essay

RACIAL EQUALITY INAMERICA: A DREAM DEFERRED

Race inAmerica: The Struggle for Equality. Edited by Herbert Hill and James
E. Jones, Jr.Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1993. ix + 465
pp. Tables, notes and index. $45.00 (cloth); $17.95 (paper).

Ideal Citizens: The Legacy of the Civil Rights Movement. By James Max
Fendrich. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993. xxiv + 202
pp. Tables, appendix and notes. $49.50 (cloth); $16.95 (paper).

American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass. By

Douglas S. Massey and Nancy A. Dent?n. Cambridge, Massachusetts, and
London: Harvard University Press, 1993. x + 292 pp. Tables, notes and
index. $29.95.

Prejudice, Politics, and the American Dilemma. Edited by Paul M. Sniderman,

Phillip E. Tetlock, and Edwin G. Carmines. Stanford, California: Stanford
University Press, 1993. 339 pp. Tables, bibliography and index. $45.00.

Efforts to examine race relations in America are the focus of four recently
published books. In a unique fashion, each book discusses the structural, politi
cal and historical factors which have led to the realization that racism inAmeri
can society continues to exist, as does the struggle for freedom and equality.
Race in America presents a series of essays examining the historical and
legal aspects of racism in the United States. Noted scholars, including Kenneth
B. Clark, Derrick Bell, Patricia J.Williams and Reynolds Farley, provide con
tributions to the volume, which places a great deal of emphasis on the legal
struggle following the Brown v. Board of Education decision as well as on
various aspects of the Civil Rights Movement. The first installment of this book
includes a moving account of the life of Kenneth B. Clark, as he reflects upon
the continuous struggle of African Americans for equality. Clark begins his
piece with a discussion of his early childhood, characterized by positive asso
ciations with friends and teachers of various racial and ethnic origins. Not yet
aware of the pains of racism at age six, Clark tells of the confusion he experi
enced when he and his mother were denied seating at Childs restaurant in
Harlem after told "We don't serve you here."
being simply,
During his senior year at George Washington University, Clark began to
understand the meaning of racial barriers when he was overlooked as an
fully
student in an economics class. His awareness of the role
outstanding growing
that race played in society prompted his interest in attending an all-black insti

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Review Essay 53

tution, Howard University. Influenced by such noted scholars as Ralph Bunche

and Sterling Brown, Clark completed his studies and later enrolled in the Ph.D.
program in psychology at Columbia University. Upon completion of his de
a
gree, he taught for short time at Hampton Institute, only to fall under scrutiny
from the University's president for "disturbing" students by examining racial
conflicts during class discussions.
Clark continues by noting his contributions as a social psychologist, particu
larly in his research for the Office of War Information on the state of morale
among Negro civilians and the effects of prejudice and discrimination on the
personality of American children. The latter focus of his research became an
integral part of the Mid-Century White House Conference, ultimately leading
to theBrown v. Board of Education decision. As Clark reflects upon his life as
both a scholar and an activist, he makes a strong case for the fact that, while
advancements have been made since the Brown decision, many schools con

tinue to remain segregated due to "white flight." Additionally, Clark argues that
the struggle for civil rights inAmerica continues, as does racial injustice in our
society.
In keeping with the general theme of the book, Derrick Bell also makes an
excellent contribution, examining the Brown v. Board of Education decision.
Bell expresses concern with the degree of fatalism experienced by many Afri
can Americans who thirty years ago believed that racial justice could be achieved
but who are now faced with the startling realization that racist attitudes and
practices remain commonplace. Like Clark, Bell contends that many of the
public schools remain segregated and virtually ineffective. In addition, he sug
gests that the notion of integrated neighborhoods for many remains simply a
vision. Bell makes an excellent point by stating that the advancements made by
many blacks inAmerican society can often serve as a rationale to ignore those
who have not achieved such success. What is needed, he maintains, are greater

opportunities in the line of schooling, jobs, adequate health care and affordable
housing for all African Americans.
John C. Brittain also makes a significant contribution to the book by exam
ining Scheffv. O'Neill, a 1989 lawsuit filed in Connecticut, which challenged
racial segregation and inequality within the educational system. Brittain gives
an account of the Brown legacy, in addition to focusing heavily on the plight of
blacks and Puerto Ricans highly concentrated in the central cities of Connecti
cut. More importantly, he examines the relationship between poverty and low
educational performance among schoolchildren residing in these areas. The
author also points out that the desire to improve the conditions for many Afri
can American and Hispanic schoolchildren must be met with a continuous
campaign to eliminate segregation within the educational system.
With regard to school desegregation, Gary Orfield also gives an excellent
description of the relationship between race and opportunity in the urban set
ting. His essay focuses mainly on issues of housing and school segregation, and

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54 Journal of American Ethnic History / Spring 1996

Orfield makes a strong point by suggesting that integration is a necessary factor

for equal opportunity but cannot be viewed as the sole ingredient for eliminat
ing racial inequality. He also argues in favor of increasing policy-oriented
decisions and strategies to eliminate racial inequality within the school and
community settings.
While a large part of the book is devoted to the examination of the Brown
decision and the Civil Rights Movement, the latter part of the text presents an
excellent series of essays on such issues as affirmative action,
focusing

sociology's response to the study of race relations, and an overview of the

existence of racism in American society. Of particular interest is an essay by
Eddie N. Williams and Milton D. Morris, who argue that the United States is
the re-emergence of overt racism, as evidenced a marked in
experiencing by
crease in hate crimes and racial hostility. The authors advocate the need for
effective government leadership and increased black political activism in the
struggle to end racial oppression.
In sum, this book presents a vivid and exciting account of race relations in
today's society, and its use would prove beneficial to scholars, educators, and

policy makers alike.

Ideal Citizens, by James Max Fendrich, follows the same theme as Race in
America: the struggle against racial inequality inAmerica. However, the book
departs from Race in America in that it focuses specifically on the Civil Rights
Movement. Fendrich provides the reader with an excellent view of the intensity
and spirit of the Civil Rights Movement, as well as a thought-provoking discus
sion of the common misconceptions held by many with regard to the presence
of black and white activists during this time period.
The author begins with a general view of the Civil Rights Movement and
then focuses his research particularly on the experiences of students at Florida
A & M University (FAMU). The book emphasizes important background char
acteristics of the students participating in the social protests occurring at that
time, as well as a comparison between black and white student protestors. The
significant findings of this project most concern the characteristics of black
student protestors, many of whom were from and
working-class backgrounds,
the role of women in initiating protest action (i.e., bus boycotts and the Talla
hassee CORE chapter). Additionally, the book provides a thorough discussion
of the characteristics of students from what Fendrich refers to as the "black
generation and the "white" He also a common
protest" generation. dispels
misconception by suggesting that a greater percentage of black students initi
ated sit-in movements and engaged in protest activities compared with white
students.

Overall, Fendrich's work a fruitful account of an era that remains

provides
in the hearts and minds of many and can be viewed as a significant contribution
to the study of social movement organizations.
Written with the same spirit as William Julius Wilson's The Truly Disad

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Review Essay 55

vantaged, American Apartheid by Douglas S. Massey and Nancy A. Dent?n

explores the effects of racial segregation within urban communities. The central
theme of the book is that segregation of African Americans has led to the
creation of underclass communities, many of which are characterized by job
lessness, and unrest. The authors a gen
inadequate schooling, family provide
eral overview of the book, arguing that the existence of apartheid in America
has been overlooked, as racial remains institutionalized in our soci
segregation
ety. They strongly emphasize the need for policy makers and social scientists to
address the issue of residential segregation in their discussions of the plight of
minorities inAmerica.
Much of the book is devoted to the examination of segregation and its
subsequent impact on the creation of an underclass, as well as the failure of
public policy makers to confront issues pertaining to racial segregation. The
authors indicate that despite advancements produced by the Civil Rights Act of
1964 and the Fair Housing Act of 1968, many of the nation's largest black
communities remain highly segregated. Unlike Wilson, their analysis indicates
that the issue of segregation can be viewed primarily on the basis of race rather
than class, in that many affluent blacks also remain residentially segregated
within certain areas. Further, Massey and Dent?n found that, despite their gen
eral support for desegregation, many blacks are reluctant to reside in all-white
neighborhoods. They attribute this sentiment to an overall awareness of the
problems experienced by minorities within certain settings. Additionally, while
many whites appear to be receptive to the notion of open housing, many of
them continue to adhere to negative stereotypes of African Americans, which is
best seen in the continued existence of "white flight."
The book also provides a sobering description of the manner inwhich racial
segregation concentrates poverty in black neighborhoods. Emphasis is placed
on such factors as dilapidated housing, increased crime rates, percentages of
families on welfare, female-headed families, and poor schooling with regard to
the existence of underclass communities. Efforts to alleviate the problems ex

perienced by individuals within these settings cannot be based solely on class

explanations or those which otherwise "blame the victim." Instead, the strategic
planning behind policy initiatives should address the racial and class segrega
tion. In this vein, the book provides an excellent discussion of potential solu
tions, mainly directed toward changes within the Office of Housing and Urban
Development (HUD) and effective enforcement of the Fair Housing Act.
American makes a valuable contribution to the literature examin
Apartheid

ing public policy and urban affairs and provides both scholars and policy mak
ers with information on the existence of the urban underclass.
important
Paul M. Sniderman, Phillip E. Tetlock, and Edward G. Carmines have edited
an impressive book examining the relationship between racial prejudice and
politics in the United States. Prejudice, Politics, and the American Dilemma
includes a series of essays such scholars as Lee James R.
by Sigelman, Kluegal

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56 Journal of American Ethnic History / Spring 1996

and Jennifer L Hochschild. The book explores aspects of racism including

intergroup relations, ethnic stereotyping, racial politics, and inequality in edu
cation. Sue Dowden and John P. Robinson present a powerful and disturbing
essay examining age and educational differences with regard to racist attitudes.
Surprisingly, the results of their research lend little support to previous scholars
who have suggested that greater tolerance exists among younger individuals
and those with increased levels of education. Instead, their research, which is
based on the life-cycle process and the generational replacement models, shows
decreased support for racial equality among younger adults between the ages of
18 and 25.
With respect to racist attitudes, Lee Sigelman, James W. Shockey, and Carol
K. Sigelman also make a significant contribution by exploring ethnic stereotyp
ing in terms of the ways inwhich black Americans view other minority groups.
Their essay is very timely and insightful in that it focuses primarily on the
continual friction between black Americans and Jewish Americans. The authors
also give an excellent account of issues relating to cultural sharing, minority
solidarity, and racial conflict. Of particular interest is their suggestion that
black stereotyping of Jewish individuals appears to involve more than issues of
economic exploitation, and the authors call for additional research to explore
these possibilities.
In one of the more impressive essays in the book, Jennifer Hochschild
examines questions relating to the emergence of the "black middle class." The
author focuses primarily on the role strain experienced by those African Ameri
cans who have become successful but continue to suffer the of
consequences
their economic, professional and political status. Hochschild also gives an ex
cellent description of the plight of successful black women in positions of
authority, many of whom are faced with an increased lack of respect and
excessive competition. Her essay has done a great service by including personal
accounts of officials and educators, who despite their professional success,
continue to hold a "foot in each world."
Prejudice, Politics, and the American Dilemma deserves a large audience.
This book captures the importance of several issues facing black Americans in
today's society, and there is no doubt that itwill be cited frequently as the need
continues for further research on race relations.

Zina T. McGee
Hampton University

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