Unidad 1 1 4

Contenidos “Estudios Interculturales en Lengua Inglesa I”
Primer Tramo: “Lengua, Historia e Identidad
 Unit One “The Inter Cultural Approach”
1. Interculturality: Inter Cultural Communicative Competence Multiculturalism: Multiculturalism

in Canada Alterity: Otherness Ethnocentrism: Canada Multilingualism: Multilingualism in
the United States of America. - 2022 Notes “The Argentine People” - 2023 Notes “Social
and Cultural diversity in Argentina”
 Unit two “The English speaking Countries and their most

remarkable characteristics”
1. Countries where English is spoken as an Official language - Countries where English is

spoken as an Official language by law - Countries where English is Spoken as a first
language – Countries where English is spoken as a Second Language - England and its
Geographical Position - The United States of America and its Geographical Position -
Canada and its Geographical Position - New Zealand Geographical position - Australia
and its Geographical position
 Unit Three “English and American participation in the Socio

Cultural Moments of the XX/XXI Centuries in Argentina and Latin
America”
1. Identity and Globalization- Characteristics of the Irish Colonies and the British settlements -
An Approach to the Social and Cultural Studies - The English language and the Argentine
Social Classes - The Use of the English Language in Argentina - The Modern teacher
Mediator in the teaching-Learning Process - The Theory of Lev. S. Vogotsky - Legacies and
conflicts with England and the USA in the World - Conflicts in Latin America - Conflicts in
America - Conflicts in the South Eastern territories
Bibliografía del Alumno

Primer tramo
Unidad uno
1
1. 2016 KROGSGAARD SVARSTAD, Leone. “Teaching Interculturality
Aarhus University. Copenhagen. Denmark
2. 2007 ANDERSON K.T. “Constructing Otherness” Ideologies and Differences in Speech
Style. Journal of Applied Linguistics (178.197)
3. 2005 BREWER MB “Ethnocentrism and Prejudice” KU Scholar Works Kansas USA
4. 2004 ALESINA A – GLAESER E. “Fighting Poverty“ in the USA and Europe Oxford.
Oxford University Press.
5. 2003 DICKERS SUSAN. “Languages in America” USA
Unidad dos
1. 2005 Dr.BIGNELLI, L. “Canada and its Characteristics” U. Sal. Tesis pre doctoral (First
Part)
2. 1992 GARWOOD C. “Aspects of Britain and the USA” Oxford University Press. (Chapters
England and USA)
3. 1985 BARBER L. “Sketches from Early New Zealand” Auckland , New Zealand (Notes 3
and 4)
4. WEB SITE CONSULTED. www. EMMIR org… Countries where…
Unidad tres
1. 2010 Dr.-BIGNELLI L. “The Argentine Development and the Irish…” Tesis Doctoral. Univ.
del Salvador (Chapter Three)
2. 1996 SAVERY AND DUFFY “An Instructional Model and its Constructivist Framework
Wilson, BG Editions (First Part)
3. 1985 BARBER L. “Sketches from Early New Zealand” Auckland , New Zealand (Notes 3
and 4)
4. 1962 VYGOTSKI L. “Thought and Language” MIT Press UK. (Zone of Proximal
Development)
5. LOWE NORMAN. “Modern World History” Palgrave 3 rd Edition. (Part 8.2)
Segundo Tramo “Manifestaciones Interculturales”
 Unit Four: “ Cultural periods of the XX Century”
1. Modernity and Modernism - The Contemporary Philosophical Currents of the Modern Times
- The School of Frankfurt - Hockheimer and Adorno - Pablo Picasso The Misses of
2
Avignon - James Joyce The Short Story in Modern times “Evelyne” .- The Modern Novel
F,S.Fitzgerald The Great Gatsby
 Unit Five: The Post Modern Period
Post Modernity and Post modernism - Gianni Vattimo - The Philosophical Currents of the
Postmodern times – Absurdist Philosophy – Secularism E. Sabato - The Short Story in Post
Modernism - Angela Carter The Werewolf - The novel in Post Modernism - Aldus Haxley
Brave New World
 Unit Six: Echoes of the Cultural Movements in English Language in

the World in the XX and XXI Centuries
Historical Processes and the Literary Canons - Echoes of the Cultural Movements in English in the
XX / XXI Centuries - Music, Society, ideals and Vision - The Jazz era The Rock and Roll Music -
The 1970s and the Rock and Roll Evolution – Genesis - In Excess. – WhiteSnake - Deep Purple -
Led Zeppelin – Marilion – Kiss – Queen - Pink Floyd - The re emergence of Rock and Roll in 1990 –
Nirvana - Sound Garden - Limp Bizkit - Red Hot Chilies pepper - Linkin Park - Punk Ideologies
Bibliografía del Alumno

Tramo Dos
Unidad Cuatro
1. 2015 RODRIGUEZ E. “Studies on Antropology”. Holos Argentina

2. 2005 CUMMIN R. Art DK London Pages 341.350
3. 2004 SANDERS A. English Literature 3rd, Ed, Oxford London
4. 1997 LOWE NORMAN Modern World History 3rd Ed Palgrave London Page 160 303 321
5. JOYCE J. Dubliners. *Eveline* Penguin Modern Classics
6. SMITH G. English Literature Vol II Littlefield Adams and Co. N. Jersey Pages 124…
Unidad Cinco
3
1. 2008 HUXLEY A. Brave New World Penguin Readers Ed.
2. 2005 CUMMIN R. Art DK London Pages 358./ 360
3. 2004 SANDERS A. English Literature 3rd, Ed, Oxford London
4. 2004 FITZGERALD SCOTT. F The Great Gatsby. By Scrabner USA
5. 1979 CARTER A. The Bloody Chamber. Werewolf. Magic Realism
 Unidad seis
Web Sites consulted
1. http. www.dntownsend.com/site.rocksum.
2. http. www.google.com/a/uconn.edu/the roaring 20s
3. http. www.quora.com/what/was/Pink Floyds connection to philosophy
4. http.www.moyak,com/papetrs/adorno/schoemberg/atonality
Chronology and Plan
Classes will be on Tuesdays 1st and 2nd periods
Unit One: Interculturality and Multiculturalism. Canada – USA and Argentina
(Posted in the School Campus for the pupils to start reading it
Period; April 2023
Plan of Classes for April
 Week 1 April 4th Unit One will be posted in the School Campus
The whole Unit One. Interculturality – Multiculturalism – Ehnocentrism -

Bilingualism
The Teacher will explain these topics and promote debate on:
1. Interculturality and Multiculturalism . Bilingualism –

Multilingualism
Canada – USA and Argentina
4
(Pupils should have started reading Unit One and plan the Voluntary Investigation
work)
 Week 2 April the 11th Part II Teacher´s speech and explanation on Unit
One:
1. Ethnocentrism. Alterity
2. The Argentine People and Social and Cultural diversity
in Argentina
Questions will be answered

Comments for the pupils expression will also be accepted and promoted
 Week 3 April the 18 th Oral Work on the Whole Unit one. Oral Test.
(Pupils will
Hold a Five minutes speech each one or each couple about
1. Interculturality and Multiculturalism

2. Bilingualism – Mulltilingualism – Ethnocentrism
3. Alterity and the social co - existence
Minimum knowledge expected for Unit One, but pupils can also choose another
topic of the unit
Questions will be asked to the pupils about each one´s chosen topic
 Week 4 April the 25th Written Work Written Test
 (Pupils will write a handwritten Report in class On
1. Interculturality and Multiculturalism

2. Bilingualism – Mulltilingualism – Ethnocentrism
3. Alterity and the social co - existence
 The General Purpose of Unit One
The general purpose of this Unit is to know the characteristics of Interculturality

and Multiculturalism, together with the Bilingual and Multilingual phenomena that
happen consequently. Pupils should also take into consideration what Alterity is
and how the rules of good co-existence work
5
 Teacher´s Proposal
To pass Unit One, Pupils should
 Understand Characteristics of Interculturality and Multiculturalism
 Know The intercultural and bilingual characteristics of Canada and USA
 Analyze The characteristics of The People in Argentina
 Express ideas about Social and Cultural diversity in Argentina
 Take notes of the extra information, given by the teacher in class
 Express the pupils point of view
 Define 2022 Notes “The Argentine People”
 Define 2023 Notes “Social and Cultural diversity in Argentina”
Evaluation
On the 18th and the 25th April (For the evaluation of April)
The teacher will take into consideration:
a. The way pupils have assimilated Interculturality . Multiculturalism
b. The way pupils can manage Multiculturalism in Canada – USA - Argentina
c. The way pupils can express in the oral and written tests
d. The way pupils manage the oral and written language level
Pupils will have to attend both test days to have a passing mark. However, in
special situations they may be in class for one of the two days.
 Investigation Work
6
Pupils will have the optional chance of investigating on
1. The Argentine People (2022)

2. Social and Cultural diversity in Argentina (2023)
Prepare a handwritten or Oral Report on any of both topics
Read the given notes and enlarge and compare them
Use any of the suggested web links or any other (Indicate the reference)
The whole work must be ready for Tuesday the 25th th
We shall have further comments on the notes, in class
7
UNIT ONE
8
Primer Tramo: “Lengua, Historia e Identidad
 Unit One “The Inter Cultural Approach”
Interculturality: Inter Cultural Communicative Competence Multiculturalism:

Multiculturalism in Canada Alterity: Otherness Ethnocentrism: Canada
Multilingualism: Multilingualism in the United States of America
Notes 2022: “The Argentine People”
Notes 2023: Social and Cultural diversity in Argentina
9
INTERCULTURALITY *
We are referring to the interaction of people from different cultural environments,

which use a common (authentic) language properly, in a way that demonstrates
knowledge and a suitable communication
Interculturality is the ability to experience the culture of other people and to be

open minded, interested, and curious about them and their traditions. Language
learners must be able to evaluate personal feelings, thoughts, perceptions, and
reactions in order to understand another culture and use that experience to reflect
it on their own life and surroundings. In order to communicate successfully,
language learners must be able to tell their ideas appropriately to their audience.
They should be able to react and respond according to their own personal feelings,
attitudes, and perceptions as well as to be sociable with people of other cultures.
Intercultural experiences provide the most meaningful opportunities for developing
capacities in a language, reflecting on experiences in which they interact with
others of different cultures. This experience helps the learners to analyze and learn
from each other´s experience..
All living cultures are outcomes of intercultural contact and human history must be
the background of such communication. This becomes particularly evident in the
“Globalization” era where the ever-fast evolving cultural landscape is characterized
by an intensified diversity of peoples, communities and individuals living closer
year after year. The increasing diversity of cultures, which is fluid and dynamic,
implies specific competences and capacities for individuals and societies to learn
how to live in social harmony. The ability to make out other cultures can be helped
out not only by an open and pluralistic spirit but also by self-cultural consciousness.
When a culture is critically aware of its own strengths and limitations, it can extend
its horizons and enrich its intellectual and spiritual wealth.
“Unesco” like the entire “United Nations” was created to promote mutual
understanding, peace, democracy and development. Its specific mandate, as a
specialized agency, is to transform these purposes into every day practice and to
promote intercultural sensibility and solidarity while fighting intolerance,
discrimination and violence.
Intercultural communicative competence

In 1999, Michael Byram and Karen Risager published a study based on a survey
from 653 teachers in Denmark and 212 teachers in the United Kingdom. The study
also included interviews with some of the teachers. It was a comparative analysis
10
of lower secondary school language teachers, which explored and described the
effect of European integration on their work as language teachers, on the position
of language teaching in the secondary school curriculum, and on their perceptions
of their professional identities and responsibilities. The main findings were that
language teachers, in their study, faced a problem in common, because the world
around them identified language teaching and language teachers with the
acquisition of skills and simple knowledge. Nevertheless, there was little
knowledge of language teachers’ work on cultural awareness and cultural
competence. The study raised questions about whether teacher training and
teachers’ professional identity adequately prepared future teachers for the new
demands of the modern world. Some of the teachers said that they missed work on
culture and cultural contact in their education. Another finding was that teachers’
understanding of the concept ‘culture’ appeared to lack the depth and complexity
needed for teaching. Furthermore, the findings showed en emphasis on ‘national’
culture and little emphasis on aspects of culture beyond those already found in
textbooks. Teachers in the study stated that they were aware of the cultural
responsibility in terms of developing tolerance among European nationalities but
they did little about that. Byram and Risager concluded that the aim of language
teaching should be the one to promote an intercultural communicative
competence.
In 2015 a group of teachers performed a case study of three Indonesian teachers

in Australian schools. This was a participatory action research project, and
included interviews with teachers and classroom observations. The study explored
the teachers’ conceptions of language and culture and the development of
capabilities to engage with other languages and cultures in meaningful and
mutually beneficial ways. Focus was on mediation and the role of language
teachers as mediators of intercultural language learning. The study revealed the
complexities and difficulties of language teaching, and showed how the teachers’
conceptions, practices and their own linguistic and cultural identities became
essential as they mediated in a process of intercultural language learning.
Language is one of the most universal and diverse forms of expression of human
culture, and perhaps the most essential one. Linguistic diversity is likewise a
reflection of cultural diversity and cannot be precisely quantified or categorized.
Bilingualism and multilingualism are a consequence of linguistic diversity on an
individual or collective level, and refer to the use of more than one language in
daily life. relationships in language concern are central to culture. Languages result
from a historical and collective experience and express culturally specific world
views and value systems. Estimates which suggest that half of the 6,000
languages spoken in the world today are in danger of disappearing are a cause for
11
awareness, for they allude to the loss of the associated cultures with which they
are so closely tied. Language issues are also central to concepts of education.
Linguistic competences are fundamental for the empowerment of the individual in
democratic and plural societies, as they condition school achievement, promote
access to other cultures and encourage sincerity to cultural exchange.
SOURCE OF INFORMATION
a. 20/4/2016. LONE KROGSGAARD SVARSTAD PHD THESIS “Teaching

Interculturality” Developing and in Pluralistic discourses in English language
teaching Aarhus University. Copenhagen, Denmark
b. UNITED NATIONS Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization.

Guidelines on Intercultural Education
12
Multiculturalism*
First published Fri Sep 24, 2010; substantive revision Fri Aug 12, 2016
The idea of multiculturalism in contemporary political speech and in political

philosophy is about how to understand and answer to the difficulties associated
with the cultural and religious diversity. The term “multicultural” is often used as a
descriptive term to characterize the fact of diversity in a society, but, the focus is on
its regulatory use in the context of Western liberal democratic societies. While the
term has come to include a variety of dogmatic claims, it is fair to say that leaders
of multiculturalism reject the idea of the “melting pot” in which members of minority
groups are expected to be assimilated into the dominant culture but in a model in
which members of minority groups can maintain their distinctive collective identities
and practices. In the case of immigrants, the defenders of multiculturalism
emphasize that such phenomenon is well-matched with, the integration of
immigrants into society as multiculturalism policies generally provide fairer terms of
integration for immigrants.
Modern states are organized around the language and cultural norms of the
dominant groups that have historically constituted them. Members of minority
cultural groups face obstacles in pursuing their social practices in ways that
members of dominant groups do not. Some theorists agree that minority groups
should be left free of any state interference. Others argue that mere toleration of
group differences would only treat members of minority groups as equals but what
is actually required is recognition and a positive adjustment of minority group
practices through what the leading theorist of multiculturalism Will Kymlicka has
called “group-differentiated rights”, in1995. Some group-differentiated rights are
held by individual members of minority groups, as in the case of individuals who
are granted exemptions from generally relevant laws in virtue of their religious
beliefs or individuals who seek language room in education and in voting. Other
group-differentiated rights are properly called “group rights,” as in the case of
indigenous groups and minority nations, who claim the right of self-determination.
In the latter respect, multiculturalism is closely allied with nationalism.
Multiculturalism has been used as an umbrella term to characterize the moral and
political claims of a wide range of marginalized groups, including African American,
women and people with disabilities. In the 1980s there were meeting of agreement
for whether and how to diversify school curricula to recognize the achievements of
historically marginalized groups. Contemporary theories of multiculturalism, which
originated in the late 1980s and early 1990s, tend to focus their arguments on
immigrants who are ethnic and religious minorities (e.g. Latinos in the U.S.,
Muslims in Western Europe), minority nations (e.g. Catalans, Basque, Welsh,
13
Québécois), and indigenous peoples (e.g. Native peoples in North America,
Australia, and New Zealand). As we shall see, the variety of prescriptive claims
goes beyond the issue of representation in school curricula.
Multiculturalism in Canada
Canada is the great country of “Cultural diversity.” In addition to the British and
French groups, there is a wide variety of other “Ethnic groups representing the
Canadian population. Those immigrants include German, Italian, Dutch, Ukrainian,
Chinese, Indo-Pakistani and other Ethnic groups.
According to the 1991 census, European born immigrants still made up the highest
percentage of immigrants living in Canada. They made up the 54% of the total
population. Asian and Middle Asian immigrants followed the European ones
summing up 23%. After the years of this census the proportion of visible minorities
rose considerably, as well.
Aboriginal people were independently treated in the,” IMMIGRATION ACT”,

passed in 1991. These groups had an important raise respectful to 1981 due to the
higher average of birth raters backed by the “INDIAN ACT” signed in 1884. The
Aborigines in Canada sum up a 13% nowadays.
There is a last 10% given to the American and South American immigrants who
have come to Canada before 1991. The Ethnic groups we have mentioned have a
wide variety of cultural and religious backgrounds. They brought the history of their
countries with them as well as their own beliefs and habits. Canada acted out
important laws to regulate the great phenomenon of multiculturalism they have in
their country.
Bibliography
Alesina, A. and E. Glaeser, 2004, “Fighting Poverty in the U.S. and Europe: A
World of Difference”, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bachvarova, M., 2014, “Multicultural Accommodation and the Ideal of Non-

Domination” Critical Review of International Social and Political Philosophy,
17(6):652–673.
Bignelli Luis 2004, “The Biligual Phenomenon of Canada” Univ. del Salvador.
Fac. De Historia y letras.-
14
Alterity*
It is a philosophical and anthropological term meaning “Otherness” strictly being

used in the sense of our neighbours. Within phenomenology, Alterity is usually
understood as the expression distinguishing between self and not – self, so
consequently assuming the existence of alternative beings. According to Jean
Bacillard, a French philosopher, Alterity is a transcendental sociological term which
its loss or non-existence would impoverish the world culture, increasing arrogance
or egotism. Aterity includes internationalism and culturalism as tools for developing
alternative histories which include gender, ethnicity, class etc.
In a broad sense “Alterity” also means the discovery that a person makes of the
other´s existence. This discovery leads man into the use of the word “We” as the
plural form for the former “I”, as well as the multiple conceptions about “he, she or
they”. The existence of the other/s represents the discovery of single beings who
are radically different one from the other. They live in alternative worlds within a
same universe.
Once the person has discovered the existence of the other/s a second phase
comes. He will have to accept that he/she or they have habits, traditions and
different symbolizations which are complementary and must be accepted for the
harmonic co-existence. Alterity means “To try to be in the place of the others”, try
to understand his/her existence and ask to be understood as well This concept
means that in the new Cultural conceptions our points of view should socialize
with those of the others, all of them valid and acceptable in the same way.
The philosophy of Alterity represent one´s wish for understanding the others. This
fact will at the same time encourage the dialogue among people of the same or
other cultures and lead into peaceful relationships. If people live in Alterity,
integration will be possible and human beings could respect each other, giving way
to a better life and to a more civilized world.
Alterity is then the breach with egocentricity as it means to give an end to the
concept of “The Others symbolizing difference or division”, and instead accept
equality and that the world is naturally diverse and that diversity should be the
amalgam that makes the world worth being lived. Many XX century philosophers,
including Jean Paul Sartre have understood this new concept of life and ones need
to understand the other cultures as a way to co - exist harmonically with the other
human beings.
Sartre stated that these concepts must not empower the others, nor should we
deny the importance or our neighbours, but find equilibrium between both
positions. We should engage in the world of the others and be sufficiently open
15
minded so as to let the others integrate our world; in order to understand and be
understood, help and be helped to achieve a well balanced existence in all aspects
of life. Alterity would also mean the work of the great rich countries that should help
the smaller ones with poor soils and cultures that have always restricted their
development.
Education should also be focused on Alterity, because if education considers a

world based on all sorts of varieties and abilities man would finally defeat inequality
and accept the world with alternative cultures, alternative ethnic groups and social
classes of different status. These phenomena can be part of the whole world or
happen within the same country that is why Government must be well aware of
these facts, to avoid intolerance or discrimination. Teachers should stress their
work on the pupils’´ competence and abilities and let them be ingenious, creative
and ready to accept the other´s individuality and distinctiveness.-
ANDERSON, K. T. «Constructing ‘otherness’, Ideologies and differentiating

speech style», International Journal of Applied Linguistics 17 (2): Pages 178-197.
16
Ethnocentrism*
Ethnocentrism is the belief of superiority of one ethic group, which may be
considered as such, mainly from racial or religious differences. Ethnocentric
individuals believe that they are better than the individuals of other ethnic groups,
who also belong to a certain nation, continent or region. This ethnic phenomenon
can also be related to problems of prejudice.
The practice of taking over other lands was heavily practiced by some European
countries in the sixteenth century. The colonies of the U.S.A. were one of the
regions that the British Crown tried to control overseas. Great Britain also overtook
lands in Asia and Africa and the Spanish and Portuguese mostly conquered the
South American Countries, as the French did so in some African regions.
Europeans believed that both Americans Asians and Africans were primitive
societies based on hunting and farming and that they had to take over those
nations in order to bring them up to modern life habits and civilization. Traces of
that sense of ethnocentrism are still evident today, as schools in Europe tend to
focus studies almost exclusively in the history of the U.S.A. and Europe.
Ethnocentrism is a powerful force that weakens human relations. We are all human
beings despite the cultural diversity, so there is no intrinsic difference between
Jews and Catholics, Black and White people, Chinese people, American citizens
and British subjects.
Ethnocentrism is the tendency to judge the world through the point of view of one´s
own culture. Human beings tend to evaluate other´s behavior, custom and attitudes
using their own cultural standards as a parameter. The phenomenon of
ethnocentrism is believed to occur largely because individuals only have certain
clear information about their own culture which wrongly leads them to believe that
only the norms, habits and values of their own culture are universally valuable.
In 1906, William Graham Summer, who was a teacher and philosopher at Yale
University defined ethnocentrism as the tendency to believe that one’s society or
culture is the center of all others and is the basis for judging other groups. In 1950
Theodore Adorno and his colleagues from the Frankfurt School studied a sub scale
of ethnocentrism which denoted larger authoritarianism in certain groups and
cultures over minor ones. They supported the idea that Individuals that have a high
opinion of their own traditions and cultures, match negatively on other alternative
cultures.
More recently, researchers have a tendency to define ethnocentrism more broadly.

They propose the idea that human beings use their own culture to consider other
minor groups but they do not necessarily have any negative evaluation on them.
17
These recent studies state that individuals can hold simultaneously positive
attitudes towards their own group and the other ones even if they diverge in values
attitudes or behavior. As a whole, this new conception tells that ethnocentrism may
not be necessarily associated with ethnic prejudice or racism. Instead it is the
tendency to use one´s own group or culture as reference in judging other groups
negatively, indifferently or positively.
Nowadays, we can see Canada as an example of positive ethnocentrism, although

it was not so from the beginning of the conquest up to the 19 th century. We can
consider that the European attitude towards the native in that country has changed
from a strictly negative position to a moderate one at the present. The protective
legislation for aboriginal languages in Canada dealt with the great appeal of the
“Elder” expressed in literature when they spoke about the importance of defending
their aboriginal languages and culture.
Statistics reported the dangerous situation of some aboriginal cultures if not all
of them. In 1992 a survey revealed that 70% of them were
decaying, 18% were merely enduring and only 12% were thriving. Many aboriginal
people under 30 years of age had little or no knowledge of their native language.
As a way to answer the continuous demands of the natives the Canadian
government recently enacted a new legislation to recognize the rights and freedom
of the ancestral languages and culture.
Although the European culture has adopted a protective attitude towards the
aboriginal cultures, in Canada, Ethnocentrism reveals that the main European
culture has taken a leading attitude which denotes dominance over the minor
aboriginal groups.
Brewer. M.B. (2005) “Ethnocentrism and Prejudice” C.S. Crandall and M.

SchallerEd. . Lawrence K.S. Lewinian Press
Bignelli Luis 2004, “The Biligual Phenomenon of Canada” Univ. del Salvador.
Fac. De Historia y letras.-
18
Multilingualism*
This phenomenon is the use of more than one language either by an individual
speaker or by a community of speakers. It is broadly believed that multilingual
speakers outnumber the monolingual ones. More than half of the Europeans speak
one language apart from their mother tongue. Multilingualism became a social
phenomenon regulated by the needs and characteristics of Globalization. In fact,
owing to the frequent access to information given by the internet, individuals
expose to the use of multiple languages in a higher rate, nowadays, than it was
half a century ago.
Generally, most multilingual speakers acquired one mother language during

childhood as so called fist language. As a natural fact, the first language is learnt
without any formal education but by social and neurolinguistic mechanisms. When
children learn two languages at the same time, in their process on language
learning, one language is usually dominant. It is the case of immigrants, with strong
traditional habits that try hard to teach their children, the language of their
ancestors. Bilingual Multilingual speakers often have more important economic
advantages than monolingual Individuals.
Multilingualism in the U.S.A

The United States of America is a multilingual country. One person out of seven in
that country either speaks a language other than English, or lives with family
members who do so. That is the example of New Mexico, where half the
population belongs to a language minority group. More than two thirds of all
language minority speakers of the country and nearly three out of five of the people
who speak languages other than English, were born in the United States of
America.
Since 1980, more than 2, 7 million people have legally emigrated to the United
States from countries in which languages were not English or English descendant
languages. These immigrants have added up to the number of language minorities
just existing in the United States of America.
There are three main origins of multilingualism in the United States of America: A).
The Voluntary Non English Speaking Immigrants that entered the country in
various conditions and situation. Examples: Spanish, French and other European
immigrants. Asian, African and Latin America individuals are included in this part A.
B. Non English speaking populations living in territories administered by the United
States. Example: Puerto Rico. Native people who speak English but they also
19
speak their native mother tongue, Example, Descendants of the Sioux, the
Cherokee and the Appalachian tribes.
In most of the Puerto Rican families, children hear their parents speak Spanish at
home and are always spoken to in their native language. Parents in those groups
have immigrated to the United States after spending their youth and early
adolescence in Puerto Rico. Those children are the ones who most closely
approximate to the environmental language and reach its acquisition quite
successfully. Among these families we can find a great percentage of fluently
bilingual children, but they are generally more fluent in English than in Spanish.
These differences happen out of a number of factors, though the strongest one is
that those children grow in an English speaking country while Spanish becomes
only their ancestral language.
More than half a million of school age children have legally migrated with their
families in the United States, from non-English Speaking countries, since 1980.
Almost half of these immigrants came from countries in which Asian or Pacific
Island languages are spoken. There were at least 100.000 immigrants from
countries in which larger Asian languages or related groups of Asian languages
were spoken. They migrated from Philippines, Vietnam, Korea and Laos. As a
result of these processes of immigration, interracial marriages to Native American
born people contributed to the multicultural phenomenon of the United States and
its multilingual consequence.
A number of aspects emerge when we consider the situation of the Korean

Americans because a surprising number of them are attached to their language
preservation. These factors are of importance both for those studying the Korean
American community and also for those working with Korean American students. It
is essential to acknowledge that the cycle of ethnic language retention and English
acquisition id different for Korean Americans that it may be for other groups having
structural similitude in both languages. Between Korean and English there is no
overlap of vocabulary or verbal forms.
XXX Language Diversity Contemporary Immigrant Language Minorities (Lincoln

Library)
Notes 2022 on “The Argentine People”

Argentines are identified with the country of Argentina. This connection may be
residential, legal, historical or cultural. Argentina is
a multiethnic and multilingual society, home to people of various ethnic, religious,
and national origins, with most of the population made up of Old World immigrants
and their descendants. However, Argentines do not associate their nationality with
20
ethnicity, but with citizenship and loyalty to Argentina. Apart from the indigenous
population, nearly all Argentines or their ancestors immigrated within the last two
centuries. Among countries in the world that have received most immigrants in
modern history, Argentina, ranks second to the United States (27 million), and
ahead of other immigrant destinations such as, Brazil and Australia
Argentina is a multiethnic society, which means that it is home to people of many

various ethnic origins. Argentina is a melting pot of a great variety of peoples. In
the mid-19th century a large wave of immigration started to arrive in Argentina due
to new Constitutional policies that encouraged immigration, and issues in the
countries the immigrants came from, such as wars, poverty, hunger, and famines.
The main immigration sources were from Europe, Italy, Spain, Ireland and
Germany and the countries from the Near and the Middle East, Russia, and Japan.
Eventually, Argentina became the country with the second-largest number of
immigrants in the period, with 6.6 million, second only to the United States with 27
million.
As for the immigrants of Spanish or Italian origin, The most common of those
ethnic groups are a mix of Spanish Galician and Basques. The Italian groups came
from Piedmont or Genoa as well as from the Southern territory. It is estimated that
up to 42.5% of the total population, have Italian ancestry, wholly or partially. There
are also some Germanic, Slavic, Irish and French populations. There are also
smaller Jewish, Arab, Asian, Romani and African communities that contribute to
the melting pot. Immigration of recent decades includes
mainly Paraguayans, Bolivians and Peruvians, among other Latin American
countries.
Notes 2023: “Social and Cultural Diversity in Argentina”
Brief passage fron original notes

by Alejandro Grimson, National University of San Martin, Argentina
“Every nation is more heterogeneous in socio-cultural matters than its self-image

usually suggests, but Argentina is perhaps a singular example. Most Argentinians
believe that Brazil contains more indigenous people than Argentina does; but in
fact, according to the 2010 National Census, whereas Brazil included 850,000
persons who identified themselves as indigenous, Argentina included 950,000 self-
identified indigenous citizens – figures that represent 0.4% of the Brazilian
population and 2.4% of the Argentine population. In Argentina, the state has
framed a self-image of a European society in South America, as if the whole
21
country were a copy of Buenos Aires. But in recent decades, this picture has been
in crisis. The demands of indigenous movements, new cosmopolitanisms, the
state’s weakness and its gradual acceptance of new perspectives have coincided
with the research in social sciences which challenges the country’s typical self-
image, as European and geographically centralist. But researchers have also
avoided trying to squeeze that diversity into global models associated with
neoliberal multiculturalism.
The traditional account: Europeanism and the melting pot

The narrative describing Argentina as a “melting pot” stems from the state’s
nationalist project. According to this account, Argentines “disembarked from ships”
(Spanish, Italian, Polish, etc.) – a vision that limits to, and naturalizes, a prevailing
white European character of the population. This is complemented by an apparent
absence of indigenous and Afro-descendant peoples, as part of a hegemonic view
linked to the country’s organization, privileging a centralist and “porteño” (Buenos
Aires resident) point of view. As in Brazil, Argentina’s supposed melting pot does
not include indigenous peoples and AfroArgentinians, but only “races” stemming
from European nationalities. Since the late nineteenth century, the Argentine state
aimed to create a “civilized” nation by promoting immigration and economic
progress, and developing public education. This project relied upon the
hypothetical capability of the European immigration to supplant the native
population’s cultural habits – seen, from the dominant perspective, as a major
obstacle to development. The government’s pressure to construct an ethnically-
defined nation with a homogeneous culture, along with an effective ability to
generate social inclusion, meant that every variation or particularity was seen as
negative.”
 Web Sites for research
3. www.diversityabroad.com/argentina
a. Argentine ethnic
b. Argentine race population
c. Religion in Argentina
d. Is Argentina diverse?
e. Argentine language
22
UNIT TWO
23
Estudios Interculturales en lengua Inglesa I
Chronology and Plan
Unit Two: English language in the world

England – USA – Canada – N. Zealand – Australia – S. Africa - India
(Posted in the School Campus for the pupils to start reading it)
Period; May 2023
Plan of Classes for April
 Week 1 May the 2nd Unit two will be posted in the School Campus
The Territorial Countries where English is an official language

The territorial countries where English is official by law
Territorial countries where English is spoken as a first language
Territorial countries where English is spoken as a second language
The Teacher will explain these topics
 Week 2 May the 9th Part II Teacher´s speech and explanation on Unit Two:
English Geographical position

American Geographical position
Canadian geographical position
New Zealand
Australia
 Week 3 May the 16th Part I Teacher´s speech and explanation on Unit Two:
South Africa
India
Notes 2022: The British Commonwealth of Nations
Notes 2023:The British Empire
24
 Week 4 May the 23rd Oral Work on the Whole Unit Two. Oral Test.
(Pupils will
Hold a Five minutes speech each one or each couple about
A Selection of countries where English is spoken

As a first or second language; as an official language or by law
England - USA – Canada – N. Zealand – Australia – S. Africa - India
Questions will be asked to the pupils about each one´s chosen topic, at will
 Week 5 May the 30th Written Work Written Test
Pupils will write a handwritten Report in class on

(Pupils will choose among a given list of topics)
A Selection of countries where English is spoken
As a first or second language; as an official language or by law
England - USA – Canada – N. Zealand – Australia – S. Africa - India
Questions may be asked to the pupils about each one´s chosen topic, at will
 List of Main Topics of Unit Two
Territorial Countries where English is spoken as a first language

Territorial Countries where English as an official language
Territorial countries where English is a first language by law
Territorial countries where English is spoken as a second language
England and its Geographical Position

USA and its Geographical position
Canada and its Geographical Position
New Zealand
South Africa
India
Notes 2022 “British Commonwealth of Nations”

Notes 2023 “The British Empire”
 The Purpose of the Unit
25
The main purpose of Unit two in First year is to contact pupils with the countries where
English is spoken. We shall add the geographical position and political characteristics of
some of those countries. Pupils should get acquainted with some cultural indicated facts
linked with the English language in the world
To pass Unit One, Pupils should

Understand Characteristics of some of the Anglophonic countries
Know: The countries where English is spoken
Analyze: In which level, English is spoken in those countries
Express: ideas about England - USA – Canada – N. Zealand – Australia – S. Africa – India
(Characteristics)
Take notes of the extra information, given by the teacher in class
Express the pupils’ point of view
Define 2022 Notes “British Commonwealth of Nations”
Define 2023 Notes “The British Empire”
 Evaluation
On the 23rd and the 30th May (For the evaluation of May)
A The way pupils have assimilated the characteristics of the Anglophonic countries
B The way pupils can manage the study of England - Canada – USA – Australia – New
Zealand – India – S. Africa
C The way pupils can work in the oral and written tests
D The way pupils manage the oral and written language level
 Pupils will have to attend both test days to have a passing mark. However, in
Notes 2022 : “British Commonwealth of Nations”
Notes 2023: “The British Empire”
26
Those Pupils will prepare a handwritten or Oral Report on any of both topics
 Follow the Indications

The whole work must be ready for Tuesday the 30thth
We shall have further comments on the notes, in class
27
List of territorial Countries where English is an official language ()
The following is a list of territories where English is an official language, that is, a
language used in Official affairs and common interactions. In 2015, there were 54
sovereign states where English was an official language.
Most countries where English is an official language are former territories of

the British Empire. Exceptions include Rwanda, which was formerly a Belgian
territory, Cameroon, where only part of the National territory was under British
mandate, and Liberia, the Philippines, the Federated States of Micronesia,
the Marshall Islands, and Palau, which were under American rule. English is the
official language of the Commonwealth of Nations . English is one of the official
languages of the United Nations, the European Union, NAFTA, African
Union, Organization of Islamic Cooperation, Caribbean Community, Union of South
American Nations and many other international organizations.
The United States, United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand, where the
overwhelming majority of native English speakers reside, do not have English as
an official language, but English is considered to be their language due to its
dominant position in these countries.
1. Countries where English is an official language by law
(Most of these countries have their native tongue/s)
# Country Region Population1
01 Antigua and Barbuda[1] Caribbean 85,000
02 Bahamas[1] Caribbean 331,000
03 Barbados[2] Caribbean 294,000
Central
04 Belize[3] 288,000
America
08 Canada[1] North America 35,985,751
09 Cook Islands14[1] Oceania 20,000
28
10 Dominica[1] Caribbean 73,000
15 Grenada[1] Caribbean 106,000
16 Guyana[5] South America 738,000
17 India[3][6] Asia 1,247,540,000
18 Ireland[7][8] Europe 4,581,000
19 Jamaica[9] Caribbean 2,714,000
20 Kenya[1] Africa 45,010,056
25 Malta[1] Europe 430,000
30 Nigeria[1][12] Africa 182,202,000
32 Pakistan[1] Asia 199,085,847
35 Philippines[1][15] Asia 102,885,100
36 Rwanda[1] Africa 11,262,564
38 Saint Lucia[1] Caribbean 165,000
42 Sierra Leone[1] Africa 6,190,280
45 South Africa[21] Africa 54,956,900
51 Trinidad and Tobago[1] Caribbean 1,333,000
53 Uganda[1] Africa 37,873,253
2. Countries where English is in fact, spoken as a first

language
29
# Country Region Population
01 Australia Oceania 23,520,000
02 New Zealand[26] Oceania 4,294,000
03 United Kingdom Europe 63,705,000
04 United States North America 318,224,000
3. Countries where English is a second language or one of the

second languages
1 Bangladesh[29] Asia 150,039,000
2 Cyprus[32] Europe 1,141,166
3 Ethiopia[1] Africa 85,000,000
4 Israel[33][34][35] Asia / Middle East 8,051,200
5 Jordan[36] Asia / Middle East 9,882,401
6 Kuwait[37] Asia / Middle East 4,348,395
7 Malaysia[38] Asia 30,018,242
8 Qatar[39] Asia / Middle East 2,675,522
9 United Arab Emirates[42] Asia / Middle East 5,779,760
30
England and its Geographical position ()
The British Isles is the geographical term used for a group islands in the North
West coast of the European Continental portion. The chief island is Great Britain
which is also the chief largest in Europe. It consists of England, Wales and
Scotland. The next largest Island is Ireland.
Great Britain is just under 1000 km long and just under 500 km across in its widest
part. Scotland is the most mountainous regions where Ben Nevis, its highest peak
is situated. It has a wide low land area between the Grampians and the Southern
Uplands where two of the largest cities of the region are situated, which are
Glasgow and Edinburgh. In England the Pennine Range extends as the backbone
of the whole English territory. The rest England tends to be undulating and the
rivers are in general quite short. The longest rivers of this territory are the Severn
and the Thames, though their easy navigability has made them important for the
shipping of products such as coal iron and steel.
The weather tends to be mild to cold in general, though it is changeable in fact, as

a consequence of the constant influence of the various air masses. The prevailing
winds are from the South West and it brings warm weather from across the
Atlantic. The temperature ranges go from 28 C in summer to minus10 C in winter.
In summer, southern Britain is warmer than Northern Britain because of its latitude
though in winter the North Atlantic Drift keeps the west milder than the east.
Consequently, Wales and the South West region have the most moderate climate
and eastern England the most extreme temperatures.
Annual rainfall is fairly evenly distributed, but it rangers from 1600 mm in the
mountainous areas of the West and North to less than 800 mm over the central
and eastern regions.
Ethnic and National Minorities

People have been coming to settle in Britain for centuries, from many parts of the
world. Many of them arrived in England to avoid political or religious persecutions.
Many Jewish refugees started a new life in the country towards 1930s and after
1945 large members of other European refugees settled in Britain. The
communities from West Indies and South Asia date principally from groups that
immigrated in England between 1959 and 1960. There are Chinese, Greek,
31
Turkish, Cypriots, Italian and Spanish immigrants that came to England in search
of better conditions of life
Between 1985 and 1987, according to the results of a survey, the non-white
population of Great Britain was about 2,4 million inhabitants which means some
4,5 % of the total population of the country. About 43 % of them were born in
Britain.
The United States of America and its characteristics ()
The United States of America is a federal Republic composed of 50 states. They

form an area of about 3 615 000 square Km, which means 31 times the size of Italy
and makes the U.S.A. the fourth largest country in the world.
The country presents a tremendous variety in physical features and climate,

ranging from moist rain forest to arid desert and bold mountains. Mount Mc. Kinley
which is about 6200 mt high is the uppermost point in the United State, while Death
Valley in California is 89 mt. below the sea level.
The Eastern cost of the United States is a long gently rolling lowland area known
as the coastal plain. These coastal plains, which stretch from Maine to Texas are
flat lands and often swampy. In general, their soil is very poor, except in the fertile
southern part where the plain reaches many miles inland forming the Old Cotton
Belt of the South and the Citrus portion of central Florida.
At the Western edge of the Atlantic coastal plain, there is a chain of low almost
unbroken mountains stretching from the Northern part of Maine into Alabama,
called the Appalachian Mountains. This Range contains enormous quantities of
easy accessible coal and iron which helps the concentration of heavy industry
along the region of the Great lakes.
The heart of the United States is a vast plain which extends from Central Canada
southwest to Mexico and from the Appalachian Mountains westwards to the
western American Range. This American Range has the Rocky Mountains which
are a high discontinuous chain of mountains stretching from Alaska down to
Mexico. These rigged mountains contain many important metals such as lead,
uranium and gold.
The United States has several immensely long rivers. There are a large number of
rivers in the eastern part of the nation, the longest of which is the Missouri tributary
of the Mississippi. Two other tributaries of the Mississippi, the Ohio and The
Tennessee are more than 1250 km long.
32
The American Population is about 345000000 people, which means that the United
States id the fourth country in terms of population. About the 75% of the whole
population live in urban areas and there are 170 cities of more than 200000
inhabitants. Most of the Urban centers lie along the Atlantic and the Pacific coasts,
The Gulf of Mexico and the great lakes.
Ethnic Groups
The vast majority of the population belongs to the White Anglo Saxon Protestant
Population. In the twentieth |Century about 50000000 immigrants arrived from
central and southern Europe. They were mainly Italian, Russian, Polish and
Hungarian immigrants who quickly made their own communities. 12% of the
population are black people, but they are bottom in the social scale, as well as in
the educational and employment conditions, especially due to the high
discrimination that the Black inhabitants, although American born, have to undergo.
The great highly growing group is that of the Spanish Speaking immigrant, who
continue using the language at home even though many of them are American
born immigrants.
There are also almost 2 million generally prosperous Oriental Americans from
Japan, China and Philippines who are concentrated mainly in California. The 1,5
million Native Americans live mainly in reserves in the South Western stated in
usually deep poverty and littler or null integration into the American society.
Canada and the Geographical Position ()
It is a federal State occupying a large portion of the North American Continent and
the name comes from the Iroquoian word “Kanata” that means community.
Continental Canada is bordered on the East by the Atlantic Ocean, on the North by
the Arctic Ocean, on the West by Alaska and the Pacific Ocean and in the South
by the United States. Canada covers a whole area of 9 970 000 sq. Km and it is
divided into four geographical region.
Canada is the largest domain of the British Commonwealth and it extends from the
icy waters of the Arctic to the milder borders of the United States and from East to
West its greatest distance is 3700 miles. Its area is partly inappropriate for living. It
is nearly as large as the whole Europe. In the east we can find the most beautiful
sea Provinces with hilly or mountainous lands as well as forest sections and fertile
33
farm lands. In this same section we also find the St. Lawrence Valley, at the West
of the High lands. Of the Eastern Coast and the Ontario Peninsula which is the
centre of the Canadian Industry. This area is rich in minerals, forest lands, water
power and agriculture. The wonderful climate conditions combined with valuable
acceptable resources have made this zone a section of singular importance and
great economic significance, apart from the highest populated region.
If we go to the North West the Canadian Shield stands on an area characterized by

low hills and countless lakes connected by rapids and small rivers. Here, we find
another Canadian great store of important resources like minerals, forests, furs,
and water power. If we investigate towards the West, we´ll find the Great Plains
with the vast “Wheat Belt”. There, the magnificent Mountain Region is located and
it is formed by the great Coastal Mountainous System. In addition to minerals and
valuable forests this area in fertile valleys generates most of the Canadian fruit and
vegetable production. Wheat is the principal crop of the “prairie provinces”.
Canada also has a great variety of precious minerals, such as Uranium, Petroleum,
Gold, Nickel, Iron, Lead, Zinc and Copper. In the twentieth and the twenty first
centuries, Railways made the exploitations of these zones rapidly increasing.
Besides as over ten percent of the Canadian territory is water, the hydroelectric
potential power is almost limitless.
The Canadian natural regions

It we take the previous considerations into account, we shall divide Canada into the
following regions:
a. THE CANADIAN SHIELD It occupies half of the area of the whole territory
and it is about 5000000 sq km. of a crust of ancient rocks. The Canadian
Shield extends from Labrador to Winnipeg in Manitoba and covers the
Hudson Bay and James Bay territories. From there it extends to the North
including Baffin Island and Elizabeth Island.
b. THE GREEN LANDS It is a territory that extends from the Canadian Shield
to lands near the Rocky Mountains. The principal cities in this geographical
region are: Montreal and Quebec in Quebec Province. Ottawa and Toronto
in Ontario Province, Winnipeg City in Manitoba Province. Saskatoon and
Regina in Saskatchewan Province and Edmonton in Alberta. This
subdivision includes the most appropriate places for life, with milder
temperatures that make life easier. The principal industrial and commercial
34
centers stand in this region. Population density increases South and
Eastwards as one reaches the United States border.
c. THE GREAT WESTERN MOUNTAINS This region extends all along Yukon
and British Columbia and has cities like Watson Lake in Yukon Province,
Vancouver, New Westminster and Victoria on the Pacific Ocean in British
Columbia. Province. This region goes from an imaginary line near
Edmonton Northwards to the first mountains of the Rocky Range. This strip
is more than one thousand kilometers long and has important forests that
became one of the most important Canadian sources of income.
d. THE NORTHERN LANDS: These lands extend to the North and West. From
the top point of the Canadian Shield, it rounds the Hudson Bay and goes
direct to the North as a line bordering the Rocky Mountains and part of the
Canadian Shield. Population density is very low here and climate is very
hard. Winters are extremely cold and all sorts of life are very difficult in this
region. Industries are almost impossible and either vegetation or animal life
are weak and little developed.
e. PRAIRIES AND FORESTS These central and southern regions are

perfectly adapted for the Agricultural activities. In fact, Ancient Aborigines
who inhabited these regions devoted their lives to toil the land. It is a dump
territory with perfect conditions for all sorts of life. In fact it is the most
densely populated region. Forests, on the other hand, offer the Wood
industry which is found in the western territory just near the Rocky
Mountains. Canadian timber has always challenged the Scandinavian one,
as the Canadian wood is perfectly versatile for all types of work, since the
variety of the trees goes from the hardest to the softest types of wood.
f. LAKES AND RIVERS The Lake District is situated in the eastern Central
District and a number of small very important rivers interconnect them,
giving way in consequence to important industrial achievements. Saint
Lawrence River which is situated in the eastern coast of the territory has for
many years given Canada the great treasure of the fish industry. The whole
Canadian territory is scattered with small rivers and lakes all along and
across it. The Northern provinces just near the limit with the Arctic cost has
a number of small lakes which stay frozen almost the whole year.
Political Characteristics of Canada
35
The politics of Canada function within the framework of Parliamentary Democracy
and a federal system of parliamentary government with strong democratic
traditions. Canada is a Constitutional Monarchy, in which the monarch is head of
state. In practice, the executive power is directed by the Cabinet, a committee
of ministers of the Crown responsible to the elected House of Commons of
Canada and chosen and headed by the Prime Minister of Canada.
Canada is described as a "full democracy", with a tradition of liberalism, and

an equalitarian, moderate political ideology. Far-right and far-left politics have
never been a prominent force in Canadian society. Peace, order, and good
government are stated aims of the Canadian government. An emphasis on social
justice has been a distinguishing element of the Canadian political culture. Canada
has placed emphasis on equality for its entire people.
The country has a multi-party system in which many of its legislative practices
derive from the unwritten conventions of precedents set by the Westminster
Parliament of the United Kingdom. The two dominant political parties in Canada
have historically been the Liberal Party of Canada and the Conservative Party of
Canada (or its predecessors) however, the New Democratic Party (NDP) has risen
to prominence and even threatened to upset the two other established parties
during the 2011 federal election. Smaller parties like the Quebec nationalist Bloc
Québécois and the Green Party of Canada have also been able to exert their own
influence over the political process.
New Zealand and its Geographical Composition ()
You’ll find a variety of amazing landscapes in New Zealand, all within easy reach of
each other. Spectacular glaciers, picturesque fiords, rugged mountains, vast
plains, rolling hillsides, subtropical forest, volcanic plateau, and miles of coastline
with beautiful sandy beaches..
New Zealand consists of two main islands lying in the south-west Pacific, the North
Island and the South Island. The territory is also composed of the Stewart
Island and many smaller islands which lie offshore. The North Island of
New Zealand has a backbone of mountain ranges running through the middle, with
gentle rolling farmland on both sides. The central North Island is dominated by the
Volcanic Plateau, an active volcanic and thermal area. The massive Southern Alps
form the backbone of the South Island. To the east of the Southern Alps is the
rolling farmland of Otago and Southland, and the vast, flat of Canterbury Plains.
36
How it began
New Zealand’s oldest rocks are over 500 million years old, and were once part of
Gondwanaland. This massive super-continent started to split up about 160 million
years ago, and New Zealand separated from it about 85 million years ago.
New Zealand sits on two tectonic plates; the Pacific and the Australian ones.
Fifteen of these gigantic moving masses of crust make up the Earth’s surface. The
North Island and some parts of the South Island sit on the Australian Plate, while
the rest of the South Island sits on the Pacific one. Because these plates are
constantly shifting and breaking up into each other, New Zealand gets a lot of
geological activity, having the Geysers that erupt up to 20 times a day, drive out
hot water up to 30m skyward.
Geothermal areas and hot springs

This subterranean activity distinguishes New Zealand with some spectacular
geothermal areas and relaxing hot springs, as well as providing electricity and
heating in some areas. Rotorua is the main center of geothermal attractions, with
plenty of mud pools, geysers, and hot springs in its active thermal areas. This area
was first settled by Maori who used the hot springs for cooking and bathing, though
Rotorua soon attracted European residents. The reputed health benefits of its hot
pools quickly gave the area the name of ‘Cureland’. Beyond Rotorua, one can
enjoy hot springs and other thermal activity in most regions of the North Island
north of Turangi, as well as in Hanmer Springs and the West Coast in the South
Island.
Gentle, sandy beaches and wild, rugged coastlines

New Zealand has over 15,000 kilometres of beautiful and varied coastline. In the
Far North and on most of the East Coast of the North Island you’ll find long sandy
beaches perfect for swimming, surfing and sunbathing. The North Island’s west
coast has dark sandy beaches, with sand heavy in iron. The north of the South
Island has some beautiful sandy beaches, while the coastline around the rest of
the South Island tends to be wilder and more rocky lands.
Mountain ranges to fertile farmland

About a half of the North Island and two-thirds of the South Island are
mountainous. These mountains are caused by the collision of the Australian and
Pacific Plates stretching from the north of the North Island to the bottom of the
37
South. Over millions of years, alluvial deposits (eroded from the mountains by
rivers) formed the vast Canterbury Plains in the South Island and a number of
smaller plains in the North. These alluvial plains contain some of New Zealand’s
most fertile and productive farmland. On the South Island’s West Coast one can
find ancient glaciers that extend almost to the sea.
Glaciers of grinding ice

New Zealand’s Southern Alps have a number of glaciers, the largest being Tasman
glacier, which one may have a view by taking a short walk from Mount Cook
village. New Zealand’s most famous glaciers are the Franz Josef and Fox on the
South Island’s West Coast. These spectacular glaciers cut out by moving ice over
thousands of years are easily accessible to mountaineers,. Visitors can walk up to
the glaciers or fly up by helicopter and walk down. One of the most striking and
astonishing parts of New Zealand is Fiordland which is composed of a mix of
fiords, waterfalls and snow-covered mountains.
Sunken Mountains
Over thousands of years, the process of sinking has seen parts of the
New Zealand landscape becoming submerged.
The Marlborough Sounds and Fiordland are examples of high mountain ranges
that have ‘sunk’ into the sea, creating spectacular sounds and fiords. These areas
provide some of New Zealand most picturesque scenery, with steep green hills
plunging down to the deep still bays below. Clear, deep still water surrounded by
beautiful bush makes these areas ideal for boating and kayaking .
The Maori civilization

A certain number of Maoris dwelling in the neighborhoods of the colonial towns
have willingly adapted to European manners and customs. Maori ladies, for
example, may be good customers at the stores of the newest fashion in dresses.
The Maoris are represented in the New Zealand Government, in the Legislative
Council and the House of Assembly, by chosen men of their own race. Maoris are
appointed resident magistrates or superintendents in the districts inhabited by
them. As for their sons and daughters, Government provides education to the
Maori children who learn how to write and read.
Barbaric superstitions however are far from being extinct and the one who has
been concerned with something unclean or opposite to their moral laws may be
condemned to a long and painful exclusion.
38
Legal framework
New Zealand is a “Parliamentary Democracy” under a Constitutional Monarchy. It
has no formal codified constitution; the constitutional framework consists of a
mixture of various documents including Acts of the United Kingdom and New
Zealand Parliament, the Treaty of Waitangi and further Constitutional
Conventions The Constitution Act in 1852 established the system of government,
which was later strengthened in 1986. Constitutional rights are protected under
common law and are supported by the Bill of Rights Act of 1990 and Human Rights
Act of 1993, although they can be overturned by Parliament with a simple
majority. The Constitution Act 1986 describes the three branches of government in
New Zealand: the executive (the Sovereign and the Executive Council), the
legislature (Parliament) and the judiciary (Courts)
Australia and its geographical position ()

Australia belongs to the British Commonwealth of Nations and it has been created
as a Federal Parliamentary Democracy. Its population is, nowadays, estimated in
about 22 000 000 of inhabitants in a land area of about 7 741 000 sq km. It is
located in the Southern Hemisphere, near Indonesia and New Zealand. Australia is
an Island nation that makes up the Australian Continent, together with the Island of
Tasmania and the other surrounding smaller islands. Australia is considered a
developed Nation and it has the world´s thirteen largest economy. It is known for its
high life expectancy, its good level in Education, the quality of life and its bio
diversity.
Economy and Land Use in Australia

Australia has a strong economy due to its extensive natural resources, well-
developed industry, and tourism. The main industries in Australia are mining,
industrial and transportation equipment, food processing, chemicals and steel
manufacturing. Agriculture also plays a role in the economy of the country and its
main products include wheat, barley, sugarcane, fruits, cattle and sheep breeding .
Geography, Climate, and Biodiversity of Australia

Australia is located in Oceania between the Indian and South Pacific
Oceans. Although it is a large country, its topography is not too varied and most of
it consists of a low desert flat terrain. There are however fertile plains in the
southeast. Australia’s climate is mostly dry, but the South and East are temperate
are fertile and the North is tropical.
39
Although most of Australia is arid desert, it supports a wide range of diverse
habitats that gives it an incredible biodiversity. A wide variety of plants and animals
prosper there and make them single as a result of its geographic isolation from the
rest of the world. 85% of its plants, 84% of its mammals and 45% of its birds are
endemic to Australia with alpine forests and tropical rainforests. It also has a
greatest variety of reptile species of the world as well as some of the most
venomous snakes. Australia is most famous for its marsupial species, which
include the kangaroo, koala, and wombat. Around 89% of Australia’s fish species
live in the Australian Seas. In addition, marvelous Coral Reefs are common on
Australian coast. The most famous of them is the marvelous Great Barrier
Reef which is the world’s largest coral reef system and it stretches over an area of
344,400 sq km. It is made up of over 2,900 individual reefs and supports many
different species, many of which are in danger of extinction.
The Australian political situation in the XX and XXI Centuries

In the 20th Century, 1901 to 1914, there were free trade and protectionist laws,
though the political situation of Australia was not actually firm, however the
economy and life conditions were acceptable. In fact, there were ten cabinet
groups and six elections during the period. That shows the instability of the political
conditions in the early period of the Commonwealth, by which Australia
experienced certain British protectionist laws, in front of the international markets.
During the period previous to the Great War, Australia passed some important laws
considering: 1. The law allowing women to vote. 2. The law acknowledging old age
pensions 3. The law arbitrating in labour disputes.
Tariffs and immigration were handled by the federal government though the
Commonwealth system of conciliation and arbitration showed superiority over the
other institutional bodies. Actually, the high court of Australia gave considerable
power to the federal institutions though it was not limitless. Population and
optimism increased in Australia before the Great War as the number of inhabitants
increased from 3000000 to 6000000 in 1914.
During the early years of the war, the Government was held by Joseph Cook, who
tried to manage the great internal struggle that finally led him to an expected
downfall and further election of a new Australian Representative in the person of
Andrew Fisher. As a matter of fact, the leaders of both parties made clear their
support to Great Britain in the phases of the Great War. Nevertheless, Fisher
resigned to his ministerial position, in 1915 and William Hughes was elected new
Prime Minister. He did no great changes in the policy, unless we mention the
Foreign Service he intensified during the war, before and after his visit to Great
40
Britain. There were 1000000 voluntary men at first in the front line and 70000 in the
training camps ready for a new shipping to England.
After the declaration of the Second World War, Australia answered to the
compulsory needs for conscription and increased the size of its army, its navy and
the air force. The Australian soldiers made a decisive contribution to the allied
victory. By 1941 there were more than 700000 soldiers in the front line and in 1945
Australia provided the U.S.A. forces in the South West Pacific with provisions,
technological equipment and services.
The Parliament of Australia, also known as the Commonwealth Parliament or

Federal Parliament, is the legislative branch of the government of Australia. It
is bicameral, and has been influenced both by the Westminster system and United
States federalism. Under Section 1 of the Constitution of Australia, Parliament
consists of three components: the Monarch, the Senate, and the House of
Representatives. The Australian Parliament is the world's sixth oldest continuous
democracy.
The Australian House of Representatives has 150 members, each elected for a
flexible term of office not exceeding three years to represent a single electoral
division, commonly referred to as an electorate or seat. Voting within each
electorate utilizes the instant-runoff system of preferential voting, which has its
origins in Australia. The party or coalition of parties which commands the
confidence of a majority of members of the House of Representatives forms the
government. The Australian Senate has 76 members.
The Australian Aborigines

The Australian Aborigines are classified as part of the “Australoid” subdivision of
mankind. Modern evidence shows that this racial type was described as part of the
originally Malasyan tribes. The Australoid race is a broad racial classification used
to refer to people of the indigenous origin that came from South Asia, Southeast
Asia, Melanesia, and Malaysia who historically spread over a vast zone, of the
Australian territory.
The category “Aboriginal Australia” was created by the British after they began
colonizing Australia in 1788, to refer collectively to all people they found already
inhabiting the continent, and later to the descendants of any of those people. Until
the 1980s, the single legal and administrative criterion for inclusion in this category
was race, classified according to visible physical characteristics or known
ancestors. As in the British slave colonies of North America and the Caribbean,
41
children’s status was determined by that of their mothers. If they were born to
Aboriginal mothers, children were considered Aboriginal, regardless of their
paternity and origin.
4. South Africa
South Africa, which is officially the Republic of South Africa, is the southernmost
country in Africa. It is bounded to the south by 2,798 kilometres of coastline
of Southern Africa stretching along the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans; to the
North by the neighbouring countries of Namibia, Botswana, and Zimbabwe; and to
the East and northeast by Mozambique. South Africa is the largest country in
Southern Africa and the 25th-largest country in the world by land area and, with
over 57 million people, is the world's 24th-most populous nation.. About 80 percent
of South Africans are of Sub-Saharan African ancestry, divided among a variety of
ethnic groups, speaking a variety of African languages, nine of which have official
status. The remaining population consists of Africa's largest communities
of European (White), Asian (Indian), and multiracial (Coloured) ancestry.
South Africa is a multiethnic society composing a wide variety of

cultures, languages, and religions. Its pluralistic makeup is reflected in
the constitution's recognition of 11 official languages, which is the fourth highest
number in the world. Two of these languages are of European origin: African
developed from Dutch, which serves as the first language of
most coloured and white South Africans English reflects the legacy of British
colonialism, and is commonly used in public and commercial life, though it is
fourth-ranked as a spoken first language. The country is one of the few in Africa
never to have had a coup d'état, and regular elections have been held for almost a
century. However, the vast majority of black South Africans were not officially
registered until 1994. During the 20th century, the black majority sought to recover
its rights from the dominant white minority. With this struggle they played a large
role in the country's recent history and politics. The National Party imposed rules of
segregation from 1948, institutionalizing that racial segregation. After a long and
sometimes violent struggle by the African National Congress and other anti-
apartheid activists both inside and outside the country, the prohibition of
discriminatory laws started in 1990.
Since 1994, all ethnic and linguistic groups have held political representation in the
country's liberal democracy, which comprises a parliamentary republic and nine
provinces. South Africa is often referred to as the "rainbow nation" to describe the
country's multicultural diversity, especially in the wake of apartheid. [13] The World
42
Bank classifies South Africa as an upper-middle-income economy, and a newly
industrialised country.[14][15] Its economy is the second-largest in Africa, and the
34th-largest in the world.[6] In terms of purchasing power parity, South Africa has
the seventh-highest per capita income in Africa. However, poverty
and inequality remain widespread, with about a quarter of the population
unemployed and living on less than US$1.25 a day
5. India and its Political Situation

India also known as the Republic of India is a country in South Asia. It is
the seventh largest country by area, with more than 1.3 billion people and it is
the most populated country as well as the most populous democracy in the world.
It is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the Southwest,
and the Bay of Bengal on the Southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to
the West, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the Southeast
and Bangladesh and Myanmar to the East.
In 2017, the Indian economy was the world's sixth largest by nominal order and the
third largest one by purchasing power. India became one of the fastest-growing
main economies and is considered an industrialized country following market-
based economic reforms of 1991. However, it continues facing great challenges
of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, and inadequate public healthcare. It has
the second largest standing army in the world and ranks fifth in military
expenditure among nations having nuclear weapons and regional power. India is
a federal republic governed under a parliamentary system and consists of 29
states and 7 union territories. A pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society, it is
also home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats.
Government
India is a federation with a parliamentary system governed under the Constitution
of India, which serves as the country's supreme legal document. It is a
“Constitutional Republic” and a “Representative system”, in which "majority rules
and becomes tempered by minority rights protected by law". Federalism in
India defines the power distribution between the union, or central, government and
the states. The Constitution of India, which came into effect on 26 th January
1950, states in its preamble that India is
a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic. India's form of government,
traditionally described as "quasi-federal" with a strong centre and weak states, ] has
grown increasingly to be federal, since the late 1990s as a result of political,
economic, and social changes.
43
The Government of India comprises three branches
 Executive: The President of India is the ceremonial head of state, who is

elected indirectly for a five-year term by an electoral college comprising
members of national and state legislatures. The Prime Minister of India is
the head of government and exercises most executive power. The Prime
Minister who is appointed by the president is supported by
the party or political alliance having a majority of seats in the “Lower House
of Parliament¨”. The executive of the Indian government consists of the
president, the vice president, and the Union Council of Ministers—with
the cabinet being its executive committee, headed by the Prime Minister.
Any minister must normally, be a member of one of the houses of
parliament. In the Indian parliamentary system, the executive is subordinate
to the legislature; the Prime Minister and his or her council are directly
responsible to the lower house of the parliament. The civil servants act as
permanent executives and all decisions of the executive are put into practice
by them.
 Legislature: The legislature of India is made of a bicameral pparliament

operating under a Westminster-style parliamentary system. It includes an
upper house called the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) and a lower house
called the Lok Sabha (House of the People) The Rajya Sabha is a
permanent body of 245 members who serve for a six-year terms. Most
members are elected indirectly by the state and the union territorial
legislatures in relative numbers to their state's share of the national
population. All but two of the Lok Sabha's 545 members are directly elected
by popular vote; they represent single-member constituencies for five-
year terms. The remaining two members are nominated by the president
from among the Anglo-Indian community, in case the president decides that
they are not adequately represented.
 Judiciary: India has a three unitary independent judiciary bodies comprising

the supreme court, headed by the Chief Justice of India, 24 high courts, and
a large number of trial courts. The Supreme Court has original
jurisdiction over cases involving fundamental rights and over disputes
between states and the centre and has jurisdiction over the high courts. It
has the power to both strike down or state laws which might be for or
against the constitution, as well as to invalidate any government action
being unconstitutional
44
Notes 2022 British Commonwealth of Nations (1931)
Date: 11 Dec 1931
About:
“The British Commonwealth of Nations was the result of the 1926 Balfour Declaration
which stipulated that the relationship between Britain and her Dominions was equal in
status. This stipulation was formalized officially in Section 4 of the Statute of Westminster
in 1931. It stated: 'No Act of Parliament of the United Kingdom passed after the beginning
of this Act shall extend, or be believed to extend, to a Dominion as part of the law of that
Dominion, unless it is expressly declared in that Act that that Dominion has requested, and
consented to, the enactment thereof.' In section 1, 'Dominions' were specified as: 'the
Dominion of Canada, the Commonwealth of Australia, the Dominion of New Zealand, the
Union of South Africa, the Irish Free State and Newfoundland'. The main effect of the
Statute was the establishment of legislative equality between these dominions and the
United Kingdom.
Concerning the status of Great Britain and the Dominions, the Balfour Declaration
stipulated: 'They are autonomous communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in
no way subordinate to one another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs,
though united by a common loyalty to the Crown, and freely associated as members of the
British Commonwealth of Nations.' The Balfour Declaration was one of the outcomes of
the 1926 Imperial Conference in London. Section III concerns the special position of India:
'It will be noted that in the previous paragraphs we have made no mention of India. Our
reason for limiting their room to Great Britain and the Dominions is that the position of
India in the Empire is already defined by the Government of India Act, 1919. We would,
nevertheless, recall that by Resolution IX of the Imperial War Conference, 1917, due
recognition was given to the important position held by India in the British Commonwealth.
Where, in this Report, we have had occasion to consider the position of India, we have
made particular reference to it.' India was included in the proposed Sub-Conference on
Merchant Shipping Legislation. As a result of the Declaration, four basic characteristics of
members of the Commonwealth were agreed: these were equality of status, autonomy in
internal and external affairs, common association to the Crown and the free association of
the member states in the Commonwealth. Many of the recommendations of the Balfour
Declaration became law in 1931.
Meanwhile, however, in the period between the Declaration of 1926 and the Statute of
Westminster of 1931, British-Indian relations worsened, culminating in the failure of
the Round Table Conferences (1930-1932). The Indian National Congress fought for
Dominion status for India, the Simon Commission was boycotted and Gandhi launched a
major civil disobedience movement. The strained Anglo-Indian relationship in this period
left India out of the Statute of Westminster, 1931, and without Dominion status.
The London Declaration of 1949 ended the British Commonwealth of Nations. In order to
accommodate constitutional changes in India, the members of the British Commonwealth
45
of Nations declared: 'The Governments of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New
Zealand, South Africa, India, Pakistan and Ceylon, whose countries are united as
members of the British Commonwealth of Nations and owe a common allegiance to the
Crown, which is also the symbol of their free association, have considered the impending
constitutional changes in India.
'The Government of India have informed the other Governments of the Commonwealth of
the intention of the Indian people that under the new constitution which is about to be
adopted India shall become a sovereign independent republic. The Government of India
have however declared and affirmed India's desire to continue her full membership of the
Commonwealth of Nations and her acceptance of The King as the symbol of the free
association of its independent member nations and as such the Head of the
Commonwealth. Accordingly the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South
Africa, India, Pakistan and Ceylon hereby declared that they remained united as free and
equal members of the Commonwealth of Nations, freely co-operating in pursuit of peace,
liberty, and progress.'
Thus, with the London Declaration, the British Commonwealth of Nations officially ended
and became the Commonwealth of Nations”.
Notes 2023; The British Empire
Textual Note from www.britannica.com

“It is a worldwide system of dependencies, colonies, protectorates, and other territories
that over a period of some three centuries was brought under the sovereignty of the crown
of Great Britain and the administration of the British government. The policy of granting or
recognizing significant degrees of self-government by dependencies, which was favoured
by the nature of the empire, led to the development, in the 20th century, of a “British
Commonwealth,” comprising largely self-governing dependencies that acknowledged a
symbolic British sovereignty. The term was embodied in a statute in 1931. Today
the Commonwealth includes former elements of the British Empire in a bond association
of sovereign states.”
 Suggested links for further investigation
www.britannica.com
www.britishempire.co.uk
46
UNIT THREE
Unit Three
1. English and American participation in Argentina
47
2. Identity and Globalization
3. Characteristics of the Irish Colonies and British settlement in Argentina
4. Multicultural English today
5. The approach to socio – cultural studies
6. English language and social classes in Argentina
7. Working conditions of the British Co. in Argentina
8. The use of the English language in Argentina
9. The teacher as a mediator
10. The Theory of Lev Vygotsly
11. Conflicts in Latin America. The U.S.A. and Cuba
12. Latin America and the U.S.A.
13. England and Argentina in the Malvinas Conflict
14. Conflicts in Canada. The British Legacies
15. The Conflicts in the South Eastern Territories New Zealand
16. Australia
 Chronology and Plan
48
Unit Three:
English and American Participation in Argentina

Identity and Globalization
Irish Colonies and British settlers in Argentina
Multicultural English today
The English language and the social classes in Argentina
The teacher as a mediator
Lev Vigotsky
American and British conflicts in Latin America
Cuba Malvinas Islands
The conflicts in New Zealand and Australia
 Period; June 2023
 Plan of Classes for June
Week 1 June the 6th Unit Three
Examination period: No Classes
(Pupils should start reading Unit Three, by themselves and plan the Voluntary
Investigation work)
Teacher´s speech and explanation on:
English and American participation in Argentina

Identity and globalization
Irish colonies and British settlers
The English language in Argentina
National Celebration: No Classes

(Pupils should go on reading Unit Three by themselves
49
Teacher will go on explaining and letting pupils practise
Lev Vigotsky
Conflicts in Latin America-Cuba/Malvinas
Conflicts in New Zealand and Australia
Conflicts in Canada
Pupils will write a Report On one of the following topics
English and American Participation in Argentina

Identity and Globalization
Irish Colonies and British settlers in Argentina
Multicultural English today
The English language and the social classes in Argentina
Lev Vigotsky
American and British conflicts in Latin America
Cuba Malvinas Islands
The conflicts in New Zealand and Australia
Pupils will post the work in the School Campus before the 4th July
 The General Purpose of Unit Three
The purpose of Unit Three is to analyze the British and American participation in
Argentina and in the world. We shall also analyze the various conflicts and legates.
Finally, there will be some topics related to education and the teacher as a
mediator in class
To pass Unit Three Pupils should:

UNDERSTAND. English and American participation in Argentina and in the world
50
KNOW Which the British and American conflicts were
ANALYZE English language in Argentina and the social classes
EXPRESS clearly, what Teacher as a Mediator mean
DEFINE. Notes 2022 “The USA and Cuba from early years to1933”
DEFINE Notes 2023 “The Malvinas War”
 Evaluation
The way pupils have assimilated British and American participation in the world
The way pupils can manage Conflicts and legates
The way pupils can express the education topics
The way pupils manage the oral and written language level
(To be examined in the posted works in the School Campus)
Pupils will have to attend both test days to have a passing mark. However, in
Notes 2022: “The USA and Cuba from early years to 1933”
Notes 2023: “The Malvinas War”
Prepare a handwritten Report on any of both topics

The whole work must be ready before the 1st July
 Suggested web sites
www.britannica.com the war in the Falkland Islands

www.britannica.com The Cuban revolution
51
 English and American Participation in the Socio-Cultural
Movements of the XX and XXI Centuries in Argentina and
Latin America #
1. Identity and Globalization
Some latest social movements of the world are called Anti-Globalization
movements. Most of the official actions acknowledge certain profits of the
globalized system as far as communication and general information, as well as
aspects of Education. Nevertheless, those movements finally, work for an
alternative approach to Capitalism, where leaders state that mercantilism could be
more regional and alternative economies of most of the smaller countries could be
better protected. In fact, those movements may be alternative but are not
definitively against Capitalism.
Globalization can be seen from different points of view, including several
dimensions which admit a new way to understand global Capitalism. The struggle
for the globalization of the human rights is a perfect example. Consequently, the
movements can also be considered global ones though they are local at the same
time. The real sense of Mercantilism is founded in global strategies that go in in all
the cultures and territories mean the colonization of the local cultures, the daily life
and the human beings. The effect in the local affairs of the globalized system may
be a closing up or an opening of the economy towards the rest of the world. The
first case means a tribal attitude of self-discrimination while the second one admits
the inter activity with other cultures.
The rights for citizenship come from the old concepts of the Ancient Greece. From
then on man fought for their rights though in ancient and middle times Sovereigns
did not acknowledge any freedom to people outside the Court. More recently the
latest authors think that the conquest of the human rights are indispensible for
building up the right of citizenship, which means the enjoyment of the social,
political and personal rights. These movements, in the XX century gave people
important conquests in the social and working conditions.
As a consequence, the concept of citizenship, human rights and identity is one of
the most important phenomena of the XXI Century in Latin America and has
become the Nationalistic Current and the deep defense for nationalism. These
movements became an important resistance against colonialism and a great
struggle to obtain better levels in Self Sovereignty. In Argentina, the thought for
Nationalism contributed to frame a doctrine that never left aside the wide view of
interculturality and the open acceptance of the alternative cultures. In fact, new
generations concentrate in these new affairs and accept the concepts as a dogma.
The new social movements of the XXI Century take ´place in Europe and state that
today´s movements are structurally different from those of the old times. In the XIX
52
century the events were mainly of “Workers” who demanded better conditions of
work, so they were at the same time actual class movements. Nowadays, people
struggle against war, the environment, the civil rights, the identity, nationalism, anti
- globalization and anti-colonization, as well as the feminist ones. The purpose of
the movements has a definite form and has to do with the recently created
identities and particularly those of the Middle Classes in the countries in
development.
Over the past several decades, the “politics of history” has become a significant
aspect of domestic affairs and international relations, around the world. The use of
history as an instrument usually pursues two main purposes: First, the creation of a
cohesive national identity and the unity of the society with the Government; Second
comes the avoidance of the problem of culpability, as the two purposes are clearly
interlinked. It is probably, much easier to build a “pure” identity based on the open
interpretation of one’s country’s “glorious past.” once people have liberated
themselves from the sense of historical, political or moral excessive responsibility;
The purpose must be to discover if the memory of the smaller countries, in the
tumultuous 20th century have helped them to find their national identity and
according to their historical interpretations if they have associated the most
important facts of the Century like the World Wars or the phenomenon of
Globalization to concepts of national identity and development, as a way to
preserve their real sense of nationality. The great capitalistic Countries have
always persisted in their purpose of domination and colonization, through several
methods; however, that should never be a way to miss the legacy of the historical
ancestors as well as the sense of national individuality and local distinctiveness.
 Characteristics of the Irish colonies and the British

settlements in our country
One of the main European immigrations mainly that from the British Isles, brought
about important changes to our country, such as the social inclusion of women, the
acknowledgement of women’s rights in working affairs and consequently the
stability of marriage bonds which gave the families a permanent link. The new
economic situation of the XX th Century, which the European immigrants actively
promoted, helped to hold that stability. We should first mention the Irish families
who had started immigration to our country in the XIX and the XX centuries. The
sons and daughters of those families became our Criollos who showed all along
the XX century and some of them even today, a special devotion for our country
and for the family unity. There was certain immigration of English families too, but
they came to Argentina either in the XIX or the XX centuries as members of the
companies of servicers which the British Crown administered in our Country.
53
During the first half of the twentieth century, Rosario definitely became the Capital
city of the “Pampa Gringa.”1 The first Irish immigrants settled along a line of small
towns that they founded by themselves as they built their farms there and started a
domestic farm Industry. The string of Irish colonies went from Roldan through
Cañada de Gomez, Armstrong and Tortugas to the western lands near Marcos
Juarez. The most outstanding European immigrants of that Central district set up a
high society class which had no previous record in Rosario. They started their
clubs and important societies there. To mention this again, the Irish immigrants
came to Argentina in great currents, from Westmeath, from Galway and from other
counties of Ireland. These Irish currents changed the profile of the cities and towns
of the rural districts of Santa Fe Province and of Buenos Aires Province, too. They
made a great agricultural centre there and had the purpose of strengthening the
activity in the port of Rosario, which in fact, never developed properly. Actually,
those Irish immigrants who came to work the land adopted our country as their own
mother land.
Argentina could be seen as a strong European - like nation owing to its attachment
to the British foreign affairs, if one compared it to the other Latin American
countries. In the mid twentieth century Argentina had a great cultural development
which was deeper than that of any other Latin American country. Argentina was at
the head of the South American nations, as its socio - cultural capacity gave it a
relevant position in the world, though the Argentine development in all its aspects
came closely bound to our contact with England and the Irish immigrations
As regards economy, Argentina continued the struggle for its exportations, during
the first half of the twentieth century. Argentina had always been known as a
producer and its income was based on its capacity for foreign trade and
exportation of Agricultural products. Nevertheless, the Second World War and the
lack of supplies made the production of crops decline year after year, so towards
the second half of the twentieth century, Argentina entered a progressive decline
and an endless struggle for political leadership, in home affairs.
The 1940s was a significant decade as far as Anglo-Argentine affairs were
concerned. During the first decade of the twentieth century; the traditional learning
of the Argentine higher class based on the British and French models led our
country to strengthen its foreign relations. England had always been our historic
partner in economic matters, so, Argentina offered Great Britain a relation which
was interested but unconditional.
The period that we have analyzed up to now covers the first fifty years of the
twentieth century. It was the time of the two Great World Wars, which brought
serious consequences to Europe and caused dangerous economic effects in our
1
LA PAMPA GRINGA. Name given to the towns and cities of Buenos Aires and Santa Fe where immigrants,
mainly Irish, settled in the XIX century. Some of them are V: Tuerto, Cañada de Gomez, Carcarañá ertc.
SOURCE OF INFORMATION www.pampagringa.Pueblos/pueblos
54
country, too. In fact, Argentina was linked to Europe, during the second half of the
nineteenth century and the first half of the twentieth century and intimately bound
to England in all its economic affairs. This fact set a determinant condition in our
country but also characterized it distinctively if compared to the other Latin
American countries.
In 1950, England, our permanent supplier of products and buyer was almost
bankrupt and engaged in great international conflicts. Our industrial possibilities of
expanding were scarce, our funds were not enough to afford any development by
ourselves and any international loan out of England was dangerous. The closest
option for an international loan was the United States of America, but Argentina
had always been more friendly to England than to any other country. Nevertheless,
The Argentine President H. Irigoyen was not in favour of the foreign investments
and that meant a controversial approach in the international affairs, though years
afterwards Argentina entered economic business with the United States of
America. England depended on the Argentine products during the Second World
War, but had no cash money to pay for them. However, our policy was consistent
and we did not stop trading with London although the British debt increased and
became unpaid for some years. During the next years a string of strategies
characterized the international economic affairs between Argentina and the rest of
the world. In 1950, Argentina was sunk in a difficult dilemma: This was the end of
the agricultural period in the advanced countries and Argentina had to supply them
with its raw material for their industry or Argentina could also become an
industrialized Nation too.
 Adoption of ‘multicultural’ English Today
English is an international language and has become a lingua franca rather than
just the language of English culture. As such, schools in Argentina are now called
bilingual schools rather than English schools, and language learning has become
concerned with factors in addition to the language itself: English as a means of
transmitting other aspects related to language, such as global and national
cultures, lifestyles and attitudes. This move could make English and all foreign
languages more significant for students and allow them to consider their own
languages and cultures in a new light and recognize and appreciate diversity and
equality. The intention is that children should learn English from a multilingual
perspective that enriches foreign language learning. In the last few years, there
has been a substantial change in Argentina’s educational paradigm: there has
been a shift towards an intercultural and multilingual approach that recognizes
linguistic diversity. This applies not only to the English language but also to
Spanish and means that English is just another language, with the same
importance as any other foreign or indigenous language. Teaching a second
55
language from this perspective is a challenge. Students and teachers must
overcome ideas of imperialism or superiority attached to the English language.
Teachers must also overcome preconceived ideas about what English language
learning is and means and find new ways of inspiring students. English is no longer
solely about securing a better job; it is about engaging with a new world vision and
developing greater cultural understanding
 An Approach to the Social and Cultural Studies #
The Social and Cultural Studies program has two wide areas of focus.
First The Program is devoted to the examination of public schooling in its broader
social, cultural, political, and economic contexts. It is particularly concerned with
the impact of globalization, migration and immigration, and the changing of political
economy, as well as the development of urban education in the countries. It is also
concerned with understanding the role of schooling in sustaining a democratic
society in social inequality, economic reform and changing social relations.
Although the program studies the previous variation in the United States of
America, it also helps most of the countries use its parameters to understand each
one’s situation
Second, the Program we are referring is devoted to studying education beyond the
borders of regular public schooling, communities, labor, and political learning and
education that occur in the context organizations and social movements,
workplaces and labor unions, youth groups, and immigrant centers. The program
also states that the learning and education that occur in such diverse sites play a
critical role in social and cultural transformation, and also help us reorganize
possibilities for public in various places.
The socio cultural approach and the exploration of how our culture influences the
way in which we learn and think may be a significant way to analyze the society we
are living in. A common method of explaining what makes and defines us as
individuals is the application of the socio cultural approach. This approach
emphasizes the influence of the society that we living in our learning process.
According to the socio cultural approach, cultural factors such as language, art,
social norms and social structures can play a significant role in the development of
our cognitive abilities.
 The English Language and the Argentine Social Classes #
There are three most remarkable origins of the English language in our country.
One of them is the language that the English speakers that settled in our country
brought through the twentieth century. Those English people did not contribute
56
much to the spreading of the language as they came to Argentina only to occupy
definite positions in British companies so did not interact much with people outside
their circles. Nevertheless, some of them were the managers or chiefs of the
companies that required Argentine employees having high level of English to apply
for a position. In a way they could have been the basis for future companies that
are nowadays requiring English speaking employees.
The second group belongs to the members of the Irish culture who also spoke
English as their mother language: These people differ from the previous ones as
most of them came to our country to invest in the rural areas, to toil the land or to
work in the British companies. Most of them came to Argentina to live forever and
to interact with all the circles of our country. They also contributed to spread the
language enormously as some of them became teachers of English even in the
small cities of the Buenos Aires Province and Santa Fe.
 The Working Conditions in the British Companies in

Argentina and the First Movements of Argentine Workers
Argentina had very few laws of work protection at the beginning of the twentieth
century. After the arrival of the British Companies in Argentina new work – laws
were passed, mainly, by the British Railway Companies, for the benefit of their
employees. Those law included 1. The eight-hour day / work 2. A period of
holidays after a year’s work 3. Medical Assistance. The British firms brought certain
evolution from Europe and they put it into practice as they realized the possibilities
of development our country had, both for our benefit and simply for their own profit.
At the beginning of the XX century the Argentine workers of many National
businesses were considered trouble makers and leaders of riots in our main cities,
though they only claimed for better social conditions, as they compared the
advantages that the Railway Workers had, with the working conditions they were
given. Only some decades after the claims did the Argentine companies adopt the
same benefits for their workers and employees.
In 1900, Juan Bialet Massé2, a former teacher at the University of Cordoba
denounced, for the first time, certain discrimination towards the Argentine natives
of the working class, considering the lack of skill they had for handiwork, in the
recently sprung industry. He reported that they were accused of having low
efficiency at work and lack of up to date knowledge. His speech addressed the
owners of the foreign companies in Argentina and aimed at getting equal
possibilities of work for Natives and Immigrants. In fact, industry needed qualified
handiwork and the European immigrants were acquainted with the new world
2
JUAN BIALET MASSE He was born in Spain in 1846 and married Julien Laprida in our country. In 1877, he
moved to Cordoba where he had to teach Legal Medicine but he entered the University to study law. He was a
great defender of the worker’s rights. SOURCE OF INFORMATION
57
techniques for modern industry, but Bialet Masse and other politicians of our
country argued in front the foreign groups of services to teach the Argentine
workers, all it was needed for an up to date company.
Some Argentine Companies considered that the claims of the workers were simply
exotic when they asked for better salaries. At that time workers started going on
strike or declaring a boycott in some Argentine factories, especially those working
rawhide or leather; as a result, a new phase of the history of Argentine rights
started and bloody struggles between police and workers became quite common in
the main cities or our country during the first decade of the twentieth century.
1902, was apparently a determinant year in the history of Argentine workers. The
stevedores in the port of San Nicolas claimed for better conditions of work. They
did not ask for a rise in their salaries but a reduction in the working hours per day
and the weight of sacks, which should not exceed the limit of 70kg. The stevedores
of Rosario and the port of Buenos Aires joined the movement and both organized a
great demonstration. La Nacion Newspaper 3 published important news saying that
the situation allowed it to think that the strike of stevedores would end well and that
the purpose of the strike was not an increase of salaries but the reduction in the
weight of sacks, which was fair and many exporters agreed with them. The result
of the strike was not entirely positive but it became important as it was a movement
of workers done by the first time in Argentina.
Workers of our country fought for the rights which were non - existent in Argentina,
in the years previous to the Great War. Some of the rights that workers claimed for
were 1. The prohibition of physical punishment to apprentices 2. The due respect
for women by the Bosses or Chiefs of factories. The Argentine authorities showed
a continual hostility for the rights of the workers in general; in fact, in 1910 the shop
workers went on strike demanding an eight-hour work - day, the right for private life
and the Sunday as a day of rest. As a result, Shop workers obtained the advantage
of the English Saturday or sabado ingles, giving them a period of rest which
included from Saturday at midday to the whole Sunday.
English is now part of most everyday life in Argentina. Technology, especially
represented by the great network of computers has put a large percentage of the
population in contact with the English language. In many aspects the English
language became deeply rooted in our country and one of the main causes started
in the railway and telephone Companies which were administered by British
companies and gave a special treatment to the employees having a good
knowledge of the English language, and went on increasingly year after year as the
English language became an international language of common use in most
affairs.
3
LA NACION NEWSPAPER Noviembre 7 de 1902 “Todo hace esperar que la huelga de estibadores tenga un solución
favorable. No se trata de un aumento de salario sino de disminución de peso en las bolsas y fardos, lo que es muy justo y
con lo que están de acuerdo muchos exportadores. SORCE OF INFORMACION “Historia argentina” Tipográfica Editora
Argentina. Buenos Aires 1971 Tomo 1
58
After the First World War, the British Empire became bankrupt, so, Argentina had
to change its commercial partner. At that time the American Chamber of
Commerce in Argentina was founded to represent the United States interests in
our country. Its main functions were to support the American Corporations and
generate wealth in the country.
 The Use of the English language in Argentina
One of the areas in which the users of English have increased most is in the
business world. During the 1990s Argentina offered one of the most attractive
business environments of the region. Its economy was one of the most open in the
world and one of the most attractive for foreign investors, at the end of the XX
century and at the beginning of the XXI. This brought about an increasing demand
for English speaking employees. In fact, nowadays Argentine companies expect to
have proficient English speaking employees. During the 1990 and early 2000 most
of the courses of English for employees, were financed by the companies or
corporations encouraging people to learn English.
Another area in which the users of English have increased is education. The
Federal Law of Education implemented in 1996 and the National Law of Education
acknowledged a special importance to the English language and made its teaching
compulsory from the 4th year on. Fourteen of the twenty-three provinces adopted
English as the only foreign language to be taught. Although English is not
compulsory at most Universities, students seeking graduate or post graduate
degrees need to be proficient in English to gain admittance both at home and
abroad.
Luis Bignelli, (2004) “The Anglo Irish Immigration and the Argentine Process of
development”. U.S.A.L. Buenos Aires Argentina.
 The Modern Teacher / Mediator in the Teaching / Learning

Process
Mediation has the purpose of helping the pupils to build abilities to achieve self-
command, in the learning process. The inter action among individuals in their
natural environment is fundamental in any learning development. Vigotsky, in one
of his famous works, remarked the importance of the social interaction as a means
of the learning process. He gave special importance to the way that human beings
individually develop each one’s learning procedure and how they interact it with the
other beings, in society, using signs, movements, concepts and even all other
combined forms. He specially studied the way this leads man into a complex
59
psychological brain activity which unables people to achieve apprehension and
comprehension. Consequently, all this gives way to the development of a high
process of thought which includes attention, mind elaboration, symbolism and
language production.
According to Vigotsky the student follows an active process in the building of
knowledge which can be reached through some means like reflection, criticism and
self-approach to the subject. As a matter of fact, Vigotsky considered the
importance of
1. The strategies that the students use to develop an exercise, an
assignment or any sort of work. Even in the case that the students have
chosen his / her own strategies the teacher will be present checking
them.
2. The guided strategies proposed by the teacher to help the student to
develop his purely individual or shared production.
In this sense Serrano and Pons in the year 2008, introduced the idea of the
Academic learning as the result of a complex process established according to
three main elements.
1. The contents to be learned
2. The teacher who helps the students to give significance and a clear
sense to the proposed subject. The teacher who guides and becomes a
mediator in the process.
3. The students, who learn the different subjects, enter a process of
internalization and self-acquaintance. Everyone elaborates his/her own
learning structure to let each one accomplish his/her personal aim. The
teacher will be open to accept the different points of view of all the
symbolized ideas.
Savery and Duffy in 1996 combined the previous concepts with the following ideas.
1. Individually, the structures of learning come as a result of the individual
cognitive internal process.
2. Socially, the process of learning also comes as a result of the inter action
with the environment
3. Knowledge is social and should be liable of being balanced between one
´s own symbolization and those of the others.
Man´s process of development is individual, but is based on his social inter action,
giving him experience and Knowledge.
Finally, Ibañez in 2007 stated that the socio cultural approach of the process of
learning and teaching represents a new ontological and epistemological vision of
the process of learning. This concept establishes that learning is not simply a
process of transmission and reception but the building of structures based on an
individual free elaboration where there are three main elements a. A teacher b. An
active student c. A learned and internalized Subject.
60
We can also ask which the function of a mediator teacher must be. This modern
conception of a teacher fixes the purposes and the subjects and then leads the
students into the process marking the rhythm of the class, and stating the level of
importance of each subject. He will be responsible and will generate
responsibilities in his pupils as well as order and discipline.
Every student will have the same number of opportunities for the proper learning,
for practicing the learned elements and for expressing his / her own vision about
the subjects dealt in class. Finally, the mediator teacher will elaborate an
evaluation to clarify all that the pupils have learnt and to have a parameter of the
method he has employed in the teaching process. The mediator teacher will
always be ready to make changes or adjustments to help the pupils in the complex
process of internalization, symbolization of subjects and in the great process of
developing the pupil’s personalities.
Mediator Teachers will bear in mind the following ideas:
1. Collaboration, so that teachers and students could work actively in the
process.
2. Teachers and pupils will be part of a team work where dialogue will be
full and where everyone could add something of importance.
3. Teachers will help the students in the development of their abilities
4. Classes will help creativity and an individual approach that could defend
one’s own identity.
5. Teachers will be careful in being reverential towards the human values of
everyone in the class
6. Teachers will be active mediators in the communication in the class as
well as in the constant atmosphere of genuine reflection.
Mediator Teacher comes to this new spectrum as an opposite formation to the old
methods that held the concepts of the traditional teaching system where teachers
managed the class through rules, employing fixed methods that would never be
changed. Old forms did not accept the Students should be the centre of the class
but saw them as simple receptors of the teacher´s lecture/class. -
From Savery and Duffy, 1996. An Instructional Model and its Constructivist
Framework. Wilson B.G. Ed.
 The Theory of Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky
Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky who was born in 1896 and died in 1934, was a pioneer
of the socio cultural approach He was a Soviet Psychologist who became
interested in the psychology of development and helped to change the feature of
the subject. He proposed that interactions made by children can shape and
influence both the way in which they perceive the world and their cognitive
processes. The way children learn and develop varies from culture to culture and is
61
sometimes specific to each individual society. While the resulting cognitive
processes may be single to each culture, the way in which they are handed down
from generation to generation is often similar.
Vygotsky states three methods which are used to teach children skills. These tools
are imitative learning, instructed learning, and collaborative learning. A central
principle of Vygotsky’s studies is that children learn behavior and cognitive skills by
dealing with more experienced people, such as teachers or older students, using
one or more of these three learning methods.
Development of a child is dependent upon learning. As learning is a crucial part of
passing down cultural ideas from parents to children. By doing so, the child also
acquires cognitive skills that are specific to his or her culture. As a result, a
person’s language is crucial to their mental development. While animals may
possess a form of rudimentary language, often consisting of more basic signals, it
is humans’ linguistic abilities that distinguishes from other animals and has helped
to create a society full of art and thought.
If a child is reared in a creative culture, the thinking process and cognitive abilities
of that child will surely reflect that influence. According to Vighotsky, children are
capable of creating their own knowledge through experience and cultural tools.
This knowledge will be referenced later on in life.
The Zone of Proximal Development

One key element of Vygotsky’s sociocultural approach is his idea of a Zone of Proximal
Development. Commonly abbreviated as ZPD, the Zone of Proximal Development is a
way to gauge a child’s ability to learn and grow. Vygotsky believed that the ZPD was a far
better way to gauge a child’s intelligence than through the standard academic testing,
which can often fail to account for cultural differences with regards to learning.
At the core of Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development, there is the area containing the
cognitive abilities which we have acquired so far in life. At an earlier age, these are limited.
As we travel further outwards from this core, we reach the outer reaches of the zone,
which represents the potential of the human mind. This inner potential can be realized
through social learning situations.
 Legacies and conflicts with England and the Unites States of

America in the Whole World #
Conflicts in Latin America #
 The United States of America and Cuba

By 1877 Americans purchased 83% of the total Cuban exports. North Americans
were increasingly taking up residence in the Island. Some districts of the Northern
shore were said to have more the characteristics of an American colony than a
62
Spanish one. American investors took advantage of the situation and tried to take
over some districts they had tried to seize unsuccessfully some years before. A
certain number of measures and facts favoured the integration of the Cuban
economy into the North American system and weakened the Spanish dominance.
The American secretary James Blaine wrote, in 1881, stating that Cuba was a rich
Island and a key to the Gulf of Mexico and the door to the most extended trade. He
continued, now, in the hands of Spain, but if they ever ceased to be Spanish, Cuba
should turn to be American. At the beginning of the XX century, U.S. agreed to
help Cuba to maintain a “Good Government and order” but it asked in return to
have a portion of land in the South of the territory, for its Naval Basis. Despite
acknowledging Cuban transition into an independent Republic, the United States
assumed temporarily, a certain rule on the island and for the twenty following years
the United States of America repeatedly intervened militarily in the Cuban political
and economic affairs. By 1926, the American companies owned 60% of the Cuban
Sugar industry and imported 95% of the total Cuban crop. The rise of General
Fulgencio Battista in 1930 to the Cuban leadership and to rule the Government in
his two terms 1940 – 1944 and 1952 – 1959 led to an era of close cooperation
between the governments of Cuba and the United States of America. Battista was
appointed to be the Cuban President after a military coup in a planned movement
held in Florida United States of America.
In 1959 the Cuban revolution broke and the relationship between both countries
declined. The revolution was a social and economic one and was lead by Dr.
Ernesto Guevara Lynch and Fidel Castro. Both leaders appointed to give Cuba
Independence from the United States of America, though they sank the island in
deep poverty, due to the American blockade, the famine and the extreme great
distance from Russia which appeared to be the Cuban protector of the new
communist regime. The United States of America cut off the diplomatic tights
between both countries and began pursuing operations to weaken communism in
the Island. The United States tighten restrictions and bans as vengeance for the
nationalization of the American corporations, now seized by the new Cuban
Government.
 Latin America and the United States of America
Historically speaking, bilateral relations between the United States and the various
countries of Latin America have been complex and multi characterized at times
defined by strong regional cooperation and at others filled with economic and
political tension and rivalry. Today, the ties between the U.S. and most of Latin
America (with the exception of certain countries such as Venezuela) are generally
cordial, but there remain areas of contention between the two sides. Latin America
63
is the largest foreign supplier of oil to the United States and its fastest-growing
trading partner, though the whole South America has sunk in a deep debt which
Generally, U.S.A. has administered with little help for the Latin American countries.
The globalization of production and its shift to low-wage countries is the most
significant and dynamic transformation of the neoliberal era. Its fundamental driving
force is what some economists call “global labor arbitrage”: the efforts by firms in
Europe, North America, and Japan to cut costs and increase profits by replacing
higher-waged domestic labouir with cheaper foreign labor, achieved either through
emigration of production or through immigration of workers. Reduction in tariffs and
removal of barriers to capital course have urged the migration of production to low-
wage countries, though militarization of borders and rising racial intolerance have
had the opposite effect on the migration of workers from these countries
As a result, factories freely cross the U.S.-Mexican border and pass their products
with ease. It is the meaning of globalization, a world without borders to everything
and everyone except for working people.
 England and Argentina in the Malvinas Conflict (Falkland

War)
The Falkland War was a ten-week war between Argentina and the United
Kingdom over two overseas territories in the South Atlantic: 1. The Malvinas
Islands, and 2. South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. It began on Friday,
2nd April 1982, when Argentina occupied the Malvinas Islands on the first day and
the Georgias and Sandwich on the second, in an attempt to establish the
sovereignty it had claimed for years. On 5 April, the British governments sent off a
naval force to take on the Argentine Navy and Air force. The conflict lasted 74 days
and ended with the Argentine surrender on 14 June 1982, returning the islands to
British control. In total, 649 Argentine military personnel, 255 British military
personnel, and three Falkland Islanders died during the hostilities.
Argentina asserted (and maintains) that the islands are Argentine territory and the
Argentine government thus characterized its military action as the recovery of its
own territory. The British government regarded the action as an invasion of a
territory that had been a Crown Colony since 1841. The Islanders, who have
inhabited the islands since the early 19 th century, are predominantly descendants
of British settlers. Hostilities were almost exclusively limited to the territories under
dispute and the area of the South Atlantic where they lie.
The conflict has had a strong effect in both countries and has been the subject of
various books, articles, films, and songs. Patriotic sentiment ran high in Argentina,
but the outcome encouraged large protests against the ruling military government,
64
speeding up its downfall. In the United Kingdom, the Conservative government,
strengthened by the successful outcome, was re-elected the following year.
Diplomatic relations between the United Kingdom and Argentina were restored in
1989 following a meeting in Madrid, at which the two governments issued a joint
statement. No change in either country’s position regarding the sovereignty of the
Falkland Islands was made explicit The UK was initially taken by surprise by the
Argentine attack on the South Atlantic islands, in spite of the repeated warnings of
Royal Navy Captain Nicholas Barker and others. The UK had sent a signal to
Argentina that the UK was disinclined, to war but if Argentina sustained the attitude
it would soon be able, to defend its territories and subjects in the Falklands.
On 2 April 1982, Argentine forces made amphibious landings off the Falkland
Islands. The invasion was met with a nominal defense organized by the Falkland
Islands’ Governor Sir Rex Hunt, giving command for the response to Major Mike
Norman of the Royal Marines. A Ministry of Defense operative in London had a
short telex conversation with Governor Hunt’s telex operator, who confirmed that
Argentines were on the island and in control. Operation Corporate was the
codename given to the British military operations in the Falklands War. The
commander of task force operations was Admiral Sir John Fieldhouse and
Operations lasted from 1 April 1982 to 20 June 1982. The British undertook a
series of military operations as a means of recapturing the Falklands from
Argentine occupation.
On the evening of 3 April, the United Kingdom’s United Nations ambassador
Sir Anthony Parsons put a draft resolution to the United Nations Security Council.
The resolution, which condemned the hostilities and demanded the immediate
Argentine withdrawal from the Islands, was adopted by the council the following
day as United Nations Security Council Resolution 502, which was passed with ten
votes in support, one against (Panama) and four abstentions (China, the Soviet
Union, Poland and Spain). The UK received further political support from
the Commonwealth of Nations and the European Economic Community. The EEC
also provided economic support by imposing economic sanctions on Argentina.
Argentina itself was politically backed by a majority of countries in Latin America
and some members of the Non Aligned
The United States was concerned by the prospect of Argentina turning to
the Soviet Union for support,] and initially tried to mediate an end to the conflict.
However, when Argentina refused the U.S. peace overtures, U.S. Secretary of
State Alexander Haig announced that the United States would prohibit arms sales
to Argentina and provide material support for British operations. Both Houses of
the U.S. Congress passed resolutions supporting the U.S. action siding with the
United Kingdom. French and British intelligence also worked to prevent Argentina
from obtaining more Exocet missiles on the international market while at the same
time attempted to purchase 12 missiles for Argentina, in a failed secret
65
operation. Chile gave support to the UK in the form of intelligence about the
Argentine military and early warning intelligence on Argentine air
movements. Throughout the war, Argentina was afraid of a Chilean military
intervention in Patagonia and kept some of her best mountain regiments away from
the Falklands near the Chilean border as a precaution.
While France openly backed the United Kingdom Peru openly sent “Mirages pilots
and missiles” to Argentina during the war. Peru had earlier transferred ten Hercules
transport planes to Argentina soon after the British Task Force had set sail in April
1982.
 Conflicts in America
 Canada and its first Invaders Exploration of the East Coast
The early European explorers of this vast territory were the Norwegian who visited
Nova Scotia, New Foundland and Labrador, over a thousand years ago, some five
hundred years after the Vikings. In the same period, it is known that some groups
of Irish inhabitants paid a visit to the same places. In 1497, John Cabot, a
Genovese at the service of England, with twenty men in a small vessel headed
west in search of a passage to China, though it is said that he only reached the
Eastern portion of Canada, probably Labrador or Cape Breton Island. He laid basis
for the British claims in America and he also reported the existence of Codfish near
the Southern coast of Newfoundland. Since then, fishing ships voyaged to Canada
from many European ports, but those sailing from the ports of England became the
most numerous. English fishing fleets were the first in carrying dry fish from the
American coasts to take them to the markets of London.
English expansion in the sixteenth century concentrated in the search for a
passage to Asia, in the Northwest of Newfoundland. Later France entered the
same policy so English and French went to Canada in search of similar purposes.
They both came in contact with the Natives. It was well known that Iroquois
became allies to the English invaders while Algonquin became allies to the French.
If we analyze these two situations, conditions of bilingualism must have happened.
Indigenous groups adopted vocabularies as well as elements from the English and
French people and these Europeans also had to learn certain native sound effects
in order to come in adequate contact with the allied native tribes.
John Cabot joined the Shipping Community at Bristol, when he moved to England.
Naturally, he must have spoken some English when he decided to become a sailor
at the service of the English King. The aim of all these explorers was to settle in the
new territory and investigate where the main sources of interest were. History
reports battles among the Natives for the defense of the territory and the
66
supremacy of tribes. Either peaceful or violent invasions both civilizations must
have exchanged important structures of both civilizations. With the opening of the
17th century French and British Monarchs not only claimed for the new territory but
also granted charts to the Adventurers who were ready to answer the claims and
enter the new conquest. In 1713, Nova Scotia was given to the British, after the
treaty of Utrecht. But the French did not answer to these orders and coexistence in
Canada had to continue. Consequently, the British founded Halifax in Nova Scotia
and established dominions there and made it definitively an English centre. It
became a commercial axis and a fishing base. As a result, a great number of
English immigrants came to the new City in search of business and fortune. At the
same time, the French dominated over the Algonquin, made them fight against the
British and even burn the cities to stop the British development in Canada. French
and British worsened the old existing conflict between the Iroquois and the
Algonquin and carried natives into wars as a consequence of their greed for
dominance.
In 1778, Captain James Cook from England reached present Vancouver Island, in
a region called Nootka. When the British saw the quality of the raw material and
the type of soil in this Western region, they evaluated the possibilities of great profit
and immediately urged to sign what was called “The Nootka Convention”. It was a
treaty between Britain and Spain signed in 1790. It left Great Britain free in the
area and it also let it be called Captain George Vancouver, who was a Royal
explorer of the Western Coasts. Fur trade also increased during this period
although a new discovery changed the minds of the British explores. They
discovered “Gold” in British Columbia. As they did so, they started a strong policy
for getting the precious mineral.
The English Revolution brought the Loyalists and a great number of refugees into
Canada, who mainly settled in Ontario, which was at that time a cheap land that
attracted American people so much that the period going from the American
Revolution to 1812 War with England appeared to be the great time of the
Immigration from U.S.A. to Canada. The end of the Napoleonic war saw the
beginning of a long gradual migration from the British Isles, mainly to Upper
Canada as industrialization in England created great unemployment. Middle class
families experienced a great flow of immigration having Canada as the main point
of attempt. In the XX century, a great influx of immigrants came to Canada after the
completion of the “Canadian Pacific Railway” that mainly improved the markets of
wheat. Another great wave of immigration came to Canada right before the First
World War when people from England and other continental countries sought for
shelter just in case a Great War would break. The Second World War produced a
second influx of immigration in Canada, probably as settlers saw Canada as a
great promising country.
67
 The British Legacies
Canada belongs to the British Commonwealth of Nations so:
a. Queen Elizabeth II is the Sovereign of the Parliamentary Democracy and
Constitutional Monarchy of Canada
b. Ministers, Legislators, Public servants swear allegiance to the Queen
c. Queen Elizabeth II appoints a Governor General who acts at the Federal
level and a Lieutenant Governor in each province
d. The Queen of England protects Canada but remains neutral in all affairs of
the Country.
e. Queen Elizabeth II is patron of a number of the Canadian Societies
f. The Queen of England acts as a Colonel. - in - chief of the armed forces.
 Conflicts in Canada
The conflicts between the British and the French have decidedly shaped Canada
into the country we know today. From the early rivalries of the fur traders, through
the creation of the North-West Company and the Hudson’s Bay Company to the
great military offensives on the East Coast, the French and British conflicts have
left their mark. The French colonization of Quebec and settlement of towns such as
Montreal and Quebec City have showed a rich and lasting heritage upon the
population of Canada, in Quebec. The British presence and military events which
took place over the years in Ottawa, York, Niagara, and Kingston are still
acknowledged and celebrated two hundred years later. Even now, in the
21stcentury, French sympathy runs quick in the blood of French-Canadians, while
strong loyalties remain in the hearts of descendants of the early English pioneers.
There are still conflicting interests between French-Canadians and English-
Canadians. But even though the use of politics, is the way things are going about
nowadays. Tensions still break out between the mostly French Quebec and the
rest of Canada. The Quebec Referendum of 1995 was proposed by those who
wanted Quebec to separate from the rest of Canada and become its own
independent country. The vote was given and 49.5% of Quebeckers voted to
separate, while 50.5% voted to remain in Canada.
In conclusion, through the British and French interests in Canada, a great and
long-lasting history of conquest and settlement war and conflict, peace and justice
there has happened. From the early First Nations and the French fur traders, to the
British colonials and from the early English pioneers, to the people who make up
the population of Canada today, we can see and appreciate the rich history which
has shaped this land.
 England and the United States. Legacies and Conflicts
68
When the first British settlers tried to establish a small settlement they were not the
first ones in the New World. Decades earlier both the Spanish and the French had
claimed large pieces of land in North America for their respective countries but
England was ready to compete against them, for land and riches. Although the
British were new in America, colonization of lands was not a foreign concept to
them, but when the British landed in North Carolina, they knew practically nothing
about the native people and had little wish to understand their culture.
In the earliest days of New World settlement, relations between the natives and
the English newcomers were friendly. Native American culture valued trade as a
means of increasing general cooperation, so the tribes provided food, clothing, and
shelter for the dependent settlers in exchange for metal tools like knives and other
goods. The Native Americans also traded knowledge; they taught the settlers to
be self-sufficient.
As the English settlements began to grow and invade on more and more Indian
lands, relations became heavily tense. Cultural differences became more
overwhelming as British dependence decreased. Large numbers of Native
Americans died from European diseases such as small pox and influenza against
which they had no immunity. As a quick and consequent result, the English began
to demonize the natives in an attempt to excuse their own behaviors which were
characterized by enslaving the tribes, stealing land, taking women as concubines
and many other discrimination facts
The British ignored their role in the diseases that were decimating entire tribes and
instead chose to view the deaths of the Native Americans as a sign of divine
disfavor. According to them, God was killing Indians and their supporters to
ensure “our title to this place” as the “instruments of Providence, divinely appointed
to seize the New World from its ‘godless’ owners.” The colonists felt it was their
duty to destroy the “godless savage” as they said they had sufficient light from God
for their proceedings, referring to the massacre of Pequot War where 500 men,
women, and children were killed at a village along the Mystic River.
Divergence between the two main British groups that inhabited this territory was
unavoidable. There was a great group of white settlers who were of English origin
and had come from England to settle and bring the British structures, habits,
morals and beliefs into the new territory, which had to be a simile of the mother
land. There was another great group of migrants, who belonged to the poorer
classes and had to come to America either being sent by the British Government or
69
from a personal; election and purpose for framing a new future life in a nation that
could be well promising.
The United States of America held revolutions for its freedom and self-
determination from the building of the Nation though differed structurally from the
American movements of Independence. This revolutionary sense was in the minds
of the American people and in the heart of the Union of the States composing the
Nation. As we said above, the interests in the North American territory were not
only British but also mainly French and Dutch though in the half of the 18 th century
once the British had won the wars against those European Countries the first
attempts to establish the British rules in the U.S.A started. The first consequent
document signed between the American people and the British Government, in
that occasion was the Navigation Act, which was followed by the Sugar Act in
1767. These two documents gave the British the permission to manage important
commercial treaties in the new nation, strengthen the English manufacturers, ship
most of the products by British Navigation Companies and carry the products of the
colonies in British ships either to London or to the ports that the British Government
established. On the other hand, the lower class people who had migrated to the
U.S.A. were engaged under the poor working conditions that the regulations of the
great Commercial companies established.
During mid-18th century, there was an open opposition to the British Government.
The first attempt in defense of the American interests and economy came with the
passing of the Stamp Act, which the Parliament passed with no thought that
Colonies would object it, though the slogan was “No taxation could be imposed
The stamp without representation of the Colonies”. This act was opposed and
declared null in less than one year, so American movements and continual claims
went on. Nevertheless, England did not stop the strict regulations and passed a
new declaration on products like tea, paper and other articles, causing new
movements and arising new and stronger opposition on the part of the American
leaders.
The previous acts led into the Massachusetts and Boston protests, where the
British troops only persuaded the American demonstrators in the first case but in
the second one they shot at citizens, causing a real massacre. By the time,
colonists were determined not to pay the high imposed taxes and act firmly against
the regulations of the British Government. As a result, in Boston Indians who had
worked as slaves in tea plantations, boarded ships in the harbor and threw cargoes
of tea into the water. This was a demonstration and protest known as the “Boston
tea Party”. Consequently, the British Parliament passed the “Intolerance act” that
ordered the closing of the Boston Port. The American colonists took a serious step
on this fact and called the First Continental Congress to meet in Philadelphia in
1774. The Congress decided to cease importing British goods until its demands
were met. The British Military Authorities answered by increasing their pressure
70
and obligations, but the American strong sense of nationalism never decayed and
started a great struggle that ended after bloody battles in the American declaration
of the Independence on the 4th July 1776.
 The Legacy of an Empire
British sovereignty had in some of the colonies lasted for centuries and had in
many ways defined the country’s culture and society. This was seen particularly in
countries where the native populations were subdued and had to adjust to British
culture and lifestyle, for example in New Zealand and Australia. Many Colonies
remain being part of the Commonwealth of Nations, but in those countries where
they adopted their new identity, the new liberty and independence were of course
welcomed by the inhabitants, though it proved to be a demanding task for the
colonies if they wanted to establish a culture and national identity of their own. In
fact they chose a combined form of both cultures as the British had left behind a
precious legacy which is still evident in many of those countries.
The English language has achieved a status as world language, primarily due to
the British colonization, English has become the lingua franca all over the world, in
fact, a basic knowledge of English is compulsory to get by in most fields of human
activity today; travelling, international business, aviation, diplomacy, education,
technology and marketing. For cultural understanding and international
communication, it is important that people can speak the same language. English
colonization and American influence have provided a common world language and
a marked Globalization phenomenon. However, some smaller countries see this
Anglo-American impact as a threat and have taken measures to protect their own
language and national identity.
Most of the people in the colonies were illiterate when the British took over. So the
English took up to educate and teach the native population of those countries. The
English ruling class founded schools and educational systems that would support
their sovereignty, like in India where a group of native Indians were educated as
officials to serve the British Empire as intermediaries between the British and the
Indians. When India declared its independence in 1947, there was a debate about
which educational system the nation should follow. The alternatives were the
traditional system based on English principles and the system introduced by
Mahatma Gandhi which focuses on an education in which both practice and theory
are incorporated. According to the Indian culture Gandhi’s method would naturally
be more adequate for that population. In other former British colonies, like Australia
and New Zealand we see school systems and educational principles that are
influenced by English standards. There is a state school system, but many children
go to private schools, mostly run by religious groups.
71
 Conflicts in the South Eastern Territories
England and its legacies and conflicts
 First Settlement in New Zealand #
The illustrated news presented Queen Victoria’s Empire and the most relevant
readers, a panoramic view of the world happenings and its global beauties. Wood
engravers and years later the first photographers delighted in portraying the scenic
wonders of a new discovered world, which they called New Zealand. One of the
first illustrations was a sketch of Paihia which was published in the Penny
Magazine in 1838 and contained a report from Mr. Polack who had ventured into
the inner regions of the island far from the first places of settlement.
Settlements in Wanganui in 1840 happened due to its proximity to Wellington
where settlers were still only a few. Seven years later reports came stating that
Wanganui was only populated by 350 colonists and the conflicts with native Maori
were worse than in Wellington. In fact, this region did not develop to a considerable
community until the New Zealand War in 1860.
New Plymouth was another of the four settlements established by the New
Zealand Company in early 1840. The New Zealand Company was a 19th-century
English company that played a key role in the colonization of New Zealand. The
company was formed to carry out the principles of systematic colonization devised
by Edward Gibbon Wakefield, who imagined the creation of a new-model English
society in the southern hemisphere. Under Wakefield’s model, the colony would
attract capitalists who would then have a ready supply of labour—migrant
labourers who could not initially afford to be property owners, but who would have
the expectation of one day buying land with their savings. [1]
The New Zealand Company established settlement at Wellington, Nelson,
Wanganui and Dunedin and also became involved in the settling of New
Plymouth and Christchurch. It reached the peak of efficiency about 1841,
encountered financial problems from 1843 from which it never recovered, and
wound up in 1858.
The company’s board members included aristocrats, members of Parliament and a
prominent magazine publisher, who used their political connections to ceaselessly
lobby the British government to achieve its aims. The company indulged in many
questionable land purchases from Māori, in many cases reselling land it did not
own, and launched elaborate, extravagant and sometimes fraudulent advertising
campaigns. It vigorously attacked those it perceived as its opponents
The Company established in Wellington and Wanganui in 1740, in New Plymouth
in 1841, and in Nelson in 1843. Here there was less Maori hostility and the city
named after Plymouth in Devon developed quickly into a rural centre. There was
however growing hostility between settlers and the Maori as there was hard
72
fighting in Taranaki in 1847. Auckland, the Capital City of the Colony of New
Zealand from 1840 to 1865 began to prosper as a settlement from the moment the
settlers established in the region. Its excellent harbor and its central position was
the most populated Maori place. By 1853 the population was about 10 500
inhabitants, being in that year the twenty percent of the whole population. The
Northern Island flourished and the London Illustrated News followed their
development and expansion as transported copy of the best of the British
Community life.
 The Cold War conflict
After the Second World War, booming economic conditions and a shortage of
skilled labour encouraged trade unions to press for better conditions for their
members. High inflation was making life hard for workers and their families, so the
Government’s policy of resisting wage increases was fiercely opposed by strong
unions. However, atmosphere of the Cold War meant that this militant union
activity was regarded with hostility. In 1948 a go-slow by Auckland carpenters
gained higher rates of pay, but another go-slow in 1949 resulted in a lockout.
Within days all building work in the Auckland area came to a standstill. The
government backed the employers and refused social security benefits to the
locked-out carpenters. The Federation of Labour supported the government, the
union was deregistered and its militant leadership discredited.
The government issued drastic emergency regulations, giving it the power to seize
union funds, use the armed forces to replace strikers, and prohibit strike meetings
or publications. Other unions came out on strike in protest at these regulations.
Soon 22,000, freezing workers, miners, hydro-electricity workers and drivers had
stopped work.
 Benefits for the Maori
Associate Māori Affairs Minister Tariana Turia resigned from the government and
formed a new Māori Party, a move that reduced Labour’s traditional Māori support.
The Māori Party gained four of the seven Māori seats from the Labour Party in the
2005 elections. Many Māori voted strategically for the Labour Party in protest
against the National Party’s proposal to abolish the seven Māori Parliamentary
seats. The Māori Party failed to gain the support of Ngai Tahu, one of the most
influential and wealthy Kiwi tribes, which sought to avoid direct affiliation with any
single party. Ironically, it also came to a degree of accommodation with the
National Party.
73
Māori Party representatives accused the government of ‘eroding the relationship
between the Crown and Maori’ and the bill, which was supported by all parties
except the Green Party and the Māori Party, proposed to wipe the words of ‘the
Treaty of Waitangi and its principles’ from New Zealand’s law books. The UN
Committee stated regulations on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination’s of
August 2007 report but the government confirmed Māori reservations would
surrender to the standards of the Treaty. The Committee in defense of the Maori
concluded that the New Zealand government was acting to ‘diminish the
importance and relevance of the Treaty and to create a context unfavourable to the
rights of Maori’.
In July 2007 the New Zealand Law Commission began a project to develop a legal
framework for Māori who wanted to manage communal resources and
responsibilities. Companies and incorporated societies do not provide well for the
cultural norms of Māori groups though the ‘Waka Umanga (Māori Corporations)
Act’ project proposes some alternative laws that allow tribes to interact with the
legal system.
 Current issues
The Māori enjoy a relatively strong position in society compared to other

indigenous peoples around the world, thanks to the Treaty of Waitangi now
renewed an put up to date. Māori have long been seeking more secure protection
of their treaty rights through constitutional provisions. The government recently
announced that it is planning to undertake a constitutional review process, which
will include a review of Māori representation, the role of the Treaty of Waitangi and
other constitutional issues.
Relative to most ethnic groups in New Zealand, other than Pacific Islanders, the
Māori are disadvantaged socially and economically as most Māori are
concentrated in areas of unskilled employment, where wages are low and
unemployment rates are high. While there have been significant improvements
over the last two decades in many areas, such as employment levels and life
expectancy, significant disparities remain. Poor living conditions and health, with
inadequate housing in inner urban areas and relatively high rates of
unemployment, have contributed to poor self-image and violence
A number of positive initiatives have been developed to address some of these
areas of disadvantage. For example, since the adoption of the Drivers of Crime
initiative, a project developed to reduce Māori offending and reoffending, the
number of young Māori appearing in court has reduced by 30 per cent over the last
two years. The government also launched the Youth Crime Action Plan in 2013,
aiming to reduce crime and recidivism for young Māori. The 2013 census results
also indicate that more Māori are achieving formal qualifications at the University,
74
with over 36,000 stating a bachelor’s degree or higher as their highest qualification
of more than 50 per cent increase since 2006.
 History of Australia
Conflicts and legacies from England
The history of Australia refers to the records and organized reports of the area and
the people either Indigenous or European inhabiting the great Australian Continent.
Aboriginal Australians arrived in these lands from South East Asia, thousands of
years ago and they created their own artistic, musical and spiritual tradition. The
first known European landing in Australia was undergone by a Dutch Navigator
called Willem Janszoon in 1606. Other navigators from Europe landed in Australia
till Lieutenant Captain James Cook came from England to the East coasts of the
new lands. After inspecting these territories, he returned to England with accounts
favoring colonization at Botany Bay, situated at present Sydney Gold
and agriculture brought prosperity and in 1788 a first fleet of British ships arrived at
Botany Bay, to establish a Penal Colony, which became the first one in the main
Australian land. As soon as other explorers from England went to Australia, they
gradually ventured into the inner regions of the main island where they found
numerous indigenous Australians which became greatly weakened by the conflicts
with the British explorers and the number of diseases that affected then from then
on.
The Australian ancestors of the Indigenous Australians, probably developed from
the very beginning, a hunter gathered lifestyle, which established a continuing
spiritual and artistic tradition. At the time of the first European contact probably
about 350000 inhabitants existed in Australia. Australian aboriginal mythology was
well developed and they could detach certain depth in the stages of life. According
to them “Dreaming” belongs to a secret period in which ancestral TOTEM spiritual
beings forms the creation. Dreaming period belongs, according to the aboriginal
beliefs to the period before the conscious living in the earth. The Dreaming created
the laws and structures of society as well as the ceremonies, which were
performed to ensure the continuity of life in the earth, as it remains to be
considered the oldest continuing tradition of art in the world. The greatest
population density of aborigines developed in the Southern and the Western
regions of the River Murray. Certain practices of the Aboriginal tribes increased the
abundance of plants and attracted animals transforming dry land into savanna. The
aborigines of the West coast were described as arduous and miserable though
James Cook described them as good natured and good humored people but he
also described them having violent hostility, especially between the Eora and the
Cameraygal people. The aborigines existed in about 200 individual Nations, many
75
of which were in alliance with one another. Each Nation had several clan families
having each one its own language. Intricate rules ordered the social relations
where measures and meeting rituals made affairs between the groups much
easier. Aboriginal art, music and culture often ridiculed by the English explorers
characterized the initial phase.
In Australia, during the colonial period, there were occasional shootings and
spearing, apart from plagues of deadly illness, like smallpox. measles and
influenza that spread from one aboriginal nation to the other. These facts are said
to be the results of the European settlement that caused change, conflict and death
at the beginning. Conflicts in the Hawkesbury and Nepean River near the
settlement of Sydney happened from 1795 to 1816. Pemulwuy war occurred from
1796 to 1802. Tedbury War happened from 1808 to 1809 and the Nepean War
from 1814 to 1816. These conflicts were fought violently in some regions but
resulted in the trouble of most of the indigenous clans who were subsequently
dispossessed of their lands. Besides before and after the arrival of the European
settlers, in the local districts near the coat, a small pox epidemic was recorded in
1789, which wiped out half of the aborigines around the zone. Some historians
argue that the illness could have come both form the Indonesian fishermen that
roamed in the areas and from the European explorers who took sailors, in their
vessels, in unchecked conditions, for their voyages. The impact of the European
settlement was deeply troublesome to aboriginal life and though the extent of
violence is not still clear there was conflict for the usurpation of land for long years.
Many events illustrated violence and resistance as aborigines sought to protect
their lands from Invasions and as settlers attempted to establish their
dominions. In 1804, at Ridon Cove Van Diemen´s land about 60 Aborigines were
killed when they approached the town. The most recent massacre of Aborigines
was in the Northern Territory though there were other massacres in Australia
during the struggle of the Aborigines for the recovery of their lands. From 1830, the
Colonial Government established the controversial offices of the Protectorate of
Aborigines, in an effort to avoid mistreatment of Indigenous people. The Christian
Church in Australia sought to convert aborigines, besides Colonial Church men
such as Sydney’s first Catholic Archbishop John Polding advocated for the
aboriginal rights and dignity and the protection of aboriginal activities. At the same
time activists like Sir Douglas Nichols stated their emphasis for aboriginal rights
within the established Australian political system.
Modern Australia came into being as the colonies voted by referendum to unite in
a federation in 1901. On that situation Autonomous Parliamentary Democracies
began to be established throughout the six British Colonies from the mid-19 th
century. Australia fought on the side of Britain in the two world wars and became a
long-standing ally of the United States when threatened by Japan during World
War II. Trade with Asia increased and a post-war immigration program received
76
more than 6.5 million migrants from every continent. The population increased to
more than 23 million by 2014 supported by the immigration of people from more
than 200 countries since the end of World War II.
Note2022.”The USA and Cuba, from early years to 1933”
As a result of the Spanish-American War, control of Cuba passed from Spain to

the United States on January 1st, 1899, and it was governed by a direct U.S.
military administration until May 20th 1902. During those years, Cubans occupied
more public offices than they had under Spanish rule, but much was done
for public works, sanitation, and education. Most notable of all, yellow ye{{ow
fever was eradicated where it had been endemic for centuries.
A constitutional convention met at Havana from November 5th , 1900, to February

21st 1901. The constitution that was adopted contained certain statements known
as the Platt Amendment; which were imposed by the U.S. as a condition for
accepting the constitution and were approved by Cuba on June 12nd 1901. By
those provisions Cuba promised not to have further debts, to continue the sanity
administration undertaken by the U.S. military government, and permit the U.S. to
intervene in order to preserve Cuban independence and a government adequate to
protect life and property.
In May 1902 Tomás Estrada Palma became the first president of the new republic,
and material prosperity came to certain segments of the Cuban population. This
was due to a reciprocal trade treaty, requested by the authorities, that permitted
more Cuban sugar to enter the U.S. Sugar exports would dominate the Cuban
economy throughout the first half of the 20th century, so that the U.S. became the
Cuban chief trading partner
President Estrada Palma

Estrada Palma’s administration attempted to implement progressive measures, but
it was plagued by instability. His party, the Conservatives (later known as the
Moderates), emerged victorious in the elections of December 1905, but the
opposition Liberals accused the government of rigging the vote. This charge, along
with fraud and the failure to bring about proposed governmental reforms, triggered
a revolution in July 1906. The insurrection spread rapidly, and Estrada Palma
requested intervention by the U.S., which sent commissioners to mediate. The
mediation failed, Estrada Palma resigned, and on September 29, 1906, U.S.
77
Pres. Theodore Roosevelt named his secretary of war, William Howard Taft,
governor of Cuba. Taft proclaimed that he would lead a provisional government to
last “long enough to restore order and peace and public confidence.” Government
was maintained under the Cuban flag. Regular constitutional forms remained
unchanged, and the insurrectionists immediately disbanded. U.S.
administration ceased on January 28, 1909, and the Republic was re founded a
second time. U.S. troops were withdrawn on April 1, 1909.
Three presidents governed Cuba from 1909 to 1925 with little distinction and much
corruption. They were José Miguel Gómez (1909–13), Mario García Menocal
(1913–21), and Alfredo Zayas y Alfonso (1921–25). During this period the U.S.
interfered twice in Cuba and threatened to intervene several more times. During
the Gómez administration the country prospered, but charges of corruption in the
government rose. The government was accused of giving few offices to Afro-
Cubans and also of favouring those who had supported the Spanish cause in
the war for independence. Protests by Afro-Cubans against a law prohibiting
political organization by race or religion led to a bloody government crackdown that
claimed the lives of thousands. The Liberal party split, and in the election of 1912
the Conservative candidate, Mario Garcia Menocal, won.
Menocal’s administration oversaw much material progress, but with prosperity

came new charges of government corruption, including accusations of preferences
for relatives or friends for oficial positions. Menocal won reelection in 1916 by
employing fraud and violence, and, as a result, war broke out against him in
February 1917. The rebels had hoped for intervention by the U.S., but it was too
occupied with the situation in Europe, and Menocal was able to put down the
rebellion. Menocal’s government declared war on Germany on April 7, 1917, the
day after the U.S. entered World War I.
Until 1919 Cuba enjoyed phenomenal prosperity, thanks to the high price of sugar.
By 1920, however, a severe financial crisis had struck the country, and, despite
a moratorium, many banks and other business concerns went bankrupt. Zayas
introduced financial reforms and was given a $50 million loan by the U.S. in
January 1923. The economic situation rapidly improved, but charges of corruption
against Zayas intensified, and revolts broke out against him, led in part by war
veterans.
Machado was elected overwhelmingly and assumed office on May 20, 1925. He
was to become Cuba’s first full dictator. He started a program of reform and only
fulfilled a few of his promises during his first term. With the beginning of his second
term, in 1928, a rule of terror began. Martial law was proclaimed, and Congress
allowed him to suspend freedom of speech, press, and assembly. Political
78
opposition revived against Machado as the economic depression of the early
1930s hit Cuba. An attempt to stabilize the price of sugar, always the mainstay of
Cuba’s economy, failed, and no substantial relief came from a public-works
program. As the opposition increased, Machado adopted increasingly harsher
methods against it. Cuban exiles fled to the U.S., and, as violence intensified, the
U.S. offered to mediate. An amnesty was declared, and constitutional and political
reforms were promised. With the economic crisis deepening and with Machado
apparently determined to stay in office in spite of promises to resign, the army
forced him to flee the country in August 1933”
 Note 2023: Falkland Islands War, Falklands War, Malvinas

War, or South Atlantic War,.
The outbreak of the conflict
(textual notes from britannica.com)

“Argentina had claimed sovereignty over the Falkland Islands, which lie 300 miles
(480 km) east of its coast, since the early 19th century.Great Britain had seized the
islands in 1833, expelling the few remaining Argentine occupants, and since then
consistently rejected Argentina’s claims. In early 1982 the Argentine
military junta led by Lieutenant General. Leopoldo Galtieri gave up the long-running
negotiations with Britain and instead launched an invasion of the islands. The
decision to invade was chiefly political,because the junta, which was being
criticized for economic mismanagement and human rights abuses, believed that
the “recovery” of the islands would unite Argentines behind the government in a
patriotic fervour.
Argentine troops invaded the Falklands on April 2, rapidly overcoming the small
garrison of British marines at Stanley (Port Stanley). They obeyed orders not to
inflict any British casualties, despite losses to their own units. The next day
Argentine marines seized the associated island of South Georgia. By late April
Argentina had settled more than 10,000 troops on the Falklands, although the vast
majority of these were poorly trained conscripts, and they were not supplied with
proper food, clothing, and shelter for the approaching winter.
As expected, the Argentine populace reacted favourably, with large crowds

gathering at the Plaza de Mayo (in front of the presidential palace) to demonstrate
support for the military initiative. In response to the invasion, the British
79
government under Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher declared a war zone for 200
miles (320 km) around the Falklands. The government quickly assembled a naval
task force built around two aircraft carriers, the 30-year-old HMS Hermes and the
new HMS Invincible light carrier, and two cruise ships pressed into service as troop
carriers, the Queen Elizabeth 2 and the Camberra. The carriers sailed
from Portsmouth on April 5 and were reinforced on the voyage. Most European
powers voiced support for Great Britain, and European military comissionaires
were withdrawn from Argentine bases. However, most Latin American
governments sympathized with Argentina. A notable exception was Chile, which
maintained a state of alert against its neighbour because of a dispute over islands
in the Beagle Channel. The perceived threat from Chile prompted Argentina to
keep most of its elite troops on the mainland, distant from the Falklands theatre. In
addition, Argentine military Government had trusted that the United States would
remain neutral in the conflict, but, the United States offered full support to Great
Britain. It allowed NATO to use its air-to-air missiles, communications equipment,
aviation fuel, and other military aids including on British-held Ascension Island.
Military Intelligence became a mutual cooperation work between the USA and
Great Britain”.
80

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Contenidos “Estudios Interculturales en Lengua Inglesa I”

Primer Tramo: “Lengua, Historia e Identidad

 Unit One “The Inter Cultural Approach”

1. Interculturality: Inter Cultural Communicative Competence Multiculturalism: Multiculturalism

 Unit two “The English speaking Countries and their most

1. Countries where English is spoken as an Official language - Countries where English is

 Unit Three “English and American participation in the Socio

Bibliografía del Alumno

Segundo Tramo “Manifestaciones Interculturales”

 Unit Four: “ Cultural periods of the XX Century”

 Unit Five: The Post Modern Period

 Unit Six: Echoes of the Cultural Movements in English Language in

Bibliografía del Alumno

1. 2015 RODRIGUEZ E. “Studies on Antropology”. Holos Argentina

Web Sites consulted

Chronology and Plan

Classes will be on Tuesdays 1st and 2nd periods

Unit One: Interculturality and Multiculturalism. Canada – USA and Argentina

(Posted in the School Campus for the pupils to start reading it

Period; April 2023

Plan of Classes for April

The whole Unit One. Interculturality – Multiculturalism – Ehnocentrism -

1. Interculturality and Multiculturalism . Bilingualism –

Canada – USA and Argentina

Questions will be answered

Hold a Five minutes speech each one or each couple about

1. Interculturality and Multiculturalism

 Week 4 April the 25th Written Work Written Test

 (Pupils will write a handwritten Report in class On

1. Interculturality and Multiculturalism

 The General Purpose of Unit One

The general purpose of this Unit is to know the characteristics of Interculturality

To pass Unit One, Pupils should

 Understand Characteristics of Interculturality and Multiculturalism

 Know The intercultural and bilingual characteristics of Canada and USA

 Analyze The characteristics of The People in Argentina

 Express ideas about Social and Cultural diversity in Argentina

 Take notes of the extra information, given by the teacher in class

 Express the pupils point of view

 Define 2022 Notes “The Argentine People”

 Define 2023 Notes “Social and Cultural diversity in Argentina”

The teacher will take into consideration:

a. The way pupils have assimilated Interculturality . Multiculturalism

b. The way pupils can manage Multiculturalism in Canada – USA - Argentina

1. The Argentine People (2022)

Prepare a handwritten or Oral Report on any of both topics

Read the given notes and enlarge and compare them

The whole work must be ready for Tuesday the 25th th

We shall have further comments on the notes, in class

 Unit One “The Inter Cultural Approach”

Interculturality: Inter Cultural Communicative Competence Multiculturalism:

We are referring to the interaction of people from different cultural environments,

Interculturality is the ability to experience the culture of other people and to be

Intercultural communicative competence

In 2015 a group of teachers performed a case study of three Indonesian teachers

a. 20/4/2016. LONE KROGSGAARD SVARSTAD PHD THESIS “Teaching

b. UNITED NATIONS Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization.

The idea of multiculturalism in contemporary political speech and in political

Aboriginal people were independently treated in the,” IMMIGRATION ACT”,

Bachvarova, M., 2014, “Multicultural Accommodation and the Ideal of Non-

It is a philosophical and anthropological term meaning “Otherness” strictly being

Education should also be focused on Alterity, because if education considers a

ANDERSON, K. T. «Constructing ‘otherness’, Ideologies and differentiating