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    6 views31 pages

    UNIT 1 - Bridge Engg

    Uploaded by

    Fahd Abdul Rahman
    Yea I know u know

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
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    BRIDGE ENGINERRING DEFINATION The following definitions of certain important terms used in Bridge Engineering are given below: Bridge: - A structure is facilitating a communication route for carrying road traffic or ther moving loads over depression or obstruction such as river, steam, channel, road or railway. The communication route may be a railway track, a tramway, a roadway, footpath, a eyele trick oF a ‘combination of them, High Level Bridge or Non-submersible Bridge: - The Bridge which does not allow the high flood waters to pass over them. All the flood water i allowed to pass through its vents. In other words it carries the roadway above the highest flood level ofthe channel Submersible Bridge: ~ A submersible bridge is a structure which allows fold water to pass over bridge submerging the communication route. Its formation level should be so fixed a not 0 cause imerruption to tafe during floods For more than three days at time nor for more than six times in a year Causeway: tis a pucca submersible bridge which allows floods to pass over it. It is provided on less important routes in order to reduce the construction cost of cross drainage structures. It may hhave vents for low water flows Foot Bridge: - The foot bridge is a bridge exclusively used for earying pedestrians. Cycles and animals, Culvert: - When a small steam crosses @ oad with linear waterway less than about 6 meters, The cross drainage structure so provided is called culven, Desk Bridge: - These are the bridge whose floorings are supported a top of the superstructures. ‘Through Bridge, These are the bridges whose floorings are supported or suspended at the bottom of the superstructues, ‘Semi-Through Bridges: - These are the bridges whose floorings are supported at some intermediate level ofthe superstructure, ‘Simple Bridges: - They include all beam, girder or truss bridges whose flooring is supported at ‘some intermediate level of superstructure Cantilever Bridges: - Bridges which are more or ess fixed at one end and free at other, It can be ‘sed for spans varying from 8 meters to 20 meters Continues Bridges: - Bridges which continue over two or more spans. They are used for large spans and where unyielding foundations are available, 13, Arch Bridge: - These are the bridges which {produce inclined pressures on supports under vertical loads, These bridges can be economically used up to spans about 20 meters, The arches may be in ‘the barrel from or in the form of ibs. 14, Rigid Frame Bridges: - In these bridges the horizontal deck slab is made monotithie with the vertical abutments walls, These bridges can be used up to span about 20 meters. Generally this type ‘of bridge is not found economical for spans less than 10 meter. ‘These are the bridges at right angles to axis ofthe river ‘These are the bridges not a right angles to axis ofthe river 17, Suspension Bridges: - These ae the bridges which are suspended on cables anchored at ends, 18, Under-Bridges: - It is a bridge constructed to enable @ road to pass under another work or obstruction 19, Over-Bridges 20, Class AA Bridges: - These are bridges designed for LR.C. class AA Toading and checked for class is bridge constructed to enable one from of land communication over the other. A loading, Hey are provided within certain municipal limits, in certain existing or contemplated industrial area, in other specified areas, and along certain specified highways. 21, Class A Bridges: - These are permanent bridges designed for LR.C. class A loading, 22, Class B Bridges - These are permanent bridges designed for LR.C. class B loading. 23, Viaduet: «Its a long continues structure which carries a road or railways like Bridge over a dry valley composed of se sof span over trestle bents instead of solid piers 24, Apron: - It isa layer of conerete, masonry stone etc, placed like flooring. atthe entrance or out of culvert to prevent scour 25, Piers: - They are the intermediate supports ofa bridge superstructure and may be solid of open type. 26, Abutment: - They are the end suppons ofthe superstructure, 27, Curtain Walls Ics a thin wall used as a protection against scouring action a stream, 28, Effective Span: - The centre to centre distance between any two adjacent suppons is called as the effective span of abridge. 29, Clear Span: - The clear distance between any two adjacent supports ofa bridge is called clear Span, 30. Keonomie Span: - the span, for which the total cost of bridge structure is minimum is known as ‘economic span, 31, Affiu water level above its normal level while passing under the Bridge. This rise is known as alu. + due to construction of the Bridge there is a contraction in waterway. This results in rise of 32, Free Board: Free Board at any point is the difference between the highest flood level after allo 1¢ for afflux, if any, and the information level of road embankment on the approaches or top level of guide bunds atthe points. ‘33, Headroom: - Headroom is the vertical distance between the highest points ofa vehicle or vessel and the lowest points of any points of any protruding member of a Bridge. 34, Length of the Bridge: - The length of a Bridge structure will be taken asthe overall ength measure ‘long the cents line of the Bridge from the end to end of the Bridge deck. 35, Liner Waterway: - The liner waterway of a Bridge shall be the length available in the bridge between extreme edges of water surface at the highest flood level, measures at right angles to the abutment faces. 36, Low Water Level (L.W.L.): = The low water level isthe of water surface obtained generally in the dry season, 37. Ordinary Flood Level (O.F.L.): It is average level of a high flood which is expected t occur normally every year 38, Highest Flood Level (HLF-L.):- I isthe level of highest flood every recorded or the calculated level for the highest possible ood. 39, Effective Liner Waterway: - Effective linear waterway isthe total width of waterway of a bridge minus the effective width of obstruction. For calculating the effective linear waterways, the width of mean obstruction due to each pier shall be taken as mean submerged width of the pier at its foundation up to maximum scour level. The obstruction at ends due to abutments or pitched slopes Should be ignored, COMPONENTS OF A BRIDGE ‘The bridge structure is divided mainly into two components: 1) Substructure > The function of substructure is similar to that of Foundations, columas and walls ete. ofa building. "Thus the substructure supports the superstructure and distsibutes the load into the soil below through foundation. > The substructure consists of foundation piers and abutment piers, foundation forthe piers, abutments, wing walls, and approaches. The above all supports the superstructure of the bridge, 2) Superstructure > The superstructure ofa bridge is analogues toa single story building oof and substructure to that of walls, columns and foundations supporting it > Superstructure consists of structural members carrying a communication route > Ieonsists of handrails, parapets, roadways, girders, arches, wall trusses over which the road is suppot. > kis that part ofthe bridge over which the traffic moves safely 1 Figure Components oa ypc! Brie. Classification of a Bridges - The bridges may be classified depending upon the following factors (a) Their funetions or purpose as railway, highway Foot Bridge, aqueduet etc. (b) Their material of construction used as timber masonry, R.C.C. Steel, prestesses conerete ete (€) Nature or life span such as temporary permanent bridge ete (Their elative position of floor such as deep bridge through bridges ete (e) Type of superstructure such as arched girder, truss, suspension bridge ee. (0 Loading: - Road Bridges and culverts have been clasified by LR.C. into class AA, Class A, Class B bridges according to the loadings they are designed to camy. (g) Span Length:- Under this category the bridges canbe classified as ‘Culverts (Span Less than 8m) ie. BOX Type, Hume Pipe Type, 8 1 30m) ie. BOX type, Girder Type idge (Span Length Iserves the intended function with utmost safety and convenience > Wis aesthetically sound > Wsi economical ic of an Ideal Bridge has been discussed below: 1. The stream at the bridge side should be well defined and as narrow as possible ‘The site characte ‘There should be a straight reach of stream at bridge site ‘The site should have firm, permanent, straight and high banks. ‘Te flow of water in the stream atthe bridge site should be in steady regime condition It should be free from whirls and eross-current ‘There should be no confluence of large tributaries inthe vicinity of bridge site i should be reliable to have straight approach roads and square alignment, i. 1 tangled crossing ‘There should be minimum obstruction of natural waterway so as to have minimum afflus In order to achieve economy there should be easy availability of labour, construction material and transport facility in the vicinity of bridge site. 9. In order to have minimum foundation cost, the bridge site should be such that no excessive work is to be carried inside the water 10, At bridge site it should be possible to provide secure and economical approaches. 11, Incase of curved alignment the bridge should not be on the curve, but preferably on the tangent since otherwise there is a greater like hood of accident as well as an added centrifugal force which increases the load effect onthe structure and will require modification of desig, 12, There should be no adverse environmental input 13, The bridge site should be such that adequate vertical height and waterway is available 14, Underneath the bridge for navigational use ln actual practice the determination of best possible ste for any proposed bridge is truly an economic problem. The various factors which should be carefully examined before setting finally upon the layout of abridge as follows: i. Grade on alignment, i, Geographical Conditions, iii, Government requirements, iv, Commercial intuences , ¥. Adjacent property consideration, Vi, General features of the bridge structure, vil, Future tends for enlargement, vii, Time Consideration, ix, Foundation Considerations, x. Construction facilities available, Xi, rection Consideration, Aesthetics, Maintenance and repairs, xiv, Environment Impact Bridge Alignment: Depending upon the angle which the bridge makes with tee axis ofthe river, the aliment an me of two types: In this the bridge is at right angle to the axis ofthe river, 4) Square Alignment 'b) Skew Alignments: - In this the bridge is at some angle tothe axis of the river which isnot aright angle Note: - As far as possible, always desirable to provide the square alignment. the skew alignments suffers from the following disadvantages:- (A great skill is required for the construction of skew Bridges. Maintenance of such type of Bridges is also difficul (Gi) The water-pressure on piers in case of skew alignment is also excessive because of non-uniform flow of water undemeath the bridge superstructure (i) The foundation of skew bridge is more susceptible o Scour action. Flood Discharge: - One of the essential data for the bridge design is fair assessment of the maximum flow which could be expected t0 occur at the bridges site during the design period of the bridge. The conventional practice in India for determination of flood discharge isto use a few convenient formulae or past records Note: - This faulty determination of flood discharge which led to failure of many hydraulic structures. As per LR.C. recommendation the maximum discharge which a bridge on a natural stream should be esigned to pass determined by the following methods:- (@) From the ruiafall and other characteristics ofthe catchment (0 By use of an empirical formula applied to that region, or i) By a rational method, provided itis possible to evaluate forthe region concerned the various factors employed inthe metho. (b) From the hydraulic characteristics of the stream such as cross-sectional area, and slope of the stream allowing for velocity of flow. (©) From the records available, if any, of discharges observed on the stream a the site ofthe bridge, orat any other site viiniy Expirical Methods for Estimation of Flood Discharge:= In these methods are of basin or catchment is considered mainly. AU other factors which influence peak flow are merged in a constant. A general equation may be followed inthe Form:- Here, Q= Peak Flow or ate of maximum discharge (C= a constant forthe catchment Me area of catchment, and *a” isan index ‘The constant for catchment i arrived at, after taking the following factors into account: (A) Basin Characteristics a) Ara ). Shape ©) Slope (B) Strom Characteristics 4) Intensity ) Duration ©) Distribution Limitations ‘These methods do not take frequeney of flood into consideration. ‘These methods cannot be applied universally Fixing of constant is very dificult and exact theory cannot be put forth fr its selection, 1) Dicken’s Formula Here, Qe Discharge in cum/see (C= a constant Me area of atchment in sq km. 2) ‘Tyve's formula Q=CM Here, Qe Discharge in cumfvee (C= 6:74 for area within 24 km from coast or, (C= 845 for areas within 24-161 km from coast or, (C= 10.1 for limited hilly areas In worst ease C goes up to 40.5 Me area of catchment in sq .km. 3) Inglis Formula ‘This formula used ony Mahastra state and here three different cases are taken into consideration. (4) For small areas only (Its also applicable for fan-shaped catchment) mam | (b) For areas between 160 to 1000 square ki, Q= 1232 M26 M—259) (¢) For all type of catchment TRIM 7 WAEs 1036) a of catchment Ta sq ki In all equations, 4) Nawab Jang Bahadur’s Formula :- Q=C M7259) cab. log AD Here, a,b, and C are constant a=0.993.and b= I/Mt it 59.5 for North India or, 4 for South India 5) Creager’s Formula q=CMn Here, ‘=the peak flow per sq, km of a basin Me= area of catchment in q, km. and ‘n”is some index By multiplying both sides ofthe above equation are of the basin M, we get eoM™ ‘Where Q is peak value Equation given by Creager, Justin and Hinds is (46. CM ato. 6). Khosla’s Formula leis a rational formula, It si based on the equation P= R +L, or Re P-L Here, R is round off, Pis rainfall and Lis loses. L=482'Tm, where Lis in mm and Tm isin centigrade (in CG. System) Re P-4.82Tm 7) Besson’s Formula = ‘This formula is very rational and can be used in any case: Qn=PaX Q9/(P) Q¢= Some observed peak flow P,= Observed rainall P= expected rainfall Rational Methods for Estimation of Flood Discharge: ‘This method is applicable for determination of flood discharge for small culvens only. In order to arrive at a rational approach, a relationship has been established between rainfall and runoff under various circumstances. The size of flood depends upon the following factors Climate o¢ Rainfall Factors, This includes (@) Imensity (6) Distbution and (©) Duration of Rainfall (i) Catchment Area Factors. This includes (a) Catchment Area () its slope (eis shape (@) porosity of soi (€) Vegetable cover (f) inital state of wetness WATERWAY ‘The area through which the water flows under a bridge superstructure i known as the waterway of the bridge. The linear measurement of this area along the bridge is known as the linear Waterway. This linear ‘waterway is equal to the sum ofall the clear spas. This may be called as antiicial linear waterway. Due to the construction of a bridge the natural waterway gets contracted thereby increasing the velocity of flow under a bridge, This increased veloci results into heading up of water on the upstream of the river or stream, known as Aflux Economie Span: - the economic span of a bridge isthe one which reduces the overall cost ofa bridge to be ‘minimum, The overall cost ofa bridge depends upon the following factors 18, Cost of material and its nature b. Availabilty of skilled labour ©. Span Length. 4. Nature of stream to be bridged Climatic and other conditions. Notes:- Iv is notin the hand of engineers to bring down the cost of living index or price of the materials like cement, see, timber, ete. but they can help in bringing down the cost of bridges by evolving economical designs, Considering only variable items, the cost of superstructure increases and that of sub-structure decreases with an increase inthe span length, Thus most economic span length is that which stltfies the following = ive, The cost of Super Structure= The cos ofthe Sub-Structure AFFLUX When a bridge is constructed, the structure such as abutments and piers cause the reduction of natural waterway area, The contraction of stream is desirable because it leads to tangible saving in the cost specially or alluvial steam whose natural surface width is oo large than required for stability. Therefore, to carry the maximum flood discharge, the velocity under a bridge increases. This increased velocity gives rise to sudden heading up of water on the upstream side of the stream, The phenomenon oOf heading up of water fon the upstream side of the stream is known as “AFFLUX” Greater the afflux greater will be the velocity under the downstream side of the bridge and greater will be the depth of scour and consequently greater will be depth of foundations required, AfTlux is calculated by one ofthe foo (A) Marriman’s Formula formula (W7a) (ATCA) = (ATA Here, y= Allux in meters ‘Velocity of approach in meters per second ‘A= Natural Waterway area at the site ‘a=Contracted area in square meters ‘Aj= The enlarged area upstream of the bridge square meters Coefficient of Discharge = 0.75+0.35 (a/A)-0.1(a/A)* approximately (A) Molesworth’s Formula + ows] ((ay?-1) Here, V, A and a have the same meaning asin the Marriman’s Formula CLEARANCE, ‘To avoid any possibilty of waffie striking any structural part clearance diagram are specified. The horizontal clearance should be the clear width and vertical clearance of the clear height, available for the passage of vehicular traffic as show inthe clearance diagram in the Figure below. Horitonal Cs earance =} be Hortsonal Clara 1825 Re polis00 “ “ ot Lest Than 8800 fortwo Trafic Lancer ack Aiditonal Teac Lane increase fond widen 56 Maximum Soving Dimensions of Fehicies 3300» 4500 2 Half Section Showing Main Singie Lane Fixed Structare the z “Boidge Invermediate Portions of Maine cane aBridge Bridge (Clearance Diagram for Road Bridges Note : - For a bridge constructed on a horizontal curve with superelevated road surfaces, the horizontal clearance should be increased! on the side of inner kerb by an amount equal 10 Sm mutiplied by the superelevation. The minimum vertical clearance should be measured from the super elevated level of voadvay. FREE BOARD Five board isthe vertical distance between the designed high flood level, allowing for the afflux if ny, and level of the erown ofthe bridge at its lowest point tis essential to provide the free board in all types of bridges for the following reasons:- Free Board is required to allow floating debris, fallen tree trunks and approaches waves top ‘pass under te bridge, Free board is also required to allow for the afflux during the maximum flood discharge due to contraction of waterway. Free board is required to allow the vessels to cross the bridges in case of navigable rivers. "The value of free-broad depends upon the types ofthe bridge. Collection of Bridge Design Data: For a complete and proper appreciation of the bridge project the engineer in charge of the investigation should carry out studies regarding its financial, economic, social and physical feasibility. The detailed information to be collected may cover loading to be used for design based on the present and anticipated future traffic, hydraulic data based on stream characteristics, geological data, subsoil data, climatic data, alternative sites, aesthetics, cost ete The following drawings con ng information as indicated should be prepared 1. INDEX MAP CONTURE SURVEY PLAN SITE PLAN (CROSS-SECTION LONGITUDINAL SECTION ‘CATCHEMENT AREA MAP SOIL PROFILE Design data for major bridge:- A+ General data:= (Name ofthe road and its classification. i) Name of the stream, Location of nearest G:T'S. bench mark and its reduced level, Gy) Chainage at centre line ofthe stream, (9) Existing arrangement for crossing the stream. 44) During Monsoon) During dry season (vi) Liability of the sitet earthquake disturbance B- Catchment Area and Run Off Data:= ( Catchment Area (a) Hilly Area by In plains (ii) Maximum recorded intensity and frequency of rainfall in catchment. (Gi) Rainfall in cementer per yearn a reason (Gv) Length of catchment in kilometres, (8) Widh of catchment in kilometres. (i) Longitudinal slope of catchment. (ii) Cross slope of catchment. (ili) The nature of catchment and its shape. - Data Regarding Nature of Stream ub-Surface Investigation ‘Sub-Surface investigation is essential for to know the properties of the bridge site soil The field and laboratory investigations required to obtain the necessary sil data forthe design are called soil exploration. ‘The principal requirements of a complete investigation can be summarized as follows:= 1. Nature of the soil deposits up to sufficient depth, Depth, thickness and composition of each soil stratum. “The location of ground water Depth to rock and composition of rock. ‘The engineering properties of sol and rock strata that affect the design ofthe structure. In exploration programme the extent of distribution of different sols both in the horizontal and vertical directions ean be determined by the following methods: By use of open pits 2. -By making bore holes and taking out samples 3. By Soundings. 4. By use of geophysical methods Equipments for laboratory Work:- ‘The disturbed soil sample as taken from bed level to scour level at every one meter interval or at depths wherever strata changes ate tested to determine the following properties:- Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit and Plasticity Index. Organic Content 1 2 3. Harmful Salts 4. Sieve Analysis 5. Silt Factor ‘The undisturbed soil samples as taken below the scour level to a level where the pressure is about 5% ofthe pressure at the base are tested to determine 1. Particle size analysis 2. Values of cohesion and angle of intemal friction by shear test 3. Compression index and pre-consolidation pressure by consolidation test 4. Density specific gravity and moisture content, Advantage of Sub-Surface Investigation:- ‘There are manifold advantages of carefully planned investigation programme, These ean be summarized as below:= 1. A suitable and economical solution can be worked out “The construction schedule can be properly planned. ‘Theextent and nature of difficulties ikely to be met with ean be determined ‘The rate and amount of settlements can be determined. ‘The variation in the water “table, ofthe presence of artesian pressures can be found out 9.1 Depth of Scour: DEPTH OF SCOUR (D) is the depth ofthe eroded bed of the river, measured from the water level for the discharge considered. Well-laid foundation is mostly provided in road and railway bridges in India lover large and medium-sized rivers. The age-old Lacey-Inglis method issued for estimation of the design scour depth around bridge elements such as pier, abutment, guide bank, spur and groyene. Codal provisions fare seen to produce too large a scour depth around bridge elements resulting in bridge sub-structures that lead to increased construction costs, Limitations that exist in the codes of practice are ilustrated in this paper using examples, The methods recently developed for estimation ofthe scour are described. New railway and road bridges are required fo be built in large numbers inthe near future across several rivers to strengthen such infrastructure in the country, It is strongly felt that provisions in the existing codes of practice for ‘determination of design scour depth require immediate review. The present paper provides a ct sl note on the practices followed in India for estimating the design scour depth Indian practices on estimation of design scour depth 1. Lacey-Inglis method 2 Comments on Lacey's method ‘© The probable maximum depth of scour for design of foundations and training and protection works shall be estimated considering local conditions. ‘© Wherever possible and especially for flashy rivers and those with beds of gravel or boulders, sounding for purpose of determining the depth of scour shall be taken in the vicinity of the site proposed for the bridge, Such soundings are best taken during or immediately after flood before the scour holes have had time to silt up appreciably. In calculating design depth of seour, allowance shall be made inthe observed depth for increased scour resulting from (The design discharge being greater than the flood discharge observed. ) The increase in velocity due tothe constriction of waterway caused by construction ofthe bridge. i) The increas in scour in the proximity of pers and abutments. + 4.63 Inthe ease of natural channels flowing in alluvial beds where the with of waterway provided isnot fess than Lacey's regime width, the normal depth or Scour (D) below the foundation design discharge (QD level may be estimated from Lacey's formula as indicated below p= 0473/0" ‘Where D is depth in metres QF is in cumees and “T° is Lacey's sill factor for representative ‘sample of bed material obtained from seour zone '© Where due to constriction of waterway, the width is less than Lacey's regime width for QF or where itis narrow and deep as in the case of incised rivers and has sandy bed, the normal depth of scour may be estimated by the following formula: D=1338 7/0" ‘Where “Q, "isthe discharge intensity in cubic metre per second per metre width and fis it Factor ‘The silt factor ‘shall be determined for representative samples of bed material collected from scour zone using the formula 76 Um where m is weighted mean diameter ofthe bed eral particles in mm. Values of“ for diferent types of bed material commonty met with are given below ‘Type ofbed | Material Weighted mean | Value of F ia of partcle(mm) Wcoane a [00 05 (Fine sand [ 008 050 ous, 0.68 Gi Medium sand | OS 056 os 124 Ty Coase sand [OF TaT Lo 176 20 249 ‘The depth ealeulated (vide clause 46.3 and 464 above) shall be increased as indicated below, to obtain ‘maximum depth of scour for design of foundations, protection works and training works: Nature ofthe Fiver Depth of scour Tha straight reach 1230 ‘At the moderate bend conditions ee along apron of guide bund 13D ‘Ata severe bend 115d ‘Ata Wahi angle bend orat nose of piers 20 Th severe swirls eg: against mole head ofa guide bund 2510 275) In case of clayey beds, wherever possible, maximum depth of scour shall be assessed from actual observations 9.2 Types of Bridge ‘Types of Bridge Arch bridge Arch bridge (concrete) ‘Through arch bridge eat Beam bridge Log bridge (beam bridge) Cavity wall Viaduct Bowstring arch Box ginder bridge Cable-stayed bridge Cantilever bridge Cantilever spar eable- stayed bride Clapper bridge Gider bridge Continuous span girder bridge Moon bridge Pigtail bridge Pontoon bride Segmental bridge Self-anchored suspension bridge ‘Transporter bridge Viorendss! bridge Brown russ, z Covered bridge Lattice muss bridge (Town lattice truss Tubular bridge ‘i ia Bridge Found: Defi A foundation isthe part of the structure which isin direct contaet with the ground. It transfers the load of the structure to the soil below. Before deciding upon its size, we must ensure that (The bearing pressure at the base does not exceed the allowable soil pressure “The sottlement of foundation is within reasonable limits Differential settlement is to limited as not to eause any damage tothe structure 7.4 Loads and Load combina 7.4.1 Loads on bridges The following are the various loads to be considered for the purpose of computing stresses, wherever they are applicable - Dead load + Live load + Impact load - Longitudinal force “Thermal force - Wind load + Seismic load + Racking force + Forces due to curvature. + Forces on parapets - Frictional resistance of expansion bearings + Erection forces. Dead load — The dead load is the weight of the structure and any permanent load fixed thereon. The dead load is initially assumed and checked after design is completed. Live load - Bridge design standards specify the design loads, which are meant to reflect the worst loading that can be caused on the bridge by traffic, permitted and expected to pass over it. In India, the Railway Board specifies the standard design loadings for railway bridges in bridge rules. For the highway bridges, the Indian Road Congress has specified standard design loadings in IRC section II. The following few pages brief about the loadings to be considered. For more details, the reader is referred to the particular standard, Railway bridges: Railway bridges including combined rail and road bridges are to be designed for railway standard loading given in bridge rules. The standards of loading are given for: + Broad gauge - Main line and branch line - Metre gauge - Main line, branch line and Standard C - Narrow gauge - H class, A class main line and B class branch line The actual loads consist of axle load from engine and bogies. The actual standard loads have been expressed in bridge rules as equivalent uniformly distributed loads (EUDL) in tables to simplify the analysis. These equivalent UDL. values depend upon the span length. However, in case of rigid frame, cantilever and suspension bridges, it is necessary for the designer to proceed from the basic wheel loads. In order to have a uniform gauge throughout the country, it is advantageous to design railway bridges to Broad gauge main line standard loading. The EUDLs for bending moment and shear force for broad gauge main line loading can be obtained by the following formulae, which have been obtained from regression analysis: For bending moment: EUDL in kN = 317.97 + 70.831 + 0.018812 > 449.2 kN (7.1) For shear force: EUDL in kN = 435.58 + 75.151+ 0.000212 > 449.2 KN (7.2) Note that, | is the effective span for bending moment and the loaded length for the maximum effect in the member under consideration for shear, '' should be in metres. The formulae given here are not applicable for spans less than or equal to 8 m with ballast cushion. For the other standard design ding the reader can refer to Bridge rules. Highway bridges: In India, highway bridges are designed in accordance with IRC bridge code. IRC: 6 - 1966 — Section II gives the specifications for the various loads and stresses to be considered in bridge design. There are three types of standard loadings for which the bridges are designed namely, IRC class AA loading, IRC class A loading and IRC class B loading. i ath als ats atsun 282: « jasoen —asokad 200 — (@) Tractact vehicle G@) Wheeled vehicle Fig.7.10 IRC AA loading IRC class AA loading consists of either a tracked vehicle of 70 tonnes or a Wheeled vehicle of 40 tonnes with dimensions as shown in Fig. 7.10. The units in the figure are mm for length and tonnes for load. Normally, bridges on national highways and state highways are designed for these loadings. Bridges designed for class AA should be checked for IRC class A loading also, since under certain conditions, larger stresses may be obtained under class A loading. Sometimes class 70 R loading given in the Appendix - | of IRC: 6 - 1966 - Section Il can be used for IRC class AA loading. Class 70R loading is not discussed further here. Class A loading consists of a wheel load train composed of a driving vehicle and two trailers of specified axle spacings. This loading is normally adopted on all roads on which permanent bridges are constructed. Class B loading is adopted for temporary structures and for bridges in specified areas. For class A and class 8 loadings, reader is referred to IRC: 6 - 1966 - Section II Foot Bridges and Footpath on Bridges — The live load due to pedestrian traffic should be treated as uniformly distributed over the pathway. For the design of footbridges or footpaths on railway bridges, the live load including dynamic effects should be taken as 5.0 kN/m? of the footpath area. For the design of foot- path on a road bridges or road-rail bridges, the live load including dynamic effects may be taken as 4.25 kNim? except that, where crowd loading is likely, this may be increased to 5.0 kN/m*, The live load on footpath for the purpose of designing the main girders has to be taken as follows according to bridge rules: () For effective spans of 7.5 mor less - 4.25 kN/m? (i) The intensity of load is reduced linearly from 4.25 kNim? for a span of 7.5 m to 3.0 kNIm? for a span of 30m (ii) For effective spans over 30 m, the UDL may be calculated as given below. 1 400)\/17—W 2 P Ale tl 7 es a 7.3) Where, P = Live load in kN/m? | = Effective span of the bridge in m. 'W= Width of the foot path in m. Where foot-paths are provided on a combined rail-road bridge, the load on foot-path for purpose of designing the main girders should be taken as 2.0 kNim?, Impact load 150% impact fier % ow 30 Spain 0 Fig 7.11 Impact percentage curve for highway bridges for IRC class A and IRC class B loadings The dynamic effect caused due to vertical oscillation and periodical shifting of the live load from one wheel to another when the locomotive is moving is known as impact load. The impact load is determined as a product of impact factor, |, and the live load. The impact factors are specified by different authorities for different types of bridges. The impact factors for different bridges for different types of moving loads are given in the table 7.1. Fig.7.11 shows impact percentage curve for highway bridges for class AA loading, Note that, in the above table | is loaded length in m and B is spacing of main girders in m, Longitudinal forces — Longitudinal forces are set up between vehicles and bridge deck when the former accelerate or brake, The magnitude of the force F, is given by Where, W—weight of the vehicle 9g — acceleration due to gravity ‘8V change in velocity in time dt This loading is taken to act at a level 1.20 m above the road surface. No increase in vertical force for dynamic effect should be made along with longitudinal forces. The possibility of more than one vehicle braking at the same time on a multi-lane bridge should also be considered, Table 7.1: Impact factors for different bridges BRIDGE LOADING IMPACT FACTOR ty Railway Broad gauge (a) Single track 20 Brdgesaccording and Meter

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