I. Cell and Molecular Definition History of the Cell and Cell Theory * Robert Hooke — 1665 © Improved Existing Microscope. © Observed a piece of cork. Coined the term, Cell. © Wrote the book of Micrographia. ° : vy: pwenhock — 168: 0 Master microscope maker. Perfected simple microscope ° Compound © Discovered bacteria and protozoa, called them animacules. "Robert Brown — 1833, © Discovered Nucleus. © Brownian Movement. = Matthias Schleiden — 1838 ©. Plant Cells. © Cells are the Building Blocks of Life. © Animal © Cell Theory. = Alber n Kolliker — 1340 © Discovered that Sperm and Eggs are also cells, "Alexander Carl Heinrich Braun — 1845 ‘0 Reworks the Cell Theory, calling Cells the Basic Unit of Life = Rudolf Virchow — 1855 © Stated that Cells are generated by Existing Cells. "Walter Sutton & Theodore Boveri © Responsible for identifying chromosome as the hub of heredity. ‘©. Studied the structure of DNA. © Double Helix. Development of Molecular Biology the © Austrian monk who discovered the principles of heredity through experiments in his garden " Correns, Tschermark, and De Vries (1901) — Botanists © Independently rediscovered Mendel's Law + Morgan and Coworkers © Established chromosome theory of heredity. Modern Cell Theory 1. ‘The Cell is the smallest living unit in all organisms. Allliving things are made of cells. 3. All cells come from pre-existing cells. ‘The Cell "From Latin word Cella, which means to Basic structural and functional unit life. «Highly organized unit. "Within cells, there are specialized structures called Organelles. EXAMPLES OF CELLS ‘Amott Proteus Red Bleed Call ‘Two Types of Cells PROKARYOTIC CELLSc agai = Do not have structures surrounded by membranes. = Few internal structures. = One-celled organisms, Bacteria EUKARYOTIC CELL Plant Animal = Contain organelles surrounded by membranes. = Most living organisms. Animal Cell Cotnembrane, ow Enaopasme etc Se Msoenondion PX seats Eoniamie Plant Cell PARTS OF THE CELL © Cytoplasm Living material surrounding the nucleus. It contains many types of organelles. Surrounded by cell membrane Contains hereditary material Cell Membrane © Outer membrane of cell that controls movement in and out of the cell © Doublelayer Cell Wall © Most found in plant cells & bacteria © Supports and protects cells Nucleus © Directs cell activities © Separated from cytoplasm by nuclear membrane © Contains genetic material- DNA © Site of RNA synthesis and ribosomal subunit assembly Nuclear Membrane © Surrounds nucleus © Made of two layers © Openings allow material to enter and leave nucleusChromosomes © Contain instructions for traits and characteristics Nucleolus © Contains RNA to build proteins Endoplasmic Reticulum © Moves materials around in cell © Smooth Type: lacks ribosomes © Rough ‘Type: ribosomes embedded in surface Ribosomes ich cell contains thousands © Make proteins © Found on ribosomes & floating throughout the cell © Site of protein synthesis Mitochondria © Produces energy through chemical reactions - breaking down fats & carbohydrates Controls level of water and other materials in cell © Recycles and decomposes proteins, fats, and carbohydrates Site for Aerobic respiration © Major site of ATP synthesis ° ° Golgi Bodies © Modifies protein structures © Packages proteins in secretory vesicles Secretory Vesicle © Contains materials produced in the cell formed by the Golgi apparatus; secreted by the cell Lysosome © Digestive plant for proteins, fats, and carbohydrates © Transport undi material m membrane for removal © Cell breaks down if lysosome explodes © Contains enzymes that digest materials taken into the cell 1 Vacuoles © Membrane-bound sacs for _ storage, digestion, and waste removal © Contains water solution ° nts maintain sh: Chloroplast © Usually found in plant cells © Contains green chlorophyll © Where photosynthesis takes place Microtubule © Support cytoplasm © Assists in cell division © Forms components of cilia and flagella Centrioles © Facilitate the movement of chromosomes during cell division Cilia © Move substances over the surfaces of certain cells Flagella © Propel Sperm cells Microvilli © Increase surface area of certain cells. * A major source of energy from our diet * Made from the elements of Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen. * Also called saccharides, which means Main Types of Carbohydrat Simple Sugar/Carbohydrates a. Monosaccharides i. simplest of all sugars because it contains only simple structureii, found naturally in fruits and milk or they can be produced commercially. iii, From the Greek word monos which means single and saccharide which means sugar iv. It contains 3-6 carbons depends on it open or close structure v. Monosaccharides that contain an aldehyde group are classified as aldoses vi, Monosaccharides that contain a ketone group are classified as ketoses Structure of Aldoses of — Evy tawose ane. Ho — Evy aldo Structure of Ketones Ebiz04, ai t CHO ketene I Ho c= i Evyth rule @ CHO Es Monosaccharides are also classified by the number of carbon atom present: * Triose (three C atoms) ‘* Tetrose (four C atoms) ‘© Pentose (five C atoms) ‘© Hexose (six C atoms) Summary of Monosaccharides ‘© Most important number of the family because it gives you energy and it also be attained on different sources '* The most common hexose (contained 6 carbons on saccharide) ‘+ Found in fruits vegetables, corn syrup, and honey '* Also known as dextrose and blood sugar in the body. D=Galactose © Found in dairy products ‘* Not direct, broken sacch: disaccharide * Analdohexose with the formula C6Hi206 ‘* Obtained from the disaccharide lactose, found in milk, cheese ‘© Important in the cellular membranes at the brain and nervous system ‘* An important source of energy for the body. ‘* Aketohexose with the formula CoH1206 © The sweet st of the carbohydrates, twice as sweet as sucrose (table sugar) ‘+ Also known as good sugar * The functional group attached to this saccharide is a ketone. b. Disaccharides i. Consists of two monosaccharides linked together chemically ii, Formed when monosaccharides combine ina dehydration reaction NOTE: Dehydration Reactions once they are chemically bonded through covalent bonding, they are losing water molecule or 2H atoms and 10 atom. iii, Most common disaccharides are maltose, lactose, and sucrose. Summary of Disaccharides Mal * A disaccharide also known as malt sugar‘* Composed of 2 D-glucose molecules ‘© Used in cereals, candies and brewing — coffee or beer Lactose ‘* Found in milk and milk products ‘© Makes up 6-8% of human milk and about 4-5% of cow's milk * Also known as milk sugar sucrose (table sugar Consist of D-glucose and Beta D-fructose Has B-(12)-glycosidic bond between carbon 1 of glucose and carbon 2 of fructose Can be seen in vegetables, fruits, and nuts. NOTE: Glycosidic Bond —is what we call when we are producing a disaccharide, Commonly used in our daily life 2, Complex Sugar/Carbohydrates Are made up of sugar molecules that are strong together in long complex chains a. i, ii iii iv, sy ides Consist of chains of sugars with branches Are important in storing energy and providing support and protection for cells and whole organisms. Also known as Glycan Consists of 10 or more carbons that have their own branches They can also have 100 of sugar units. Its finetion is for structural support, energy storage and cellular communication Common Polysaccharides Starch/es * A storage polysaccharide of plants. Human beings obtain it from cereal grains (e.g, rice, wheat) legumes (pea, beans) FUNC * HUMANS CANNOT PRODUC Glycogen * Isastorage polysaccharide in animals. Human or other vertebrates store glycogen mainly in liver and muscle cells. Stored carbohydrates. lulose © Acts as dietary fiber © It is the most abundant organic ‘compound on Earth. ‘© A major component of tough cell walls that makes plant stems, leaves, and branches. * Humans do not have enzymes to break cellulose down. Therefore, we cannot digest it 4. Chitin © Second most abundant organic substance, Found as the structural component of fungal walls and exoskeleton of arthropods ‘Structural component ng mushroom is call Chitin ION OF CARBOHYDRATES IN OUR BODY Energy Production The primary role of carbohydrates in our body is to supply energy to all the cells in_our_body. Without this process, the cells cannot do their job. Energy Storage If the body already has enough energy to support its functions, the excess glucose is stored as glycogen (the majority of which is stored in the muscle and liver) . Building Macromolecules Some glucose is converted to ribose and deoxyribose which are essential building blocks of important macromolecules such as RNA, DNA and ATP4. Spanning Protein © Ina situation where there is not enough. glucose to meet the body's needs, GOOD CARBS VS BAD CARBS 1. Good Carbohydrates © Carbs that don’t raise blood sugar too high or too quickly * The best carbohydrates are found in unprocessed whole foods that are rich sources of phytochemicals. Characteristics of a Good Carbohydrates © Low or moderate in calories © High in nutrients Devoid of refined sugars and refined grains High in naturally occurring fiber Low in sodium ° Low in saturated fat 0000 Very lo in or devoid of cholesterol and trans fats. Sources of Good Carbohydrates © Starchy veggies (potatoes, sweet potatoes) Beans, lentils, peas Whole grains (brown rice, oats) Fruits and veggies Pasta (made from whole grains, brown rice, lentils, beans, and chickpeas) e000 2, Bad Carbohydrates ‘© Highly processed carbohydrates (refined bread, cereals and pastries) that raise blood sugar too high and too quickly. Characteristics of Bad Carbohydrates © High Calories ull of refined sugars, like corn syrup, white sugar, honey, and fruit juice © High refined grains like white flour © Low in many nutrients Low in fiber High in sodium Sometimes high in saturated fat Sometimes high in cholesterol and trans fat 0000 Sources of Bad Carbohydrates Cadies Sodas Pastries (donut, scones, cupcakes) Sugary cereals White bread (white rice, white pasta) oo000 THE GLYCEMIC INDEX Measures how quickly and how much a carbohydrate raises blood sugar. ‘The smaller the number, the less impact the food has on your blood sugar. * 5508 less = low (good) medium -69 * 70 or higher = high (bad) CARBOHYDRATES BENEFITS * Mental health © Weight loss * Good source of nutrients CARBOHYDRATE DEFICIENCY © Dizziness * Mental and physical weakness Hypoglycemia * amacromolecule made up of long hydrocarbon chain. * they're nonpolar and non-soluble in water. * mostly hydrophobic. * some are amphipathic lipids (ie, combination of —hydrophobie and hydrophilic, or water loving and water heating.) * common names are fats and oils. ‘Two Types of Fatsturated Fats * donot contain double bond. ‘* linear formation ‘* solid at room temp and has high melting Three Parts of Fatty Acids: carboxylic group, hydrocarbon group, and methyl group. Note: (1) naturally, hydrocarbon chain is point. composed of 12-22 carbons in length. (2) ‘* pork, beef, cheese, and so on. due to the carbonyl group with double bond present in saturated fats, is what makes this fat compact or solid at room temperature. (3) due to carbon-to-carbon double bond in unsaturated fats making its structure to bend is what makes it liquid at room temperature. 2. Unsaturated Fats ‘© have at least one double bond, 2 formations (under unsaturatedo: Cis and Trans Configuration *Cis Configuration - hydrogen molecules are in the same position. Unsaturated and saturated Fatty Acids in ‘Trans Configuration - hydrogen molecules our Body: are in different position. © Unsaturated decrease (good fatty acids) heart disease, reducing the amount of bad cholesterol, increasing gold cholesterol. Saturated (bad fatty acids) increase both good and bad cholesterol. More about Lipids: Fats are from animals which are solid at room temperature, Oils are from plants which are liquid at room temperature, NOTE: Trans Fat is unhealthy due to its configuration that makes the structure straight chain (saturated) — can be found in hydrogenated oil products (e.g., margarine) Note: humans are capable of producing oils; from the food we eat and so on. Four Main Types of Lipids ‘Triglycerides © aglyceride (fatty acids) ‘+ most plentiful lipid presents in human Functions of Triglycerides body. ‘© made up of glycerol unit and 3 fatty acid * Storage of chemical energy chain, * Metabolic Water (fats can be NOTE: The three fatty acids are being bonded = eae ol oa yh body) toa one glycerol unit by Dehydration Synthesis. (ie., Whenever there's a chemical bonding it produces hydrogen.) * Thermal Insulation (protects the body from losing heat.) Its two types 2. Phospholipids Y Glycerol with 3 carbon molecules. Sea eee Y Fatty Acids which are the saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. * consist of phosphate head linked with two fatty acids * the phosphate is hydrophilic and interacts with water. Tail is hydrophobic thus, hate ‘iglycerides Structure: Have hydroxyl group or alcohol. water,‘* phospholipids create two layers to makes cell's double membrane. ‘* an amphipathic lipid. ‘+ layers that protect the organelle, Bilayer Sheet - composed of phospholipids protecting organelles. controls the things that goes in and goes out Note: some phospholipids may contain both saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. Phospholipids is important in formation and functioning of cell membrane. . Waxes ‘© same group of steroids ‘* produce by the body more naturally * are hydrophilic . Steroids © hydrophobic ‘© does not contain fatty acids. ‘* has 4 basic ring structure. Cholesterol (a type of steroid) © found in food and in our blood. produces by liver for the productions also of other steroids. w/C cholesterol, no steroids can be generated ‘Type of Cholesterol HDL — Hi nsity Lipoprotein (good Cholesterol © doesn't travel from diff: parts of the body since its high in density. LDL = Low Density Lipoprotein (ba cholesterol © can travel, transferred thru blood stream, another cell and so on causing, it to create blockage. With the help of cholesterol, it can produce the following steroids: 1, Testosterone 2, Estrogen 8. Vitamin D. 4. Cortisone 5, Plasma Membrane Steroids Three Hormone Types: 1, Anabolic Androgenic Steroids © muscle building. © increase male sex characteristics. 2 © treats conditions that have inflammation. (eg., allergies, asthma, etc.) 3, Minerecorticosteroids © regulates salt and water balance © promotes sodium and potassium transport, * Large molecules consisting of amino acids connected by peptide hydrogen. There are many amino acids. * All your proteins are composed of amino acids * Peptide bond, you produce more complex. that will produce your proteins What are Proteins made of? Structure: © Monomers (building blocks) = amino acids ‘© 20 different amino acids © Polymer — lots of monomer combined ‘* Protein can be / or more polypeptide chains ‘Proteins are categorized based on their structure ‘Folded and bonded together ‘© The structure of proteins is so complex that’s because we have. Four Structural Classification1. Primary 2. Secondary 3. Tertiary 4. Quaternary Amino Acids © Building blocks of proteins 3 Parts of Amino Acids © Amino group (NH2) © R Group (side chain) © Carboxyl Group (COOH) Structure: © Central carbon © Amino group (FIXED) © Carboxyl group © R Group (side chain) Dehydration Synthesis _~ producing metabolic water and your polypeptide chain. 3 Classification of Amino Acids {1 Amino Acid Alanine, Asparagine, Aspartic Acid, and Glutamic Acid 2. Conditional Amino Acid cxample - Arginine, Cysteine, Glutamine, Proline, Glycine, and sine 8. Essential Amino Acids mple — Histidine, Leucine, Lysine, Phenylalanine, Tryptophan, and Valine Peptides and Peptide Bonds 1. Peptide ‘Are the short chains of amino acids * Chemically bonded by peptide bond 2. Peptide Bond + Anamide bonds * Form between carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of the next amino acid Amino Acid ~ Peptide - Polypeptide Protein Building Proteins Under a process of dehydration synthesis because there would be linking of 2 amino acids but producing metabolic water Types of Peptides 1, Monopeptide 2, Dipeptide 3. Tripeptide 4, Tetrapeptide 5. Pentapeptide 6, Hexapeptide 7. Heptapeptide 8, Octapeptide 9, Nonapeptide 10. Decapeptide Polypeptide Chains * More than 10 amino acids bonded by peptide bonds ‘* Higher level of monomers ‘* Grow in one direction Four Main Structure of Proteins 1, Primary Structure ‘linear of simple chain the linear structure of amino acids within a protein. ondary Structut * 2types of structui pleated sheet) (Alpha helix or Beta ‘+ Proteins involves twisting or folding polypeptides into highly regular sub- ructure. ‘* Too many chemical compositions © The ensemble of formation and folds in a single linear chain of amino acids — sometimes called a polypeptide ‘* Some characteristics are hydrophobic, hydrophilic, sulfur containing, acidic, basic 4, Quaternary Structure ‘© combination of 4 tertiary structure* a protein refers to those macro molecules with multiple polypeptide chain or subunits Protein Structure and Function ‘© Function depends on structure © All starts with the order of amino acids Proteins can be classified based upon: 1. Their solubility 2. Their structural Complexity ‘Two Major Classes of Protein Based on Solubility 1, Globular Proteins ‘© Means globe-like © Quite fragile and can be inactivated (denatured) by things like heat organic solvents or strong ionic solutions. + A_ compacted spherical structure. Water soluble and tend to be involved in metabolic function Example © Hemoglobin — carries oxygen from lungs to the body. © Insulin — produced by our pancreas. A hormone that helps to control blood glucose level. © Albumin —can be seen in the white part of the chicken eggs. © Immunoglobin — for plasma cells or white blood cells for fighting our immune system. 2. Fibrous Proteins Much stronger and tougher + As the name implies, these proteins are more like ropes and cables ‘Also known as sclera protein * Insoluble in water * They have supportive and protective function: Supportive Function Collagen — an abundant fibrous protein in vertebrate animals being found in tendons cartilage and bone. It supports our muscle. Protective Function Keratin - best known for providing strength and resilience to cells that form (hair, skin, and nails) Protein Denaturation Denaturation — it is the process modifying the molecular structure of @ protein. It can be practical or complex disorganization of protein characteristics, Example: Denaturation of Proteins in Egg White Egg Whites — a concentrated solution of protein albumin — forms a jelly when heated because the albumin is denatured. Classification Based Upon Structural Complexity 1, Simple Proteins — these are proteins that are made up of amino acids only joined by a peptide bond Examples: Fibrous and Globular 2, Conjugated Proteins — those are proteins which are made up of amino acids and non-amino acid or protein substance called prosthetic groups. Example: Lipoprotein — proteins in combination with lipids Glycoproteins — proteins with sugar attached to them Nucleoproteins — proteins bound to nucleic acids 3. Derived Proteins — when proteins are hydrolyzed by acids, alkalis, or enzymes, the degradation products obtained from them are called derived proteins a. Primary Derived Proteins — denatured proteins, primary structure is retained. b. Secondary Derived Proteins — Formed by hydrolysis of simple or conjugated proteins by acid.Functions of Proteins in Our Body 1, Structural Functions © Provides structure © Fibrous protein provides cells and ssues with stiffness and rigidity. 2. Defense Functions © Protects the body from foreign pathogens 8. Digestive Functions © Through enzymes, enzymes speed up chemical reactions that takes place in our body. © Or sometimes we have catalysts to have the process faster. +, Transport Protein © Carry substances in the blood or throughout the body 5. Storage Functions © Provide nourishment in early development of the embryo 6. Hormonal Funetion © Coordinate the activity of different body system mae © Helps in muscle contraction Advantages of Proteins 1, Feel More Full © Proteins reduce you level of hunger hormone ghrelin. 2. Increas © Building blocks of your muscle 8. Good For Your Bones © People who eat more protein tend to maintain bone mass better. 4, Reduces Cravi \d_ Desire fo) Night Snacking © Cravings can be incredibly hard to control. The best way to overcome them may be to prevent them from occurring in the first place © Warm body temperature © Proteins give extra heat in our body Muscle Mass and Strength Disadvantages of Proteins 1. Increase Cancer Risk © Too much is always bad 2, Bad Breath © Since your protein is amino acid, you have nitrogen, ammonia cause bad breath 3. Weight Gain +. Dehydration © Since your proteins undergo a lot of processes, you tend to lose a lot of water. Danger of Too Little Protein 1, Insufficient protein intake can cause your muscle to waste 2, Increased risk of bone fracture 8. You may experience skin, hair, and nail problems 4. Bigger appetite and increased calorie intake NUCLEIC ACID Biopolymers: needed for all forms of life. Polymers: Nucleic Acid Monomer (of nucleic acid): nucleotide: the small unit of your polymer. * The term "nucleic acid” is the overall name for deoxyribonucleic acid and ribonucleic acid * a macromolecule found in all cells, precipitate in storage, transmission, and translation of genetic information. * carry the info, that main cell transfer Functions of Nucleic Acid 1. store genetic info: only in DNA 2, transfer genetic info: RNA *also carry for the cell, not only for the genes. 3. energy in the body: RNA, which is the A 4, Also act as source of energy in terms of respiration under metabolic processes. Composition of Nucleic Acid © Oxygen © Carbon© Hydrogen NUCLEOSIDE © Nitrogen © Phosphorus ‘Two Types of Nucleic Acid © a combination of BASE and SUGAR is called a Nucleoside. 1. DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid NAMING OF NUCLEOSIDE AND © located inside the nucleus NUCLEOTIDE © stores heredity in small segment strands, _ 2. RNA:rtibonucleic acid © delivers gene info from DNA to create functional product © RNA also acts as enzyme. es etree © Single strand only, dol the nade ete Component Of DNA and RNA 1. Sugar: OSE with one oxygen atom attached to each carbon, © FOR DNA: Deoxyribose: a modified L, oxnsier Ly te sugar, lacking one oxygen atom. 2. Nitrogenous Bases Ribose + Uracil + Uracine © PYRIMIDINES: one ring, two ie nitrogen atoms, : thymine (t), cytosine (C), uracil (u) © PURINES: two rings, each with two ee a ———e combination of Pyrimidines) adenine (a), guanine (g), 3. Phosphate © apolar molecule due to the presence of highly ionize oxygen atoms. on it sugar, that Serves as the backbone of your structure, © cannot be connected by nitrogenous NUCLEOTIDE is the building block of nucleic acids. Phosphate + Gytidine — —- + nucleotide is combination of phosphate, + Deoxyribose * Guanine + Deoxyguanosine Deoxyribose + Cytosine —+ Deosyribose + Adenine —_ — the one that is connected to ur sugar and nitrogenous bases. ‘© composition of nucleotide: phosphoric Phosphate « Deoxythymidine acid, nucleoside, and nucleotide.Structure of Nucleic Acid P I 1. Inte : 5 = James Watson, Francis Crick, and Rosalind Franklin determined the structure of DNA from data and X-ray picture. ‘* basic structure of DNA can be divided in to two portions: external sugar phosphate (backbone) and the internal bases (nitrogenous bases), Secondary Structure ‘© DNA consist of two associated polynucleotide strands that wind together through space to form a structure often described as a double helix. * Are biological catalysts (meaning a solution or reagent that speeds up the reaction. It helps the process to finish a lot faster) * Are biological molecules that significantly speed up the rate virtually all of the chemical reactions that take place within cells, © Vital for life and serve a wide range of important functions in the body, such as aiding in digestion and metabolism Funetion of Enzymes 1. Help break large molecules into smaller pieces 2. Bind molecules together 3. Highly selective catalysts Co-enzyme and Co-factors ‘* Non-protein that helps enzymes and substrate complete each other ‘© Helps enzyme to catalyzed or acts as a catalyst in a specific reaction Two Theories. 1, Lock-and-key Model © The active site of an enzyme is precisely shaped to hold specific substrates 2, Induced-fit Model ‘© Enzymes and substrate are not that perfect for each other. There would be some spaces or gaps that is not filled up by the substrate in the active site. The Energy of Activation * The energy used to break the bonds in the reactants so they can be reformed in the products. * All of the processes that our body's doing is naturally can be performed by the body. Process... Substrate Binds to Enzyme Substrate is converted to products Products are released Active site is available for another molecule of substrate Competitive Inhibitors © Block enzyme actively by mimicking the substrate © Trying to act as a substrate Non-competitive Inhibitors ‘+ Block enzyme function too but attach a different point that the active site. * Even though it does not block the substrate directly, but having inhibitors in a specific site of an enzyme, when there's process it would not help in the function of an enzyme Classification of Enzymes 1, Oxidoreduct atalyzes the transfer of hydrogen atom or oxygen atom or electron from one substrate to the other.2, Transferases — catalyzes the transfer of a functional group from one substrate to another 3. Hydrolases — catalyzes hydrolysis or breakdown of the substrate 4. Isomerases — catalyzes intramolecular changes in the substrate Isomers — having same molecular formula but different structure 5, Ligases — catalyzes the non-hydrolytic group removal of a group or addition of toa substrate, 6. Lyases (synthesis) — catalyzes joining two molecules by forming new bonds Factors Affecting Enzymes Ta Verapees re © Enzymes are most active at an optimum temperature (usually 37C) © Show little activity at low temperature © Lose activity at high temperature as denaturation occurs, 2. PH Level © Most active at optimum (7) PH level, where proper tertiary structure of the protein is maintained © Contain R groups of amino acids with proper changes at optimum pH © Lose activity in 16 or high pH as tertiary structure is disrupted 3. Enzyme Concentration © Anincrease in enzyme concentration increases the rate of reaction 4, Substrate Concentration o An concentration increase in substrate © Increase the rate of reaction © Eventually saturates an enzyme with substrate to give maximum activity What Do Enzymes Do? 1. The Digestive Syste * Enzymes help the body breakdown large complex molecules into smaller molecules such as glucose, so that body can use them as fuel Endorgonic Reactions # g 3. DNA Replication * Each cell in the body contains DNA, each time a cell divides that DNA needs to be copied. Enzymes help in this process by unwinding the DNA coils and copying the information 4, Liver Enzymes ‘© The liver breaks down toxins in the body. To do this it uses a range of enzymes, From the Greek word “metabolé” it means Change All life forms obtained and utilized energy to initiate daily process of biological activities Plants, algae, and others bacteria harvest energy to the sunlight Autotrophs, While those feed on the energy they produce are called Heterotrophs are called Most foods that are produced in a bio molecule form such as_ proteins, carbohydrates, fats and nucleic acid are all rich in energy-laden chemicals which have to be broken down into smaller one enzyme called Metabolism. How Foods Transformed into Energy ° transform energy, produce and sume them. Energy production in a cell involves multifaceted chemical pathways. © This may happen through endergonic or exergonic, Exorgonic ReactionsSignificance of Metabolism 1. To harvest energy (ATP) 2. Activation of enzymes “Utilizations of macromolecules” 3. Productions of antimetabolites in the chemotherapy of cancers and infections 4. Inactivation and elimination of xenobiotics and drugs 5. Continuity of life Pathway of Metabolism 1. Anabolic Pathway © Synthesis of cellular components © Increase of molecular order endergonic 2. Catabolic Pathway © Breakdown of cellular constituents © Decrease of molecular order exergonic ‘© Mitochondria is found in the cytoplasm of almost all eukaryotic cells ‘* Mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion) © The term ‘mitochondrion’ is derived from the Greek words “mitos” and. “chondrion” which means “thread” and “granules-like” ‘* Also called the “powerhouse of the cell” because it produces adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the main energy molecule used by the cell.” Structure of Mitochondria © The mitochondrion is a double membrane, rod-shaped/bean shaped structure found in both plant and animal cell. © ranges from 0.5 to 1.0 micrometer in diameter and 1-10 micrometer in length. © It has an outer membrane, inner membrane, intermembrane space, matrix. Outer Membrane © It is smooth and is composed of equal number of phospholipids and proteins, ‘* [thas large number of special proteins known as the porins * Porins- help in facilitating the passive transport of small-sized protein molecules. * The outer membrane is freely permeable to nutrient molecules, ions, energy molecules like the ATP and ADP molecules. ‘The Mitochondria “™™" ne = © Intermembrane Space * Space between the outer and inner membrane of the mitochondria, * Ithas the same composition as that of the cell's cytoplasm. * contains proteins that has a critical role in mitochondrial energetics and apoptosis (process of programmed cell death), Inner Membrane © More complex in structure, * It is folded into several folds many times and is known as the cristae.‘+ Is strictly permeable, it is permeable only to oxygen, ATP andit also helps in regulating transfer of metabolites across the membrane. ‘* _Itis the site of the production of ATP Matrix ‘© Itisa complex mixture of protein and enzymes, * It also comprises inorganic ions, mitochondrial DNA, nucleotide cofactors, and organic molecules ‘* These enzymes are important for the synthesis of ATP molecules, mitochondrial ribosomes, t2NAs and mitochondrial DNA. ‘* It contains about 2/3 of the total protein in a mitochondrion. ribosomes, ‘©The matrix contains the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) of the mitochondrial genome and the enzymes of the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) eycle (also known as the citric acid cycle, or Krebs cycle), which metabolizes nutrients into by- products the mitochondrion can use for energy production. Mitochondrial DNA is the circular chromosome found inside the cellular organelles ealled mitochondria. Located in the cytoplasm, mitochondria are the site of the cell's energy production and other metabolic functions. Offspring inherit mitochondria — and ag a result mitochondrial DNA — from their mother. Components of Mitochondria SG} How Does a Mitochondria Produce Energy? * ATP is generated by the mitochondrial ATP synthase from ADP and phosphate ions. These are the products of ATP hydrolysis at the sites where energy is needed in the cell. ‘* Most of the adenosine triphosphate (ATP) synthesized during glucose metabolism is, produced in the mitochondria through oxidative phosphorylation, + Mitochondria, using oxygen available within the cell convert chemical energy from food in the cell to energy in a form usable to the host cell. The process is called oxidative phosphorylation and it happens inside mitochondria. ‘What is Oxidated Phosphorylation? * Oxidative phosphorylation is the process where energy is harnessed through a series of protein complexes embedded in the inner membrane of mitochondria (called the clectron transport chain and ATP synthase) to create ATP. DR two types of Cellular Respiration: Pion ferme While most aerobic respiration (with oxygen) takes place in the cell's mitochondria, and anaerobic respiration (without oxygen) takes place within the cell's cytoplasm.)ane Ci ‘Is one of the important chemical processes + Is one of the essential processes carried out by all living organisms to survive © It is a process which takes place in the absence of oxygen gas. ‘© It is the process of cellular respiration that takes place in the presence of oxygen gas to produce energy from food. "LET'S MAKE SOME ATP! = Gellar Respiration (toe RoleKrebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle) Electron Transport Chain & Chemiosmosis | mae \ | Denson ald (ON) Matrix Sy hp glycolysis (cytoplasm) ic sce Chloroplast * Chloroplasts are the organelles specialized in carrying out the photosynthetic process, which uses light energy to synthesize organic compounds; for this reason, they are common to all photoautotrophic eukaryotes. Chlorophyll ‘* Chlorophyll It’s a group of green pigments used by organisms that convert sunlight into energy via photosynthesis. CHLOROPLASTS‘Why Plants are Green? gS GREEN YELLOW AND RED During the fal, the green Carotooids are chlocophyl pigments are pigments that are eer greatly reduced revealing the red or yellow ther pigments Photosynthesis Biological Process: ‘© Energy from sunlight and convert to chemical compounds ‘© with the use of light energy, the plant makes sugar as well as oxygen gas from carbon dioxide and water Organisms that Undergo in Photosynthesis 1, Plants - Allows to create oxygen and energy ina form of sugar. 2 Algae - Large and diverse group of photosynthetic, Found in water. 3. Cyanobacteria ~ A.K.A Cyanophyta. Structure... Photosynthesis uses solar energy, carbon dioxide, and water to produce energy-storing carbohydrates. Oxygen is generated as a waste product of photosynthesis. PHOTOSYNTHESIS Substrate and Product of Photosynthesis ‘+ Photosynthesis is a mult that requires sunlight, and water as substrates ator done 0; a Hie ‘Two Halves of Photosynthesis 1, Light Dependent Stage - energy from sunlight is absorbed by chlorophyll and that energy is converted into stored chemical energy. 2, Light Independent Stage - The chemical energy harvested during the light dependent reactions drives the assembly of sugar molecules from carbon dioxide.The Cain Gye Photosynthesis takes place in two stages: light dependent reactions and the Calvin cycle. Light- dependent reactions, which take place in the thylakoid membrane, use light energy to make ATP and NADPH. The Calvin cycle, which takes place in the stroma, uses energy derived from these compounds to make GASP from CO2. Summary of Photosynthesis During photosynthesis, plants take in carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H20) from the air and soil. Within the plant cell, the water is oxidized, meaning it loses electrons, while the carbon dioxide is reduced, meaning it gains electrons. ‘This transforms the water into oxygen and the carbon dioxide into glucose. Process of Photosynthesis Factors Affecting Photosynthesis 1, Light Intensity 2, Wavelength 8. Concentration 4, Temperature 5, Water Supply 6. Chlorophyll Pollution MoU ola) MLCT na STRONGER THAN You SEEM, SMARTER THAN YOU THINK. (yistOghe Robin (A.A. Mine) ©Lifehack GOD BLESS FUTURE EDUCATOR!