STRUCTURAL “™PROPERTIES OF GL. cl Glass E18 sg 33 23 oFERRATA (September 27, 1995) AAMA Aluminum Curtain Wall Series #12-1984 Structural Properties of Glass Section 6, Conditions That Affect Performance of Glass lease add the following note to the boxed diagram on page 16: ‘Note ‘The cramples shown cn Page 16 ae for an spec rao of ovo ont. A cheng ‘the aspect ratio may change the resultant strength factors, but not the relationships ilustrated by these examples.”STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES OF GLASS ~ INTRODUCTION Glass has boen used as a building material for many centuries. During the twentieth century the increasing use of glass in arch: itectural applications can only be described as phenomenal. To- day itis common to see beautiful buildings sheathed entirely in lass. Glass makes it pot because of ‘its le to design energy efficient buildings ty to. selectively control heat and light Spite its wide acceptance and use, much re- , its structural properties and how to predict its structural performance. However, continuing research has enabled the industry to better understand why glass performs as it does. This publication makes available to desig hitects and engineers the most current technical information on the struc tural properties of glass and provides guidance on selecting and using architectural glass, This manual is divided into six sections. Section | traces the history of glass use and development from its earliest known use ‘around 3000 B.C. to the present. Section 2 presents the mechanical properties of glass in its an- nesled, heat-strengthened and fully tempered states and analyzes the effect of brittleness on glass’s performance. Uniike metals, which yield under excessive loads before break- 8 breaks quite suddenly because of its brittle nature. (2 at flaws on the surface or at the edges when stress concentrations occur. These and other reasons necessitate using statistical distributions to predict glass kage. Section 3 describes the current recommended pro- cedures for selecting glass. Section 4 thoroughly reviews determining design loads and using lass strength curves. The text covers computer simulation methods to determine strength and identifies areas of continuing research Glass deflection under load is an important consideration in designing a glass support system. Section 5 covers this subject ‘and. includes charts for use in deflection determinations for 4-0dge and 2-edge support Section 6 serves as a design guide for s exterior windows, curtain walls ‘ors affecting the strength of glass; unacceptable edge condi- tions; the effect of support on glass strength; and the provisions needed to accommodate mechanical and thermal stresses. istactorily using glass in 1d doors, The text defines fac: References to other publications which appear in the text are listed on the back cover. ‘AAMA believes this publication will be helpful in providing {guidance to those responsible for selecting and specifying archi- tectural glass. Comments on the publication are always welcome and should be sent to the AAMA office. This booklet was developed by representative members of, AAMA a5 {visory information and published as a pubic service. AMA disclaims aiiiy forthe ve, appeaon or adaptation of mates pushed CONTENTS: 1, HISTORICAL ASPECTS OF GLASS. 1 Evolution of Architectural Glass 2, PROPERTIES OF GLASS ........ 3 2, Mechanical Properties, b, Brittle Nature of Glass and Mechanics of Glass Breakage ©. General Strength Properties of Annealed, Heat ‘Strengthened, and Tempered Glass 3, STATISTICALNATUREOFGLASS............ 5 2, Statistical Distributions Used to Predict Glass Breakage b. Safety Factors and Design Factors ©. Probability of Breakage 4, DESIGNLOADS ANDGLASS STRENGTH ....... 8 ‘a. Determination of Design Loads and Selection of Glass ~ ». Empirical Glass Strength Curves ce. Computer Simulation Methods dd. Ongoing Research 5, DEFLECTION CHARACTERISTICS OF GLASS. u ‘a, Number of Edges Supported ». Parameters Affecting Deflection . Psychological Effects of Glass Deflection Under Load 6. CONDITIONS THAT AFFECT THE PERFORMANCE OFGLASS.................15 a. Factors Affecting the Strength of Glass b. Surface and Edge Conditions of the Glass «. Size, Shape and Glass Support d. Mechanical Stresses e. Thermal Stresses REFERENCES (Back Cover) copyright 1984 ~ ‘AAMA, 2700 river road, des plaines, ilinois 60018 (312) 699-7310SECTION 1 am HISTORICAL ASPECTS OF GLASS HISTORY OF GLASS Egyptians were making glass vi objects. ‘The Romans, recognizing the uses and desirabilty of glass, are bottles, drinking vessels a decoration. The Romans also recogniz- , containers and other similar other items for luxury a fd the usefulness of glass for windows as evidenced by glass fragments found in a bronze frame among the ruins of Pompei Evidence of glazing has also been found in the remains of Roman villas in England. From the second through fourth centuries A... fine quality glass was made at Cologne and other places in the Rhineland. Some of the products that remain from those old glass works show how much the art of glass meking had advanced. With the fall of the Roman Empire, glassmaking sutfered a relapse which lasted until the late Middle Ages. Not until the Renaissance dawned did glass usage in houses become com- ‘mon. The architecture of that period attests to the marked in- crease in its use. By the 17th century, glass in the form of mirrors was recognized as a decorative architectural asset. Widespread window glass use began in 1916 when Irving W. em Colburn's ideas were brought into practice! use by an automatic process, similar to what Colburn observed from the machinery Used to mass produce paper, Libbey and Owens used Colburn’s, ideas to mass produce glass for homes and buildings. Mass pro- duced glass also helped to yield higher quality products than those available when glass was made entirely by hand. MAKING GLASS ‘While the preferred method to make flat glass has evolved from sheet glass to plate glass to today's float glass, the basic produc- tion process remains the same: combining siica sand, soda ash, limestone, salt cake and other ingredients under high heat to pro- duce raw glass. After the raw materials have been thoroughly blended, they enter 2 furnace where they are heated to approximately 2700° F and become molten glass. After passing through a cooling chamber luced to about 2300° F, the molten ters the draw pot where it is drawn directly upward and formed into @ transparent ribbon. a one PW Drawing sheet glass begins by introducing the bait — an iron bar = into the molten glass. The glass adheres to the bar and while stillin a hot, plastic state, is pulled over a bending roll and onto powered horizontal rollers. There the bait is removed and the glass moves forward in an endless ribbon on the powered rollers As tho glass leaves the draw pot, both edges pass between water-cooled knurled rolls which keep the sheet width constant. ‘The lass then enters the lehr, or annealing oven, where the ‘temperature is slowly lowered undar carefully controled conditions ‘to make the glass easier to cut. After cooling, the glass is ready for ‘cutting, packaging and shipping to its ukimate destination PLATE GLASS. Plate glass can be distinguished from sheet glass by its surface. Grinding and polishing gives plate glass a high degree of quali Sheet gla is transparent 3s, soon as itis formed. Plate glass, however, had a rough surface after forming because it was drawn between metal rollers and had to be ground and polished before becoming smooth and ‘transparent. — op me — Wr ‘As in the case of sheet glass, plate was made by drawing a con: ‘tinuous ribbon of glass directiy from the melting furnace. The rib- bon passed through the cooling iehr before passing through a ‘win-grinding process in which both sides of the glass were ‘ground st the same time to assure near-perfect parallelism, FLOAT GLASS ‘The float process begins by feeding the molten glass onto the top of a molten tin bath. While on the tin bath, controlled heating per- mits the glass to flow, forming a flat ribbon of uniform thicknes [At the end of the tin bath, the glass is slowly cooled. Then itis {ed off the molten tin in a continuous sheet into the annealing leht for further cooling. The thickness of flat glass can be varied by ‘changing the speed at which the glass ribbon moves into the an: nealing lehr. a J] corms, ‘The flost glass process was conceived around the turn of the century; however, many technical problems impeded its develop- ‘ment. it wasn’t until 1959 that the idea was revived and brought to commercial use by Pikington Brothers, Ltd., of Englan glass is now the most commonly used in the architectural and building markets as well as in the industrial and automotive markets.EVOLUTION OF ARCHITECTURAL GLASS. Glass for architectural uses is thought to have originated in ancient Rome. Through the advances in technology and ‘machinery, today's architectural glass has revolutionized many design concepts and building aesth In the early twentieth century, clear glass was the main item available for windows. By the mid 1950's heat-absorbing glass had become widely available as an architectural product. Addi- tional products such as tinted glasses were introduced in the early 1960's. Bronze, grey and blue-green heat-absorbing lasses, which are specially tinted to reduce solar radiation while cutting down glare, also provided an aesthetic appeal for architectural design, Then in the mid 1960's, manufacturers introduced a third generation of architectural glass products. Termed reflective Coated glasses, they reflected the sun's heat while minimizing the amount of solar heat passing into a building's interior. Some costed glasses give a mirror-like image of the building’ surround: ings, adding @ new dimension of interest to the building's exterior. Coated glass also gave greater interior privacy. Coated lasses with tinted substrates resulted in earth-tone appearances and low reflective qualities from the exterior. This gave architects 2 wide variety of coated products to meet their aesthetic and per- formance requirements while satisfying the need for energy: conserving vision areas. Glass for architectural products is available in insulating glass Units, tempered glass, laminated glass and special ceramic enamel glasses for use when an opaque glass substrate is re- Quired. Now an architect can choose from a wide variety of glass Products which offer a broad range of performance characteris: ‘ios and colors, Contemporary architectural glass can also be specially made to meet uniform load and wind load conditions as well as special thermal conditions which may exist in certain areas of the building design.mPROPERTIES OF GLASS SECTION 2 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES: AVERAGE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF GLASS AS AN ENGINEERING MATERIAL The following mechanical properties apply for float glass annealed, heat-strengthened, or fully tempered: Modulus of Elasticity (Young's Modulus)... . 10.4 x 10%pst 7.2 10°°NIm? G Modulus of Rigidity (Shear Modulus) 4.3x10%psi 3.0% 10NIm* Poisson's Ratio 0.22 € Coefficient of Thermal Expansion 49 x 107) 88 «107°C > Density 157 Ibi 2.8 g/cm? °F Modulus of Rupture (Flexure)* ‘Annealed 6,000 psi 4.13<10°NIm? Heat-Strengthened 12,000 psi 8.27 x 10"Nim? Fully Tempered 24,090 psi 1.65 x40%Nim* ‘Modulus of rupture based on 60-second load and heat strengthened and fully tempered glass meeting minimum re. Quirements of Federal Specification DD.G-14038(1) dated 24 Oct 73. BRITTLE NATURE OF GLASS AND MECHANICS OF GLASS BREAKAGE. The fracture of glass due to its brittle nature can be caused by different mechanical loading systems, These are im: pact, bending, point pressure, and combinations of mechanical loads and additional thermal loads. Glass will act elastically until rupture. This is depicted by the stress-strain curve of glass load- ed in tension or flexure. When bending stress-type loads are placed on glass, it will perform elastically unti fracture occurs. At this point, a dramatic racture wil occur a high stressed area or law area. No indication of a relatively slower progressive fallure will occur because glass’s basic nature is to fracture and shatter when load: ed to its ultimate strength. Thus, the brittle nature of glass for design purposes is illustrated by the linear stress-strain curve from zero strain to failure. itis wellknown that the strength variability of a bite materia is dependent upon such things ae cracks, defects, flaws, and oth characteristics related to the load-carrying capabilities and stress-strain. cheracterietics. The basic mechanics of ‘glass breakage for annesled and heatireated glasses re similar’ with regard to stress-strain curve. However, the actual properties tnd breakage particle sizes depend on the heat treatment of the Giese. Whi all lass breakage cannot be categorized by simple Breakage method, itis known that examining the fracture surface Mr the point vnere the break onginetes and 8 few inches slong the fracture path can give important clues as to the cause of breakage and the intensity of stress which covsed I ‘An experienced glass technologist can often determine whether the breakage was principally caused by either thermal or bending stresses, whether there had been damage to the glass surface or ‘edge, and the approximate level of the stresses. Frequently, a break origin analysis will suggest possible inadequacies in the lazing system or jobsite conditions which act as a guide to solv Ing problem areas. Sometimes, the analysis can show that high ‘stresses may have contributed to breakage even though a study Cf the building conditions and load conditions had not, at the time, established the mechanism that produced the stresses, GENERAL STRENGTH PROPERTIES OF ANNEALED, HEAT- STRENGTHENED, AND TEMPERED GLASS. Annealed glass is Used for many architectural applications to resist wind loads and some degree of thermal loads, The substrate glass and whether the glass has a metallic coating will, in many instances, deter ‘mine whether the glass has to be heat-treated to resist certain thermal loads. The general applications for annealed glass strength will be determined for uniform load resistance to wind loads, and other established or defined loads by the design pro: fessional. When annealed glass is thought to be inadequate ot ‘not appropriate for a specific design, heat-strengthened or fully ‘tempered glass may then be considered. As listed previously, the ‘general mechanical properties of each type of glass are similar ‘with regard to their elastic and expansion properties. However, the modulus of rupture characteristics do change with the degree of heat treatment in the type of glass being considered. When glass is heat treated, its put through @ special process in- volving heating and cooling of annealed glass. The heat treat ‘ment involves putting the outer glass surface in high compres: sion with the central portion in compensating tension, The glass retains its clarity, color, light, and heat transmission characteristics, while the strength under uniform static load and resistance to thermal stress in increased depending upon the type of heat treatment. Heat-treated glasses are usually classified as heat-strengthened fo fully tempered according to Federal Specification DD-G- 14038. The heat-strengthened glass is to have a surface com: pression between 3,500 and 10,000 psi, with fully tempered {lass having a surface compression of 10,000 psi or more. Atits ‘upper limits, heat-strengthened glass has strength and fracture ‘characteristics similar to those of fully tempered glass. In the lower half of the surface compression range, heat-strengthened glass, exhibits markedly different characteristics. While heat- Strengthened is stronger than annealed, in many cases the breakage characteristics for the lower level heat-strengthened ‘willbe similar to breakage which might be expected from anneal: ed glass, (Other properties that must be considered when reviewing the dit ferences in annealed and heat-treated glasses include fabrication, ‘surface hardness, strain pattern, and manufacturing methods. In heat-treated glasses, a regional strain pattern, not visible under many lighting conditions may be detected when polarized light is reflected or transmitted by the glass. (Light can easily be polariz: fed jin the laboratory, and under certain conditions, normal daylight becomes polarized.) The strain pattern is an inherent ‘characteristic of all heat-treated glass and is not a defect.The heat-treating process for heat-strengthened and fully tempered glass requires that all fabrication be completed prior to tempering. Any attempt to cut, dril, grind, or sand blast the glass after heat treatment may result in glass breakage. The surface hhardness is not changed by the heat treatment process. The glass surface after heat treatment will have the same resistance to surface damage as annealed glass. Heat-treated glasses are made by either vertically or horizontally heat-treating the glass. The vertical process results in small in dentations on both surfaces near one edge of the glass. The in 0.007, nea TABLE A PROBABILITY FUNCTIONS NORMAL PROBABILITY FUNCTION—-VALUES OF . IN TERMS OF Pt.) AND Qi) 9.001 0002 0005 aon 005 0.006 0007 aioe annie a}urre 2éear zerea Zatme 243720 Bomar Baars azzee1 250709 Zitooy Zieass 242007 2osae2 Rone TGees9 Terror Tasoye assis japan Yeneso Tas219 tase? 1azegr 18tie youre 1 7eber {Siem yams {rece 170600 t60m00 | 1eaube Heras 189523 192576 1.61644 160725 150619 158027 150047 {EES {Sie {Stoo }sz0 1Stat0 $002 1aue6y Taose8 Vasvos asoer fasoe3 | T4000 Tatas | Tapes VSoeae Seize 15517 1Sreee | 137220 Sasa) 1 Sous VSsaso Soese 1S2as11Stes2 13t0e8 | 13nd 1 2ae8e 127687 1.27024 1.25464 1.25008 1.28087 124808 124004 Bite {Bese tRovs tees Zona 3iteo0 fans Witoo sos Hoot 1ssz2 Visas est tango Viale ites 18232 ores taeos ogee? tao fofast bree {osene Yoemse Noses Tossre 10090 toao15 102789 100% 10169 101522 101109 100596 Suess Gasca? Ouaeee Ogreis drat’ O37099 O.es0e Gisose Doses Ste 090848 Canese Sa0ar> Gonsse Geiss O9orr7 ose Se0023 Gasca? Gebers Oaxa0t Barse Oarecs Seees Oeses casonz Gasoo O.sz00 083905 083450 ogs00s oz742 082200 982038 O.916a7 Bagase O7aec0 Oveene Oreoes O7ag19 O7eer7 Oreos? Grease O7esee Ove2%0 O7se7s Orsaea Oreae OTeEe Besse 079998 Or2900 Or2sra Greaes Dries O79 Gross 0.9066 OsbeG= Canseo Ceoos1 DaBris ON 97:95 056821 ogG608 cesr0g oesuex 65673 85262 Baie Seeria Gesete Gasios Sear Osage Ozer Boer Séoere Ogaar Genors Osarre eau? Os017e Bsreer Ores osrags O3710) Saeacs Oaestt O5aat7 OBs0d7 Ohare Osuase Gaara Oesene Ososde 050005, 52159 osteee 051879 os1292 051007 o50722 osoKsT Qadese Qasore Oaa7as Gagae Sasirg Garagr areI0 Basis Qaezi1 Oastss Gases Gaszrs asose Oarezt OMe SiStl Clsiee Gazons Geass Basa0 042000 Odden Scere Gtoua Gaoter O'3hs0e Overs O00 096262 a97—%3 037723 037454 097166 26017 o5ee40 DSeere Gace oases Gera oust O3eaur Oseuer S3aaes 32656 Oaz82 Oszi8 Ostoee O31609 O31sa7 S.aboee 030023 Gore ozeaoo Oz02s7 Dasore Oaerig Barer arnt Oars! Ozee01 O2ees) O2esri Ost? o2so7e 024817 o4ss0 024001 024043 020785 0.23527 Baer 02580 OBteEs Oatrer Gztara Gaia Soesr Biome 019678 Oigeze Otorer Gtaoi2 Orage? Oia Bivaes O96 eer Oteaeo Crees Diet? 05050 Biases O14000 Otaior Otebes Otae00 Otoer7 O.1ssa8 zat 012061 a 11809 9.11585 017006 o11052 00720 Goer desea ouzes Gon095 Goeres G.asss sage Barge 07624 Coer7s Goeses Omer Bomo20 Bosra Soidee Sousts Gowes Geanie oasre: Gossio 0250 OBss8e Sesses Gorrss Gorse G0%25) G.o100s arse ‘doce “doe “Ooa7” “cans “aos “aoe” “onus ‘obtain fll veuracy. Prpnr— one fz os 2, ae ist a ped BS a gee 188 agezro ‘002 9.009 ese te acao0 ad Braaie Sarre Seeeae Oseset O8zres e096 bose 8 ed og6112 ‘OD 1010 Bastes oaaoee ores Sroeso Sarees sess et it tess ase Fee sas ie Be ze a oases i Fe ss 8 Compied trom TL. Kelley, The Kelley Staistcal Tables. Harvard Unit. Press, Cambsidge, Mass, 1848 (with permission). 2 ESSERE 88822 B88 escoe lerpolaton yields an eror of one uni inthe third decimal pace; ve point Interpolation is necessary toStress Corresponding To Maximum __6000 psi Allowable Breakage Probability Of 2.13 4 Lites/1000 2817 psi Now, using Formula 1, the standard normal deviate (SND) is determined for use in calculating the breakage probability using the normal distribution. 6000-2817 SND ="(-20)(6000) = 7-6525 Next, use Table A to find the breakage probability that cor responds to 2.6525. The number is found to be 0.004 or 4 lites/1000 which agrees with Table B. It has been determined that glass plate geometry can affect the load carrying capacity and, therefore, stress distribution of glass plates of equal area. It is recommended that the glass manufacturers be sol ‘their aid in making glass thickness or area recommend: design factors different than those published. 1phs contain information regarding design factors when selecting glass based on glass strength tests to fallure as used to develop the classical glass strength curves, ‘The design factor of 2.5 was used to develop the classical glass sngth curves used in general professional practice. The tuniform load charts based on glass tests to fai factor of 2.5. This design factor is the a divided by 2.5, meaning that if all the glass in the building is sub- jected to exactly the maximum allowable uniform static load, 8 ‘out of 1,000 lites would fal. This data is based on an established coefficient of variation of 25% for annealed glass. Should arch: itects or engineers feel that a design factor of 2.5 is not ap- propriate, they may make adjustments based on personal engineering judgement end experience. The necessary adjust- ‘ment in design load can be computed by using the following formula: Design Load Chosen Actual for use _ design factor design with graphs. 2 load ‘The architect can use another approach when the probability of breaking 8 out of 1000 panes is not acceptable. When using the charts, changes may be made to select glass for any required statistical probability of breakage. Procedures are outlined below: PROBABILITY OF _BREAKAGE DESIGN FACTOR LOAD FACTOR (0.8 out of 1000 5.6 2.24 1 44 1.76 2 36 1.42 3 32 1.28 4 3.0 18 5 28 113 6 27 4.07 7 216 104 8 28 1.00 9 25 0.98 10 24 0.96 15 22 0.88 20 24 0.87 Inusing the graph, the chosen uniform static load should be mul- tiplied by the values in the right hand column above, ie. the load factor. For example, if the chosen load is 30 psf and the load fac- toris 1.76 (predicted failure of 1 out of 1000), then the appropri ate load for use in the graph is 30 x 1.76 of 53 psf.SECTION 4 DESIGN LOADS AND GLASS STRENGTH DETERMINATION OF DESIGN LOADS AND SELECTION OF GLass. Choosing glass with the appropriate uniform load strength for @ iven application depends upon the design load to which the glass will be subjected in the building. Choosing this design load is the responsibility of the design professional. One source of design load information is state and local building codes. ‘Although these codes must be met, they may represent minimum irements. Actual building load conditions may require a more jetalad analysis. ANSI-AS8.1, “’Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures,"" presents de ‘on wind loads in buildings. For a tall or unus ‘or when surrounding structures may create extreme load condi- tions on the building in question, the architect may decide on @ wind tunnel test. The AAMA Aluminum Curtain Wall Series, Volume 11, Design Wind Loads for Buildings and Boundary Layer Wind Tunnel Testing, contain guidelines which can provide valuable assistance when architects or engineers are considering wind tunnel testing. ‘Once the design load has been determined and an appropriate probability of breakage selected, the appropriate glass thickness fan be chosen using published glass strength information, ich continues in the lass strength by glass rch organiz ‘and standard-wrting groups. Two common methods curt in the Industry for determining glass strength are the empirical, glass-to-destruction test method and the analytical non- destructive computer method. When choosing glass thickness {or uniform load conditions, the published information of the ap- propriate glass manufacturer should be consulted. Itis worth noting that the published glass st ngth information is based on glass subjected to uniform one (1) minute loading and ot subjected to other factors that might affect its performance. ‘to perform in an architec- Factors that can affect a gla ‘ural application, such as su stresses, and thermal stross 6. This published information is also based on a design factor of 2.5 or a breakage probability of 8/1000. The design factor of 2.5 isnot @ recommendation, but rather the design factor commonly used by designers when selecting glass for buildings. If the design professional wishes to use a design factor greater than 2.5, the equations presented in Section 3 can be used. If @ design factor of less than 2.5 is being considered, the glass ‘manufacturer should be consulted, EMPIRICAL GLASS STRENGTH CURVES ‘The empirical glass-strength curves were developed from te destruction of over 2,000 pieces of new glass to provide factual data on glass strength. A uniform static load test was used to determine the breaking loads of glass under uniform load cond tions. Test chambers able to accommodate glass up to 1” thick ‘and in sizes ranging from up to 10” wide by up to 20’ long we ‘used. The test was conducted by placing a glass test sample in a ‘chamber equipped with a reversible blower so air pressure in the cchamiber could be reduc ion. Air pressure lass sample had deflected by ‘ait pressure was then held constant for 1 minute. The center deflection was then increased to 0.2” and held for 1 minute. This procedure was repeated until the glass broke with st 25 lites of glass for each thickness and area were tested order to obtain statistical validity for the average breaking pressure under uniform load conditions. For statistical evalu tion, the breaking pressure range for a size and thickness of glass. is covered adequately by testing 25 lites to destruction. The data, compiled in 1963 and 1964, have become well known and. widely accepted for the relationship of glass strength to glass size and glass thickness. The effect of width-to-length ratios, ranging from 1 to 1 up to 1 to 5 were also tested. The result eo te | ab [ido)itdido so yo on tia t30 ‘This becomes a very important consideration ifthe glass deflects 50 much that edge support conditions are insufficient to allow ‘the glass to perform up to its intended strength. An example of the change in span is shown for a two-edge supported condition Also, it should be noted that glass strength has been checked since this is very important for any deflection problem prior to determining whether deflection is critical in the design, PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF GLASS UNDER LOAD. Detlec- tion considerations for uniform loads may be reviewed for the following five categories: 1, AestheticDeflection’s effect on occupant discomfort must be determined by the designer. Deflections under design load may occur once in the lifetime of the building, which may not be of concern to the designer with regard to the effect on oc- ‘cupants. However, the original design should consider the ef. {ect of moderate of commonly recurring loads ifthe calculated deflections appear to cause occupant or user discomfort. Glass deflection may be reviewed for aesthetics, both inside ‘and outside the building. If under certain load conditions the 13 exterior of the building does not appear to be stable due to glass deflection under design loads, this aesthetic situation ‘should be considered by the architect or designer. ‘Structural ~Glass deflection may effect gaskets and the fram- ing system depending upon the change in span as discussed previouisly. f the gasket does not perform adequately, failing to support the glass, glass-to-metal contact could’ occur, leading to possible future glass breakage. Also, certain rollin for wedge-in gaskets can become dislodged and affect the perimeter glass. support conditions if excessive deflection ‘Sealants— Deflection due to a change in span may also affect the stretch or elongation allowance as determined by the sealant manufacturer. Sealant manufacturers should be con: tacted and asked to review each situation on its own merit a8 to whether the specified sealant is appropriate for the effect of deflection, Safety —Possible glass contact with other building materials, €.g., interior wall partitions, shading devices, chai rails, con: vectors, must be reviewed. Under deflection, if the glass touches other building components, surface damage could6. result which will effect the glass’s overall performance, i.e, strength and load-carrying ability. Limits of Detlection—The limits of deflection must be deter- mined by the designer. Although lass strength is the primary consideration, in any use of glass for resistance to uniform load and structural applications, the designer must also review deflection considerations. While the glass manufacturers have appropriate data for determining performance of their pro- ducts, it is the designer's responsibility to review the product's performance characteristics and decide whether they are reasonable and acceptable for the intended design. Fig. 6 = f - ~ p t li i 1 | tp © s | | | ' | | | | ; as tt EXAMPLE OF SPAN CHANGE DUE TO DEFLECTION, 2-EDGE SUPPORT GLASS HEIGHT (UNSUPPORTED): 60° GLASS THICKNESS: 35” GLASS TYPE: FULLY TEMPERED DESIGN LOAD: 50 PSF CHECK GLASS STRENGTH (DESIGN FACTOR = 2.5) P= 57 PSF> 50 PSF OK, DETERMINE DEFLECTION FIGUREB D = 1.5" SPAN CHANGE X = 0.10" FORS = 60",0 = 1.5" WITH X = 0.10" (= 4")'— CHECK SEALANT AND/OR GASKET MANUFACTURERSECTION 6 CONDITIONS THAT AFFECT ~» PERFORMANCE OF GLASS: FACTORS AFFECTING THE STRENGTH OF GLASS Glass is a brittle material that is weak when placed in tension because of its non-crystalline molecular structure. Whan glass is stretched or bent beyond its inherent strength limits, failure oc- curs immediately and without warning, unlike materials such as aluminum or steel which warn of impending failure by per- manently deforming before they fail The modulus of rupture of glass, like modulus of elasticity and cother physical characteristics, is listed as a constant in many technical handbooks. However, testing and experience show that the strength of glass is statistical in nature due to the varia tions in edge and surface conditions from one lite of glass to another. For this reason, the information derived from glass, strength charts must be analyzed in conjunction with other fac: tors that affect actual glass strength and the way it pertorms in a practical application Factors other than uniform load which can affect glass strength ‘and lead to glass failure at pressures below the design pressure include the following: the condition of the glass surface and ledges, the size and shape of the glass, the manner in which the {glass is supported, and mechanical and thermal stresses imposed by the framing system, Iis recommended that the glass manufacturer be contacted for interpretation of glass strength information and the affect of non. wind related loads on glass performance in a particular appl cation, ‘SURFACE AND EDGE CONDITIONS OF THE GLASS ‘The modulus of rupture for annealed glass is generally considered to be 6000 psi for calculation purposes. Actual glass strength in an architectural application can be greatly reduced by damage to the surface or edges. If the glass surface is damaged, the glass's ability to resist uniform load could be reduced. This reduction in uniform load strength is greatest when the damage aceurs in the central portion of the lite of glass or along one of its diagonals ‘The surface of the glass can be damaged during handling in ‘manufacturing or glazing, at the job site by other construction ‘materials such as concrete and weld spatter, and in service by wind blown debris ‘The condition of the glass edge greatly affects glass's ability to resist thermally induced stresses. Thermal edge stresses are Created when the center portion of the glass reaches @ higher ‘temperature than the edges, putting the edges into tension. Ther ‘mal stresses are normally greatest at the center of each edge, diminishing towards the comers. Clean cut edges pravide the maximum edge strength for annealed glass. Various edge condi tions may result from the cutting operation or from damage incur red in handling and glazing. The photos on this page illustrate some of these conditions The following edge conditions would be considered unacceptable for heat absorbing or coated glasses used in an architectural ap- plication: AA Surace and Ede Condition ofthe Glass 41) Vee chips with grey “crushed” areas. 2) Shark teeth that exceed % the glass thickness. 3) Serration hackle which is deep or dense, or if spalling is present. 4) A flare that exceeds % of the glass thickness. 5) A bevel that exceeds \ of the glass thickness. 6) Plier-nipped edges. Light Serration Hackle Flake ChiSIZE, SHAPE AND GLASS SUPPORT Size, shape and method of support all effect glass's ability 10 resist uniform load and its deflection characteristics. As discuss- fd in Section 2, a piece of heat-strengthened glass is approx imately twice os strong and a piece of tempered glass and four to ‘of annealed glass of equal size and thickness. In this section, we will only consider annealed glass. The relationship of relative glass strength as itis affected by size, ‘shape and method of support is similar for heat-treated products. Effect of Size and Shape The ability of a piece of glass to resist uniform load is affected by its size and shape. The greater the glass's area, the lower its abil ty to withstand the loads imposed by wind in an architectural ap- plication. For a given area certain geometric shapes are stronger than others. The relationship between the area of the glass, the aspect ratio of rectangular shapes, and the effect of other ‘geometric shapes on the allowable load a piece of glass can ‘withstand is covered in greater detallin Section 4. Effect of Method of Support Glass performance, when subjected to wind:induced loads in an ‘architectural application, is greatly effected by the manner in which the glass edges are supported. Glass with firm support on all edges is most resistant to design loads. For discussion pur- poses, we will consider a rectangular piace of glass 4 feet wide by 8 feet high with a total glass area of 32 square feet. Example "8", shows this piece of glass with support on all four edges to which we assign @ 1.0 strength factor. If this same piece of glass were glazed in a butt joint glazing =p- plication that provided firm support oniy at the head and sill, the 8 ft. vertical edges would be left unsupported. As shown in Ex- ‘ample “B', the strength factor is 0.10, meaning that this piece of glass can withstand only one tenth the load as the same piece of glass with ful, four-side support In Example “C", the same piece of glass is supported at the head ‘and sil, but is glazed with the & ft, dimension in a horizontal posi- tion and the 4 ft. dimension in vertical position. In this example, the glass is provided with two-side support with a 4-foot unsup- ported span. The strength factor for this condition is 0.38. ‘Although the glass area is the same as in Example “8, this glass is approximately four times stronger. In tworside support systems, the strength of the glass is dependent only on the glass thickness and the length of the unsupported span. One edge of the glass may be left unsupported in some glazing systems, creating a three-side support glazing condition. Such a Condition is shown in Example ““D'" where one of the 8-ft. ver tical edges is unsupported. The strength factor for this condition is 0.24. Itis interesting to note thet this glass is stronger than the two-side support condition shown in Example "5" even though both conditions essume an unsupported span of 8 ft. The three: side support condition is stronger because the support given to the opposite vertical edge increases the strength of the unsup: ported edge. If the distance between the supported vertical edge and the un- ‘supported vertical edge increases, this effect is reduced. In fact it the separation is increased sufficiently, the strength of the three- side supported glass would be no greater than a piece of glass the same size with two unsupported edges gare 4 Ff 32 Fe 32 Fe +8 Ft a2 Fe ea Ft a2 Fe +8 Ft Example “A Four-side support Strength Factor = 1.00 Example “B" ‘Two-side support, long edge unsupported Strength Factor = 0.10 Example “C"* ‘Two-side support, short edge unsupported Strength Factor = 0.38 Example “0 Three-side support, long edge unsupported Strength Factor = 0.24 Example “E” Three-side support, short edge unsupported Strength Factor = 0.40Example "“E"* shows another three-side support condition with the 4 ft. dimension left unsupported. The strength factor for this, Condition is 0.40. This glass is stronger than the glass shown in Example “D"’ because the unsupported span is reduced. in three side support systems, the glass strength is dependent on the Glass thickness, the glass height, the glass width, and which ledge is unsupported MECHANICAL STRESSES Mechanical loads on the glass can be created by wind pressure. The ability of the glass to resist such forces is discussed in Sec- tion 4. Mechanical loads can also be imparted to the glass from the building itself through the glass framing system, Though it is impossible to eliminate such loads, a properly designed glazing system will adequately support and cushion the glass while minimizing loads on it due to building movements and movements occurring as glass-holding members expand and con: tract, Since all mechanical stresses applied to the glass are ad- itive, a poorly designed framing system may reduce the ability of @ piece of glass to resist wind loading, Listed below are factors that can increase the mechanical load on 2 piece of glass in a glazed opening, Thermal Movernent All materials expand when their temperature is increased. Dif- ferent materials expand at different rates; the rate depends on the material's coefficient of thermal expansion, Since thermal ex: Pansion and contraction of glass framing members is a function of their thermal expansion properties and the temperature range ‘to which they willbe subjected, this movement can be caleulated for a specific glazing system design. Expansion joints and anchors must be designed and positioned so. {8 to accommodate the anticipated movement. Expansion joints ‘must be provided, as required, to accommodate both vertical and horizontal movements which may oceur between the glass fram: ing and building structure to which the framing is anchored. The framing must be able to expand and contract, relative to the builaing structure, about fixed anchor points without putting un: ‘due stress on the glass. The system should be designed to permit erection of the glass framing members with the expansion joints almost fully open in cold weather and nearly closed in hot weather. Another type of thermal movement to consider is lateral “walk: ing” of glass in the opening in a dry glazing system. Lateral “walking” of the glass results from building movements and the relative movement between glass and frame caused by the ‘materials’ different thermal expansion and contraction characteristics. Cyclicly heating up and cooling down the glazing system can Cause the glass to be repositioned in the opening. I the move- ‘ment is severe, one vertical glass edge could come in contact, with the metal framing member, possibly damaging the edge and reducing the glass strength. The vertical glass edge would have reduced bite, leaving the edge with inadequate support or, in ex: treme cases, no support at all. In this case, the glass would be supported on only three sides rather than four, reducing the glass Panel's ability to resist uniform load. For this reason, glass manufacturers recommend that edge blocks be used with glass in dry glazing systems to limit lateral “walking” of the glass. Deflection of Glass Framing Members Glass strength information, published by glass manufacturers for ‘conventional glazing systems, is based on firm, four-side support Of the glass. The glass framing members must be rigid enough to provide the necessary support without excessive deflection and to maximize the glass's ability to resist uniform load. When sub- Jected to design loads, the deflection of the glass framing ‘members must not exceed the length of the unsupported span divided by 175 or %" (19mm), whicheveris less. Deflections ex: ceeding this limit will create @ situation approaching an unsup- ported edge condition. ‘The horizontal member should be able to support the weight of the glass without excessive deflection. Excessive deflection can ‘cause point loadings on the glass edge and reduce the bite on the Center of the bottom glass edge, thus reducing mechanical sup- port. Deflection of the horizontal member due to the weight of ‘the glass should be limited to "4" (3 mm) or 25% of the design edge clearance of the glass or panel below, whichever is less, ‘The horizontal member must also be designed to resist twisting or rotation caused by the dead weight of the glass. Since few horizontal sections are symetrical about the point of glass loading, the member has a natural tendeney to twist when loa €ed. The rotation should be limited to 1° from the horizontal plane. Excessive horizontal member twisting can create 3. high ‘mechanical stress on one glass surface while forcing the vertical glass edges out of plane and imparting @ mechanical bending stress. Improper Glass Setting Glass breakage can result if setting blocks are improperly sized or positioned, or if improper materials are used. Glazing guidelines Published by glass manufacturers recommend that glass be set ‘on two identical setting blocks of neoprene or EPDM with a Sho A durometer hardness of 85 +5. Materials of this hardness wil ‘support the glass’s weight without excessive deformation. Neoprene and EPDM are recommended because they are resilient materials that are softer than glass, resist corrosion, end remain stable over the normal temperature range to which setting blocks ‘will be subjected in architectural applications. Good glazing practice recommends lengths for each setting block equal 10.0.1" per square foot of glass area. This recommendation will imit the compressive load on the setting block to 60 psi, which is acceptable for neoprene or EPDM. A further requirement is that setting blocks should be 4” in length of greater. This in sures that the weight of the glass will be distributed over @ ‘minimum of 8”, minimizing point pressures due to irregularities in the glass edge that can lead to glass breakage, Mechanical stresses can be created at the glass edge in the form cf point loading if the glass’s entire thickness is not supported by ‘the setting blocks. For this reason, setting blocks should be wide enough or be positively located in the glazing channel to provide full support for the entice glass thickness at all times. Mechanical bending stress can be created at the bottom comers of a piece of glass if the setting blocks are positioned too neat the vertical glass edge. During glazing the glass is positioned in the ‘opening and is set on the setting blocks. When the pressure stopis applied or the compression gasket rolled in, the glass edge moves toward the opposite stop. Because of the glass's weight, that portion of the glass edge in contact with the setting block ‘may not move, creating a mechanical bending stress at the cor ‘ner. As the amount of glass extending beyond the setting block decreases, the magnitude of the bending stress increases. If the stress is great enough, it may cause glass breakage or lead to glass breakage when combined with other mechanical stresses imposed on the glass. For this reason, most published glazing guidelines recommend that the setting blocks be centered at the bottom quarter points, equidistant from the vertical centerline of the glass. When the wall design does not allow setting blocks to be positioned at the quarter points, they can be moved so their ends are within a distance equal to one-eighth the glass width or 8” (152 mm of the vertical edge of the glass, whichever is greater. See figure 7. Fig. 7 t+ Ww —__}__»J wa | ! ws =e i wa one of fe wanna Gaearen ef fee 7 ‘ACCEPTABLE LOCATION SETTING BLOCKS ~—— w ‘Out of Tolerance Glass Openings Glass holding members must be erected so they provide glass ‘openings that are within certain tolerances for squareness, cor ‘ner offset and bow, thus preventing mechanical stresses from being imposed on the glass. 18 To check the squareness of the glass opening, its diagonal dimen- sions can be measured. It is generally recommended that the dif ference between the measured lengths of the diagonals should not exceed 'e". A square opening allows for uniform coverage on ‘the glass and uniform edge clearance around the entire perimeter of the glass. If the opening is not square, uneven coverage will result in uneven edge support and can, in extreme cases, leave art of the glass edge unsupported. If the opening is severely racked," the glass edge can come in contact with metal frame, thus damaging the glass edge. See figure 8. Fig. 8 °4" MAX. DIFFERENCE IN LENGTH BETWEEN A AND B Offsetting the framing members at the comers should also be considered. The comer offset should not exceed "sr". A comer offset greater than 's2” can create a localized bending st the corner of the glass. See figure 9.- a Finally, any bow in the framing member itself should be limited to Ye" in a 4 foot length. Excessive bow or kink in the framing ‘member can create bending stresses in the glasses edge, or point loading on the glass surface. See figure 10, Fig. 10 Mel MAX. IN 4 FT, LENGTH Improper Glass Cushioning Face clearance for the glass should be provided by a continuous ‘gasket or spacer of neoprene or equivalent material. Spacers pro vvide a cushion and mechanically isolate the glass from the metal framing members. The type of material used and the Shore A ‘durometer hardness of that material will depend on the type of lazing system to be used. A low durometer neoprene may De Used as the outside gasket in a dry glazing system with a high ‘durometer material used for the inside gasket to provide com pression. A low durometer spacer may be used in a wet glazing system to position the glass in the glazing channel and provide a back-up for the sealant application. Inany case, the spacer material should provide the recommended {face clearance for the glass being used and should be continuous to provide uniform glass support. Using intermittent shims should be discouraged since they can create pressure points on the glass, surface; and bending stresses can be created in the lite of glass that is subjected to a load due to the intermittent support THERMAL STRESSES ‘Thermal stresses in the glass can effect its ability to perform in a practical application. When a piace of glass is exposed to solar radiation, solar energy is absorbed by the glass causing its temperature to rise. The rate at which the glass temperature rises, is dependent on the type and thickness of the glass. Heat- absorbing and reflective glass products are designed to absorb large quantities of solar energy to reduce solar heat gain into a building's interior. Ifthe glass is not properly thermally isolated from the glass framing system, or if itis glazed directly into a high heat capacity material such as concrete, the temperature of the ‘lass edges may be as low as one-half that of the center portion of the glass. Glass, ike most materials, expands with increased temperature. The hotter center portion expands at greater rate than the cooler edges, creating thermally-induced tension stress at the glass edges. Thermal stresses are normally greatest at the center of each edge, diminishing toward the corners. Ifthe stresses are great enough or ifthe edge of the glass has been damaged, glass failure can result. Glass’s ability to resist breakage, due to both ‘thermal and mechanical stresses, depends to a great degree on the glass’s edge strength. Clean-cut glass edges provide the greatest possible edge strength and @ properly designed glazing system can reduce thermal stresses and minimize mechanical stresses. ‘When conditions that will create high thermal stress in the glass {are anticipated, glass edge strength can be increased by temper ing or heat strengthening the glass. This section considers some Of the conditions that can increase the thermal stress in glass Excessive Glass Bite The glazing system must provide coverage or bite on the glass ‘edge adequate to fully support the glass edge and retain the glass in the opening when design loads are applied. Glazing guidelines published by glass manufacturers, trade associations, and code {groups list nominal bite recommendations for various glass pro: ducts that will provide this support. These recommendations aro ‘based on the glass bite that will provide adequate glass retention without excessive coverage of the glass edge. Excessive glass coverage can increase thermal stresses at the glass edge by causing a higher glass center-to-edge temperature difference. The bite on the glass can be determined in the design stage by the proper choice of setting block height and glass size. Other factors in the glazing system can increase the coverage on the glass edge, In a wat glazing system, the sealant on the building exterior generally extends above the metal sightline and scopes away from the glass to provide a watershed. The same is generally true When a cap bead is used in a dry glazing system. in either case, the sealant should not exceed more than "he" beyond the metal sightline. The sealant acts to increase the effective coverage on the glass edge that can increase thermal edge stresses. Excessive bite can also occur at the head of alte of glass when the sill of the opening above deflects under the weight of alte of Glass. This can increase the coverage in the center of the upper ledge of the glass, where thermal stresses Would be greatest, As previously discussed, the deflection of the sill member under the ‘weight of the glass should be limited to %4” or 25% of the design edge clearance of the lte or panel below, whichever is less. Thi wil also limit the increase in glass coverage on the center of the upper edge of the lite of glass below. ‘The problem of lateral “walking” of the glass as it relates to Potential mechanical stress on the glass was previously discuss- 4. If the glass is relocated laterally in the glass opening, one ver tical edge loses support. At the same time, the opposite vertical ‘edge is positioned deeper into the glazing pocket, increasing the bite on the glass. While the glass must be allowed to “float” in the glass opening, using property sized edge blocks will limit the lateral movement of the glass to %” in either direction. A similar situation is created when the glass opening exceeds the acceptable tolerance for squareness. While one portion of the lass edge loses coverage and support, another portion is posi- tioned deeper into the glazing channel. The previously mentioned limit of 14" difference is the diagonal measurements of the glass ‘opening will minimize this condition.Inadequate Face Clearance and Edge Clesrance Face and edge clearances for a piece of glass are provided to thermally isolate the glass from its framing members. Ifthe glass ‘temperature is higher than that of its framing members; and if proper thermal isolation is not provided, the glass. framing ‘members will keep the edges of the glass from reaching the temperature of the center of the glass. Thus, thermal stresses ‘willbe created at the glass edge. Spacer materials act as an insu: lator to prevent heat loss from the glass to the framing members. By providing proper thermal isolation, the glass center and edge ‘temperatures will remain close (due to glass's high thermal con- ductivity), reducing the potential for glass failure caused by ther- mal stress Minimum face and edge clearance recommendations glass manufacturers for their products. The clearances and the bite, or edge cover, recommended by AAMA and shown in Table C of its Aluminum Curtain Wall Design Guide Manual, Volume 6, Glass and Glazing, are reproduced here for your convenience. Interior Heat Traps. ‘Aheat trap on the interior surface of the glass exists when air cir- Cculation is inadequate to remove heat that can build up behind the glass. This condition can cause temperature differences within alte of glass and subsequent thermal stresses. An exar ple of a severe heat trap condition is the spandral area of a building. The space behind a piece of spandrel glass is blocked off ‘to prevent air flow between floors. The temperature in this space will continue to rise when the spandrel glass is subjected to solar loading. That is why spandrel glass is tempered or heat strengthened to increase its resistance to thermal breakage. In vision areas, air movement is generally across the glass’s in- board surface. If this air movement is restricted, a heat trap similar to that created in the spandrel area can occur. For this feason, interior shading devices must permit air movement and heat traps at the head must be avoided. Suspended celing soffits ‘must be positioned well to the roomside to permit natural con- vection. If the building design precludes this, the head srea should include vents that provide a minimum of one square inch of ventilation for each inch of glass width. Interior Shading Devices & Heat Outlets Positioning interior shading devices is a very important consid- ‘ration for achieving adequate air movement across the glass’s interior surface. Draperies, roller shades, or venetian blinds should be positioned away from the glass to prevent restriction of air flow. A minimum clesrance of 2” should be provided be- ‘tween the inboard glass surface and the shading device. Also, clearance must be provided between the shading device and the lass framing members. A minimum clearance of 177 should be Provided at the top and bottom of the shading device to insure adequate air movement. If these clearances cannot be provided when venetian blinds are ‘0 be used, a lock-out device can be used to limit the rotation of the blinds. A lock-out device acts as a positive stop to prevent ‘the blinds from being completely closed. The rotation of horizon- tal venetian blinds should be limited to a position of 60° off horizontal when they are in the most closed position. The move- ment of vertical blinds should be limited so that a” space TABLEC RECOMMENDED BITE (OR EDGE COVER) AND EDGE AND FACE CLEARANCES (not applicable to lock-strip gasket glazing) GLASS TYPE AND BITE CLEARANCES (inches) THICKNESS {EDGE COVER) Aigches) (inches) EDGE FACE SINGLE GLASS 8s wae ve ae Ds 81/8 ae V8 178 ante ste site ve 7132 aie a ve va 3/8 1a 18 5/16 7/16 ante 36 318" The 5/16 3/16 ve v2 3/8 v4 5/8 3/8 3/8 va 3/4 3/6 v2 va 78 718 v2 7 ‘SPANDREL GLASS Ws ve va 3/18 3/8 12 7 36 INSULATING GLASS USING: ss 3/8 36 a6 DS or 78 3/8 3/18 178 3/8 42 v4 316 1/4 or more v2 7 3/6 BSS ven “FH Efheanee exists between the binds when they are in the most closed position. For blinds installed in ventilated (to exterior area between ites of lass reference the window manufacturers details Care must also be exercised in locating and positioning heat, cutlets, The outlets should be designed to direct hot ait away Ml from the inboard. glass surface to. prevent increasing the temperature difference between the center end edge of theglass. When shading devices are used, the heat outlet should not be positioned between the glass and the shading device, but father to the room side of the shading device. For b located in cold climates, exercise care to being directed toward the glass when the heating system is ini- tially activated during periods of low temperature. Exterior Shading ‘Shadows cast by building overhangs, fins, canopies and columns ‘as well as surrounding structures, trees and shrubbery can create many exterior shading patterns on the glass ina building. Exterior shading can create varying degrees of thermal edge stress in the Glass depending on the type and size of glass used; the amount Of shaded glass; the shape of the shading pattern that is created: the glass framing syst ‘conditions; and the building orientation, Maximum thermal stresses occur when 25% or less of an indi- Vidual glass lite is shaded and when the shaded area includes ‘more than 25% of the lite’s perimeter. Generally, horizontal, ver- tical and diagonal shading patterns are not as critical as shading that includes combinations of these shading patterns, Double diagonal shading that creates @ ""V"" shaped pattern with the center of the “"V"' located at the center of a glass edge is general Iy the most critical shading pattern. Shown below are several typical shading patterns that can be ‘created in @ building. Labeled “Acceptable,” "’Marginal,”” and “Harmful,” these drawings and designations can serve asa uide to the severity of the thermal stresses created by various ‘exterior shading patterns. However, if an unusual shading pat tem is anticipated, the architect’ should consult the glass ‘manufacturer during the design stages for technical review to determine if heat strengthening or tempering is required. EXTERIOR SHADING PATTERNS Acceptable Shading Marginal Shading LA fol [ Harmful Shading |= 21REFERENCES ‘American National Standard Institute, Inc., ANS! 1430 Broadway Now York, New York 10018 ANSI A58.1-1982, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures ‘American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM 1916 Race Street Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19103 ‘ASTM E 330-79, Test Method for Structural Perfor mance of Exterior Windows, Curtain Walls, and Doors by Uniform Air Pressure Difference ASTM, Part 18 (Gray Pages), 1982 Annual Book of Standards Proposed Test Method for Structural Performance of Glass in Exterior Windows, Curtain Walls, and Doors Under the Influence of Uniform Static Loads by Destructive Method Proposed Test Method for Structural Performance of Glass in Exterior Windows, Curtain Walls, and Doors Under the tnfluence of Uniform Static Loads by Nondestructive Method AAMA, 2700 River Road, Suite 118 Des Plaines, linois 60018 Aluminum Curtain Wall Design Guide Manual, 1979, Volume 6, Glass and Glazing Aluminum Curtain Wall Series, Volume l, Design Wind Loads for Buildings and Boundary Layer Wind Tunnel Testing General Services Adminis Federal Specifications, FS FS DD-G-541D dated 25 Apr 77, Glass, Float or Plate, Sheet, Figured (Flat, for Glazing, Mirrors and Other Uses) FS DD-G-14038)1) dated 24 Oct 73, Glass, Plate (Float), Sheet, Figured, and Spandrel (Heat Strengthened and Fully Tempered) Federal Specifications may be obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402, or from any GSA, Regional Business Service Center. ion, GSA (\| £3 Pee published by AAMA 2700 River Road, Des Plaines, Illinois 60018 iP)