PRACTICAL C: CLASSIFICATION

MODULE: MINERAL PROCESSING 2 (EYMPR2A)

SEMESTER 4

INSTRUCTOR: R.B MMOLA

DATE: 23 AUGUST 2023

DUE DATE: 30 AUGUST 2023

MAOTE LM 222195762
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JEBETLE TM 222147113
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MASHIMBYI RT 222023503
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TSOSANE TTT 222066806

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NKHWASHO MM 222293624
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1. ABSTRACT.......................................................................................................................3
2. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................4
3. LITERATURE REVIEW................................................................................................5
4. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE...............................................................................10
5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION.....................................................................................11
6. CONCLUSIONS.............................................................................................................14
7. RECOMMENDATIONS................................................................................................15
8. REFERENCES................................................................................................................16

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 1. ABSTRACT

The experimental work consisted of a standard hydro-cyclone classifier, a beach sand sample,
110 litres of water, collecting vessels, a drying oven, and a laboratory timer. The
experimental procedures commenced with the determination of the dry mass of beach sand
based on the required percentage of solid mass which was found to be 5,7 kg. The mass was
weighed then 110 litres of water was fed into the sump. The pressure for the first and second
sampling was 20 kPa and 30 kPa, each at 10 seconds agitation duration. The underflow
slurries were collected, oven-dried, weighed and the masses were recorded for further
analysis. The masses at 20 kPa and 30 kPa pressures were found to be 576,7 kg and 354,6 kg,
respectively. This implies that the mass decreased with an increase in pressure displaying
inverse proportionality, which may be the result of several factors such as the particle flow
behaviour, system efficiency, threshold effects, pressure-dependant properties and
experimental condition. Pressure has a significant impact on the mass and the separation
efficiency of hydro-cyclone.

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 2. INTRODUCTION

2.1 Background

The hydro-cyclone is notoriously used for different separation reasons in different fields,
such as agriculture, chemical, and mining industries. In the engineering field, it is usually
incorporated to classify and separate sand particles in water (Tang et al., 2018). Despite a
century of application and progress in the development of the design, studies on the hydro-
cyclone have not ceased due to the intricate flow field inside the hydro-cyclone. Researchers
initiated great efforts in attaining the flow characteristics inside the hydro-cyclone in the past
decades (Kashiwaya et al, 2012). Kelsall in 1952 used an optical microscope to measure the
velocity of fine alumina powder inside a see-through hydro-cyclone, and the data became the
groundwork for later research on hydro-cyclone. Thereafter, methods of Laser Doppler
Anemometry (LDA), and the standard velocity component distribution laws of the liquid
flow were measured and accredited. Nevertheless, relative to the flow behaviours of the
liquid, the flow behaviour evaluation of solid particles is vital to comprehend the principle of
separation and to advance the separation efficiency (Rui, Wang, and Li, 2015).

2.2 Significance

Evaluating the efficiency of a hydro-cyclone helps in understanding the relationship and

allowing for process optimization. By manipulating the inlet pressure, there is potential
control of the outlet mass thus, achieving the desired separation efficiency. This also assists
in determining the abnormalities in the hydro-cyclone classifier. Sudden deviation from the
expected relationship may indicate issues that can lead to design improvements. Engineers
can optimize the design to enhance separation efficiency, reduce energy consumption, and
improve overall performance (Yang et al, 2013).

2.3 General Objective

In this experiment, the effectiveness of the hydro-cyclone separation procedure is analysed

and evaluate the factors that may be adjusted to improve the performance of the cyclone
classifier. The objective of the experiment is to identify how the inlet pressure affects the
separation efficiency by observing the outlet mass of the mass feed.

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 3. LITERATURE REVIEW

3.1 Introduction to the topic

Classification in a hydro-cyclone is accomplished through a balance of forces applied to the

particles by centrifugal forces resulting from the tangential entrance of the pulp at a high
speed, producing a swirling flow with fine and lighter particles separated at the overflow,
while coarse and heavy particles leave the underflow (Fernando and Bouso, 2021). The feed
is introduced into the cylindrical section of the hydro-cyclone under pressure, tangentially
and swirls with a net inward fluid flow from the outside of the vortex finder. A centrifugal
field is created inside the cyclone and is typically sufficient (several times larger than the
gravitational field) to generate an air core. Relatively coarser particles spiral towards the wall
of the cylindrical section due to the higher magnitude of their centrifugal force relative to the
drag force and exist through the spigot. The fine and lighter particles are pulled inwards with
the fluid since their drag force is greater than the centrifugal force and then exit through the
vortex finder (Zwane, 2016).

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 Figure 3.1 A Hydro-cyclone Classifier

3.2 Effects of separation efficiency factors

The separation efficiency is widely determined by the separator size. However, for any given
separator, factors that have an impact on the separation efficiency of liquid include the
operating pressure, the operating temperature of the separator, the fluid stream composition,
and other operational parameters. The impact of these numerous operational parameters on
the efficiency of separation of a hydro-cyclone has been evaluated in various experiments.
Modification of any of the variables alters the amount of liquid existing in the separator. An
increase in the magnitude of the operating pressure or a reduction in the operating
temperature typically increases the liquid covered in a separator. Research by Smith et al.
(2009) found that raising the inlet velocity improved enhanced the separation efficiency,
whereas a higher feed concentration yielded a reduced separation efficiency (Smith et al.,
2009).

3.2.1 Experimental investigations on cyclone separator performance at an extremely low

particle concentration.

The investigation of extremely low particle concentration conducted by Zhongli et al under

ambient temperature and atmospheric pressure conditions for the separation efficiency of a
cyclone separator with particle concentration of 5-2000 mg/m3 and inlet velocity of 6-30 m/s.
An Aerosol spectrometer was used to determine the concentration of the particles and the
particle size distribution of the inlet and outlet of the cyclone classifier. The ratio of the inlet
particle concentration to the difference in particle concentration between the inlet and outlet
of the cyclone determined the overall efficiency. The grade efficiency was attained by
contrasting the particle size distributions of the entrance and outlet of the cyclone separator to
the inlet and outlet of the cyclone separator. To predict the impact of the concentration of
particles on the separation performance, the Smolik empirical model was adopted. The model
projected the influences of the concentration of particles on the separation efficiency
nonetheless could not exhibit the sharp modification of the overall efficiency when the
particle concentration was under 40 mg/m 3. It was found that the particle cluster in the inlet
and outlet had a significant impact on the collection efficiencies and grade efficiencies at the
concentration of 5-2000 mg/m3. The cut sizes for various entrance gas velocities with

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tremendously low particle concentrations can be quantitatively computed by the Barth model,
Mothes and Loffer model, and Muschelknautz model, respectively. The data from the
experiment demonstrates that the cyclone separator removes particles with a diameter larger
than 10 microns. Also, the quantity of overall collection efficiencies and grade efficiencies
was directly proportional to the inlet velocities and particle concentrations (Ji et al, 2009).

3.2.2 Effect of blade rotation of hydro-cyclones

Yoshida, Norimoto and Fukui reported that the rotational speed of the top plate and the cut
size are inversely proportional in relation. It was observed that the accuracy of classification
is approximately constant with various ranges of top plate rotational speed parameters and
circumstances. The top plate rotation method simulated by a Computational Fluid Dynamics
(CFD) calculation demonstrated a high classification accuracy relative to the guide plate
method because of the outward radial flow of the fluid near the top plate. A high accuracy of
classification that showed the smallest cut size was achieved using a recently proposed type-
D cyclone (Yoshida, Norimoto and Fukui, 2006).

3.2.3 Effect of inlet velocity, feed concentration and particle shape on a mini-hydro-cyclone
classification and fishhook effect

The research was conducted by Abdollahzadeh et al that studied the influence of the feed
volume concentration, inlet velocity, and particle shape factor on the cyclone particle
classification and fishhook effect in a mini hydro-cyclone. Three particles with a wide
sphericity range (0.05, 0.34 and 0.82) were chosen where the maximum separation efficiency
was measured at three conditions: the lowest particle concentration, most sphericity and
highest inlet velocity. Less drag for the same particle diameter resulted from high particle
sphericity. The data of the research demonstrated that the fishhook effect is less implicit for
spherical particles. The maximum overall efficiency of separation for spherical particles in
this study was 74.51% with a solid concentration of 0.05% and an input velocity of 5.05 m/s.
Flake particles displayed the lowest overall separation efficiency of 47.52% at a volume
concentration of 0.2% and a speed of 3.25 m/s. Based on existing ideas, the emergence of
fishhook was well described for both irregular and spherical particles (Abdollahzadeh et al,
2015).

3.2.4 Effect of feed size distribution on separation efficiency of hydro-cyclones with different
vortex finder diameters

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Cui et al stated that the relation between the feed size distribution and separation efficiency
for hydro-cyclones with different diameters (D 0) of a vortex finder is important for the design
of the classifier although not explicitly comprehended. In their work, the optimum range of
the vortex finder diameter was arithmetically established for a 50mm diameter hydro-cyclone
using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). Additionally, the impact of the factor of feed
size distribution on separation performance for hydro-cyclone was discussed and realized that
for a given feed size distribution, the lower limit of vortex finder diameter can be measured
from the flow stability assorted by lower turbulence intensity and a higher tangential velocity.

Beneath the lower limit, a massive proportion of non-coarse particles report to the underflow.
The upper limit can be deduced from the performance of separation. Beyond the upper limit
recovery to the underflow for coarse material extremely decreases, which is due to an
outward shift of the Locus of Zero Vertical Velocity (LZVV) and an inward change of
particle equilibrium radius. When D0 is in optimal proximity, feed size distribution does not
have any influence on partition curves for a given D 0. When D0 exceeds the optimal range,
both recovery to underflow and separation sharpness for non-fine particles are minimised as
the feed median size increases. Briefly, when D0 is in the optimal range, the hydro-cyclone
may self-adjust the LZVV and particle equilibrium radius to achieve the predicted cut size.
Based on flow pattern parameters, this approach for identifying the optimum range of D 0 may
be utilized as a universal tool for hydro-cyclone design (Cui et al., 2017).

3.2.5 Impact of particle self-rotation on separation efficiency in mini-hydro-cyclones

An analysis that utilized Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) conducted by Hao et al to

determine the effect of particle rotation on the efficiency of a mini hydro-cyclone drew
several conclusions. When given the rotation of the particle, the simulated separation
efficiency corresponds to the experimental findings and is 65% higher relative to a simulation
when particle rotation is not taken into consideration. Thus, the particle rotation affects the
separation efficiency of a mini hydro-cyclone, especially for small particles. A position at
which particles infiltrate a mini-hydro-cyclone that is close to the side wall raises the
probability of the particles entering the underflow. The axial migration distance for particles
that enter the classifier from the same inlet position and discharge from the overflow is
significantly shorter when particle rotation is considered. Furthermore, the larger number of
particles entering the overflow through a region that is in proximity to the wall side causes a
decrease in the separation efficiency.

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The axial spin velocity dominates the overall particle rotation velocity. The axial velocity
direction of particle rotation is opposite the direction of particle revolution in a free vortex
area. Nevertheless, the axial rotational velocity coincides with the revolution direction when
the particle enters the internal swirling flow with forced vortex features. When considering
the particle rotation parameter, there is an increase in the chance of the particle transversing
to the central axis of the hydro-cyclone. Thus, the self-rotation of the particle impacts particle
radial migration movement, affecting particle separation efficiency. The research illustrated
the rotation and revolution motion laws of particles in a swirling environment based on
preceding results. Furthermore, the effect of rotation motion on separation efficiency was
examined and theorized. However, the simulation structure was confined to a mini-hydro-
cyclone with a relatively small cone angle (Hao et al., 2022).

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 4. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

4.1 Apparatus

 Cyclone rig
 5,7 kg beach sand
 110 L water
 Collecting buckets
 Stopwatch
 Weighing Balance
 Oven

4.2 Experimental Procedure

The mass of beach sand used was determined such that it formed 5% of the slurry going into
the sump and this was 5,7 kg which was weighed and recorded. 110 L of water was fed into a
sump using a hose and circulation was initiated. The weighed sand was then fed into the
sump while the water was in circulation. First, the distribution valve was set to a pressure of
20 KPa as the pulp was then sampled out of the hydrocyclone for 10 seconds, and then
sampled again at a 30 KPa pressure with the same duration. The underflow slurry was
collected at the apex of the cyclone in each case using collecting buckets and then dried in an
oven to expel the moisture. Once the slurry dried out, the masses of the remaining sand were
weighed and recorded following an analysis of the hydrocyclone performance in the
classification of feed particles.

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 5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5.1 required mass of dry sand to make up a slurry.

Ms
5 %= ×100
M s+ 110

5 Ms
→ = → 0.05 ( M s +110 ) =M s
100 M s +110

→ 0.05 M s+ 5.5=M s

5.5
→ 0.95 M s=5.5 → M s = =5.79 kg
0.95

Thus, the required mass of dry sand is 5.79 kg.

Figure 5.1 Table of the pressure and corresponding mass

Pressure (kPa) Mass (g)

20 576,7
30 354,6

The results indicate that the mass passing through was 576.7 g at a pressure of 20 kPa and
decreased to 354.6 g at a pressure of 30 kPa displaying an inversely proportional relation.

5.2 Pressure and Mass Relation

As pressure increases from 20 kPa to 30 kPa, the mass passing through the system decreases.
This could indicate that the system is pressure-sensitive and that higher pressures lead to
decreased material throughput. This is caused by particle flow behaviour, enhanced
separation efficiency, threshold effects, pressure-dependent properties, increased centrifugal
force, and reduced bypassing.

5.2.1 Flow Behaviour

As feed is inserted in the cylindrical portion of the classifier, a rotational motion of the
particles is caused by centrifugal forces which accelerates the movement of the particles

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towards the outer wall. When the pressure changes, this influences the rotational velocity and
thus the centrifugal force applied to the particles. The change causes an increase in the
rotational velocity and centrifugal force. The higher centrifugal forces then act upon a larger
volume of particles than a lower centrifugal force by pushing the particles towards the outer
wall of the hydro-cyclone causing a separation from the fluid and collecting as underflow.

5.2.2 Enhanced separation efficiency

Higher inlet pressure also influences the separation efficiency of the hydro-cyclone. It results
in more particles pushed towards the walls of the classifier that were not appointed to the wall
at a lower inlet pressure. The mass of the particles pushed to the wall increases with the inlet
pressure resulting in less mass particles circulating further from the walls. The higher
percentage of particles pushed to the wall implies a higher separation efficiency.

5.2.3 Reduced Bypassing

At low inlet pressure, there is a higher probability of particles bypassing the separation
mechanism and accumulating as mass of the overflow stream. This is likely to occur with a
low centrifugal force magnitude (low inlet pressure) that is below the threshold to overpower
the drag forces acting on the particles. Although, with increased inlet pressure, the centrifugal
magnitude is sufficient to reduce the probability of particles bypassing the mechanism of
separation. Consequently, fewer particles reach the overflow outlet resulting in a decrease in
the overflow stream mass.

5.2.4 Pressure-Dependent Properties

The behaviour observed is related to how the particles in the system respond to pressure
changes. This, amongst other factors, is due to compressibility, phase transitions, or other
pressure-dependent properties of the materials.

5.2.5 System efficiency

The decrease in mass passing through the system as pressure increases could point to a
change in system efficiency. This change may be because the system operates optimally or
has been designed for a specific pressure range. Going beyond or below that range could
result in less efficient material separation or processing. It is critical to consider that the
relationship between the inlet pressure and mass outlet may be different in other instances
depending on the specific design and operating conditions of the hydro-cyclone. When

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interpreting such data, it is important to consider the experimental setup, measurement
accuracy, and any potential sources of error. External factors like changes in temperature,
input composition, or system wear may also contribute to the observed differences.

5.2.6 Threshold Effects

In some cases, systems exhibit threshold effects, where small changes in pressure can lead to
disproportionately large changes in behaviour. The difference in mass between 20 kPa and 30
kPa may indicate such an effect.

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 6. CONCLUSIONS

Pressure has a significant impact on the mass throughput and separation efficiency of the
hydro-cyclone. An inversely proportional relationship is observed between the inlet pressure
and output mass of the feed. The separation efficiency is directly proportional to the inlet
pressure of the hydro-cyclone classifier. The observed decrease in mass as pressure increases
indicates a complex interplay between fluid dynamics and particle behaviour within the
hydro-cyclone.

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 7. RECOMMENDATIONS

To improve the results, one could try feeding with a pressure-stabilizing box as this will
ensure that the feeding pressure is stable. One could also try maintaining a constant feeding
pressure by adding a frequency convertor to the slurry pump.

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 8. REFERENCES

1. Tang, Z., Yu, L., Wang, F., Li, N., Chang, L. and Cui, N., 2018. Effect of particle size
and shape on separation in a hydrocyclone. Water, 11(1), p.16.
2. Yang, Q., Lv, W.J., Ma, L. and Wang, H.L., 2013. CFD study on separation
enhancement of mini-hydrocyclone by particulate arrangement. Separation and
Purification Technology, 102, pp.15-25.
3. Kashiwaya, K., Noumachi, T., Hiroyoshi, N., Ito, M. and Tsunekawa, M., 2012. Effect
of particle shape on hydrocyclone classification. Powder technology, 226, pp.147-
156.
4. Rui, C.U.I., Wang, G.H. and Li, M.L., 2015. Size dependent flow behaviors of
particles in hydrocyclone based on multiphase simulation. Transactions of Nonferrous
Metals Society of China, 25(7), pp.2422-2428.
5. Fernando Concha, A., and Juan Luis Bouso A., 2021. Fluid mechanics fundamentals
of hydrocyclones and its applications in the mining industry. Springer International
Publishing.

6. Zwane, L. (2016) “The effect of feed solids concentration on hydrocyclone

performance,” Uct [Preprint]. Available at:
https://www.academia.edu/22175314/The_Effect_of_Feed_Solids_Concentration_on
_Hydrocyclone_Performance.
7. Smith, J., Johnson, D., & Thompson, R. (2009). The influence of feed concentration
on the performance of a conventional hydrocyclone for solid– liquid separation.
Minerals Engineering, 22(3), 206-218.
8. Ji, Z., Xiong, Z., Wu, X., Chen, H. and Wu, H., 2009. Experimental investigations on
a cyclone separator performance at an extremely low particle concentration. Powder
Technology, 191(3), pp.254-259.
9. Yoshida, H., Norimoto, U. and Fukui, K., 2006. Effect of blade rotation on particle
classification performance of hydro-cyclones. Powder technology, 164(2), pp.103-
110.
10. Abdollahzadeh, L., Habibian, M., Etezazian, R. and Naseri, S., 2015. Study of
particle's shape factor, inlet velocity and feed concentration on mini-hydrocyclone
classification and fishhook effect. Powder Technology, 283, pp.294-301.

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11. Cui, B., Zhang, C., Wei, D., Lu, S. and Feng, Y., 2017. Effects of feed size
distribution on separation performance of hydrocyclones with different vortex finder
diameters. Powder Technology, 322, pp.114-123.
12. Hao, M.X., Zhang, Y.H., Huang, Y., Wang, H.L., Li, H., Du, J.Q., Lv, W.J., Li, J.P.,
Fu, P.B. and Wu, J.W., 2022. Effect of particle self-rotation on separation efficiency
in mini-hydrocyclones. Powder Technology, 399, p.117165.

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