SKELETAL SYSTEM

HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

SUMMARY OF CONTENTS
▰ Functions of the Skeletal System
▰ Histology of Bone
▰ Anatomy of the Bone
▰ Growth and Bone Formation
▰ Bone Remodeling and Repair
▰ Classification of Bones based on shape and Bone
Markings
▰ Axial Skeleton
▰ Appendicular Skeleton
▰ Joints and Movement
FUNCTIONS OF THE SKELETAL
SYSTEM

1. Supports surrounding tissues

2. Protects vital organs and soft tissues
3. Provides levers for muscles to pull on
4. Manufactures blood cells
5. Stores mineral salts
Skeletal System
▰ Cartilage
▪ Connective tissue
▪ Environment in which bone develops in fetus
▪ Found at ends of bones and in joints
▰ Ligaments
▪Attach bones to bones
▰ Tendons
▪ Attach muscles to bones
HISTOLOGY OF THE BONE

▰ Two types of bone: compact and

cancellous (spongy)
▰ Osteocytes are same but the
arrangement of blood supply is
different
▰ Cancellous has bone marrow
Haversian System

▰ Haversian canals – also called osteon, run

parallel to surface
▻ Lamella - concentric rings of bone
▻ Lacunae: cavity containing osteocyte
▻ Lacunae connected by canaliculi
▻ Volkmann’s canal/perforating canal
running horizontally to the haversian
(central) canals, also containing blood
vessels
Cancellous bone

▰ Trabeculae: meshwork of bone

▻ Spongy appearance created by
trabeculae
▻ Bone marrow fills spaces between
trabeculae
Bone Marrow
▰ Red marrow
▻ Hematopoiesis
▻ Ribs, sternum, vertebrae, pelvis
▰ Yellow marrow
▻ Fat storage
▻ Shafts of long bones
▻ extends into the osteons replacing red bone
marrow when it becomes depleted
Bone Matrix

▰ By weight, mature bone matrix is normally

about 35% organic and 65% inorganic
material.
▻ organic material - collagen and
proteoglycans
▻ inorganic material - calcium phosphate
crystal called hydroxyapatite
▰ The collagen and mineral components are
responsible for the major functional
characteristics of bone.
Bone Cells

▰ Osteoblasts - bone-forming cells

▻ Ossification or osteogenesis is the formation of bone
by osteoblasts
▰ Osteocytes - Once an osteoblast becomes
surrounded by bone matrix
▻ Maintain the bone matrix.
▰ Osteoclast - bone-destroying cells
▻ perform reabsorption, or breakdown, of bone that
mobilizes crucial Ca2+ and phosphate ions
Structure of a Long Bone

▰ Diaphysis - or shaft
▻ Primary ossification center
▻ Within joints, the end of a long bone is covered with
hyaline cartilage called articular cartilage
▰ Epiphysis - part of a long bone that develops from a
center of ossification
▻ Epiphyseal plate, or growth plate - separates the
epiphysis from the diaphysis
▻ Growth in bone length occurs
▻ stops growing in length
▻ epiphyseal plate 🡪 epiphyseal line
▰ Metaphysis or flared portion at each end of the
diaphysis consisting mainly of cancellous or spongy
bone
▰ Medullary cavity - large internal space of the bone
▰ The periosteum is a connective tissue membrane
that covers the outer surface of a bone
▻ Where tendons and ligaments attach to bone
▰ Endosteum - lines the internal surfaces of all cavities
within bones
Summary
GROWTH AND BONE
FORMATION
• A three-month fetal skeleton is completely
formed (cartilage)
• Ossification and growth begin
• Longitudinal growth continues until:
– 15 years of age for girls
– 16 years of age for boys
• Bone maturation until 21 years of age
Maintaining Bone

▰ Endocrine system control

▻ Calcium storage
▻ Blood calcium levels
▻ Excretion of excess calcium
▰ Parathyroid Hormone: calcium release
▰ Calcitonin: calcium storage
GROWTH IN BONE WIDTH

▰ Appositional Growth
▻ Long bones increase in width
(diameter) and other bones increase
in size or thickness because of
appositional bone growth beneath the
periosteum
 Factors affecting bone growth
▰ Vitamin D is necessary for the normal absorption of calcium
from the intestines
▰ Vitamin C is necessary for collagen synthesis by osteoblasts
▰ Growth hormone from the anterior pituitary increases
general tissue growth, including overall bone growth
▰ Thyroid hormone is also required for normal growth of all
tissues, including cartilage
▰ Sex hormones also influence bone growth.
▻ Estrogen and Testosterone initially stimulate bone
growth, which accounts for the burst of growth at
puberty
BONE REPAIR AND
REMODELING
▰ Bone is a living tissue that can undergo
repair if it is damaged. This process has
four major steps:
1. Hematoma formation
2. Callus formation
3. Callus ossification
4. Bone remodeling
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON
SHAPE

▰ Long bones
▰ Short bones
▰ Flat bones
▰ Irregular bones
▰ Sesamoid bones
LONG BONES

▰ Length exceeds width

▰ Consist of
▻ Diaphysis: shaft
▻ Metaphysis: flared portion
▻ Epiphysis: extremity
▰ Examples: clavicle, humerus, radius, ulna,
femur, tibia, and fibula
SHORT BONES

▰ Not merely shorter versions of

long bones
▰ Lack a long axis
▰ Somewhat irregular shape
▰ Example: carpal bones of the
wrist and the tarsal bones of
the foot.
FLAT BONES

▰ Thin bones found wherever

need for extensive muscle
attachment or protection
▰ Usually curved
▰ Example: the sternum, ribs,
scapula, parts of the pelvic
bones, and some of the bones
of the skull
IRREGULAR BONES

▰ Very irregular shape

▰ Spongy bone enclosed by
thin layers of compact
bone
▰ Example: the vertebrae
and the ossicles of the
ears
SESAMOID BONES

▰ Small rounded bones

▰ Enclosed in tendon and fascial
tissue
▰ Located adjacent to joints
▰ Example: The kneecap, or
patella
DIVISIONS OF SKELETON

▰ Typically has 206 named bones

▰ Axial skeleton
Skull, hyoid, vertebrae, ribs, sternum
▻
▰ Appendicular skeleton
▻ Upper extremities or arms
▻ Lower extremities or legs
∙ Axial skeleton
∙ Appendicular skeleton
 AXIAL
SKELETON
Skull or Cranium

▰ Skull - the skull is a single unit. Consists of

cranial bones, facial bones, and
mandible
▰ Cranium – the skull except the mandible
▰ Calvaria - The top of the skull is called
the calvaria or skullcap.
▻ “brain case/cranial vault”
 The Cranial Bones

▰ They protect and enclose

the brain and special sense
organs like the eyes and ears

▻ Frontal bone (1)

▻ Parietal bones (2)
▻ Occipital bone (1)
▻ Temporal bone (2)
▻ Sphenoid bone (1)
▻ Ethmoid bone (1)
Cranial Bones/Neurocranium
▰ Frontal bone - forehead, the roof of the nasal cavity, and
the orbits
▰ Parietal bones - upper sides and roof of the cranium
▰ Occipital bone - back and base of the cranium
▰ Temporal bones - lower sides and base of the cranium
▰ Sphenoid bone - anterior portion of the base of the
cranium. When viewed from below, it looks like a
butterfly
▰ Ethmoid bone - support structure of the nasal cavities
and helps form part of the orbits.
Cranial Sutures

Sutures are seams between the bones of the skull

▰ Frontal/Coronal suture – frontal bone to parietal bone
▰ Sagittal suture – between 2 parietal bones
▰ Lambdoid suture – occipital bone to parietal bone
▰ Squamous suture – parietal bone to temporal bone
Auditory Ossicles (6)

▰ These tiny bones are highly specialized in

both structure and function and are
involved in exciting the hearing receptors.
▻ Malleus (Hammer)
▻ Incus (Anvil)
▻ Stapes (Stirrup)
Facial Bones/Viscerocranium
▰ Nasal bones (2)
▰ Palatine bones (2)
▰ Maxillary bones (2)
▰ Zygomatic bones (2)
▰ Lacrimal bones (2)
▰ Nasal conchae (2)
▰ Mandible
▰ Vomer
The Orbits and Nasal Cavity

▰ Orbits
▻ cavities enclose and protect the eyes
▻ The major portion of each eyeball is within the
orbit, and the portion of the eye visible from the
outside is relatively small
▰ Nasal cavity
▻ Nose framework surrounds the two nasal cavities
▻ divided into right and left halves by a nasal
septum
Hyoid Bone

▰ No articulation with other

bones
▰ “floats” in the superior
aspect of the neck just
below the mandible
▰ Suspended by ligaments
from styloid process
▰ Supports the tongue
 Vertebral Column
▰ Vertebrae (26 bones)
▻ Seven (7) cervical
▻ Twelve (12) thoracic
▻ Five (5) lumbar
▻ (1) Sacrum
▻ (1) Coccyx
▰ Primary and Secondary curves
▰ Developing embryo = 33/34 bones
Functions of vertebral column

1. It supports the weight of the head and trunk

2. it protects the spinal cord
3. it allows spinal nerves to exit the spinal cord
4. it provides a site for muscle attachment
5. it permits movement of the head and trunk.
Parts of the Vertebra
Thoracic Lumbar
Sacrum and Coccyx
The Thorax

• Thorax or rib cage made up of:

– Sternum
– Costal cartilages
– Ribs
– Bodies of thoracic vertebrae
• Encloses and protects heart and lungs
Sternum
• Breastbone
• Has three parts
– Manubrium
– Body or Gladiolus
– Xiphoid process
• Attachment for diaphragm and
rectus abdominis
Ribs
▰ Also called costae
▰ Attach posteriorly to
thoracic vertebrae
▰ 12 pairs
▻ True ribs (7)
▻ False ribs (3)
▻ Floating ribs (2)
APPENDICULAR
SKELETON
 Upper Extremities
▰ Shoulder girdle: Clavicle and
Scapula
▰ Arm
▻ Upper arm: Humerus
▻ Forearm: Ulna and Radius
▻ Wrist: Carpals
▻ Hand: Metacarpals (5/hand)
▻ Fingers: Phalanges (14/hand)
Pectoral Girdle or Shoulder Girdle

▰ Scapula (Shoulder blade) is a triangular bone

▻ Acromion process
▻ Coracoid process (Crow’s beak)
▻ Spine of scapula
▰ Clavicle (Collar bone) forms the only bony connection
between the pectoral girdle and the axial skeleton.
▻ Lateral end: Acromion process
▻ Medial end: Manubrium of sternum
 Upper Arm

▰ Humerus
▻ Humeral head
▻ Anatomical neck – immediately
distal to head
▻ Capitulum – Lateral; articulates
with radius
▻ Trochlea – Medial; articulates
with ulna
▻ Medial and Lateral Epicondyles
 Forearm
▰ Ulna (MEDIAL)
▻ Trochlear notch
▻ Olecranon process
Styloid process
▻
▰ Radius (LATERAL)
▻ Radial head
▻ Radial tuberosity
▻ Styloid process
Wrist and Hand
▰ (8) carpal bones arranged in two rows
▰ Lateral to Medial
▻ PROXIMAL: Scaphoid, Lunate, Triquetrum, Pisiform
▻ DISTAL: Trapezium, Trapezoid, Capitate, Hamate
▰ (5) metacarpals [numbered 1-5]
▰ (14) phalanges
▻ (1) thumb – Proximal and Distal
▻ (4) fingers – Proximal, Middle, Distal
Lower Extremities

▰ Pelvic girdle: ischium, ilium, pubis

▰ Leg
▻ Upper leg: femur
▻ Lower leg: patella, tibia,
fibula
▰ Foot
▻ Tarsals
▻ Metatarsals (5/foot)
▻ Phalanges (14/foot)
Pelvic Girdle
▰ Coxal bones (Ossa coxae)
▻ Fushion of three bones:
Ilium, Ischium, Pubis
▻They are joined at the
acetabulum
▰ Pelvis
▻ True pelvis
▻ False pelvis
 Thigh and Knee

▰ Femur
▻ Femoral head
▻ Femoral neck
▻ Femoral
condyles
▰ Patella
Leg

▰ Tibia – larger, supports most

of the weight, articulates with
femur
▻ Medial malleolus
▰ Fibula – does not articulate
with femur
▻ Lateral malleolus
Foot
▰ (7) tarsal bones
▻ Talus – ankle bone; articulates with tibia
▻ Calcaneus – heel bone; largest, strongest
▻ Navicular – boat-shaped
▻ Cuneiforms: medial, intermediate, lateral
▻ Cuboid – cube-shaped
▰ (5) Metatarsals
▰ (14) Phalanges
▻ (1) great toe: Proximal, Distal
▻ (4) toes: Proximal, Middle, Distal
 Arches of the Foot

▰ Three major arches

1. Medial
Longitudinal Arch
2. Lateral
Longitudinal Arch
3. Transverse Arch
JOINTS AND
MOVEMENT
Introduction

▰ Articulation: union between two or more bones

▰ Can be mobile or immobile
▰ Examples
▻ Sutures between skull bones
▻ Knee or elbow joint
Classification of Joints

▰ Joints are classified into three major groups based on:

▻ Degree of movement allowed (function)
▻ Synarthroses, Ampiarthroses, Diarthroses
▻ Type of material holding bones together
(structure)
▻ Fibrous, Cartilaginous, Synovial
Synarthroses (Fibrous)

▰ No movement
▻ Suture: bones connected by thin layer of
connective tissue (skull)
▻ Syndesmosis: connected by ligaments
between bones (radius and ulna)
▻ Gomphosis: conical process in a socket;
“peg-in-a-hole” (teeth)
Amphiarthroses (Cartilaginous)

▰ Slight movement
▻ Symphysis: connected by disk of
fibrocartilage (pubic symphysis)
▻ Synchondrosis: connected by hyaline
cartilage (growth plate between
diaphysis and epiphyses)
Diarthroses (Synovial)

• Free movement
• Capsule with internal cavity
• Capsule composition: fibrous cartilage,
ligaments, tendons, muscle, synovial
membranes
• Functions: weight bearing and movement
Movements at Synovial Joints

▰ Flexion/extension
▻ Hyperextension: abnormal
extension
▰ Dorsiflexion/plantar flexion
▰ Abduction/adduction
▰ Rotation
▰ Circumduction
Movements at Synovial Joints
(cont’d.)

▰ Supination/pronation
▰ Eversion/inversion
▰ Protraction/retraction
▰ Opposition/reposition
▰ Elevation/depression
Types of Synovial Joints

▰ Ball-and-socket
▻ Widest range of
movement
▻ Movement can
occur in all planes
and directions
▻ Ex: Shoulder and Hip
 Types of Synovial Joints

▰ Hinge
▻ Convex surface fits
into concave
surface
▻ Flexion and
extension only
▻ Ex: Knee, Elbow
Types of Synovial Joints

▰ Pivot
▻ Rotation in one plane
▻ Atlas and axis
(cervical spine)
▻ Rotation of the head
Types of Synovial Joints

▰ Condyloid (ellipsoidal)
▻ Oval-shaped condyle
fits into elliptical cavity
▻ Motion in two planes
at right angles
▻ Radius and carpal
bones
Types of Synovial Joints

▰ Saddle
▻ Motion in two planes
at right angles
▻ Permits opposition of
the thumb
Types of Synovial Joints

▰ Plane
▻ Gliding motion
▻ Intervertebral
joints in spine
Bursae

▰ Closed sacs prevent friction between

tissues
▻ Synovial membrane lining
▻ Subcutaneous: between skin and
underlying bony processes
▻ Subfascial: between overlying
muscles
▻ Subtendinous: between overlying
tendons or bony projections
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