Climatology Iii-Module 2

CLIMATALOGY- 18ARC33
Ar.Prashansha A.Mathur
© 2020, Nitte School of Architecture, Planning & Design, Bengaluru. All rights reserved to NITTE SAPD.
MODULE 2:
Sun path diagram determines the times of the day of the year
in which the sun will be available within a particular site by drawing existing
objects of the site on a sun path.
•
The circle represents the horizon plane.
•
The sun’s path at various dates are shown by
e – w curve lines, they are intersected by
hour lines.
•
The concentric circles are the altitude angles
•
The perimeter scale gives the azimuth angles.
The solar altitude angle(α) – Vertical angle at the point of observation between
the horizon plane and the line connecting sun with observer.
The solar azimuth angle(Ɣ) – Horizontal angle at the point of observation measured
on the horizon plane,between the northerly direction and a point on the horizon circle,
where it is intersected by the arc of the vertical circle going through the zenith and
the sun’s position. bullshit.
THERMAL QUANTITIES
• Temperature The altitude angle (sometimes referred to as the "solar elevation angle")
• Heat describes how high the sun appears in the sky. The angle is measured between
an imaginary line between the observer and the sun and the horizontal plane the
• Heat flow observer is standing on.
• Heat flow rate The altitude angle is calculated as follows:
• Conductivity sin (Al) = [cos (L) * cos (D) * cos (H)] + [sin (L) * sin (D)]
• Conductance where: Al = Solar altitude angle

L = Latitude (negative for Southern Hemisphere)
•
D = Declination (negative for Southern Hemisphere)
Multilayer body H = Hour angle
Solar azimuth angle is defined as the angle between the projection of sun’s
• Surface conductance centre onto the horizontal plane and due south direction.
• Transmittance
• Convection
• Radiation
• Sol air temperture
• Solar gain factor
TEMPERATURE
 If energy is conveyed to a body, the molecular

movement within that body is increased and it
appears to be warmer. If this molecular movement is
spreading to other bodies (e.g. to air), its intensity
within the body decreases and the body appears to be
cooling.
 Freezing and boiling points of water (at normal

atmospheric pressure) as fixed points and dividing the
interval into 100 degrees.
 A position on this scale, i.e. the temperature of an

object is denoted as: °C but an interval or difference in
temperature is: degC.
 In scientific work the Kelvin scale may be used, but the

starting point – the zero – is the 'absolute zero', which
is –273.15°C.  Definition : a measure of the warmth or
coldness of an object or substance with
Thus NdegC = NdegK reference to some standard value
but N °C = N + 273.15°K (Constant)

HEAT
 Heat is a form of energy, appearing as molecular movement in substances or as 'radiant heat', a
certain wavelength band of electromagnetic radiation in space (700 to 10000 nm).
 Definition : Heat is the form of energy (Kinetic) that is transferred between two substances at
different temperatures.
 Measured in general energy units: joules(J)
 The joule is derived from the three basic units:

length = metre (m) mass = kilogramme (kg) time = second (s)
 Previously special units were is use for the measurement of heat, even if the joule was used for
measuring other forms of energy.
 The British Thermal Unit (Btu) was defined as the amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature
of 1 lb of water by 1 degF.
 The kilocalorie (kcal) was defined as the amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of 1kg of
water by 1 degC.
OTHER THERMAL QUANTITIES
THERMAL CAPACITY of a body is the product of its mass and the specific
heat of its material. It is measured as the amount of heat required to cause unit
temperature increase of the body, in units of J/degC
 The Calorific value is the amount of heat released by unit mass of a fuel or food material by its
complete combustion and it is measured in J/Kg
 Calorific value per volume is measured in J/m3
 SPECIFIC HEAT of substance is the amount of heat energy necessary to cause unit temperature
increase of a unit mass of the substance. It is measured in: J/kg degC
 The higher the specific heat of a substance, the more heat it will absorb for a given increase in
temperature. Of all common substances water has the highest specific heat: 4187 J/kg degC.
 For gases often the volumetric specific heat is given in: J/m3 degC. The volumetric specific heat of air
is around 1300 J/m3 degC (varying with pressure and humidity).
• Metals have LOW specific heat
• Water has HIGH specific heat
 LATENT HEAT of a substance is the amount of heat energy absorbed by unit mass of the substance at
change of state (from solid to liquid or liquid to gaseous) without any change in temperature. It is
measured in: J/kg
 For water the latent heat is:
 of fusion (0°C ice to 0°C water) 335 kJ/kg

of evaporation at 100°C 2261 kJ/k g

(of evaporation at around 20°C 2400 kJ/k g)
 At change of state in the reverse direction the

same amount of heat is released.
HEAT FLOW
 HEAT ENERGY tends to distribute itself

evenly until a perfectly diffused uniform
thermal field is achieved. It tends to flow
from high temperature to lower
temperature zones, by any or all of the
following ways:
1. Conduction (In solids)

2. Convection (Liquid/gases)
3. Radiation
 The 'motive force' of heat flow in any of

these forms is the temperature difference
between the two zones or areas (Delta)
considered. The greater the temperature
difference, the faster the rate of heat flow.
HEAT FLOW RATE
heat flow rate- the speed at which heat flow occurs

POWER is the ability to carry out a certain work in unit time: it is measured in joules per second, J/s,
which is given a special name 'Watt': W
 If unit work is carried out in unit time, or unit energy is expended to unit time, we have unit power.
Thus if we think of power as the rate of energy expenditure, it will be seen that the same unit can be
used to measure the rate of energy flow.

This energy flow may be the
• flow of heat (W/m2) through a wall,
• the heat removed by a cooling plant,
• the radiant heat flow from an electric radiator etc.
In all above cases energy is flowing or expended, and it is the rate of this flow which we measure in watts.
DENSITY OF HEAT FLOW RATE
 If the total rate of heat flow from an identifiable unit is to be measured (such as the heat loss from a
given building, the radiation through a given window) the unit of measurement is W or kW. (kW –
1000W )
 If there is no defined area through which the heat flow could be considered, e.g. solar radiation. In
such cases the heat flow rate can be measured in relation to a unit area, i.e. the density of such heat
flow rate. The unit of measurement is watt per metre square: W/m2. Eg: POPULATION DENSITY
 (The term intensity is often used synonymously with density, the intensity of solar radiation is
measured in W/m2.)
heat-flow density or heat flow rate intensity is a flow of energy per unit of area
per unit of time. In SI its units are watts per square metre (W/m2). It has both a
direction and a magnitude, and so it is a vector quantity.
CONDUCTIVITY

In conduction through a body or through bodies in direct contact, the spread of molecular movement
constitutes the flow of heat.

The rate at which such molecular movement spreads varies with different materials and is
described as a property of the material – its thermal conductivity (or 'k-value'). It is measured as the
rate of heat flow (flow of energy per unit time) through unit area of unit thickness of the material,
when there is a unit temperature difference between the two sides.

 The unit of measurement W/m degC

 Its value varies between 0.03 W/m degC for insulating materials and up to 400 W/m degC for metals.
The lower the conductivity, the better insulator a material is.
Resistivity is the reciprocal of this quantity (1/k) measured in units of: m degC/W Better insulators
will have higher resistivity values
IN SIMPLE TERMS CONDUCTION / CONDUCTIVITY:

Conduction occurs when two object at different temperatures are in contact with each other. Heat flows
from the warmer to the cooler object until they are both at the same temperature. Conduction is the
movement of heat through a substance by the collision of molecules.
CONDUCTANCE

Whilst conductivity and resistivity are properties of a material, the corresponding properties of a
body of a given thickness are described as conductance (C), or its reciprocal, resistance (R):

C=1/R
 Conductance is the heat flow rate through a unit area of the body (i.e. the density of heat flow
rate) when the temperature difference between the two surfaces is 1 degC. The unit of
measurement is W/m2 degC and resistance is measured in m2 degC/W

Resistance of a body is the product of its thickness and the resistivity of its material

R = bx (1/k) = b/k, where b is the thickness in metres
MULTILAYER BODY

If a body consists of several layers of different materials, its total resistance will be the sum of
the resistances of the individual layers.
 The conductance of such a multilayer body (Cb or kb) can be found by finding its total resistance
(Rb) and taking its reciprocal
SURFACE CONDUCTANCE
 In addition to the resistance of a body to the flow of heat, a resistance will be offered by its
surfaces, where a thin layer of air film separates the body from the surrounding air. A measure of
this is the surface or film-resistance, denoted thus: 1/f (m2 degC/W) f being the surface or film
conductance (W/m2 degC).

Surface conductance includes the convective and the radiant components of the heat exchange at
surfaces.
 If the heat flow from air on one side, through the body, to air on the other side is considered, both
surface resistances must be taken into account. The overall, air-to-air resistance (R ) is the sum of
the body's resistance and the surface resistances:

Formula …………….Ra=1/fi + Rb + 1/fo

where
 1/fi = internal surface resistance
Wall
 Rb = resistance of the body
 1/fo= external surface resistance Internal Surface resistance External Surface resistance
CONVECTION

In convection, heat is transferred by the bodily movement of a carrying medium, usually a gas or
a liquid.
 This movement may be self-generating, i.e. due to thermal forces alone (temperature differences,
thus different densities, causing convection currents, as in wind generation) or may be propelled by
an applied force.

The rate of heat transfer in convection depends on three factors:
• Temperature difference
• The rate of movement of the carrying medium in terms of kg/s or m3/s (Water or air)
• The specific heat of the carrying medium in J/kg degC or J/m3 degC
(Note : higher the specific heat of a substance, the more heat it will absorb for a unit increase in temperature – which means low
conductance and high resistivity)

These quantities will be used in ventilation heat loss or cooling calculations.
 (The convective heat flow from a body, through a medium, to another body is expressed by a more
complex equation, not necessary for our purposes.)
RADIATION
• Rate of heat transfer depends on

– the temperatures of emitting and receiving surfaces
– Certain qualities of these surfaces (emittance and absorbance)
• Radiation received by a surface is partly absorbed and partly reflected

• The proportion of these two components is expressed by coefficient of absorbance (a) and
coefficient of reflectance (r)
• a+r=1
• Light coloured, smooth, shiny surfaces have higher reflectance
– For perfect reflective surface, r = 1 and a = 0
– Perfect absorber (black body), r = 0 and a = 1
RADIATION
absorbance emittance
White painted surface 0.1 – 0.3 0.8 – 0.9

Bright metals 0.1 – 0.3 0.05 – 0.2
• Both surfaces are exposed to solar radiation, both will reflect and absorb the same amount of heat
• But the white surface will re-emit much of the absorbed heat
• Metal surface will heat up more
SOL-AIR TEMPERATURE (Solid Surface)
 Building design purposes it is useful to combine the heating effect of radiation incident on a
building with the effect of warm air.

This can be done by using the sol-air temperature concept.
 A temperature value is found, which would create the same thermal effect as the incident radiation
in question, and this value is added to the air temperature:

Ts =To+(I x a)/fo where
• Ts = sol-air temperature, in °C
• To = outside air temperature, in °C
• l = radiation intensity, in W/m2
• a = absorbance of the surface
• fo = surface conductance (outside), W/m2 degC
 In a cold climate a lesser value of fo (low Resistance) would help reducing the heat loss, in a warm
climate (in a solar heat gain situation) a greater value of fo (High resistance) is desirable to
reduce solar overheating. The reason is that the incident radiation increases the surface
temperature far above the air temperature, thus some heat is dissipated to the out-door air
immediately. The greater the fo value, the more heat will be dissipated before it can be conducted
away by the wall material.
SOLAR GAIN FACTOR (Transparent/Translucent)

It might be useful to consider the combined effect of reflective surfaces and thermal insulation.
For the reduction of solar heat gain a dark, highly absorptive surface with good insulation may be
just as effective as a more reflective but less well-insulated element. (Good insulation with a highly
reflective surface is of course, better than both.)
 Solar gain factor is defined as the heat flow rate through the construction due to solar radiation
expressed as a fraction of the incident solar radiation.

Ts - T0 = I x a/ fo

where
• Ts = sol-air temperature, in °C
• To = outside air temperature, in °C
• l = radiation intensity, in W/m2
• a = absorbance of the surface
• fo = surface conductance (outside), W/m2 degC
SOLAR GAIN FACTOR

Ts - T0 = I x a/ fo

q/U= I x a/fo

therefore solar heat gain factor, q/I= U x a/fo
 assuming fo= 20 W/m2 we can establish target values for a and U (and thus choose materials to
use)
Solar gain factor Uxa
Warm-Humid climate 0.04 0.8

Hot-Dry season of composite climate 0.03 0.6
P B No. 6404, Govindapura, Gollahalli
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T : +91 80 2216 7900 / 903 / 904

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M : +91 99722 41144
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CLIMATALOGY- 18ARC33

• Heat flow rate The altitude angle is calculated as follows:

• Conductance where: Al = Solar altitude angle

 If energy is conveyed to a body, the molecular

 Freezing and boiling points of water (at normal

 A position on this scale, i.e. the temperature of an

 In scientific work the Kelvin scale may be used, but the

but N °C = N + 273.15°K (Constant)

 The joule is derived from the three basic units:

 Calorific value per volume is measured in J/m3

increase of a unit mass of the substance. It is measured in: J/kg degC

• Metals have LOW specific heat

• Water has HIGH specific heat

 For water the latent heat is:

 of fusion (0°C ice to 0°C water) 335 kJ/kg

 At change of state in the reverse direction the

 HEAT ENERGY tends to distribute itself

1. Conduction (In solids)

 The 'motive force' of heat flow in any of

IN SIMPLE TERMS CONDUCTION / CONDUCTIVITY:

• Rate of heat transfer depends on

– Certain qualities of these surfaces (emittance and absorbance)

• Radiation received by a surface is partly absorbed and partly reflected

– Perfect absorber (black body), r = 0 and a = 1

White painted surface 0.1 – 0.3 0.8 – 0.9

Solar gain factor Uxa

Warm-Humid climate 0.04 0.8

T : +91 80 2216 7900 / 903 / 904

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