Sustainability 15 11837

sustainability
Review
A State-of-the-Art Review on Optimization Methods and
Techniques for Economic Load Dispatch with Photovoltaic
Systems: Progress, Challenges, and Recommendations
Khairul Eahsun Fahim * , Liyanage C. De Silva, Fayaz Hussain and Hayati Yassin *
Faculty of Integrated Technologies, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Bandar Seri Begawan 1410, Brunei
* Correspondence: 20h8451@ubd.edu.bn (K.E.F.); hayati.yassin@ubd.edu.bn (H.Y.)
Abstract: Fossil fuel is considered to be the primary power generation source. As this source is not
that eco- and environmentally friendly, researchers are constantly searching for an alternative source
for power generation. Renewable energy has drawn much attention in this regard in recent times.
For solving economic load dispatch issues, numerous operational constraints must be considered.
Due to the restructuring of the power sector, there is competition between different power systems
organizations. Increasing fossil fuel costs drive power-producing utilities to adopt a cost-effective
technique for dispatching actual power output. Due to the presence of nonlinearity and non-convexity
in the fuel of cost function of generators, the economic load dispatch is often considered a complex
optimization problem. Many researchers have been optimizing fuel costs to solve the economic
power dispatch problem. This paper offers a critical analysis of ELD that takes into account both
traditional and non-traditional energy sources. The review covers a variety of algorithms, including
hybrid algorithms for integrating renewable energy sources (RES). The paper also focuses on several
restricted optimization techniques and contemporary algorithms including PSO, Jaya, GWO, SMO,
TLBO, Rao, MRao-2, and MFO to reduce the fuel cost of generation units using large-scale solar
Citation: Fahim, K.E.; Silva, L.C.D.; PV. Moreover, this paper provides a comprehensive overview of the current state of economic
Hussain, F.; Yassin, H. A
load dispatch and provides valuable insights for electricity researchers and practitioners. It also
State-of-the-Art Review on
discusses future technologies and next steps in the field of ELD, emphasizing the need for more
Optimization Methods and
environmentally friendly and cost-effective power generation and distribution solutions. Overall, the
Techniques for Economic Load
paper demonstrates the benefits of renewable energy sources as well as optimization techniques for
Dispatch with Photovoltaic Systems:
Progress, Challenges, and
creating a more sustainable and efficient power generation system.
Recommendations. Sustainability
2023, 15, 11837. https://doi.org/ Keywords: ELD; power system optimization; generation scheduling; fuel cost minimization; unit
10.3390/su151511837 commitment; evolutionary algorithms; meta-heuristic; MFO; GWO; HRES; grid integration; CEED
Academic Editors: Arefin Shezan,

Mohammed Nazmus Shakib and
Mohamed A. Mohamed
1. Introduction
Received: 27 March 2023 In recent times, power systems are facing numerous challenges due to the variability
Revised: 28 April 2023
of power due to the integration of renewable energy sources. Hence, power companies
Accepted: 2 May 2023
are trying to determine new ways to optimize the cost of generation while maintaining all
Published: 1 August 2023
other operational requirements [1].
Economic load dispatch (ELD) is a technique used in power systems to determine
the optimal generation schedule for a group of power plants in order to meet the load
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
demand at the lowest possible cost. The objective of ELD is to minimize the total fuel cost
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. of generation while satisfying a set of constraints, such as transmission line capacity and
This article is an open access article generator capacity limits. The process of ELD involves solving a mathematical optimization
distributed under the terms and problem, which is typically achieved using numerical methods such as gradient descent or
conditions of the Creative Commons linear programming.
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// Minimizing the generation cost and reducing carbon emissions can be accomplished
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ by integrating renewable energy sources such as solar power systems [2]. RES is consid-
4.0/). ered environmentally friendly and non-harmful for electricity generation and supply [3].
Sustainability 2023, 15, 11837. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151511837 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2023, 15, 11837 2 of 29
Hence, integrating renewable energy sources such as solar and wind power into the energy
generation dispatch mix has changed the direction of research on ELD in recent times [4].
Energy dispatch plays a vital role in the planning and control process of power
generation [4]. Thus, maintaining optimal power flow is important in electrical networks
to minimize the total cost generation while considering all constraints such as ramp rate
limited, prohibited operating zones, spinning reserve, and voltage constraints [5]. Moreover,
ELD plays a vital role in scheduling the generating units while maintaining minimal cost
and considering the generator limits [6].
Usually, pollution factors are not taken into account in the conventional renewable-free
ELD models [7]. To offset environmental emissions and move toward carbon neutrality,
researchers are shifting their focus toward renewable integrated economic load dispatch [8].
Power generation companies are constantly trying to minimize the cost of generation and
the same time looking for alternative pathways to offset carbon emissions [9]. This leads the
researchers to optimally integrate and penetrate renewable sources into the conventional
grid to obtain the best-optimized cost and at the same time offset a significant amount
of carbon emissions [10]. In order to economically dispatch overall load demand among
the generating units, the optimization of the ELD problem is a must [11]. Simultaneously,
solving the economic load dispatch problem by integrating renewable sources such as solar
power is vital.
This paper illustrates the optimization methods and formulation of problems for
ELD taking into account thermal power units and solar power. Section 2 sheds light
on the mathematical form of ELD with and without solar power. Section 3 discusses
different optimization methods and algorithms that are in practice for the optimization
problem. Section 4 provides an overview of the current practices of solving ELD problems
by integrating renewables. Section 5 proposes technical solutions to generation dispatch
with photovoltaic systems. Section 6 shed light on the challenges and technical solutions of
large-scale PV integration. Discussion and recommendations are placed in Sections 7 and 8,
respectively. Finally, Section 9 concludes the paper.
2. Formulation of Economic Load Dispatch

2.1. Economic Dispatch with Thermal Units
ELD is a vital optimization problem to reduce the cost of generation. The primary
objective of economic load dispatch is to minimize the total power generation cost while
satisfying the operational constraints. The fuel cost function is optimized to obtain the
optimum power generation conditions [1]. Overall fuel cost is expressed in the following
terms [2]:
n n
FT = ∑ F( Pi ) = ∑ aPi2 + bi Pi + ci , (1)
i =1 i =1
where FT is considered to be the total cost of power generation in USD/hr, ai , bi and ci are
the fuel cost coefficient, and PGi is the output unit i of the real power generation.
If the valve point effect of the generator is taken into account, the above equation can
be reiterated as
n n
FT = ∑ F( Pi ) = ∑ aPi2 + bi Pi + ci + |ei sin( fi ( PGimin − PGi ))|, (2)
i =1 i =1
where ai , bi , ci , are the cost coefficients of the ith power generating unit and ei and f i are
the coefficients of generator i with valve point effect. Integrating valve point loading into
the economic load dispatch quadratic cost function makes the cost function non-linear.
Several methods have been suggested in the literature to take the valve point influence into
account when calculating the economic load dispatch cost function. One common method
is to represent the sections of the fuel cost curve as valve points using a piecewise linear or
quadratic function. The use of a multi-objective optimization formulation as an alternative
approach would take into account the effects of both fuel price and valve point loading. In
method is to represent the sections of the fuel cost curve as valve points using a piecewise
linear or quadratic function. The use of a multi-objective optimization formulation as an
alternative approach would take into account the effects of both fuel price and valve point
loading. In reality, the valve point loading effect can be accounted for by including a series
Sustainability 2023, 15, 11837 of binary variables in the ELD problem that represent each generator’s on/off state. These 3 of 29
binary variables indicate whether a given generator should be operated at a specific out-
put level or should be turned off completely to avoid operating near the valve point. The
inclusion
reality, theofvalve
thesepoint
binary variables
loading aids
effect inbe
can ensuring thatfor
accounted theby
best solutionatoseries
including the ELD prob-
of binary
lem is not skewed toward suboptimal options that entail operating generators
variables in the ELD problem that represent each generator’s on/off state. These binary at output
levels near
variables to theirwhether
indicate valve points.
a given generator should be operated at a specific output level
or should be turned off completely to avoid operating near the valve point. The inclusion
2.2.
of Economic
these binaryDispatch
variables Integrating Solar that the best solution to the ELD problem is not
aids in ensuring
skewed Because
toward ofsuboptimal
the challenges and that
options opportunities, integrating
entail operating solaratpower
generators output into the near
levels electri-
to
cal grid is critical
their valve points. for economic load dispatch (ELD). While solar power is intermittent and
requires careful coordination with conventional generators to maintain grid stability, it
2.2.
can Economic
also saveDispatch
money and Integrating
reduceSolar
greenhouse gas emissions. A critical challenge in ELD
withBecause of the solar
an integrated challenges
systemand opportunities,
is optimizing theintegrating
dispatch ofsolar power with
generators into the electrical
solar energy
grid
whileismaintaining
critical for economic load dispatch (ELD). While solar power is intermittent and
system stability.
requires careful coordination
According with conventional
to the data presented in Figure generators to maintain
1 and obtained fromgrid stability,
Scopus it can
Advanced
also save money and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. A critical challenge
Search, it seems that researchers are still very interested and active in the fields of “eco- in ELD with an
integrated
nomic loadsolar system
dispatch” is optimizing
and the dispatch of generators with solar energy while
“solar” energy.
maintaining system
With a peak ofstability.
228 citations in 2018 and a low of 0 citations in 2014, the number of
According
citations receivedto by
thepublications
data presentedin thisin field
Figurehas1 fluctuated
and obtained
overfrom
time.Scopus
With a Advanced
total of 641
Search,
citations between 2013 and 2022, the number of citations has been continuously“economic
it seems that researchers are still very interested and active in the fields of high over
load dispatch”
the past and “solar” energy.
ten years.
Citation Counts Over the Years

228
Number of Citations
106
87
67
56
37 34 38
16
0
2022 2021 2020 2019 2018 2017 2016 2015 2014 2013
Cited By 16 67 37 56 228 34 106 38 0 87
Year
Figure1.
Figure 1. Citation
Citation analysis
analysis of
of economic
economicload
loaddispatch
dispatchwith
withsolar
solarpower
power(2013–2022).
(2013–2022).
With
With athepeak of 228 citations
increasing in 2018
penetration and aPV
of solar low of the
into 0 citations in 2014,
power grid therecent
in the number of
years,
citations received by publications in this field has fluctuated over time. With
integrating the variable and uncertain power generation from these sources into the tra- a total of
641 citations
ditional powerbetween
system2013 and 2022,
becomes morethe numberELD
difficult. of citations has been
must consider thecontinuously high
characteristics of
over
solarthe
PVpast ten years.
generation, such as variability and uncertainty, as well as the impact on overall
powerWith the increasing
system operation.penetration
In a systemofwith
solarsignificant
PV into the power
solar PV grid in the recent
penetration, years,
the goal of
integrating the variable
ELD is to minimize totaland uncertain
operating power
costs whilegeneration
ensuring thefrom these sources
reliability into the
and stability of tra-
the
ditional power system becomes more difficult. ELD must consider the characteristics of
solar PV generation, such as variability and uncertainty, as well as the impact on overall
power system operation. In a system with significant solar PV penetration, the goal of
ELD is to minimize total operating costs while ensuring the reliability and stability of the
power system and taking into account the power grid’s limitations in terms of transmission
capacity, power flow control, and grid stability. ELD strategies that are effective can assist
power systems in effectively integrating solar energy while minimizing operational costs
and carbon emissions.
Therefore, the integration of solar PV into the power grid can be seen as a challenge
for ELD and requires the development of new optimization algorithms and methods
to ensure the efficient and effective dispatch of load in a system with high renewable
energy penetration.
The maximum power solar photovoltaic panels are denoted as
Et = 3.24M pv (1 − 0.0041 × ( Tt − 8) × St ). (3)
Here Et is the output power of the solar panel, MPV is the output capacity of each
panel, St is the irradiation at time t while Tt is the temperature. The cost of solar generation
comprises two parts. Part one is the investment cost, and the second is the generated
energy’s operation and maintenance cost. Equation (4) presents the cost function for solar
power, which is incorporated into the economic load dispatch calculation to determine the
minimum total cost alongside the cost function for thermal units. If the capital investment
of land is not considered, the cost function for solar can be written as
F ( Ps ) = aI p Ps + G E Ps , (4)
where a is called the dimensionless annuitization coefficient, which can be denoted as

r
a= h i, (5)
1 + (1 + r ) − N
where Ps is the solar power generation, r is the interest rate, N is the investment lifetime
which is taken as 20 years. I P is the investment cost per unit of installed power in USD per
kW. G E is the operation and maintenance cost of per unit dollar sated energy.
2.3. Integrated Cost Function Incorporating Solar PV

Adding the cost functions described in (1), (2) and (3) provides us
FT = Fi ( Pi ) + F ( Ps ). (6)
Several equalities and inequality constraints are considered while minimizing the
overall cost of generation.
2.3.1. Power Balance

If system transmission loss is neglected, total generation from the thermal and PV
units must be equal to the total system demand.
n
∑ Pi = PLoad . (7)
i =1
Generator Production Limit:

Power produced by each generating unit should be within the minimum and maxi-
mum range of each generating units,
Pimin < Pi < Pimax , (8)
where Pimin is the minimum output power and Pimax is the maximum output power from
the ith generating units.
2.3.2. Ramping Rate Constraint

The active power output of each generator should be within an acceptable range.
Subtracting the previous active output power from the current output power of the ith
generating unit is called the ramping rate constraint and is denoted as
pr
Pi − Pi ≤ URi , (9)
pr
Pi − Pi ≤ DRi . (10)
2.3.3. Prohibited Operating Zones

Generators cannot operate in the prohibited operating zone [3].

 L
Pi,min ≤ Pi ≤ Pi,1

U L
Pi e Pi,k−1 ≤ Pi ≤ Pi,k k = 2, 3, . . . , pzi , (11)

 U ≤ P ≤ P
Pi,pz
i
i i,max
where pzi is the number of prohibited operating zones of the ith generating unit, Pi,k
L is the
U is the upper bound of the k − th prohibited zone [4].
lower bound of the generator and Pi,k
Optimization methods for optimal power dispatch can be classified mainly into
three categories.
2.3.4. Combatting the Intermittency and Uncertainties

Economic load dispatch (ELD) is a complex optimization problem with several un-
knowns that can affect the outcome. Among the key uncertainties in ELD are the follow-
ing aspects.
Load Demand Uncertainty

Load demand is typically unpredictable and changes quickly in response to a variety
of factors such as weather, consumer behavior, and industrial activity. Load uncertainty
can have a significant impact on ELD performance and necessitates appropriate modeling
and forecasting methods.
PV Generation Uncertainty
Solar photovoltaics (PV) are inherently uncertain and variable, which can have an
impact on ELD performance. A sudden increase or decrease in solar PV generation,
for example, can affect power system stability, and ELD algorithms must account for
these fluctuations.
In several ways, an ELD algorithm can account for the uncertainty of renewable
energy sources:
a. Probabilistic forecasting: Based on historical data and current weather conditions, the
ELD algorithm can use probabilistic forecasting techniques to predict the expected
output of renewable energy sources. The algorithm can also account for forecast
uncertainty by modeling forecast error as a probability distribution.
b. Metaheuristic optimization: In the presence of uncertainty from photovoltaic (PV)
generation, metaheuristics can be crucial in the solution of the economic load dis-
patch (ELD) problem. The ELD problem entails determining the ideal generator
output combination to satisfy the power demand while reducing the overall cost of
generation. Traditional deterministic optimization techniques may not be suitable
in the presence of PV generating uncertainty because they do not account for the
variability and unpredictability of the PV generation. By including the uncertainty of
PV generation in the optimization problem and locating close to optimal solutions,
metaheuristics can be applied to solve the ELD problem. They are particularly suited
for ELD problems in the presence of PV generation uncertainty because they can
manage big, complicated problems and handle uncertainty effectively.
In the economic load dispatch (ELD) process, the dispatch priority of renewable
energy sources, such as solar photovoltaic (PV) and wind power, depends on various
factors, including local regulations, market structures, and technical constraints.
In some cases, renewable energy sources may be dispatched first in the ELD process,
to meet renewable energy targets and promote the use of clean and sustainable energy
sources. In such cases, renewable energy sources may be considered as “must-run” units,
and their generation may be given priority over conventional generation.
In other cases, the dispatch priority of renewable energy sources may be determined
based on economic considerations, such as the cost of generation and the availability of
storage. In such cases, renewable energy sources may be dispatched in the ELD process
only if they are the least-cost option for meeting the load demand.
For a simple system with loss where solar power is dispatched at the first place can be
mathematically modelled as follows:
n n
∑ Pi + ∑ Pj = PLoad + Loss. (12)
i =1 j =1
Therefore, the dispatch priority of renewable energy sources in the ELD process
can vary based on the specific conditions and objectives of the power system. However,
regardless of the dispatch priority, the overall aim of the ELD process is to minimize the
total generation cost while ensuring that the load demand is met and the power system
operates efficiently and reliably.
Several constraints, such as security constraints, voltage magnitude constraints, re-
active power constraints, and line flow constraints, can be considered for economic load
dispatch problems. However, for the purpose of simplicity and to avoid complexity in this
paper, these constraints have been excluded from the scope. This is because considering
these constraints would require accounting for numerous additional factors and data that
may be difficult to obtain, which could impede the evaluation of algorithms.
3. Optimization Algorithms for Economic Power Dispatch

The process through which an optimal solution is determined is called optimization.
Optimal power dispatch refers to delivering demanded power while considering the sys-
tem constraint [5]. Optimization methods for optimal power dispatch can be classified
mainly into three categories such as classical, hybrid, and nonconventional methods [5].
The conventional method is used for solving a convex optimization problem, while the
nonconventional method is used to solve non-convex and practical ELD problems. In addi-
tion, to solve systems with more than two nonconventional methods, hybrid approaches
are used to improve the performance of each method. Figure 2 shows the three commonly
used optimization techniques for economic power dispatch.
One of the most commonly used classical methods for solving ELD is the Newton’s
method [6]. Quadratic programming methods also perform well in solving economic load
dispatch problem for multiobjective functions [7]. These algorithms have a combatively
faster convergence rate and comparatively better solutions in terms of cost minimization.
The Interior search method can solve the economic load dispatch problem with line flow
limits as a single optimization without any penalty factors. This method avoids introducing
augmented penalty terms which makes it more effective [8]. In [9], authors used lambda
iteration method on two test systems. Lambda iteration method worked better for the
lossless systems compared to the system with losses [10]. In a nutshell, it is asserted that the
classical methods for ELD are pretty simple and easy to implement. One of the significant
issues with these kinds of optimization is that they cannot handle non-convexity and
non-smoothness. On top of that, another drawback of this method is that it only generates
only one solution at a single run [11].
On the other hand, non-conventional methods are capable of handling complex ELD
optimization problems. Numerous optimization problems such as bat algorithm [12],
Genetic algorithm [13], Ant colony optimization [14], Particle Swarm Optimization [15],
Grey Wolf Optimization [16] and Simulated Annealing [17] are used to solve this sort
of problem.
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 32
Figure 2. Optimization Algorithms for ELD.

Figure 2. Optimization Algorithms for ELD.
One of the most commonly used classical methods for solving ELD is the Newton’s
However, in many real-world scenarios, the cost functions of power generation units
method [6]. Quadratic programming methods also perform well in solving economic load
are
dispatch problemmaking
non-linear, the problem
for multiobjective more[7].
functions difficult. This review
These algorithms haveofa the literature summarizes
combatively
recent advances rate
faster convergence in ELD optimizationbetter
and comparatively techniques
solutionsfor non-linear
in terms cost functions.
of cost minimization.
In 2013,
The Interior Kanagaraj
search method can etsolve
al. [18] proposed
the economic loadadispatch
new hybridproblemoptimization
with line flow technique for
limits as aELD
solving singlewith
optimization
non-linear without anyfunctions
cost penalty factors.
calledThisthe
method avoidsSearch
Cuckoo introduc-Algorithm with
ing augmented penalty terms which makes it more effective [8]. In [9], authors used
Genetic Algorithm (CSA-GA). To achieve an optimal solution with fewer iterations, the
lambda iteration method on two test systems. Lambda iteration method worked better for
proposed
the lossless method combines
systems compared thesystem
to the Cuckoo withSearch Algorithm
losses [10]. (CSA)
In a nutshell, it iswith the GA. In terms
asserted
of
thatconvergence rate and
the classical methods solution
for ELD quality,
are pretty simpletheandresults show thatOne
easy to implement. CSA-GA
of the outperforms
traditional optimization
significant issues techniques.
with these kinds of optimization is that they cannot handle non-convex-
ity and non-smoothness.
Mandal et al. [19] Onpresented
top of that, a another
noveldrawback
methodologyof this method is that it only
for explaining the complexities
generates only
associated onethe
with solution
Dynamicat a single run [11]. Load Dispatch (DELD) problem with non-convex
Economic
On the other hand, non-conventional methods are capable of handling complex ELD
cost function. The proposed methodology takes into account various factors such as
optimization problems. Numerous optimization problems such as bat algorithm [12], Ge-
operating
netic algorithmlimits,
[13], constraints, ramp rate
Ant colony optimization boundaries,
[14], Particle Swarm prohibited
Optimization operating
[15], Grey zones, and the
effect of valve point
Wolf Optimization loading,
[16] and Simulated as well as the
Annealing [17]uncertainties
are used to solve of this
loadsortrequirement
of prob- and wind
power.
lem. The paper also investigated the impact on DELD of incorporating wind generators
into However,
the thermal in many real-worldstructure.
generation scenarios, the
Thecost functions of
proposed power generation
method was tested units
on conventional
are non-linear, making the problem more difficult. This review of the literature summa-
and non-conventional DELD, and its effectiveness was compared to that of other heuristic
rizes recent advances in ELD optimization techniques for non-linear cost functions.
methods in the literature. The results show that the oppositional-based chaotic group
In 2013, Kanagaraj et al. [18] proposed a new hybrid optimization technique for solv-
search
ing ELD with non-linear (OCGOA)
optimization cost functionsapproach proposed
called the Cuckoo Searchin Algorithm
this paper withyields
Genetica higher-quality
solution while consuming less computational resources.
Algorithm (CSA-GA). To achieve an optimal solution with fewer iterations, the proposed
method In combines
additionthe to Cuckoo Search Algorithmoptimization
the aforementioned (CSA) with the techniques,
GA. In terms of conver-other methods
several
gence rate and solution quality, the results show that CSA-GA outperforms
have been proposed in the literature, including Artificial Bee Colony (ABC), Ant Colony traditional
optimization techniques.
Optimization (ACO), and Harmony Search Algorithm (HSA). According to recent research,
Mandal et al. [19] presented a novel methodology for explaining the complexities
hybrid
associatedoptimization
with the Dynamictechniques
Economic outperform
Load Dispatch traditional methods
(DELD) problem withinnon-convex
solving non-linear ELD
problems [20].
cost function. The proposed methodology takes into account various factors such as oper-
ating A study
limits, conducted
constraints, rampby rateKim et al. [21]
boundaries, presented
prohibited a memetic
operating zones, and scheme that combines a
the effect
of valve point loading,
metaheuristic as well
algorithm and as the uncertainties of load
a gradient-based requirement
technique and wind
to solve power.
a benchmark problem of
40 generating-unit ELD with valve-point loading. The memetic approach outperformed
other approaches in the literature, including metaheuristic-only and gradient-based-only
approaches. The study also discovered that the memetic approach can be mutually bene-
ficial in achieving better solutions than either metaheuristic or gradient-based solutions
alone. The proposed method can be used to improve the simulation results of existing ELD
and other optimization approaches.
In hybrid algorithms, two or more algorithms are used to exploit the strength of
multiple algorithms and overcome individual weaknesses [22]. When combined, GA’s
global search and GSA’s local search capability make it a perfect candidate for solving
ELD problems [22]. However, the disadvantage of these hybrid methods is extended
computational time. Therefore, there is a tradeoff between computation time and optimal
result. Table 1 illustrates the pros and cons of some of the recent and prominent algorithms
used in economic load dispatch.
Table 1. Pros and cons of different optimization algorithms.
Optimization
Refs Survey Research Pros Cons
Algorithm
√ Easy to implement Local searching capacity is weak

[23,24] PSO
Well suited for fuel cost minimization Low convergence rate
√ Guaranteed convergence
[25] ACO
Slow convergence time
Distributed computation helps to
Coding is difficult
avoid premature convergence
Can deal with multiple local minima

√ Handling capacity for non-smooth
[26,27] GA objective function Slow CPU time for convergence
Can deal with noisy and stochastic
objective functions
Numerous hyper parameters need

Coding is easy
√ to be tuned
Simulated Can deal with nonlinear models
[28] Tradeoff between quality of the
Annealing Can provide optimal and
result and the time required to run
robust solution
the algorithm
Cannot solve problem with

Linear √ Easy to understand and implement multiple variables
[29]
Programming Adaptive in nature Unable to solve
non-linear functions
√ Performs quite well with piecewise

[30] DE
Combinatorial optimizations are
quadratic functions compared to other
not suited for DE
classical methods
√ Suitable candidate for non-smooth Comparatively slower rate in

[31,32] ABC
and non-convex ELD problems sequential processing
√ Sometimes stuck in the

[33–35] GWO
Performs better even for non-convex
local optima
objective functions
Convergence speed is slow
√ Great global exploration and Researchers are still in the process

[36,37] Jaya searching capability of improvising the algorithm using
Hyperparameter tuning not needed hybridization and integration
The initial values of the decision

variables have a significant impact
√ on the performance of the Rao-1,
Rao-1, Rao-2, MRao-2 works on any scale of
[38] Rao-2, and MRao-2 algorithms.
MRao-2 renewable integration
The algorithms may not reach the
ideal answer if the beginning
values are not carefully chosen
√ Global search capability

[39,40] SMO
Supremacy in terms of GA and
State-of-the-art exploration and
PSO yet to be found
exploitation phase
√ Faster convergence
[41–43] MFO Scope for further development
provides a large-scale search space
√ Faster convergence
[44–46] PSO-ACO Further scope for improvement
Cost-effective and loss saving
The algorithms discussed previously can be classified into two categories: determin-
istic algorithms and stochastic algorithms. Deterministic algorithms are characterized by
their predictable and consistent behavior, as they produce the same output and follow the
same process for a given input, regardless of the number of times they are executed. There
is no random element involved in the output or process of a deterministic algorithm, as it is
entirely determined by the input. On the other hand, stochastic algorithms involve a certain
degree of randomness and are commonly used to approximate solutions to complex or large
optimization problems. Evolutionary algorithms and metaheuristic algorithms fall under
the category of stochastic algorithms. To determine a global optimal solution, deterministic
algorithms such as Gradient-based techniques, Newton–Raphson, and Particle Swarm
Optimization (PSO) have been extensively used. On the other hand, stochastic algorithms
such as Simulated Annealing (SA), Genetic Algorithm (GA), Differential Evolution (DE),
Jaya, and others have been used to move beyond the limitations of deterministic algorithms
and achieve a solution that is close to ideal. Fuzzy logic, artificial neural networks, and
multi-objective optimization have all been added to these algorithms to increase their func-
tionality and make them better suited for use with real-world ELD issues. A comprehensive
comparison between these two methods is presented in tabular format below in Table 2.
Table 2. Deterministic vs Stochastic Methods [23–27,44–46].
Deterministic Methods Stochastic Methods

Deterministic methods employ mathematical models to Stochastic approaches use probabilistic models and algorithms
determine the best solution to the ELD problem. to find the solution.
These methods offer a variety of potential solutions to the
These methods offer a one-of-a-kind solution to the problem.
problem, allowing for more exploration of the solution space.
These methods produce random solutions that change with
The solution obtained by these methods is deterministic and
each run of the algorithm, resulting in better results in
does not change when the algorithm is run multiple times.
optimization problems with complex, non-linear objectives.
These methods are slower in terms of computation, but they are
These methods are computationally fast, but they can become
better at escaping local optima and converge to near-optimal
stuck in local optima, resulting in suboptimal solutions.
solutions for complex, large-scale problems.
Although deterministic methods are more precise, they may not Stochastic methods are less precise but more robust and flexible
always find the best solution to complex problems. in solving complex problems.
4. Recent Progress on Power Dispatch with PV

The last decade has seen an enormous improvement in integrating RES into the power
system dispatch to reduce carbon footprint. Researchers are shifting their focus to optimally
schedule thermal as well as PV generations to meet the power demand [46].
RES installation, including PV, is quite typical and available compared to other con-
ventional power plants with a lower loss in transmission. However, the problem lies on
the other side of the coin. In terms of regulated power generation, demand PV and other
renewable sources are still not the right choices [47]. Another drawback is its high capital
upfront investment cost [48].
In [49], researchers developed a comparatively new nature-inspired algorithm called
the manta ray foraging algorithm (MRFO) applied on a microgrid to solve the Combined
Economic and Emission Dispatch (CEED) problem. Results suggest that this algorithm has
a prospect in solving CEED problems as it outperformed the results illustrated with other
optimization models in the recent literature. It was concluded that MRFO provides better
results than CSA, PSO, ABC, and DE.
In [50], researchers proposed a hybrid bat-crow algorithm on ten thermal generators
and PV power plants to optimize the generation cost. On top of proposing this hybrid
algorithm, the researchers also tested the solar plants ON and OFF conditions to develop
a better approximation for the multi-area power network. From the simulation results, it
was concluded that this hybrid algorithm was better performing than that of the PSO, bat
algorithm, and crow search algorithm.
In [51], the authors tested the efficacy of the PSO optimization algorithm for solving
CEED problems with three thermal and ten solar generating units. Test cases were observed
for both with and without solar PV. Before implementation, this technique was validated
with other optimization techniques to test its suitability. In the later part of this paper, the
authors conducted a comparative analysis using the TLBO algorithm for solar thermal
scheduling. In [52], the researchers suggested a new perspective in solving economic load
dispatch for microgrids by combining binary PSO algorithm and Quadratic programming
called BPSO-QP. The authors considered KKT conditions for optimal sizing of the battery
energy storage system (BESS) and optimal scheduling of generators using BPSO-QP. The
usefulness of this algorithm was verified through several experiments and simulations.
Researchers further developed the application of another algorithm called the Flower polli-
nation algorithm to solve the multi-constraint nonlinear optimization with 15 generating
units. It performs better in terms of convergence speed, economy, and robustness. Experi-
mental results show its efficacy and suitability compared to the other heuristic algorithms
such as PSO, SCA, and WOA [53].
In [54], the authors implemented NSGA-II and RNSGA-II on six generator units with
a load demand of 283.4 MW with 5% power loss. They validated the performance of
GA, NSGA-II, and R-NSGA-II for loss and without loss conditions. It was concluded that
NSGA-II and RNSGA-II are better than PSO as it implies intelligent Pareto optimization for
multi-objective criteria.
However, not much research has yet been conducted using metaphor-less algorithms
on ELD to check its efficacy. In [34], the authors implemented Rao-1,2,3 algorithms on
test systems with 6, 40, and 110 units, respectively. Comparative results show that this
metaphor-less algorithm performs quite well in terms of other algorithms used on these
unit systems earlier. In [55], the authors implemented an adaptive Jaya Optimization
algorithm for solving ELD with thermal, solar, and wind power. A 24-hour total demand
was introduced for optimal scheduling. Furthermore, in [56], the researchers proposed an
improved version of Jaya (IJaya) to solve ELD problems with multi-fuel and valve point
constraints. This newly proposed algorithm performs even better in terms of convergence
and optimal global solution due to its distance-varying acceleration coefficient and Gaussian
Cauchy Mutation (GCM). The superiority of this algorithm was proved using 6, 10, 13, 15,
and 40 generating units.
In [57], in one of the segments of their review, the authors suggested a CMOPEO
method to optimize the hybrid system, including thermal, solar, and wind power. On top
of equality and inequality constraints, the researchers also introduced a security constraint
in their work.
Due to the reliability and classical nature of the PSO algorithm, researchers often try
to adhere to this algorithm or its variant. A research team from China improvised the PSO
algorithm, which they called improved symbiotic particle swarm optimization. (ICPSO).
There are three swarms allocated for this improved PSO. Swarm-1 and Swarm-2 are used for
iteration optimization. Swarm-3 used the position information to self-update the position.
Simulation on benchmark test cases proves the superiority of the ISPSO compared to
PSO [58]. In [59], the authors proposed a new hybrid PSO-SSA optimization algorithm
to solve ELD problems for large-scale plants efficiently. Large-scale ELD suffers from
converging prematurely to the local minima. This proposed method uses the levy flight
to differentiate those local minima and convert towards the global optima. The proposed
algorithm performs relatively well for large datasets. Furthermore, in [60], the authors
combined two algorithms to solve ELD problems. Hybrid GWO-PSO is implemented
on three- and six-generator systems which perform better than GWO and some other
benchmark algorithms. One of the significant advantages of this optimization algorithm is
its simplicity of application and faster convergence rate. Table 3 summarizes some of the
recent algorithms used for economic load dispatch.
Table 3. Summary of recent economic load dispatch with renewables.
Test Unit Optimization Objective

Reference Type of Paper Methods Constraints
Thermal Solar Wind Cost Emission CEED
√ √ √ √ √
[57] Research MRFO I and E
√ √ √
[58] Research Hybrid Bat-Crow I and E
√ √ √
[59] Research PSO I and E
√ √
[60] Research BPSO-QP I and E
√ √
[61] Research EPFA I
√ √ √
[62] Research NSGA-II and RNSGA-II I
√ √
[44] Research Rao-1,2,3 I and E
√ √ √ √
[63] Review CMOPEO I, E and S
√ √
[64] Research ISPSO I
√ √
[65] Research PSO-SSA I
√ √
[66] Research GWO-PSO I
√ √ √ √
[67] Research IJAYA I and E
√ √ √
[61] Research SSA I and E
√ √ √ √
[62] Research Firefly I and E
√ √
[36] Research MP-CJAYA I and E
√ √
[67] Research JAYA-TLBO I and E
Where I = Inequality Constraints; E = Equality Constraints; S = Security Constraints.
5. Current Practices in ELD

5.1. Large-Scale PV System Integration
Besides intermittency of power production, another critical problem in PV is its
shading effect due to the moving clouds [56]. This causes significant complications in
grid-connected solar PV plants’ power production. Researchers are continuously trying to
develop solutions to combat this sudden change in PV power production due to the shading
effect. Some of the commonly used techniques to combat this problem are listed below.
a. Automatic Generation Control;
b. Scheduling considering unit commitments;
c. Regulation of Generation;
d. Emphasis on the combined cycle generation where the response time of turning the
units on and off is quite shorter.
Some of the significant challenges for combatting the sudden change in the generation
are illustrated below in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Problems of solar integration.

Due to cloud cover and weather factors, large-scale PV transmission and sub-trans-
missions are not severely affected in contrast to the distribution system, where the output
of the PV can drastically reduce to 50% in some instances [63].
A study conducted by the US Department of Energy determined that considering the
Due to cloud cover and weather factors, large-scale PV transmission and sub-trans-
Duearetonotcloud
missions cover
severely andinweather
affected factors,
contrast to large-scale
the distribution PV transmission
system, where the output and
sub-transmissions are not severely affected in contrast
of the PV can drastically reduce to 50% in some instances [63]. to the distribution system, where
the A
output
studyofconducted
the PV canbydrastically reduce to of
the US Department 50% in some
Energy instancesthat
determined [63].considering the
diversity factor can minimize the short-term variability of output fromthat
A study conducted by the US Department of Energy determined the considering
PV power
the diversity factor can minimize the short-term variability of output from
plant. The diversity factor also contributes to minimizing costs and compensating the PVfor
power
the
plant. The diversity factor also contributes to minimizing costs and compensating
variability. Some of the cost factors that are directly associated with the reliance on the for the
variability.
factors SomeinofFigure
illustrated the cost
4. factors that are directly associated with the reliance on the
factors illustrated in Figure 4.
Figure 4. Methods for maintaining generation and load demand balance.

Figure 4. Methods for maintaining generation and load demand balance.
Different studies suggest that the economic benefit decreases with the increase in the
Different studies suggest that the economic benefit decreases with the increase in the
penetration of renewables due to the need for additional spinning reserves [64]. Geographic
penetration
diversity canof play
renewables duerole
an essential to the need for additional
in combating spinning
the variability reserves
of a single solar[64].
plant.Geo-
Geo-
graphic
graphicdiversity
diversitycan play an essential
contributes to fewer role in combating
balancing the
resources variability
and reserves of a single
[65]. solar
Researchers
plant. Geographic
continuously focusdiversity contributes
on battery storage to to fewer
make balancing
large-scale PVresources
productionandandreserves
storage[65].
more
Researchers continuously focus on battery storage to make large-scale PV production
efficient [66]. Fluctuating power output from the PV firms can be solved using a battery and
storage
energymore efficient
storage system[66]. Fluctuating
(BESS) [68]. power output from the PV firms can be solved
using Different
a battery energy
compensating techniques, such[68].
storage system (BESS) as ramp rate control using the inverter, limit
the PV output fluctuations. This setup uses a compensated power output from the inverter
to keep the output power constant. The equation can be written as follows [69]:

Pinverter = µinverter PDC + Pcompensator ,
where µinverter is the efficiency of the of the inverter. Power output from the inverter
can be kept constant by controlling the PDC and Pcompensator . Pcompensator output power is
raised whenever there is a sudden drop in power in the PDC due to the sudden cloud
cover. Different converters can play an important role balancing the level of voltage and
thus maintaining a desired power level [70]. Another way of compensating the power
output from the inverter is to try out a conventional PID controller [71]. For improving
the efficiency of the inverter, different combinations of buck and boost converter can be
used [72].
In [73], the researchers suggested that to obtain the best benefit from a PV-battery
system, demand side management, proper forecasting, and energy optimization are the
prime factors.
Apart from load following dispatch, demand dispatch is becoming popular recently
due to the wide-scale adoption of the internet and the internet of things. This method
exploits the advantage of the internet to turn different loads on and off and adjusts different
generator outputs [74].
Hybrid hydropower plants are becoming more popular in recent times. Longyangxia
hydro-PV plant has a capacity of 2130 MW, out of which 850 MW accounts for solar
PV. Researchers are trying to model and incorporate PV in this hybrid system efficiently.
Hydropower units can be swiftly changed to compensate for the unpredictability of solar
power [75].
5.2. Grid Code and Large-Scale PV System

Due to its variable and intermittent nature, there are numerous challenges in integrat-
ing large-scale PV into the grid [76]. Grid codes pave the way to successfully integrate
large-scale PV into the grid considering the formulations already provided by the re-
searchers. Some of the critical features for grid code in the future are listed below [77]:
a. Size of the system;
b. Voltage and current levels;
c. Transmission and distribution;
d. Characteristics of the generating units;
e. Energy policy.
5.3. Economic Feasibility of Large-Scale Photo Voltaic Systems

Though solar cell technology has seen a drastic improvement recently, research gaps
still need to be addressed, such as emerging solar cell technologies for high solar PV
penetration. Solar irradiation and power forecasting are crucial for successfully operating
solar EES systems. As there are still issues with grid instability and inertia, an improved
energy storage system for PV integration can solve this issue. Revaluation of the grid
structure is needed to make RES integration economically feasible in the future [78,79].
AGC is a type of control system used to keep the demand for and supply of electrical
energy in a power system in balance. To adapt to shifting power demand, AGC continu-
ously modifies the generator power output. AGC can be used to maintain the equilibrium
between the power generation from conventional sources and the power generation from
renewable sources, which are often more variable in nature, in a power system with renew-
ables. Integrating large-scale PV faces significant complications such as varying impacts.
It was determined in recent research that large-scale PV integration still lacks a proper
control mechanism to control the varying loads promptly. The spinning reserve and AGC
mechanism can be used to adjust the output power to meet the load demand [80].
In hybrid hydropower systems, faster ramping rates and availability of hydro play an
essential role in a higher level of PV penetration [81,82].
5.4. Economic Dispatch of Large-Scale Solar PV System

Economic load dispatch is the process of allocating generation mix in the cheapest
manner [78]. Commonly used ELD dispatch categories are
a. Optimal Power Flow (OPF);
b. AGC;
c. Dynamic Economic Dispatch;
d. Economic Dispatch with RES.
Economic dispatch with RES usually includes solar, wind, hydro, and a battery system
for backup. Conventional AGC mechanisms cannot handle the spinning reserve constraints,
load following requirements, and load frequency excursion, causing problems with the
system stability [83,84].
Dynamic economic dispatch is provided as a solution to operational issues. An
efficient solar power generation forecast is created ahead of each dispatch cycle using
this method. High load generation balance is achieved using chain rule-based hydro, PV,
turbine generation, and import [80].
One of the significant challenges of large-scale PV integration is the rescheduling or
the displacement of conventional generators to operate the system efficiently. One research
study at the U.S Western Electricity Coordinating Council (WECC) proposed an optimal
dispatch ratio (ODR) for reliable and uninterruptible power system operation [85].
As output power from PV generation changes drastically due to the varying solar
irradiation and other weather factors, power generation and production from PV vary
significantly. To combat these problems, a probabilistic power flow model working on the
conventional dispatching units can balance high PV power generation. This method solves
fluctuations in voltage and frequency using a corrective measure [86].
Inverters play a crucial role in grid support regarding voltage and frequency regulation.
Researchers suggested grid-friendly PV plants incorporating components such as SCADA
HMI, DAS, PLC, and RTU. These interfaces and networks transmit inverter commands
to the inverter unit. These functions perform automatic voltage control, reactive power
injection, active power reduction, and frequency control [87].
In [88], the researchers illustrated the practical implementation of active power cur-
tailment and reactive power injection for making the grid-connected large PV plants more
effective. The distribution network’s local voltage regulation is achieved through the
RPI-APC algorithm.
In [89,90], the authors pointed out some significant problems of PV integration, such
as voltage fluctuations due to the fluctuations in solar radiation. Sudden tripping of the
system due to the under-voltage capacity relays reduces the system’s overall generation.
These problems can be overcome using a unity power factor and automatic voltage control
(AVC). However, this system also has limitations. It only works well with the kilowatt size
generators, not with the megawatt size generators.
6. Challenges and Technical Solution

6.1. Overview of the Technical Solution
There are two major techniques to generation dispatch when integrating large-scale
PV: generation dispatch and economic dispatch. The techno-economic feasibility of large-
scale PV integration is also investigated in order to arrive at a viable and feasible solution.
The entire transmission performance is observed by examining the transmission systems’
load flow and other characteristics. The literature review suggests that some significant
challenges in large-scale PV integration are uncertainty, variability, and system adequacy.
Various techniques such as spinning reserve requirement, generation scheduling, power
prediction of the solar plant, proper dispatch strategy, and different aspects of the transmis-
sion system are discussed to combat these challenges.
6.2. Spinning Reserve Requirement for Generation Dispatch

Various scheduling techniques are used to satisfy the generation and load demand.
The role of operating reserve comes into play when the power generation differs from the
load demand.
Some of the major causes of imbalance in power system are:
a. Sudden loss in transmission line;
b. Change in load demand;
c. Change in power generation from PV panel due to the cloud cover.
Usually, the better the PV integration, the more operating reserves are needed, but due
to different technicalities, it is difficult to assess the type and amount of operating reserve.
Figure 5 classifies different operating reserves.
6.2.1. Regulating Reserve

Regulating reserve, often known as automatic generation control, is used to automati-
cally balance the continuous and frequent changes in the demand and generation side [93].
This method can rectify the variations in the shortest possible time ranging from 5 min to
an hour.
The objective of this method is to reduce the area control error. Solar forecast cannot
still provide accurate forecasts due the intermittent nature of the solar. As more and more
The role of operating reserve comes into play when the power generation differs from the
load demand.
Some of the major causes of imbalance in power system are:
a. Sudden loss in transmission line;
b. Change in load demand;
Sustainability 2023, 15, 11837 c. Change in power generation from PV panel due to the cloud cover. 15 of 29
Usually, the better the PV integration, the more operating reserves are needed, but
due to different technicalities, it is difficult to assess the type and amount of operating
reserve. Figure
large-scale 5 classifies
solar different
plants become operating
integrated reserves.
into the electricity grid, regulating reserves are
play an even bigger role in the present.
Regulating
Reserve Primary
Nonevent
Secondary
Following
Reserve
Operating Tertiary
Reserves
Contingency
Reserve Secondary
Event
Ramping
Reserve
Tertiary
Figure 5. Classification of Operating Reserves [91,92].

Figure 5. Classification of Operating Reserves [91,92].
6.2.2. Load following Reserve
Load-following
6.2.1. Regulating reserves are almost similar to the regulating reserve, but the main
Reserve
difference is that they
Regulating reserve, correct
often the anticipated
known changes
as automatic in the load
generation ratheristhan
control, usedthe imbalance
to automat-
occurring instantaneously [94].
ically balance the continuous and frequent changes in the demand and generation side
In most
[93]. This of the
method cases,
can automatic
rectify generation
the variations in thecontrol is possible
shortest not required. Power grids
time ranging fromare
5
primarily directed
min to an hour. by the system operator and engineers manually. In today’s world, power
grids do not explicitly use load-following reserves as the loads are becoming reasonably
The objective of this method is to reduce the area control error. Solar forecast cannot
predictable. However, due to the intermittent nature of the solar and the need for accurate
still provide accurate forecasts due the intermittent nature of the solar. As more and more
solar power generation forecast for the longer time horizon, load following reserves may
large-scale solar plants become integrated into the electricity grid, regulating reserves are
become good candidates soon.
play an even bigger role in the present.
6.2.3. Contingency Reserves
Contingency reserves are often called spinning reserves. Spinning reserves play a vital
role in stabilizing the power system’s frequency due to the imbalance in load caused by
sudden variations. Usually, solar power generation is not instantaneous, and thus it does
not affect the contingency reserves. Spinning reserves can be split into primary, secondary,
and tertiary.
6.3. Generation Scheduling with PV

The scheduling of generating units is determined by a number of actions, including
the unit’s commitment, and other factors. Unit commitment is the scheduling of sufficient
generating units to meet load demand while taking into account fuel costs, environmental
costs, and other optimization parameters that are constrained. Economic load dispatch is
dependent on unit commitment because the available generating units and their operating
characteristics, such as their fuel cost, ramp-up and ramp-down rates, and minimum and
maximum output levels, determine the feasible space for economic load dispatch. In other
words, the economic load dispatch problem presupposes that the available generating units
have already been determined via the unit commitment process.
If some generating units are not available because they have been turned off or are
undergoing maintenance, for example, then their capacity is not available for use in the
economic load dispatch problem, and the remaining units must make up for the shortfall.
On the other hand, if some units are not yet running at full capacity because they are
ramping up or ramping down, then the economic load dispatch problem must consider
these constraints as well [95].
Any generation plant with integrated PV needs to have proper generation planning
to efficiently deal with the loss of generation from the PV due to cloud cover and other
weather factors. A mechanism should be in place to help balance the generation and
load balance.
The forecasting mechanism should be as precise as possible to maintain this balance.
Accurate measurement is needed to determine the load, water, solar irradiation, and wind
speed. For thermal and solar power facilities, scheduling should be addressed seriously
from an economic standpoint.
6.4. Solar Plant’s Power Prediction

Different literatures consider different kinds of time horizon prediction modeling for
the dispatch. The most commonly used horizons are hourly, daily, weekly, monthly, and
yearly predictions [96]. The prediction category can be classified into three major categories
based on the time horizon: very short-term, short-term, and long-term or medium-term [96].
An algorithm based on AI can be leveraged to forecast solar power output [97]. Table 4
summarizes various forecasting methods utilized for predicting solar power.
Table 4. Summary of different forecasting methods used for solar power prediction.
Very Short Term Short Term Long Term or Medium Term

Time horizon 5 min to 6 h Up to 3 days Up to number of months or years
Models Used ANN,SVR,ARMA,ARIMA.LSTM GFS,ECMWF,LSTM Statistical models with processed data
6.5. Generation Units’ Dispatch Selection

The prime objective of the generation dispatch in the power system is to minimize the
cost of operation and fuel in USD/hour. Modern system operators continuously shift their
focus from conventional thermal plants to non-conventional and green energy to reduce
the optimal generation cost. However, the main problem lies in the substitution cost. The
substitution cost for solar PV with the thermal unit is often relatively high. It is believed
to be equivalent to the thermal generation unit’s avoided generation cost. This is due to
renewable energy’s intermittency and forecasting complexity [98]. Figure 6 shows that
it may be costly to completely replace a thermal plant with a solar or wind facility. But
integrating it with the right mechanisms can make it affordable.
Figure 6. Substitution cost of renewable plant.

6.6. Operating Limits of Generator

Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW Proper dispatching of the power system depends on the generation limits of 32
19 of the
generators. Each generator has their upper and lower limits. Apart from the upper and
lower limits, prohibited operating limit and spinning reserve limits are also important
in
effective dispatch of the power systems. Full power system consists of four major parts:
generation, transmission, substation, distribution. Schematic diagram of the full system is
depicted below in Figure 7.
Figure 7. Integration of RES into the Electrical Generation and Transmission System.
Figure 7. Integration of RES into the Electrical Generation and Transmission System.
6.7. Planning
Figure for Short
7. Integration of RESTerm
into Dispatch of Power
the Electrical Systemand Transmission System.
Generation
6.7. Planning for Short Term Dispatch of Power System
In a power system, a process known as short-term generating dispatch determines
6.7.the In a power system,
Planning a process known as short-term generating dispatch determines the
amountforofShort Term Dispatch
electricity that will of
bePower System
produced the following day. Two crucial monitoring
amount of electricity that will be produced the following day. Two crucial monitoring steps
steps must be performed to ensure proper functionality,
In a power system, a process known as short-term generating as showndispatch
in Figuredetermines
8.
must be performed to ensure proper functionality, as shown in Figure 8.
the amount of electricity that will be produced the following day. Two crucial monitoring
steps must be performed to ensure proper functionality, as shown in Figure 8.
Figure 8. Monitoring actions for real-time economic dispatch.

Figure 8. Monitoring actions for real-time economic dispatch.
For conducting the dispatch planning for a day, researchers have implemented real-
Figure 8.For
time conducting
Monitoring
optimal power the
actions dispatch
for
flow, planning
real-time as for
economic
often known a day,
dispatch.
RT-OPF researchers
[99]. have implemented
In this method, real-
generators balance
time
theoptimal
load and power flow, often
generation knownto
according as their
RT-OPF [99]. In thisfactor,
participation method, generators
which balance
instantaneously
the load
For
balances and generation
conducting
the load the
and according
dispatch to This
planning
generation. theirfor
participation
cana be
day, factor,
researchers
called which
a dynamic instantaneously
haveeconomic
implemented bal-
load real-
dispatch
ances
time the
optimal load
powerand generation.
flow, often This
known can
as be called
RT-OPF a dynamic
[99]. In this economic
method, load dispatch
generators
based on participation factors. Different monitoring aspects for real-time dispatch are based
balance
theon participation
load and generation
described below.factors. Different
according tomonitoring aspectsfactor,
their participation for real-time dispatch are described
which instantaneously bal-
below.
ances the load and generation. This can be called a dynamic economic load dispatch based
6.7.1. Monitoring
on participation factors.of Different
Load, Tie monitoring
Line and Generation
aspects for real-time dispatch are described
6.7.1. Monitoring of Load,
below. For smooth generation dispatch, Tie Line and Generation
tie-line imports and exports must be monitored
promptly.
For smooth Monitoring promptly
generation and implementing
dispatch, tie-line imports automatic generation
and exports mustcontrol (AGC) to
be monitored
6.7.1. Monitoring
keep the of
frequencyLoad,at Tie
50 Line
Hz all and
the Generation
promptly. Monitoring promptly and implementing automatic generation control [100,101].
time is an integral part of generation dispatch (AGC)
toSchedule
For theoffrequency
keepsmooth hourly dispatch
generation at 50 Hzalso
dispatch,allneeds
the to be
time
tie-line ismonitored
an integral
imports and looked
part
and exports of upon timely
generation
must to take
dispatch
be monitored
necessary
[100,101].
promptly. steps forofpromptly
Schedule
Monitoring optimal dispatch.
hourly dispatch also needs toautomatic
and implementing be monitored and looked
generation upon
control timely
(AGC)
to to takethe
keep necessary
frequency stepsat for
50 optimal
Hz all the dispatch.
time is an integral part of generation dispatch
[100,101]. Schedule of hourly dispatch also needs to be monitored and looked upon timely
to 6.7.2. Transmission
take necessary stepsLine Flow Monitoring
for optimal dispatch.
As transmission systems and lines play a vital role in power dispatch, continuous

6.7.2. Transmission Line Flow Monitoring
As transmission systems and lines play a vital role in power dispatch, continuous
monitoring of the transmission equipment and its parameters in terms of voltage, frequency,
frequency, andangle
and rotor rotor is
angle is crucial,
crucial, as well
as well as their
as their ranges
ranges andand limits
limits [102].
[102]. Majormonitoring
Major moni-
toring parameters of transmission system is illustrated in Figure
parameters of transmission system is illustrated in Figure 9. 9.
Figure 9. Key monitoring parameters of transmission system.

Figure 9. Key monitoring parameters of transmission system.
Transmission Voltage Stability
Transmission Voltage Stability
One significant problem with the large-scale PV plant is the voltage stability prob-
One[103].
lem significant
Often,problem with the large-scale
voltage instability occurs duePV to plant is the voltage
the insufficient stability problem
compensation of reactive
[103].
power [104]. Keeping PV power plants provides better voltage stabilityofcompared
Often, voltage instability occurs due to the insufficient compensation reactive to
power [104]. Keeping
concentrated power PVplants
power[105].
plants provides better voltage stability compared to con-
centratedStudies
power plants [105]. that the integration mode voltage control strategies provide
have reported
Studies
better haveinreported
results terms ofthat the integration
voltage stability andmode
loading voltage
margin. control strategies
On the provide
other hand, power-
better results in terms
factor-operated PVofisvoltage
slightlystability and loading
less effective in terms margin. On the
of those twoother hand, power-
parameters. Dynamic
factor-operated
VAR devicesPV areisoften
slightly
used less
to effective
improve in termsloading.
system of those Commonly
two parameters.used Dynamic
VAR devices
VARare devices
SVC andare often
STATCOM. used toItimprove
has beensystem loading.
discovered thatCommonly
STATCOMused withVAR devices VAR,
short-term are is
SVCmore
and STATCOM. It hasplacing
successful than been discovered
STATCOM thatatSTATCOM
the PV generatorwith short-term
bus and VAR, is more bus
the weakest
for resolving
successful the low
than placing voltage ride-through
STATCOM issue [98].
at the PV generator busSTATCOM improves
and the weakest busthe
forvoltage
re-
stability
solving the lowmargin.
voltage Researchers
ride-through suggest placing
issue [98]. SVCs atimproves
STATCOM PV generator buses stability
the voltage rather than
placing
margin. them based
Researchers on theplacing
suggest short-termSVCs dynamic VAR support
at PV generator busesorrather
placing
thanthem at thethem
placing weakest
bus [106,107].
based on the short-term dynamic VAR support or placing them at the weakest bus
[106,107].Both active and reactive power contributes to the voltage drop in the transmission line
due
Both toactive
the bifurcation
and reactive withpower
limits.contributes
Reactive power
to the compensation
voltage dropunits in theshould be placed in
transmission
line adue
dispersed
to the setup rather with
bifurcation than alimits.
concentrated
Reactiveone to attain
power a better loading
compensation units margin
should [108].
be
As suggested by researchers, shunt capacitor can be used
placed in a dispersed setup rather than a concentrated one to attain a better loading mar- to control static voltage
stability and hence improve the voltage profile of the transmission system. The tap changer
gin [108].
and
As PSS can improve
suggested the overallshunt
by researchers, dynamic voltagecan
capacitor stability
be used on to
thecontrol
controller using
static a capaci-
voltage
tor. However, precaution should be taken regarding selecting
stability and hence improve the voltage profile of the transmission system. The tap the capacitor because a more
significant
changer and PSS value of the capacitance
can improve the overallmay causevoltage
dynamic oscillations,
stabilitydecreasing the transmission
on the controller using
a capacitor. However, precaution should be taken regarding selecting the capacitor be- the
voltage stability. The parameter optimization method can play a vital role in reducing
causeoscillations and increasing
a more significant value the dynamic
of the voltagemay
capacitance stability
cause[109].
oscillations, decreasing the
transmission voltage stability. The parameter optimization method can play a vital role in
Rotor Angle Stability of the Transmission System
reducing the oscillations and increasing the dynamic voltage stability [109].
One of the significant drawbacks of large-scale solar PV integration is the incapability
of providing
Rotor Angle Stabilityinertia.
of theThis is because there
Transmission Systemare no rotational masses in the PV generation
system such as the conventional units. Inertial response directly influences the frequency
One of the significant drawbacks of large-scale solar PV integration is the incapability
change rate in the event of sudden load change. Researchers have conducted numerous
of providing inertia. This is because there are no rotational masses in the PV generation
researches on the rotor angle stability of the large-scale PV integration [110,111].
system such as the conventional units. Inertial response directly influences the frequency
change rate in the event of sudden load change. Researchers have conducted numerous
researches on the rotor angle stability of the large-scale PV integration [110,111].
Transmission System Frequency Stability

Transmission System Frequency Stability
Due to an imbalance between the load and generation, there can be an under-fre-
Due to an imbalance between the load and generation, there can be an under-frequency
quency load shedding. Load shedding occurs when the system frequency drops below
load shedding. Load shedding occurs when the system frequency drops below the desired
the desired frequency level. By using economic load dispatch on microgrids with RES,
frequency level. By using economic load dispatch on microgrids with RES, BESS, and
BESS, and conventional generation schemes, switches were controlled considering the
conventional generation schemes, switches were controlled considering the critical and
critical and non-critical loads in this study.
non-critical loads in this study.
6.8. 6.8.
Factors for Effective
Factors Economic
for Effective Dispatch
Economic Dispatch
Dispatching
Dispatchingmainly depends
mainly on the
depends onproper establishment
the proper of the of
establishment infrastructure of re- of
the infrastructure
newable energy projects. A detailed study is conducted in [112–115]. Factors of effective
renewable energy projects. A detailed study is conducted in [112–115]. Factors of effective
economic
economicload dispatch
load vary
dispatch largely
vary depending
largely depending onondifferent
differentfactors
factorsranging
rangingfrom
fromgenera-
generation
tionresources
resourcestotogeographic
geographiclocation
locationofofthe
theplants
plantsand
andtransmission
transmissionresources
resources [116].
[116]. Fig- 10
Figure
ure illustrates
10 illustrates some of the main factors that affect the economic load dispatch process,
some of the main factors that affect the economic load dispatch process, such as
suchgeneration
as generation resources,
resources, geographic
geographic area,area, and transmission
and transmission resources.
resources.
Figure
Figure 10. Factors
10. Factors affecting
affecting economic
economic loadload dispatch.
dispatch.
6.8.1. Generation Resources

6.8.1. Generation Resources
Various interconnected generation resources are considered for effective planning
Various interconnected generation resources are considered for effective planning
and implementation of economic load dispatch. An optimally wide range of generation
and implementation of economic load dispatch. An optimally wide range of generation
resources is considered to meet the demand and generation. In [117,118], the researchers
resources is considered to meet the demand and generation. In [117,118], the researchers
proposed a model for flexible power dispatching incorporating wind, solar, thermal, and
proposed a model for flexible power dispatching incorporating wind, solar, thermal, and
electric vehicles. Thermal power plants work on a flexible mechanism to trade off the
electric vehicles. Thermal power plants work on a flexible mechanism to trade off the in-
intermittent power from the renewable sources.
termittent power from the renewable sources.
6.8.2. Geographic Area
6.8.2. Geographic Area
Depending on the size of the geographical area, economic dispatch can be classified
Depending
mainly on the
into two size of the
categories, geographical
single-area area,dispatch
economic economic dispatch
(SAED) andcan be classified
multi-area load dis-
mainly
patchinto two categories,
(MAED). Single-area single-area economic
load dispatch dispatchmethod
was a popular (SAED)almost
and multi-area loadago.
a few decades
dispatch (MAED). Single-area load dispatch was a popular method almost a
Nowadays, however, it has lost its popularity as in this scheme customers have the right to few decades
ago.choose
Nowadays, however,
the supplier it has lostenergy
of electrical its popularity
[119]. On asthe
in this scheme
contrary, customers
multi-area have theload
economic
right to choose
dispatch theseeks
[120] supplier of electrical
to determine energy
the most [119].transmission
feasible On the contrary, multi-area
facilities eco-
and generation
nomic load dispatch
resources [120]all
considering seeks
the to determine
significant the most
system feasible transmission
constraints. facilities
Several techniques and
have been
generation resources
used in the past toconsidering
solve MAEDall the significant
problems, such assystem
Mixedconstraints. Several
Integer Linear techniques
Programming [121],
have been used [67],
JAYA-TLBO in the past to[122],
ImCSO solveGOA
MAED problems,
[123], such as Mixed Integer Linear Pro-
TLBO [124].
gramming In [121], JAYA-TLBO
[125,126], it was shown[67], ImCSO [122], GOA
that passing clouds[123], TLBO [124].
negatively affect PV generation. PV
generation should
In [125,126], it wasnotshown
be builtthat
in apassing
smaller clouds
area as it can affect affect
negatively the PVPVgeneration
generation.negatively
PV
due to poor
generation diversity
should not befactor.
built in a smaller area as it can affect the PV generation nega-
tively due to poor diversity factor.
6.8.3. Transmission Resources

Transmission resources play an essential role in power system economic load dispatch.
Reliability and security issues in the transmission line play an important role in successfully
transferring power to households. However, investing in the transmission system does
not necessarily offset the total cost of fuel savings. A revised, newly proposed approach is
presented for the power system load dispatch in [127]. Before implementing large-scale PV
integration for economic load dispatch, security and reliability issues should be considered
rigorously. Another study conducted by researchers in [128] suggests having a proper
export mechanism for large-scale PV integration with scattered and fluctuating renewable
sources where the consumption of electricity is relatively low to avoid overloading. In [129],
the researchers proposed a re-dispatch technique for highly variable power plants with
wind and solar power. This online generation scheme reduces the generation cost and the
loadability of elements in the power system. This proposed method includes two power
sensitivity factors: LODF and PTDF. This method can minimize the overload risk created
by N-1 contingencies. Numerous works are available for the conventional electrical device
optimal placements. However, in regard to solar DG generators, there still seems to be a
gap that needs to be filled. In [130], the researchers previewed the existing works published
over the last 60 years, located the gaps, and proposed a few techniques to bridge the gaps
and passively increase transmission loss. To effectively and practically implement the
current distribution network, the authors suggested four solutions that can be used.
1. Introduction of new terminology from the DG site to the connection point;
2. Considering the geographic data and distribution infrastructure;
3. Proper evaluation of all the network points;
4. The original structure of the distribution business market.
6.9. Solar Tracker

To deal with the intermittency of solar power, researchers suggested operating the
arrays intentionally at the maximum power point. In [131], comprehensive comparative
study on the different solar maximum power point techniques and algorithms is discussed.
MPPT is a technique of extracting maximum power from the PV using the PV system P-V
and I-V characteristics [132]. Electrical and mechanical tracking is widely used among the
most used techniques to extract the maximum power from the PV [133].
Mechanical tracking system uses the single or double axis of the panel to change the
orientation to extract the maximum power output [134]. Most of the tracking is conducted
on a daily, monthly or weekly basis [135]. Active and passive trackers can be used to
tracking the sunshine, but active trackers are mostly recommended by researchers as the
increased efficiency of these trackers is as high as 29.37% compared to that of the passive
trackers [136].
In [137], the authors reviewed numerous optimization techniques and algorithms,
including particle swarm optimization, for determining the best parameters, cell and
materials, tilt angle of the sun, and the system design.
New and improved tracking strategies have been proposed by the researchers in recent
years which can be adopted to obtain the best PV power output from the solar plant. An
elaborate design criteria for designing solar PV plant and optimizing the tracking trajectory
is proposed in [137]. According to [138], MPPT techniques under partial shading conditions
can be classified into four major categories. The first one comprises the newly proposed
MPPT optimization algorithms, the second group comprises the hybrid algorithms, the
third category consists of the new modelling approach and the final one focuses on the
various converter topologies. Therefore, while designing a specific system, proper MPPT
technique should be used to obtain the maximized PV output power.
6.10. Adequate Protection of Solar PV System

There are numerous challenges associated with the distributed generations (DG), espe-
cially in the case of solar PV. One of the major challenges lie in the field of fault detection and
isolation. Proper protection and islanding techniques are discussed in [139,140]. A novel
technique was proposed to make the system stable by providing proper fault current for
system fault detection [141]. In [142], the study clearly demonstrated that effective integra-
tion of solar PV arrays with DFIG-based energy systems has the potential to significantly
increase system fault ride through capabilities while also lowering equipment costs by
eliminating the requirement for power inverters for solar PV units. This method can be
used while planning and integrating solar PV systems.
6.11. Voltage Stability in Large-Scale PV Integrated Systems

Grid-tied PV generation often causes voltage instability due to the intermittency of the
distributed PV generation system. Conventional FACTS techniques and devices such as
static VAR compensator and static synchronous compensator are used. VAR compensator
provides a fast-acting reactive power on high-voltage transmission lines. On the contrary,
static synchronous compensator is a fast-acting device that can provide or absorb reactive
power, and hence it plays a vital role in regulating the point of connection voltage to a
power grid [143]. In [144], the researchers determined that large-scale PV integration SVC
performs better than the STATCOM.
7. Discussion
This paper critically reviewed the recent advancements in the renewable integrated
economic load dispatch problem, one of the significant challenges of modern power system
operation. The outcome of the paper shows that interest in conducting research in this
field is growing daily, resulting in numerous research articles. Previously, researchers
used to rely on GA and PSO. However, in recent times, experts in the field are showing
more interest in evolutionary algorithms for solving this problem which is evident from
numerous recent research articles. Specifically, researchers are putting more emphasis
on swarm-based algorithms due to their ample search space and convergence rate, as
demonstrated in Tables 1 and 2. In the swarm-based intelligent-based algorithm category,
PSO has gained enormous popularity, which is evident from [42]. A simplified tabular
comparison of mathematical optimization (classical method) and metaheuristics (non-
conventional method) is presented in Table 5 below for better understanding.
Table 5. Comparison between the metaheuristics and mathematical optimization.
Criteria Metaheuristics [145] Mathematical Optimization [146]

Global optimality No guarantee Guaranteed
Complexity High Low
Convergence speed Slow Fast
Handling constraints May require modification Directly handled
Handling non-linearity Good Good
Handling discrete variables Good Not always efficient
Handling multi-modal problems Good Not always efficient
From the table, it is evident that metaheuristics which fall under the non-conventional
method outperform mathematical optimizations in terms of handling nonlinearity, discrete
variables, and multi-modal problems. One major problem of metaheuristics and non-
conventional methods is the absence of guarantee of global optimality, mainly due to its
hyperparameters. That is where parameter-less non-conventional algorithms and hybrid
algorithms come into play.
However, recently, researchers have been exploring the feasibility of parameter-less
and hybrid algorithms for power system optimization. Jaya, Rao, and different variants
of this algorithms are performing exceptionally well in this aspect, which is evident from
Table 3 and [147].
8. Recommendation
The economic load dispatch (ELD) problem is a critical aspect of power system oper-
ation that seeks to reduce power generation costs while meeting operational constraints.
Because of the non-linearity and non-smoothness of cost functions, the ELD problem has
become more complex in recent years with the integration of renewable energy sources
(RES) such as photovoltaics (PV).
Classical methods for ELD, such as Newton’s method and quadratic programming,
are widely used because they provide relatively fast convergence rates and cost-effective
solutions. These methods, however, have limitations in dealing with non-convex and
non-smooth problems, and they only generate one solution in a single run.
Complex ELD problems can be solved using unconventional methods such as the bat
algorithm, genetic algorithm, ant colony optimization, particle swarm optimization, grey
wolf optimization, and simulated annealing. Recent research has demonstrated that hybrid
optimization techniques such as the memetic approach, cuckoo search algorithm with
genetic algorithm (CSA-GA), hybrid Jaya and oppositional-based chaotic group search op-
timization (OCGOA) outperform traditional methods in solving non-linear ELD problems.
PV and other renewable sources are still not the best options for regulated power
generation due to their variable nature and high capital investment costs, even though the
integration of RES into the power grid has decreased carbon footprint and transmission
losses. The best way to schedule thermal and PV generating to meet demand for energy has
been the subject of recent research. This paper illustrated various technical solutions and the
benefits of large-scale PV integration for economic load dispatch. The important approaches
are generation dispatch and economic dispatch, and the literature review suggests that there
are some significant challenges in large-scale PV integration, such as uncertainty, variability,
and system adequacy. Through analysis and thorough observation, it can be said that
various techniques such as spinning reserve requirement, generation scheduling, solar plant
power prediction, proper dispatch strategy, various transmission system aspects, regulating
reserve, load-following reserve, contingency reserves, generation scheduling, solar plant
power prediction, and dispatch unit selection are among the solutions. These technical
solutions aid in dealing with issues such as variability, uncertainty, and system adequacy.
The choice of algorithm for economic load dispatch with large-scale PV integration is
determined by the problem’s complexity and nonlinearity. Classical methods are simple
and straightforward to implement, but non-traditional and hybrid metaheuristic methods
can handle more complex problems. There is, however, a trade-off between computation
time and optimal outcome.
However, in metaheuristic algorithms, there are mainly two phases: the exploration
phase and the exploitation phase. In other words, these phases can be called a global search
and a local search. In the exploration phase, the swarms try to detect the global optimum
solution, and candidates converge in the exploitation phase. One of the limitations of these
algorithms is that they often tend to converge quickly and become stuck in the local optima.
However, if it becomes stuck in the local optima, it cannot determine the best optimal
solution globally. Metaheuristic algorithms do not guarantee finding the global optimum
solution for a given optimization problem. They are used as an approximation method to
determine good solutions, and not necessarily the best possible solutions.
Metaheuristics are a class of optimization algorithms that are used to determine
approximate solutions to difficult problems that cannot be solved using traditional opti-
mization methods. They are based on the idea of simulating natural processes, such as the
behavior of animals, to determine good solutions. Because of this, they can often provide
solutions that are close to the global optimum, but they may not always offer the exact
global optimum.
Therefore, the global optimality of a solution depends on the specific algorithm, the
problem, and the stopping criterion. Some metaheuristics methods might be more likely to
produce the global optima than others, but it depends on many factors such as the problem
structure and the parameter tuning. That is where parameter-less hybrid metaheuristic
algorithm comes into play. Sometimes, due to many search spaces, design varies when
multiple constraints such as generator limits, ramp rate limit, spinning reserve, and security
constraints are put in place.
In such systems, hybrid parameter-less metaheuristics algorithms can overcome such
challenges. Advantages of hybrid parameter-less algorithms are listed as below.
Compared to conventional optimization methods, hybrid metaheuristic algorithms
for economic load dispatch provide a number of benefits. These consist of:
• Global search capability: Unlike traditional approaches, which are prone to becoming
stuck in local minima, hybrid metaheuristic algorithms are able to traverse the whole
search space.
• Flexibility: Hybrid metaheuristic algorithms can be quickly adjusted to add new
constraints or objectives and can be easily adaptable to other sorts of economic load
dispatch situations.
• Robustness: Large-scale, non-convex, and non-smooth optimization problems can be
handled by hybrid metaheuristic algorithms.
• Solutions of high quality: Hybrid metaheuristic algorithms are capable of finding
solutions of high quality with a high level of accuracy and precision.
• Efficiency: Hybrid metaheuristic algorithms are capable of solving complex problems
quickly and are computationally efficient.
• Handling uncertainty: Hybrid metaheuristics can handle the system’s uncertainty,
such as the output of the random generator, the speed of the wind, etc.
It is recommended to use parameter-less hybrid metaheuristic algorithms in such a
scenario as they can manage ample search space, many design variables, parameters, and
computational costs. Moreover, it will help to determine the best cost as it is not prone to
becoming stuck in the local optima.
9. Conclusions
The contribution of this paper is divided into two parts. The first part presents a com-
prehensive review of various optimization techniques and recent algorithms for economic
load dispatch, as well as combined economic load dispatch. For optimal generation, it is
necessary to take into account both cost and emissions to achieve the best possible outcome.
Based on the nature of the optimization problem, these techniques were classified into three
major categories: conventional, metaheuristic, and hybrid. An in-depth table summarizing
the advantages and disadvantages of prominent recent algorithms was included. When
summarizing the strengths and weaknesses of these algorithms, various power constraints
and integrated sources were also taken into account. Through close observation, it was
determined that hybrid algorithms performed better for grid optimization through eco-
nomic load dispatch with integrated renewable sources as they combine the merits of two
or more algorithms to reach global optima faster and more efficiently. The latter half of
the paper addresses the problems and solutions associated with integrating large-scale
renewables into the existing power system. From a technical point of view, the grid in-
tegration discussed in the latter half of the paper highlights the fact that the operational
problems of the power system are associated with major factors such as spinning and
non-spinning reserve, unit commitment, and load following mechanisms. For large-scale
PV integration, custom-made operational dispatch is necessary. Inverter technology for PV
systems can play a significant role by injecting reactive power, controlling the ramp rate,
and providing solutions to anti-islanding problems. The fluctuations in PV output power
can be minimized by using BESS techniques along with inverters. Batteries connected in
parallel with PV systems can compensate for power fluctuations through ramping rate limit
control. In future work, researchers will investigate novel hybrid algorithms and further
explore newly launched optimization modeling languages and constraint optimization

tools to solve the economic load dispatch problem.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, K.E.F. and H.Y.; methodology, K.E.F., H.Y. and L.C.D.S.;
validation, K.E.F. and F.H.; formal analysis, K.E.F.; writing—original draft preparation, K.E.F.;
writing—review and editing, K.E.F., H.Y. and F.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research is funded by Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Faculty of Integrated Technolo-
gies: UBD/RSCH/1.3/FICBF(b)/2020/011.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: Authors would like to thank Faculty of Integrated Technologies, Universiti
Brunei Darussalam for providing research support and funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors have no conflict of interest.
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Sustainability 2023, 15, 11837. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151511837 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

2. Formulation of Economic Load Dispatch

Citation Counts Over the Years

Et = 3.24M pv (1 − 0.0041 × ( Tt − 8) × St ). (3)

where a is called the dimensionless annuitization coefficient, which can be denoted as

2.3. Integrated Cost Function Incorporating Solar PV

2.3.1. Power Balance

Generator Production Limit:

Pimin < Pi < Pimax , (8)

2.3.2. Ramping Rate Constraint

2.3.3. Prohibited Operating Zones

2.3.4. Combatting the Intermittency and Uncertainties

Load Demand Uncertainty

3. Optimization Algorithms for Economic Power Dispatch

Figure 2. Optimization Algorithms for ELD.

√  Easy to implement  Local searching capacity is weak

 Can deal with multiple local minima

 Numerous hyper parameters need

 Cannot solve problem with

√  Performs quite well with piecewise

√  Suitable candidate for non-smooth  Comparatively slower rate in

√  Sometimes stuck in the

√  Great global exploration and  Researchers are still in the process

 The initial values of the decision

√  Global search capability

Table 2. Deterministic vs Stochastic Methods [23–27,44–46].

Deterministic Methods Stochastic Methods

4. Recent Progress on Power Dispatch with PV

Table 3. Summary of recent economic load dispatch with renewables.

Test Unit Optimization Objective

5. Current Practices in ELD

Figure 3. Problems of solar integration.

Figure 4. Methods for maintaining generation and load demand balance.

5.2. Grid Code and Large-Scale PV System

5.3. Economic Feasibility of Large-Scale Photo Voltaic Systems

5.4. Economic Dispatch of Large-Scale Solar PV System

6. Challenges and Technical Solution

6.2. Spinning Reserve Requirement for Generation Dispatch

6.2.1. Regulating Reserve

Figure 5. Classification of Operating Reserves [91,92].

6.3. Generation Scheduling with PV

6.4. Solar Plant’s Power Prediction

Very Short Term Short Term Long Term or Medium Term

6.5. Generation Units’ Dispatch Selection

Figure 6. Substitution cost of renewable plant.

6.6. Operating Limits of Generator

Figure 8. Monitoring actions for real-time economic dispatch.

Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 32

Figure 9. Key monitoring parameters of transmission system.

Transmission System Frequency Stability

6.8.1. Generation Resources

6.8.3. Transmission Resources

6.9. Solar Tracker

6.10. Adequate Protection of Solar PV System

6.11. Voltage Stability in Large-Scale PV Integrated Systems

Table 5. Comparison between the metaheuristics and mathematical optimization.

Criteria Metaheuristics [145] Mathematical Optimization [146]

explore newly launched optimization modeling languages and constraint optimization

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√ Easy to implement Local searching capacity is weak

Can deal with multiple local minima

Numerous hyper parameters need

Cannot solve problem with

√ Performs quite well with piecewise

√ Suitable candidate for non-smooth Comparatively slower rate in

√ Sometimes stuck in the

√ Great global exploration and Researchers are still in the process

The initial values of the decision

√ Global search capability