M5B2

M5B2-DIGITAL TECHNIQUES AND AVIATION
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT TRAINING HUB
SYSTEMS
Aviation Training Hub Page |1
For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

B2. Basic M5B2– Digital Techniques and Electronic Instrument Systems Dated: October 2019
M5B2-DIGITAL TECHNIQUES AND ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS ................... 0

Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 5
Electronic Instrument Systems ....................................................................................................... 6
Typical systems arrangements and cockpit layout...................................................................... 6
Numbering Systems ...................................................................................................................... 21
Numbering systems: binary, octal and hexadecimal................................................................. 21
Conversions between the number systems ............................................................................... 28
Data Conversion............................................................................................................................ 40
Analogue Data .......................................................................................................................... 40
Digital Data ............................................................................................................................... 43
Operation and application of analog to digital, and digital to analog converters ..................... 51
Inputs and Outputs .................................................................................................................... 64
Limitations of various types...................................................................................................... 70
Data Buses .................................................................................................................................... 73
Operation of data buses in aircraft systems .............................................................................. 73
Logic Circuits................................................................................................................................ 89
Identification of common logic gate symbols, tables and equivalent circuits .......................... 89
Applications used for aircraft systems, schematic diagrams .................................................. 107
Interpretation of logic diagrams .............................................................................................. 109
Basic Computer Structure ........................................................................................................... 113
Computer terminology ............................................................................................................ 113
Computer technology (as applied in aircraft systems) ............................................................ 128
Computer related terminology ................................................................................................ 135
Operating principle, layout, interfaces of the main components in a microcomputer ............ 145
Information contained in single and multiaddress instruction words ..................................... 146
Memory associated terms ....................................................................................................... 152
Operation of typical memory devices ..................................................................................... 152
Operation, advantages and disadvantages of the various data storage systems ...................... 156
Microprocessors .......................................................................................................................... 159
Functions performed and overall operation of a microprocessor ........................................... 159
Control and processor ............................................................................................................. 160
Clock ....................................................................................................................................... 161

Register ................................................................................................................................... 164

Arithmetic logic unit ............................................................................................................... 165
Integrated Circuits ....................................................................................................................... 166
Operation and use of encoders and decoders .......................................................................... 166
Function of encoder types ....................................................................................................... 168
Uses of medium, large and very large scale integration ......................................................... 169
Multiplexing................................................................................................................................ 170
Operation, application and identification of multiplexers and demultiplexers ....................... 170
Fiber Optics ................................................................................................................................. 175
Advantages and disadvantages ............................................................................................... 175
Fiber optic data bus ................................................................................................................. 177
Fiber optic related terms ......................................................................................................... 179
Terminations ........................................................................................................................... 191
Couplers .................................................................................................................................. 193
Control Terminals ................................................................................................................... 197
Remote Terminals ................................................................................................................... 198
Application of fiber optics in aircraft systems ........................................................................ 199
Electronic Displays ................................................................................................................. 203
Principles of operation of common types of displays used in modern aircraft ....................... 204
Electrostatic Sensitive Devices ................................................................................................... 217
Special handling of components sensitive to electrostatic discharges .................................... 218
Component and personnel anti-static protection devices........................................................ 218
Awareness of risks and possible damage ................................................................................ 225
Software Management Control ................................................................................................... 227
Awareness of restrictions ............................................................................................................ 227
Airworthiness requirements and unapproved changes to software......................................... 230
Electromagnetic Environment .................................................................................................... 233
EMC-Electromagnetic Compatibility ..................................................................................... 233
EMI-Electromagnetic Interference ......................................................................................... 239
HIRF-High Intensity Radiated Field ....................................................................................... 241
Lightning/lightning protection ................................................................................................ 243
Typical Electronic/Digital Aircraft Systems ............................................................................... 246

ACARS - ARINC Communication and Addressing and Reporting System .......................... 246
EICAS - Engine Indication and Crew Alerting System.......................................................... 247
FBW - Fly by Wire ................................................................................................................. 249
FMS - Flight Management System ......................................................................................... 253
IRS - Inertial Reference System ............................................................................................. 255
GPS - Global Positioning System ........................................................................................... 256
Integrated modular avionics .................................................................................................... 260
Annex .......................................................................................................................................... 263

Introduction
"I believe there is a global demand for perhaps five computers”
(Thomas Watson, IBM manager 1943)
'There is no reason for any individual to have a computer in his home.”

(Ken Olsen, president, chairman and founder of Digital Equipment, 1977)
Our world is becoming increasingly digitalized. Digital technology defines our social
environment and of course it is part of our everyday lives. Therefore, are well known topics such
as the use of microprocessors, or modern communications such as the mobile phone
inconceivable without the use of digital technology. The digitalized world is also widely applied
in aviation with glass cockpits, fully automatic control and feedback control technology in
engines, autopilots, highly complex bus systems and networks.
This handbook contributes to giving you a better understanding of unknown matter, which you
cannot see or feel, and to impart knowledge about elementary components and structures. Digital
technology as a complex and broad field of knowledge will be explained step-by-step and this
will facilitate the entry into the world of bits and bytes. Besides classroom assistance, the book is
also suitable for exam preparation and for self-study. We wish you much pleasure and patience
when working through the topics and we hope that the textbook contributes to your personal
development.

Electronic Instrument Systems

Typical systems arrangements and cockpit layout
Similar to computer technology, cockpit design and display technology have changed over the
last two decades.
The term cockpit literally translates as the crew compartment.
The cockpit design was subject to various influences during the course of development into
modern aviation. So the flying apparatuses of Lilienthal and the Wright brothers had an open
cockpit with none or hardly any instrumentation. The standardization of instruments and their
layout was introduced in the mid 1930's, then in the 1970's the influence of avionics increased,
which lead to the emergence of the first glass cockpits. Modern display and operating elements
as well as monitoring systems, made it possible to remove the third "man" in the cockpit. Today,
standard features of pilots' workstations include electronic data processing, digital high
performance computers and data buses. Simultaneously reducing the size of the components
allows for a cleaner cockpit design, enhanced ergonomics and an improved efficiency in the
cockpit. Meanwhile, all well-known aircraft manufacturers equip their fleets with similar cockpit
designs and thus they save on development and training costs.
Modern aircraft are able to fly more, and longer routes, due to constantly improving components,
engines and the use of new materials. Legal requirements limit the maximum flight duties times
of the human element, however, they must constantly supervise the modern technology and be
prepared for failure scenarios. For this purpose, the cockpit must provide optimum ergonomics.
Ergonomics is defined as the systematic study of people while they work. As a result, seats,
screen positions and control devices have been designed to create the best possible arrangement
and setting options for each individual pilot.
With regard to the cockpit design, the aim is to arrange working conditions on board in such a
way that the crew's performance can be used as efficiently as possible. Besides protecting the
crew from general stresses, it also includes sensible information processing (by suitable optical,
acoustic and mechanical displays). This relieves the crew and thus enables them to reserve their
mental and physical capabilities to process the emergency procedures in case of an emergency.
Display and operating elements are conveniently grouped together according to the frequency of
use and their relevance. This prevents long adaptation times for the eyes. Reading errors are
minimized and in the case of flights according to visual flight rules (VFR), the crew has more
time to observe the airspace or to carry out the pilotage.

Important optical display instruments are concentrated in instrument groups and installed
identically in (almost) all aircraft.
The uniform colors for warning, caution and indicator lights make it easier to use them in a
consistent manner.
The most important classic flight attitude and navigational instruments are installed in a "t-shape'
at a central position in the cockpit.
Basic-T
The following instruments belong to the Basic-T:
• Airspeed indicator (ADI)

• Artificial horizon (Al)
• Altimeter
• Magnetic direction indicator
The arrangement of information on modern multifunction displays is also based on the Basic-T.
A lot of the basic information is grouped into the primary flight display (PFD) for the pilots. This
gives the above-mentioned advantages of glass cockpit technology. The principle of the Basic-T
continues to be adhered to and it is regulated by law in the relevant regulations

Basic-T on a PFD
The basic structure of cockpits developed at a very early stage. This structure can still, with more
modern displays, be found in the aircraft of today.

"Old" cockpit from 1958
An example of this is the Vickers from 1958. It demonstrates a typical cockpit with the
associated instruments. This layout is adopted in modern cockpits as shown in the following
figure of the cockpit of the Boeing 737.

Aviation Training Hub P a g e | 10
Cockpit of a Boeing 767
The following figure demonstrates the installation of displays and operating elements taking the
example of the Boeing 737. All instruments, operating elements are arranged in a grouped and
structured manner.

Cockpit B737 with structural division
The arrangement of the cockpit is also designed in the Basic-T. Together the displays of the ND
and PFD form the Electronic Flight Information System (EFIS). All information for performing a
safe flight is presented on these displays.
EFIS displays
In the cockpit of the helicopter H145, the PFD and ND are combined on one screen. At the same

time, the monitoring of the systems is depicted by means of a Caution and Advisory Display
(CAD) and the First Limit Indicator. This provides the pilot with all necessary information in one
screen.
Cockpit H 145
Cockpit H 145
The same layout of instruments in "fixed wings" can be found in the glass cockpits of many

helicopters. Due to the size of the aircraft and the associated reduction of systems or
components, the crew compartment appears smaller and more manageable. However, the
dimensions of the helicopter increase when the take-off weight rises and a certain analogy with
the cockpit of the B737 becomes clearly visible.
Cockpit H 225
Besides flight instrument and systems displays, warning units display abnormal conditions or
advisories. These advisories refer to switching statuses for example that the air conditioning or
the heating is turned on. Various colors are used in order to display the level urgency to the crew.
Amber cautions mean an increased attention is required but no immediate action. The next level
is a red warning which requires immediate action from the pilots. A fire in the engine would
trigger a red warning. The color codes play a pivotal role in the aircraft cockpit, they appear in
warning panels or they display normal or danger ranges in instruments.
A uniform color scheme has been adopted on a worldwide scale both on individual instruments
as well as on multifunction displays.

Colour schemes and operating range on instruments

Cautions (yellow) and advisories (green displays, Pitot HTR)
Warning panel
The designated area demonstrates the warning panel in the cockpit of a helicopter. Immediate
action is required from the pilot when a warning lamp lights up. This can for example signify
that the output must be reduced or the helicopter must be landed immediately.
It is the task of the PFD, besides displaying the flight attitude (attitude indicator as main

information), to also display the speed, altitude, course, autopilot mode, ILS data etc. As a rule, it
is one of the two EFIS displays.
The task of the ND is to present the position of the aircraft in a general navigational overview,
taking into account the various navigational aids, the flight schedule and flight aeronautical chart
data of the flight management system (FMS), as well as the weather radar information. Both
displays can also indicate abnormal conditions which, for example, refer to the autopilots or
erroneous navigation settings.
PFD and ND
The engine data are particularly important (engine speed, pressure, temperature) which are
depicted on the engine-indicating and crew-alerting system (EICAS) for fixed wing aircraft or
Vehicle and Engine Monitoring Display (VEMD) for helicopters. If limit values of oil pressures
or temperatures are exceeded, this will be especially emphasized. Besides the engine data, the
pilot can also monitor electrical parameters and additional attachments such as masses on load
hooks.

Exceedance of maximum oil temperature of engine 2 in VEMD

Structure central panel display system (CPDS)
Structure Flight Control Display System (FCDS)
In a 2-pilot cockpit, many of the system switches and displays are positioned on the overhead
panel or on the lower NAV/AFCS unit with the result that errors or failures to the systems lie
outside the crew' s field of view. Important system parameters such as pressures, temperatures,
switch settings etc. are monitored by the appropriate switch which triggers a warning light if an
error occurs. When the crew has taken note of the warning, the Master Warning Light can be
turned off by pressing RESET on the warning light or on a confirmation key on the control stick.
After RESET the system is ready for the next error and it can process this according to the same
principle.
The display structure is presented in the following example (error in the autopilot system):

The first information seen by the crew is the lighting up of the MASTER CAUTION/ WARN
display. The crew can recognize which system is affected by looking at the warning unit.
The crew obtains further information in the CAD (display for temperature warning parameter) or
on the operating panel of the affected system.
Warning unit and CAD display
Block diagram CPDS inch interfaces and data buses

The VEMD is a "duplex" device. All signals are received and evaluated by the three processing

modules (of which two are in the VEMD and one in the CAD) and sent via the exchange bus
from one module to the other. The modules monitor each other mutually. In case a malfunction
occurs and a parameter lies outside the tolerance range, an error message will be displayed. In
the event of an error to a module, all functions (with double signal) can be displayed on the other
module after an automatic reconfiguration.
Each module displays the data which it processed on its own screen. The system only has a few
analog connections which serve exclusively as a back-up. This ensures that "in an emergency", a
few important displays are still available. The CPDS not only has digital connections among
each other, but it also receives error codes and system messages from the engines via a digital
interface (RS422) from the FADEC 1 and 2. At the same time, the system can be read by the
technician via a maintenance port. Besides reading the data, the maintenance technician can
perform a fine-tuning of the voltage via a potentiometer and it enables the pilot to test the
displays as part of the pre-flight check.

Numbering Systems
Numbering systems: binary, octal and hexadecimal
Number systems are used to depict numbers. The numbers are depicted according to certain rules
as a result of digits or symbols. The number systems with which we are best acquainted are the
decimal system (decade system), the dual system (binary system) and the hexadecimal system
(base-16 number system). Each number system consists of face values. The number of face
values is the result of the base. The largest face value corresponds to the base minus (-) 1. If the
largest face value is exceeded, the next highest place value results from the transfer.
There is a vast amount of different languages in the world. However, it is the decimal system
which has prevailed nearly everywhere in the number systems (this is not to be confused with the
metric system, even in countries in which measurements are made with miles and feet,
calculations are made with decimals).
It is certainly our ten fingers, which everyone used to pass their first numeracy exercises that
helped the decimal system gain so much importance since there are indeed alternatives to the
base-IO working system among the many other possible number systems, which one could argue
for.
We could also work with the base 12 as was practiced in days gone by with dozen or gross (144=
122).
But it is the decimal system which prevailed and this consists of ten digits: 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,0
It is a positional notation system; this means the position of a digit within a number which
consists of several digits, determines the size of its contribution to the value of the number. In the
decimal system, each digit has the tenfold value to the number which is placed on the right of it,
i.e. in the number 549, the 9 is in the "units position", the 4 is in the "tens position" and the 5 is
in the "hundreds position".
Therefore: 549 = 5*100 + 4*10 + 9 = 5*102 + 4*101 + 9.
Or 168910 = 1*1000 +6*100 +8*10+ 9 = 1*103 + 6*102 +8+101+9
The octal number system (from Latin octo eight) is a positional notation system with the base-8
(a so-called base-8 number system). The octal number system has eight different digits for the
representation of a number: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 and 7.

Binary, octal and decimal system
The dual number system - also known as dual or binary system - comprises 2 numbers,
characterized by o and 1. This numbering system is required in information technology because
it is very easy to create the states ON and OFF with technical components. These numbers can be
used in accordance with our "normal" decimal system. You can add, subtract, multiply and
divide them. Given that they hardly differ from "normal" calculating, they are excellently suited
to be used in information technology (IT). The following table represents the connection between
the binary and the decimal system. Given that from 10 and every tenfold (100, 1000...), a new
position is started, our numbering system is called decade or decimal system.
In the binary system, there are only the digits 0 and 1. The o comes after the 1 again and at the
same time the next position is also increased by one here. After 10000 (it reads: "One-zero-zero-
zero-zero", not "ten thousand"), 10001 comes and afterwards 10010. The zero has come from the
1 on the last position and thus the 1 came from the o on the second position from the right.
Also here this shift can, in certain circumstances, be spread over many positions, and this
actually occurs very often: for example, the 1101010000 comes after the 1101001111
When converting numbers from the binary system into the decimal system, it is sporadically
checked if a 1 is on the position (for example on the four position). If so, the value of the position
is added.
Example: 10110112

(The subscripted number 2 on the rear right means: "This number is a binary number")
The ones sit on the first, the second, the eighth, the sixteenth and the sixty fourth position. (See
also the first example in the table)
64 +16+8+2+1=91
Thus: 10110112 = 9110
When converting from the decimal into the binary system then you proceed in reverse. The
decimal number consists of adding the appropriate positions of the binary system and you then
get the associated binary number.
Examples:
• 3410 = 32 + 2 1000102 (With this binary number the 32nd and the 2nd position are taken!)
• 1510 = 8+4+2+1 = 11112
Example 44 of decimal in binary:
In the table we are looking for the next lower decimal place value to 4410 and we find 32

Hexadecimal system
The disadvantage of large binary numbers is that they are very confusing. The hexadecimal
system was introduced in order to remedy this.
Given that people cannot reasonably record binary numbers, the (time-consuming) conversion
into the decimal system (and back) means that rounding errors are unavoidable and thus the
hexadecimal system has been established to enable communication between programmers and

computers. The hexadecimal system has the base B = 16 and works according to the 16 digits: o,
1, 2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9, A, B, C, D, E, F.
The hexadecimal systems have 16 symbols in alpha numeric form. The numeric representation
uses the decimal digits from o to 9. The alpha form for the missing digits from 10 to 15, is
replaced by the capital letters A to F. The highest digit in the hexadecimal system is F. If this
digit is reached when counting then a transfer takes place to the next highest digit, that is, this is
increased by 1 and all lower digits become o. So the number 10 follows F - the transfer takes
place after F16 or after the 1510.
As a result, the number 1016 is broken down as follows. 0*160 and 1*161 = 1610
The digit values of the hexadecimal system are powers of the base 16.
Hexadecimal numbers are marked with a "16" as index or a prefixed dollar symbol ($). Other
spellings with "h" or "H" are inconsistent and thus incorrect and only acceptable in exceptional
cases.
• 10016 (correct spelling)

• $100 (correct spelling)
• 100 h (false spelling)
An example is the hexadecimal number C7hex = C716. The 7 stands on the lowest position as
"LOW DIGIT", the C is on the highest position as "HIGH DIGIT'
The highest value bit is identified as most significant bit (msb) and the lowest value bit as least
significant bit (Isb). Similarly, the highest value byte - most significant byte (MSB) and the

lowest value byte - least significant byte (LSB) are also adopted. (You need to observe the
capitalization of LSB/MSB for Byte).
In this area, the division of data volumes can also occur or be discussed in sub-areas.
The byte (or octet) is a measurement unit in digital and information technology which usually
stands for a sequence of 8 bits. In order to expressly refer to an amount of 8 bits, the name octet
is also used; the earlier name of octade which was equally well-established, is no longer
common.
An octet is sometimes dismantled into two halves (nibbles) per 4 bits, whereby each nibble can
be represented with a hexadecimal digit. An octet can, therefore, be represented by two
hexadecimal digits.
The half of a nibble is also called a crumb. A crumb comprises two bits. This name is, however,
rather uncommon because bits are rarely depicted in two blocks. All concepts will be
summarized again hereinafter.
Similar to the name of tetrad for 4 bits, the names of triade also used to be common for a group
made up of 3 bits and octade for 8 bits (1 byte).

When expressed in decimal and binary prefixes and taking into account the percentage
difference, the table looks as follows:
The following table should then represent all number systems incl. the numerical value and the
terms for data volumes.

Conversions between the number systems
The conversions of number systems can be performed in any sequence. Thus, a binary number
can be converted into a decimal number and vice versa. A few examples on the following pages
should provide a deeper insight into previously covered material. Changes to the number systems
takes place in the subsequent order:
• Decimal into binary / dual and vice versa

• Decimal into octal and vice versa
• Decimal into hexadecimal and vice versa
Decimal into binary / dual and vice versa

When converting from the decimal into the binary system, the decimal number consists of
adding up the appropriate positions of the binary system which then gives you the associated
binary number.

Example: 5410 in X2
In the table we are looking for the next lower decimal place value to 5410 and we find 3210

Another method for converting numbers is Horner' s method.

54 / 2 = 27 Remainder o LSB
27 / 2 = 13 Remainder 1
13 / 2 = 6 Remainder 1
6 / 2 = 3 Remainder o
3 / 2 = 1 Remainder 1
1 / 2 = 0 Remainder 1 MSB
When converting from decimal numbers into binary number systems, it is the BCD code which
is especially important for information technology.
BCD means Binary Coded Decimal and is known as 8-4-2-1- code due to the distribution of the
place values
With the BCD code, every position of a decimal number is coded by means of a binary character
set (0, 1). When encoding decimal digits 0 to 9, at least 4 binary digits are required. Thus, BCD
numbers are also represented in 4-bit blocks. A total of 16 different number values (0-15) can be
represented with 4 bits. However, you only need the values for 0 - 9. For that reason, BCD digit
sequences are divided into valid (0 - 9) and invalid (10 - 15) digit sequences. All valid digit
sequences are identified as tetrads. All invalid digit sequences are identified as pseudo tetrads
because they are not used and therefore they are unnecessary and superfluous.
There is no particular standard for BCD numbers. They do not have a particular data type. BCD
numbers are a subset of hexadecimal numbers for which the data types BYTE, WORD and
DWORD are used. Thus, BCD numbers are entered as hexadecimal numbers, however, only the
digits o to 9 are used as is the case with the decimal system. The hexadecimal digits A to F are
not used. By using the BCD numbers on the basis of the 8421 codes (most commonly used and it
is the most well-known BCD encoding), it is possible to represent number representations in a
simplified form. This way, it is possible to represent binary words in such a way that the decimal
value can be read digit-by-digit.

Example for a decimal number which is represented as BCD code
• Decimal number: 5862

• As BCD code: 01011000 0110 0010
With the BCD code, it is ultimately a matter of simplifying a decimal number for information
technology by converting it into decimal structures.
In the above-listed example, 0101 represents not thousands but rather it is binary for the number
five.
1*20 + 0*21 + 1+22 + 0*23 = 1 +0 + 4 +0 = 510 = 01012
In contrast to the BCD code, the Gray code is not a purely binary code but it has a related
structure.

The number system is used less in arithmetic operations, instead it is mainly used for analog to
digital conversion. The Gray code is a one-step code, that is, the transfer of a code word to the
next only one single bit (binary digit) is changed at all times. Thus no intermediate values can
appear during the transfers such as may occur for example with the BCD code in its transfer
from decimal 7 (01112) to 8 (10002). In this case, namely four binary digits change at once with
the result that the short-term intermediate values may appear. In the extreme case these are the 0
(00002) or the 15 (11112). This can then lead to significant errors.
The Gray code is, for example, used for digital measuring scales, angle sensors etc. As already
explained, the special feature of the Gray code is that neighboring values differ from each other
in precisely one bit; that also applies for the transfer between 2n-1 and 0. Therefore, if you rotate
the codes assigned to the numbers - whereby you conceive o and 2n-1 as neighbors, then you get
a Gray code again. The value of a 1 on the position k in the Gray code number system is 2k+1-1,
also 1, 3, 7, 15, 31,.. The values of the individual ones are, in contrast to the normal binary
system, not added but rather they are alternately added and subtracted starting from the left.
Positions which are o, are omitted here. Alternatively, you can start from the right and you
subtract the previous intermediate value from the value of the position and work your way to the
left onwards.
Another important character encoding or conversion is the ASCII code.
The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII, alternatively expressed as
US- ASCII), is a 7-bit character encoding; it corresponds to the US variant of ISO 646 and serves
as a basis for subsequent encodings for character sets that are based on more bits. Given that
each bit can accept two values, there are 27 = 128 different bit patterns which can also be
interpreted as whole numbers 0-127 (hexadecimal 00-7 F).

Characters can very easily be represented in binary format. For this purpose, you simply need to
assign every character with a certain bit pattern. The amount of bits used for this depends on how
many characters you would want to include in the binary encoding. In a code table, each
character (digit, letter or special character) is assigned a certain bit pattern. For example, in the
(extended) ASCII code table, the letter A is represented by the bit pattern 01000001 and the
letter P by the bit pattern 01010000. The character string PA UL in (extended) ASCII encodings
can be encoded by the bit pattern 01010000 01000001 01010101 01001100 (see the bold print in
the next figure).
The printable characters in the ASCII comprise the Latin alphabet in upper and lower case, the
ten Arabic digits as well as some punctuation marks. The character set largely corresponds to
that of a keyboard or typewriter for the English language. In computers and other electrical
devices which display text, this is generally stored in accordance with ASCII or downward
compatible (ISO 8859, Unicode).
The pure ASCII code does not allow for encoding for language-specific special characters (such
as umlauts in the German language) and thus it is only partially suited to the encoding of German
texts. In order to meet the needs of language-specific features, a range of enlargements were
carried out to the 7-bit ASCII code to make it into an 8-bit code comprising 256 characters. All
of these enlargements conform with the ASCII code in the first 128 characters and apply
encoding for the remaining 128 characters.
The eight bit which is not used for ASCII can also be used for error correction purposes (parity
bit) on the communication lines or for other control tasks. The simplest enlargements are
encoding with language-specific characters which are not included in the Latin basic alphabet.
The following table demonstrates the ASCII encoding with 128 characters and it also clarifies
the conversion into other number systems.


Decimal into octal and vice versa
The conversions of octal into decimal number systems and binary codes are more complicated
and thus here is a recap and some explanations for a better understanding.
An octal number has 8 digits (0-7) and it can thus display 8 different states. A binary digit has 2
digits and can thus occupy 2 different states. 2 binary digits can occupy 22—4 different states, 3
binary digits can occupy 23—8 different states.
Given that an octal digit and 3 binary digits can occupy precisely 8 states, each octal digit can be
replaced by three binary digits and vice versa.
In the following example the binary number 10 010 111 110 0012 is converted into an octal
number.
1. At first, the digits are grouped according to blocks of three. You start with the smallest
position (on the right)
2. Then, the corresponding octal digits are read from the table
3. If positions are left over which do not result in a complete group of three, you need to
imagine "invisible zeros" instead. In our example, 10 is synonymous with 010 and vice
versa the first group of three 001 is synonymous with 1.
10 010 111 110 0012 = 227618
By means of the last two positions of the number systems, the solution process of the conversion:
110 0012 = 618
For the block of three lying furthest to the right:

0012 = 1*20 + 0*21 + 0*22 = 18 = 1*80 or 1+ 0 + 0 =110
This 1 corresponds to the digit lying furthest to the right in the resulting octal number.

For the digit sequence 110 0012 (second block of three from the right):
110 0012 = 0*23 + 1*24 + 1*25 = 618 = 6*81 = 0 + 16 + 32 = 4810
Conversion of decimal number 2008 into the octal system according to Horner
As is known from the decimal and binary system, the place values can be indicated as powers
with the base of the number system. The place values of the octal system are powers of the base
8.
The octal number 321 corresponds to the decimal number 209.
Example
The octal number 12138 corresponds to the decimal number 65110, because:

Decimal into hexadecimal and vice versa
The place values of the hexadecimal system are powers of the base 16.
As is the case with the decimal number, the numerical value of the hexadecimal number can be
determined by multiplying the digits with the associated place value and then adding these up.
Firstly, if there are any in the number, the letters A-F must be replaced by the numbers 10-15.
Result: 203116 = 824110
Summarizing the solution process of the hexadecimal calculation in the written form.
The conversion of hexadecimal numbers into decimal numbers takes place according to the
following model:
• You start from the right and multiply the first number with 160.
• With every additional place to the left, the exponent increases on the power by 1,
therefore 161, 162, 163 etc.

Example: The hexadecimal number A12F is to be converted into a decimal number
• The 1st number F is converted into 15.

• The 2nd number is 2. We multiply these with 16. 2 * 16 results in 32
• The 3rd number is 1. We multiply these with (16*16) 256. Results in 256.
• The 4th number B is converted into 10. We multiply the number with (16*16*16) =
4096. And we get the result 40960.
• All intermediate results are added: 15 + 32 + 256 + 40960 = 41263
Result: A12F16 = 4126310
Decimal into hexadecimal

In order to convert a decimal number into a hexadecimal number, the decimal number must only
be divided by the number 16 and then the remainder is noted.
Given that a number divided by 16 can only ever result in a remainder of 0 to 15 (because with
the remainder 16, the quotient would have to be increased by 1), the result is the equivalent
hexadecimal number. The following steps must be carried out time and again:
1. Divide the number by 16

2. Note the remainder of the division
3. If the result is not o, repeat step 1 and 2
4. At the end, it is only all the remainder numbers greater than 9 which must be replaced by
corresponding hexadecimal numbers (A, B, C, D, E, F).
Example:
The decimal number 4579110 thus results in the hexadecimal number B2DF16
Binary into hexadecimal

For the conversion into the binary or the dual system, a few mathematical calculations are
required in advance.

A hexadecimal number has 16 digits (0-9, A-F) and it can thus display 16 different states. A
binary digit has 2 digits and can thus occupy 2 different states. 2 binary digits can occupy 22 = 4
different states, 3 binary digits can occupy 23 = 8 different states and 4 binary digits can occupy
24 = 16 different states.
Given that a hexadecimal digit and four binary digits can occupy precisely 16 states, each
hexadecimal digit can be replaced by four binary digits and vice versa. In the following example,
the binary number 11 1110 00012 is converted into a hexadecimal number.
1. At first, the digits are grouped in blocks of four. You start with the smallest position (on
the right).
2. Then the corresponding hexadecimal digits are read from the table.
3. If there are positions left over which do not result in a complete group of four, you need
to imagine "invisible zeros" instead. In our example, 10 is synonymous with 0010 and
vice versa the first group of four 0001 is synonymous with 1.
Example: Conversion of a binary number into a hexadecimal number
Result 11 1110 00012 = 3E116

Data Conversion
Analogue Data
Analog data are represented by continuous functions. The analog display takes place by means of
a physical variable which is continuously varied in accordance with the depicted circumstances
or processes. Thermometers provide an example for this whereby temperature values are
characterized by the level of the mercury column or slide rules whereby the number
representation is ascertained by lengths on the logarithmic scale. Clocks will have acquainted
you with both analog (with the hand) and the digital time displays (with the digits).
Another example is listening to music which also falls into this category.
Continually modified voltages are transferred in the case of an analog transfer. When we listen to
music, we are dealing with analog signals, that is, continual modifications to sound waves and
this sound is also presented in electrical devices by continually modified voltages. The voltages
are continuously varied.
In aviation, analog displays are more commonly incorporated into smaller aircraft, i.e. as
altimeter and/or airspeed indicator.
In technical jargon, these analog displays are also often named "egg timers" or steam gauge.
Analog altimeters mechanically indicate the pressure and thus the estimated change in altitude
directly via a pointer and a standardized scale. Depending on the measurement unit used, a
rotation of the "minute" pointer results in 1000 m or 1000 feet with a scaling of 20 m or 20 feet
per scale mark. The display of the 1000 steps completed, is applied by a second "hour" pointer or
a dial, comparable to the date display of a watch. For particularly high flight altitudes, the 10000-
feet steps are also displayed by means of a pointer which is attached to the outer edge of the
scale.
In aviation, the instruments for measuring the speed of the aircraft compared with the ambient air
are identified as airspeed indicator (ASI). The speed of the aircraft is also identified as airspeed.
Nowadays, it is the barometric airspeed indicator which is the standard model. The instrument
consists of a pressure-proof housing to which the static pressure is connected. A barometer box
(diaphragm capsule) is located within the housing which is applied with the total pressure from
static and dynamic pressure.
The difference between the total pressure and static pressure corresponds, according to the

Bernoulli equation, to the speed-dependent dynamic pressure. This pressure difference is

displayed on a scale as speed.
Analog displays
Integration of the analog displays into a cockpit
An analog signal is, as part of signal theory, a form of signal with a stepless and uninterruptible
course. An analog signal is characterized as smoothness and it can be described, for example, by
the temporally continuous course of a physical variable such as sound pressure in the form of an
analog audio signal. Analog signals can accept any intermediate value in a predetermined value
range. They are constantly variable. The size of the analog signal mostly corresponds to the
value of a physical measured variable. Analog signals are value and time continuous.

In electronics, analog signals are usually selected in the form of an electric voltage, and rarely
also as an electric current, for the purpose of depicting the physical variable. More generally, an
analog signal can also be understood as a frequency, phase position or as a combined variable
made up of physical variables such as brightness, temperature or various mechanical variables.
For example, an aneroid barometer uses the deformation which results from the pressure; with a
record, analog audio signals can be gained through the differences in height of the individual
grooves.
Analog signals (voltage) on a time axis

Analog signals in a cockpit system
In aviation, analog lines are often used in digital systems as back-up for important basic
functions. The above-mentioned illustration shows how the CPDS screens and the engine control
communicate with digital lines. Several important basic functions (for example torque = TRQ)
are fed directly from the transmitter via FADEC boxes to the CAD. The N1 (gas generator
turbine) is even fed directly to the VEMD. If there is a failure with the electrical
system/electronics or the control boxes, the remaining analog values ensure that the aircraft can
continue to operate safely.
Digital Data
Digital data are represented by character strings (letters of an alphabet, digits of a number
system). Digital data only accept discrete values. They do not accept continuous values. In
contrast, analog data correspond to continuous functions and they are represented by physical
variables which display the fact which is to be described. They are continuously variable (for
example electric voltages, temperatures).
The difference between analog and digital data can be easily clarified by using the example of
temperature measurement. A normal thermometer with quicksilver display delivers analog data.
That means: the thermometer can display any measurement value between 0 and 50 degrees

(even if you cannot take exact readings of every value). In the example, the thermometer
indicates 20.56340C (you can take a reading of approx. 20.50C):
Analog thermometer
On the other hand, a digital thermometer delivers digital data. That means: not all temperatures
between o to 500C can be displayed but merely a certain amount of digits. For example, only
three-digit values can be displayed (two pre-decimal point positions and one decimal place):
Another example of the different representation of digital and analog values are statistical
surveys or signal curves.

Signal curve
In the case of an analog representation, measured values are also recorded completely (without
jumps) between the months, hours etc.
• Advantage: Precise indication, reflects reality

• Disadvantage: Difficult to take a reading; however, people often find it hard to
comprehend reality in any case: "We cannot see the grass grow even though it is
constantly changing in size and color".

Digital representation
In a digital representation, (diagrams, digits, letters, graphs etc.), there is no continual transfer
from one information to the next. In reality, though, complete values exist. Because in reality,
time, for example, does not stand still.
• Advantage
Easier to read, it can be sent and saved electronically
• Disadvantage
Does not reflect reality, too much data makes it difficult to take a reading; possible loss
of data due to digitalization of analog data (i.e. human voice in MP3); electricity is
required
In nature, all information is initially presented in analog form: In principle, the image that you
see or the sound that you hear has no smallest information unit or resolution. A modern-day
computer cannot do anything with this kind of information. It is the special characteristics of
electronics which resulted in computers having been digitally designed. "Digital" comes from the
English word "digit"; this word also derives from the Latin "digitus" (finger), because the finger
has always been

used for counting. Information can be always referred to as digital when it can be represented in
the form of numbers. More precisely, data are stored in the binary form which means as a
sequence of ones and zeros. That is not quite the same thing as dual. The dual system is the
mathematical binary system whereas binary generally indicates the storage of any data through
two different states.
Signals
Analog signals continuously change their value. By using a limit value, analog signals can
represent binary data ("on/off' data). It is simple and fast (for electronics and also for people) to
determine whether a voltage is situated above or underneath a limit value.

Signals and limit values
The conversion of an analog signal into a digital signal is a two-step process which can be
performed in arbitrary sequence:
• The sampling, for the purpose of transferring a time-continuous signal into a time-
discrete signal.
• The quantization for the purpose of converting a value-continuous signal into a value-
discrete signal.

Conversion from analog to digital
Different terminology is used depending on the area of application. The precise distinction which
is to be understood by digital signal is usually clear from the respective context: In signal theory,
mathematical consequences are used as a representation which are graphically characterized by
an "infinitely thin" pulse sequence in chronological order. In digital circuits, on the other hand, it
is common in the area of digital technology, it is not possible to represent a mathematical result
by means of physical parameters such as an electric voltage: In this case, the digital signal is
formed by a time-continuous course whereby the continual course is only modified at certain
times and the value between the times remains constant. The sampling and formation of the
digital signal normally takes place in constant time intervals, however, this is not mandatory.

Analog data and digital data
In information theory and technology, digital data are discretely represented information. It is in
this form that data can be better or exclusively read or processed by computers or other devices
for digital signal processing. In order to obtain digital data, these must first be digitalized. Then
they can be transferred and saved in an efficient and fault-tolerant manner.
The word digitalization is generally understood as the preparation of information for processing
or saving in a digital-technical system. The information is available in any analog form and then
it is converted via various stages into a digital signal which only consists of discrete values.

The variable which is to be digitalized can be anything that is measured by sensors i.e.
temperature or luminous intensity. The sensor measures the physical variable and represents it
again in the form of a -still analog- electric voltage.
This voltage is then converted into a digital value with an analog-to-digital converter in the form
of a (mostly electrical) digital signal. From here on, the variable is digitalized and it can be
processed further or saved by a digital-technical system (for example the home PC).
Summary of analog and digital technology:
Operation and application of analog to digital, and digital to

analog converters
Computers for commercial use, from the PC to the mainframe computer, exclusively process
digital data. If analog input- and output devices or analog transmission devices are to be
operated, then an analog to digital converter is required. Initially, the analog signal is measured
and then converted into a sequence of discrete values (continuous-to-discrete conversion).
Subsequently, the measured values are compared with a scale of values and then brought closer
to the most similar scale value (= quantization). The discrete measured values are then separated

from the detected interferences and digitalized depending on the processes involved (= analog-
to-digital conversion; abbreviated: A-D converter).
A/D converter
The conversion of the analog signals (for example voltage) is also called quantization.
In practical use of quantization, a physical variable as part of a measurement, on the basis of a

measuring principle for further processing, is often converted into an electrical signal and thus it
is quantified. In the past, quantization in the area of measurement technology took place by
reading the measuring device with numerical knowledge of the pointer position visible on a
scale.
For the quantization of an analog signal, it must first be converted into a time-discrete, value-
continuous signal. This can take place in various ways. Converters are often used in order to
guarantee the conversion process.

Measured variables
An important device for the conversion is the comparator. Comparators are devices which
compare two input voltages with each other. If the difference is negative then the output is set to
LOW, on the other hand, if the difference is positive then the output is set to HIGH. Practically,
it refers to a I-bit A-D converter. If there is a difference between the switchover point from LOW
to HIGH and from HIGH to LOW, then we refer to a hysteresis.
Comparator

The following function illustration provides clarification of the use of the comparator once again.
Here, an analog fuel gauge is converted into a digital signal.
Function illustration of the comparator
At the end of this chapter, the complete conversion process will be clarified once again with the
aid of an example.
Here, an explanation will be given for the conversion of an analog record into a CD.
The technology for saving music onto CDs is not yet very old - the first CDs emerged in the
early 1980's. However, they are based on a completely different way of recording sound. And
indeed not analog, hence the storage of waves as is the case for all other processes presented, but
rather digitally - in the form of numbers. It has the advantage that the sound quality is far better
than is the case for analog recording which wears out much quicker.
But how can you transform music into numbers? For this you need a computer, the analog-to-
digital converter which has already been explained

Outline of sound waves
The analog-to-digital converter samples the sound waves little by little and it memorizes a
number for each moment which indicates the height of the wave crest. The various A-D
converters can be distinguished by their so-called sampling rate, in other words how many times
they sample per second, and the sampling precision, so how precisely a number is ascertained.
The wave up there is converted as follows:
Conversion of the sound wave

If this tone is one-second-long, then the A-D converter has a sampling rate of 10 hertz, so it
memorizes 10 numbers per second. And it has a sampling precision of 9, because it distinguishes
nine different values. The A-D converter can now transmit these numbers (7, 8, 9, 5, 3,..) to its
memory.
This A-D converter is twice as precise, it samples 20 times per second and distinguishes 18
values. This also means that its memory has to memorize twice as many and also longer
numbers.
One can already see that the lower A-D converter is able to emulate the waves more efficiently.
Second A-D converter for the sound wave above
Now we can ask ourselves how these numbers are then transformed into music again. Again this
takes place via a computer, the digital-analog converter. It transforms the numbers into an
electric shaft which looks almost identical to the original. It also needs to know how the A-D
converter previously compiled them. It must therefore have the same sampling rate and the same
sampling precision, otherwise you are only left with waste. The wave, which the DA-converter
"assembles”, then looks like this:

DA-converter
In the figure below, the connection between the various sampling rates and the associated
precision when converting the analog signals into digital signals is explained once again. At the
same time, the precise pulse level can be assigned to the point of time x in a so-called value
table.

Conversion of analog-digital with value table
A digital-to-analog converter (DAC) also known as DA-converter, is used in order to convert

digital signals or individual values into analog signals. DACs are basic components of almost all
devices in digital consumer electronics (i.e. CD player) and communication technology (i.e.
mobile phones). As a rule, the DAC is carried out as an integrated circuit (IC).
The illustration presented below of a nR-DA-converter describes a simple circuit for converting
a binary number into a voltage which is proportional to it. In a closed switch, a current flow
through the resistors which corresponds to the place value in question. The switches must then
always be closed if a logic-one appears in the position in question. Due to the negative feedback
of the operational amplifier via resistor (RN), the summation point remains at zero potential. The
partial currents are thus added up without any mutual interference. When the switch is closed, it
results in the following output voltage: In the example, the place values Ro/2 Ro/4 and Ro /64 are
closed so that the summation of the output values results in the output voltage.

nR-DA-converter
An analog-to-digital converter is an electronic device or a component which converts a value-

and time-continuous analog signal into a sequence of digital data words. It refers to a value- and
time- discrete signal which exhibits a form which can be edited by the computer.
Additionally, the analog output signal is read in defined sampling rates. The acquired value-
continuous signals are converted into digital data words.
The more bit positions that the digital signal has, then the conversion is all the more precise. If
the digital word has eight binary positions, it is referred to as an 8-bit converter.
With 8 binary positions, 28 = 256 voltage values can be represented. In modern aircraft
engineering, it is common to have data words with 8, 10 up to 32 bits. Particularly with regard to
highly-complex systems such as autopilots or cockpit displays, high bit rates are required.
The analog-to-digital converter forms the penultimate step in the measurement chain. It receives
a voltage signal from the conditioning electronics and it must deliver an intelligible signal to the
PC. It is therefore responsible for converting the analog voltage signal into a digital signal. As
seen above, an analog signal is time- and value-continuous, a digital signal, in contrast, is time-
and value-discrete. This means that whereas an analog signal forms a continuous line, there are
only individual points in the digital signal.

Analog and digital signals

Analog and digital signal
An AD-converter converts an analog into a digital signal by sampling and then quantizing it. It
accepts values in relation to its sampling time (inverse of the sampling frequency or rate). Thus
the signal is time-discrete. A digital signal is not only time- but also value-discrete. In order to
achieve that, the AD-converter also quantizes the received values. Quantization means the
pooling of a range of vales into individual values. The number of voltage values (quantization
stages) is defined by the resolution of the AD-converter.
An AD-converter converts an analog into a digital signal by sampling and then quantizing it. It
accepts values in relation to its sampling time (inverse of the sampling frequency or rate). Thus
the signal is time-discrete. A digital signal is, however, not only time- but also value-discrete. In
order to achieve that, the AD-converter also quantizes the received values. Quantization means
the pooling of a range of vales into individual values. The number of voltage values
(quantization stages) is defined by the resolution of the AD-converter.

Sampling rates and times
A DAC (digital-to-analog converter) performs the reversed operation, the conversion of a

sequence of digital data words into an analog signal.
When the unknown voltage Ux is statically present on the input, the counter can be started with
the following decoder circuit via the start impulse. The MSB of the register is set to "1" via the
gate circuit, the DA-converter produces the associated analog value and the comparator
compares this value with the unknown analog value. If this is greater than the first bit, then this
bit remains, otherwise it is withdrawn again when clocking ends. The second clock switches on
the next lower bit, the comparator checks and leaves the bit or withdraws it. After eight clocks all
bits of the DA- converter are adjusted and the converted word and the analog input value only
vary slightly. The higher the clocking is, then the more accurately the conversion process can be
carried out.

Converters
The data from the data bus are uploaded onto the register on the basis of a write command. From
the register, the data word is given in parallel on the switch. If all 4 bits (LSB to MSB) are= o,
then the analog voltage across the load resistance RL= o volt. If the least significant bit (LSB) is
only= 1, then a voltage is established across RL, which is determined by R. At the next higher
bit, 1/2 R is switched on in the resistor network. With the correspondingly greater current
through RL, the removed analog voltage also increases. The resistance value is inversely
proportional to the significance of the connected bit.

Conversion process
Inputs and Outputs
In closed-loop control systems, input signals are understood as the signals produced by
transducers which process a control by means of the control elements in order to generate the
resulting output signals for drive elements. This principle is also called the IPO principle (input,
processing, output).
Input signals can be divided up into various types by means of their characteristics for example
through the signal form as a binary, digital or analog signal. Binary signals only know two states
(for example on/off), digital signals consist of a finite number of individual step values (for
example with a step or clock counter) and ultimately analog signals continuously depict a
measured variable. The connection between input and output signal should be clarified with the
aid of an amplifier.

An amplifier not only increases the input voltage, because that can also be performed (at
alternating voltage) by a transformer. To a greater degree, a current which is supplied by an
external energy source is formed by the amplifier in such a way that the temporal course of the
input signal is reproduced- only at a higher current level. You can clearly compare this with the
magnify setting of a photocopier - of course it also cannot make the original itself larger, but
instead a larger image is merely produced on new paper. An amplifier forms an "image" of the
weak current in the stronger current by essentially functioning as an electrically controllable
resistance: For a lower input signal, it sets the stronger current from the external energy source
against a high resistance so that this is weakened at a relatively high rate; for a higher input
signal, it presents a lower resistance for the stronger current with the result that the current from
the external energy source can flow relatively unimpeded.
Amplifier
A special type of amplifier is the buffer.
A buffer is a device whose purpose is to intermediately store data. The necessity of saving data
in a buffer can have various reasons: A continuous current of data must be processed whereas the
processing speed is intermittently smaller than the dataflow. At the same time, its interruption is
undesirable, or completely forbidden. Therefore, you can generate a kind of waiting line in the

buffer. Such a buffer functions based on the FIFO (first in- first-out) principle. It must be
sufficiently large in order to capture all the data which cannot be processed immediately.
Otherwise, an undesired data flow interruption will occur and worse still, it will result in the loss
of data. A typical example of where a buffer of this sort is used, is for burning onto a CD: The
computer very quickly delivers a volume of data which are to be burned. The burning process is,
however, very slow in relation to it. These are temporarily stored in a buffer where they are
collected by the burner when it is able to write them onto the CD. The computer itself is thus no
longer busy and it can perform other operations.
Buffer
Besides the buffer, the sample-and-hold circuit is significant for the topic of inputs and outputs in
digital technology but also for the conversion of signals. With this device, the circuit between
analog and digital signal, conversion, input and output data is complete.
A sample-and-hold circuit (S/ H), is an electronic circuit series connected to an AD-converter.

The sample-and-hold circuit samples the analog signal which is to be subsequently digitalized by
taking a sample and holding the sampled voltage value over a certain period of time.
The sampling circuit extracts signal samples in periodic intervals from the analog input signal. In
terms of the circuit configuration, it is a low-resistance switch which is switched by a clock
signal and implemented by an active electronic component.
The key element of the sample-and-hold circuit is a capacitor. In the holding phase, it holds the
output voltage at as constant a value as possible.

There is also an electric switch which determines the sampling and holding phase. In addition,
the capacitor buffers the voltage sample for a short time. The intermediate storage is necessary
because the downstream AD-converter requires time for quantization in order to encode a digital
value from the buffered voltage. Given that the flow off of the charging capacitor, the so-called
droop, should be prevented, a buffer amplifier lies between the hold element and the
digitalization circuit.
The sample-and-hold circuit and analog signal vs sample-and-hold signal
There is also an electric switch which determines the sampling and holding phase. In addition,
the capacitor buffers the voltage sample for a short time. The intermediate storage is necessary
because the downstream AD-converter requires time for quantization in order to encode a digital
value from the buffered voltage. Given that the flow off of the charging capacitor, the so-called
droop, should be prevented, a buffer amplifier lies between the hold element and the
digitalization circuit.
Electronic measurement technology corresponds to a model whereby a physical variable is

converted into an electric variable and measured in measuring equipment. Here, the physical

variable is converted with a measuring transducer and/or measuring amplifier into a standardized
electrical signal which can be measured by measuring equipment. The displayed measured value
always corresponds to the physical variable, irrespective of the linearity of the series-connected
components. With the comparison variable, it concerns measuring standards with which the
measuring equipment is gauged and adjusted. The measurement variable itself is displayed as an
absolute number with the corresponding unit.
Model: electronic measurement technology
The increasing use of computer technology requires, where possible, the generation of direct
measurement signals. This is achieved via serial measuring elements, a so-called measurement
chain. The signals are processed by the computers accordingly. They capture, store and link
measurement data. Additionally, a linearization of the measured values is often performed. The
output occurs in numerical values or easy-to-use diagrams. The generated measurement results
are made available for querying via bus systems i.e. ARINC bus superordinate system .
Generally, the measuring chains have a similar design and they are provided with the following
devices:
Measuring chain
1. Measurement: Physical variable is measured with a sensor and converted into an

electrical variable (current or voltage).

2. Amplification: Many applications require an amplification of the signal

3. Filter: Limits the bandwidth of the analog signal (to prevent aliasing)
4. Sampling: The signal is discretized with the aid of a sample-and-hold circuit
5. Quantization: Sampled analog value is assigned a digital number
6. Digital processing: The microprocessor edits the digital signal
7. Digital-to-analog converter: Digital computational result is assigned an analog value
8. Smoothing and amplification
The buffer which has already been mentioned, plays an important role in measurement
technology but also in the inputs and outputs of digital technology. A buffer is a device whose
purpose is to intermediately store data. The need to save data in the buffer can have various
reasons: - a continuous stream of data must be processed whereas the processing speed is at
times smaller than the dataflow. At the same time, its interruption is undesirable, or completely
forbidden. Therefore, you can generate a kind of waiting line in the buffer.
After having become acquainted with memory elements and converters, a new type of behavior
from digital switching elements is to be discussed. The state on the output of a combinatorial
circuit changes immediately if the state changes on the input. This is irrespective of other states
that previously present on the input. It is also the case that the output state is always the same for
a specific input state. There are, however, countless applications that make it necessary to
memorize a state over a certain period of time
In digital technology, memory elements are realized by components that recognize two stable
output states and they are called flip-flops. They should then only change their output state from
'1" to "o" or from "o" to "1" if a certain input signal combination occurs. This information is
retained until it is switched again by another specific input combination. The flip-flop is
therefore a digital memory whose two stable states can be adjusted externally. Flip-flops are
well-suited to switching, counting, storing and dividing frequencies. There are various types of
flip-flops which all consist of a base flip-flop and a combinatorial circuit for the control.

Flip-flop
The key aspect of the flip-flop circuit is the feedback of the output signal to an input. However,
simple feedback allows the output to be set on "1" (saving), but not, however, to reset the output
to 'o" again. Therefore, an AND gate is switched between output and feedback which interrupts
the feedback (image to the right). For this reason, you get a set input and a reset input.
Flip-flop
Limitations of various types
Problems of digitalization
On the one hand, efforts are always made to cover the whole dynamic range of the input signal
with a sufficiently large number of quantization stages so that the signal is not limited nor does a
so- called quantization noise (Q noise) subsequently develop. On the other hand, the sampling
rate is set as high as possible so that no relevant signal modifications are withheld. The
quantization noise can be reduced by a procedure called oversampling. In the process, artificial
intermediate values are interpolated during playback. The example shows the twofold
oversampling. An interpolated value is added between each "real" value.

Quantization error
Low-pass
Another device for limiting, blocking frequencies in the digital chain is the low-pass.

Low-pass in the digital chain
The low-pass filter lets low frequencies through and shuts off high frequencies above a certain
frequency, which results from the values of the devices.
The electronic device comprises a series connection of a resistor and a capacitor. You can view
this circuit as a frequency-dependent voltage divider. At low frequencies, the capacitor Cl has a
high reactance which is large in comparison to the resistor RI. In a series connection, the
voltages behave like the resistors. Thus, the greater output voltage U2 is also present on the
greater resistor, in this case Cl.
At high frequencies, on the other hand, the capacitor Cl, has a small reactance. For that reason,
only a low output voltage U2 is present on the capacitor Cl.
Low-pass filter
The frequency at which the filter begins to block is called cut-off frequency. It is dependent on
the value of the resistor and the capacitor and it is calculated as follows:

Data Buses
Operation of data buses in aircraft systems
In computer architecture, a bus is a subsystem which transfers data or energy between computer
components within a computer or between different computers.
Unlike with a connection which with a device is connected to another via one or several lines
(point-to-point connection), a bus can connect several peripheral devices with each other via the
same set of cables.
Data bus with the PC
Modern computer buses can be used as both bit-parallel and bit-serial. Serial means that
information is sent bit for bit in a row via a data channel. Parallel means that a certain number of
data channels are used simultaneously for the transmission. Serial transmission is widely used
given that, in principle, you only require one-line pair (signal and return or ground wire) since
only one data bit is transferred at the same time in each case. Great distances can thus be bridged
in a cost-effective manner whereas in the case of a parallel transmission, the costs for the cable
increase with each additional data channel.

In concrete terms, in the case of a serial transmission, the bytes are separated into individual bits
and sent one following the other via a single line. The receiver then reassembles the individual
bits into one byte. Given that the line can only transfer the bits o and 1 (current on or current off),
control characters like start and stop bits, must still be added. Ultimately, the receiver needs to
know where a byte starts and where it ends. Special control bits also ensure the correct transfer.
Serial data transfer
Besides making a saving with the hardware - only an output driver and a receiver module are
necessary - there are also advantages with respect to the transfer. Given that the bits are sent one
following the other, no bit can "overtake" another. For that reason, it is not necessary that all
eight data lines display a valid byte for a certain period of time.
And finally you can go back to thinner and smaller cables which makes the wiring in the PC or
in the aircraft simpler and ventilation is not impeded. In order to also make it possible to transfer
the data at the highest speed, very efficient circuits are required.
Modern circuits are available at moderate prices and their potential has not yet even been
exhausted when it comes to speed. Even point-to-point connections on a circuit board are being
tested. A number of manufacturer ' s engineers are puzzling over solutions about how to convert
the solutions which are still executed in parallel today, into serial technology.

Parallel vs. serial data transfer
Interpreting received data poses another problem in data communication. In order to correctly
receive and interpret the characters, synchronization procedures developed for the purpose of
timing which are based on a certain data format. The data format indicates the form in which
characters are sent. There is the asynchronous and synchronous data format. The data are
determined on the line by means of a defined valid voltage value (level) whose duration
establishes the transmission speed. This must be the same on both the receiver and the
transmitter side.
Asynchronous data format
In the process, a character that is to be transferred, is embedded into a start bit and into one to
two stop bits. The start bit indicates the start of a character; the stop bits indicate the end of the
character and give the receiver the option of setting the next character. This format supports the

character by character transmission.
Synchronous data format
This format consolidates several characters into one block. A block always starts with a
synchronization byte and ends with a special end character. The individual bytes are transferred
without another identifier. For the synchronization, a clock is sent in parallel to the block which
specifies a time reference that identifies the data as valid.
Bus systems
The bus systems are divided into various sections which undertake different tasks. The number
of lines is the bus width.
There are 3 different bus systems:
• Address bus
Given that all components are connected in parallel to the data bus but it is essential to
ensure that there is only ever one unit which receives or transmits data, this makes an
address system necessary. In order to assign these addresses to convey them to the
components, all units of the PC are connected in parallel to the address lines. It is only
when a component has received an address from the address bus that it may transmit or
receive data via the data bus. The address bus is unidirectional; data are only transmitted
from the processor to the component.
• Data bus
Data from the processor is transmitted to any component and from a component to the
processor via the data bus. The data bus is bidirectional, data can be moved in both
directions.
• Control bus
Whether data are to be received or transmitted, is communicated via the control bus. The
control bus is unidirectional; data are only transmitted from the processor to the
component.

Bus Systems
In the bus systems, data are transferred in the simplex or duplex mode. In terms of the
transmission type, simplex is a one-way operation. For this operating type, the one data station
can only transmit whereas the other can only receive.
This operating mode is also called direction mode and it only allows a unilateral flow of
messages. In the simplex mode, no feedback or error correction is possible.
In contrast to the simplex mode, there are the half-duplex and the duplex. With these
transmission types, the transmitting and the receiving station can simultaneously transmit and
receive.
With the radio (for example BOS radio system, maritime radio), the name intercom is used for
duplex or push-to-talk for half-duplex mode.

Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex mode
Data buses are used very frequently in aviation. The most common interfaces are:
• ARINC429
• ARINC419
• ARINC432
• ARINC825
ARINC 429 is a data bus standard for commercial aircraft that was developed in the 1970 ' s and
introduced in the 1980 ' s. Characteristic for every bit is that the level for half of the time has a
voltage of +-10 V and then in the other half it has o V (RZ-Code). There is therefore
synchronization information available for each bit. An asynchronous interface, for example RS-
232, requires a start and stop bit for every data word for comparison purposes. The
communication is a 1-to-n connection (a transmitter, n receiver). Due to the high voltage level,
the same restrictions apply with regard to line lengths and transfer rates as with RS 232.

ARINC 429 in an autopilot system
ARINC 429 in an autopilot system

RS232 uses a simple asynchronous serial process for data transfer. Serial means that the
individual bits of the bytes to be transferred are pushed one after the other via one single data
line. Asynchronous means that there is no clock line to communicate precisely with the data
receiver about when the next bit will be on the data line. Such a process can only function if the
transmitter and the receiver work with exactly the same internal clock and if the receiver is
notified precisely when the first bit starts (synchronization). RS 232 is often used as an interface
for computer systems.
RS-232 works with signal levels in the range of +3…. +15 V for displaying a logic-o (SPACE)
and -3… -15 V for displaying a logic-I (MARK). The transfer of the ASCII-character "C" then
looks like:
Transfer of the ASCII-character ‘C’
The name ARINC is an abbreviation for the company Aeronautical Radio Incorporated in
Annapolis, Maryland, USA. The company has been in existence since 1929 and in the last few
years, it has made a name for itself particularly in the areas of aviation and avionics due to
several communication protocols between various computer systems having been standardized
on the basis of ARINCs recommendations. For a number of years, newer bus systems have been
used in aviation engineering for the cross-linking of electronic components. This includes the
ARINC 825 which is installed in modern aircraft such as the Airbus 350 or the Boeing 787. With
the new development of the data bus ARINC 825, the Controller Area Network (CAN) has
gained in importance.
The CAN bus (Controller Area Network) is a serial bus system and it is part of the fieldbuses.
The CAN bus works according to the "multi-master principle”, connecting several equal control
devices. The CAN network is composed of a number of CAN nodes which are connected by a
physical transmission medium (CAN bus). In practice, the CAN network is usually based on a
line topology: a number of electronic control devices with CAN interface are passively
connected to a linear bus. Alternatively, to the line, the passive star topology is also used.
Between 80 and 250 Controller Area Network (CAN) networks are integrated into commercial
aircraft such as the Airbus A380 or the Boeing 787. Due to the variety of different physical
interfaces, data formats, communication mechanisms and the insufficiently coordinated use of

CAN identifiers, the efforts required for the system integration have, however, proven to be
increasingly problematic from the aircraft manufacturer ' s perspective. As early of 2004, this
insight led to a joint initiative of Airbus and Boeing whose objective was to create a uniform
CAN standard for commercial aviation. ARINC was chosen as the standardization organization.
Specifications and coordinated procedures were derived from this.
CAN link in the engine data storage
The above figure demonstrates a CAN network in a helicopter data storage. Here, the network is
used in order to send a variety of information and records between the two main components,
EECU (Engine Electronic Control Unit) and EDR (Engine Data Recorder). The engine
parameters stored in the EDR can be read by the technician.
The specification defines and standardizes the overall digital data exchange between systems. It
builds on the knowledge and experience of the ARINC 419, in which the first approaches for
digital data transfer between avionics systems were put down in writing. The messages are
encoded in digital data words with a size of 32 bits. There are 5 different message groups for the
32-bit word. It can thereby be transferred:
• BNR data (i.e. altitude, Mach, airspeed etc.)

• BCD data (i.e. altitude rate, total air temperature, DME etc.)
• Discrete data (i.e. GPS discrete such as pull-up, glide slope etc.)

• General maintenance data and data for confirmation of receipt.

• Messages in the ISO alphabet No. 5
Development of an ARINC 429 data word:
Label/address
In order to identify the transferred information for the receiver, the data content is defined with a
label before each data field. (Bit 1-8)
Source/destination identifier SDI

With numerical data, bit 9 and 10 are reserved for the source/destination identification. The bits
9/10 are not be taken into account for alphanumerical words and numerical words if both bits are
required for better resolution in the data field. The source/destination identifier function can be
used if special words should only access a specific system. If the SDI function is not used, bit 9
and 10 are assigned with 00. (Bit 9+10)
Sign/status matrix
Sign: (+, -, north, south etc.) of a message and status of the message transmitter are transferred
into a matrix. (Bit 29-31)
Parity
Serves to recognize transmission errors (redundancy). If a code word has an even or odd number,
a parity bit is placed accordingly. (Bit 32)
Data field
The variables and information are transferred in the data field. These are transmitted as BNR or
BCD code. The BNR code is used for the fraction representation. Digits are represented with the
BCD code.
The exact breakdown of the code results in the following list:
• Bit-32 is the parity bit and it is used to check that the word was not damaged or rendered
illegible during the transfer. Each ARINC 429 channel normally uses odd parity, that is,
there must be an uneven number of 1 bit in the word. This bit is determined by o or 1 in
order to make sure that the correct number of bits is determined by 1.
• Bits 30 to 31 Binary Code Decimal (BCD) orbits 29 to 31 in the binary data word, are the
Sign/Status Matrix or SSM. They normally display whether the data in the word are
valid.
• Normal Operation (NO) - displays that the data in this word can be considered accurate.

• Functional Test (FT) - displays that the data are provided by a check source.
• Failure Warning (FVV) - displays an error which refers to missing or illegible data.
• No Computed Data (NCD) - displays that the data are missing or are incorrect for
whatever reason. For example, autopilot commands are displayed as NCD and not as
here, if the autopilot is not activated
• The character (+/-) of data can also be displayed or any other information such as for
example their orientation (north/ south; east/west).
• Bits 11 to 29 contain the data. The bit fields Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) and Binary
Number Representation (BNR) are common ARINC 429 data formats. The data formats
can also be combined.
• Bits 9 to 10 are Source/ Destination Identifiers (SDI) and display for which receivers the
data are intended and often also which subsystem transferred the data.
• Bits 1 to 8 contain a label which is based on the number 8 to make it possible to identify
the data type. In practice, the bits are rotated with the labels.
Connection options for ARINC 429 tester
MIL-STD-1553
The MIL-STD-1553 is a military standard which was published by the U.S. DOD (Department
of Defense).

The definition includes the mechanical, electrical and functional properties of this serial bus. It
was originally developed for military combat aircraft and today it is used in all areas of the
military. In addition, it is used in space travel and in civil aviation. The abbreviation MIL stands
for military and STD for standard. The MIL bus is widely used in military aircraft construction
and in space travel for controlling the system components whereas the CAN bus has established
itself in car manufacturing. Therefore, the MIL Bus can be found in the Ariane 5 of the ISS and
it was used in the space shuttles. However, SpaceWire is the leading player when it comes to
high data rates in space travel.
Originally, a stand-alone option of connection was introduced for the TORNADO, the MIL-STD
1553 B, also known as MIL-BUS.
Up to 32 devices can be connected to this MIL-Bus (so-called Remote Terminals, RT). One of
these RT is the so-called Bus-Controller (BC). The BC controls the overall data traffic via the
line (twisted shielded pair). It addresses and initiates the corresponding processes. This takes
place with a frequency of 1 MHz, that is, 1 million bits per second can be serially transported.
MIL-STD 1553 B
The Bus Controller controls the entire data exchange on the bus, making it the most important
part of the system. It sends commands to the Remote Terminals which send back an answer to
the Bus Controller with the desired data. The bus supports several Bus Controller, however, there
may only be one which is active (Master Bus Controller). If the Master Bus Controller fails, an
inactive Bus Controller can do its job. In case only one Master Bus Controller is used in the
system, a Bus Controller is often integrated into the Bus Monitor. Then if the Master Bus
Controller fails, this can take over the control of communication on the bus.
The Bus Monitor cannot transport any data via the bus. Its main task consists of recording the
bus activities without communicating with the respective components. In order to limit the flood
of data on a busy bus, it can be configured in such a way that it only records certain data. These
data can also be used for measuring purposes and troubleshooting.

The remaining components which are not a Bus Controller or Bus Monitor, work in the Remote
Terminal Modus. They constitute the largest group of components and they can be seen as an
interface between the Mil-Std-1553 Bus and a connected subsystem as well as a bridge between
two Mil-Std-1553 buses. As an example, a Remote Terminal in a vehicle could request data from
a subsystem (navigation), and transmit the data via the bus to another Remote Terminal which
presents the data on a display.
A transferred message comprises 16-bit words, which can occur in three different forms:
• Command Word
• Data word
• Status word information transfer
With the MIL-STD-1553, there are three different options for information transfer:
• Bus Controller to Remote Terminal

• Remote Terminal to Bus Controller
• Remote Terminal to Remote Terminal
The Master Bus Controller controls the entire communication and this is started with a command
word of the Bus Controller to a Remote Terminal. Before each data transfer, the Master Bus
Controller queries the status of the Remote Terminal which is to receive the data so that a secure
data transfer is ensured. A Remote Terminal can only ever transmit or receive when the master
gives the command for it. The Remote Terminal is also queried after each data transfer in order
to check whether the data transfer was successful.
Command word

Development of the Command word:
Command word
The synchronization starts here (during the first one-and-a-half-bit frame) negatively-oriented
(low active), then with the next one and a half bit frames positively-oriented (high active).
The following 16 BIT are the DATA CONTENT. Finally, the parity bit from the BC is
transmitted again (odd parity from the 16 BIT - data word) so that the addressed RT parity can
check and compare.
Status word
A status word is constructed in such a way: The status word is the acknowledgment of an
addressed Remote Terminal in order to confirm the receipt of information or commands. The
synchronization (3-bit) is, as for the command word, positively-oriented during the first one-and-
a-half-bit frame (high active) and for the next one-and-a-half-bit frame, negatively-oriented (low
active). Again, the address is 5-bit long. The STATUS PART is 11 BIT long, from bit 9 to bit 19.

The MIL-STD-1553 often works with the Manchester-Code. The Manchester encoding is a
process to make a bit stream with randomly distributed ones and zeros, "free of direct voltage".
That means that a switchover also regularly occurs with an ongoing sequence of the same levels
in the output signal and the ratio between HI and LOW is always 50:50. The procedure is used in
particular for radio transmission of data because a transmission path can only transfer regularly
alternating levels. Another advantage is that a clock can also be recovered from the data signal.
A drawback would be the doubling of the data rate. The Manchester code develops if you XOR-
concatenate the data signal with a clock.
Manchester code

Network of a wide-body aircraft with data buses which are distributed over several IAMS (integrated avionics module). The
IAMs provide the computing power, memory and I/O. External components like displays, sensors; actuators and effectors can be
connected via standardized or specific interfaces of the modules or via RDCs (Remote Data Concentrator). The
RDCs are connected with the IMA via data buses (i.e. A42g or CAN)

Logic Circuits
Identification of common logic gate symbols, tables and
equivalent circuits
The basic functions that take place in the computer can be very easily presented as electronic
schematics. Some devices should then only start, when all requirements have been fulfilled. That
is referred to as a logical linking of states. In winter, the heating queries the electronic
temperature sensor. When outside temperature is too low and if room temperature is too low, it
switches on. The burner is then ignited and the heating pump drives the warm water through the
pipes and the radiator. If the interior temperature sensor subsequently signals that room
temperature is too high, the heating will thus switch itself off. The temperature sensors signal
"cold" or "warm". The states can be understood as logical information. Cold is equal to a logic
"one" or YES, warm is equal to a logic "zero" or NO. In electronics, a switching element signals
i.e. YES as "voltage available" and NO as "voltage not available" or displays it as an assigned
voltage level. If I can measure a voltage on a switching point, then the state corresponds to a
logic-one. If not, then I ascertain a logic-zero. Thus, we have reduced all conceivable physical
states to 1 or 0.1 means, I can measure a voltage, o means there is no voltage available.
The simplest logical basic functions are the AND function, the OR function, and the NOT
function or Negation. Besides these three basic functions, there are two other important functions
in practice which are made up of the above-mentioned basic functions. These are the NAND
function and the NOR function.
AND function
AND function

Logic AND by simple switch
Equivalent circuit with relay

With an AND gate, two requirements must always be fulfilled in order to start a circuit. Practical
example: In order to start an engine, the control unit requires a positive signal (1) from the ENG
start selector switch and a positive signal from the start P/ B. It only then that the starter valve
opens. If even one of the two requirements is not fulfilled, the starter valve does not open!
Sl x S2 = 1 Sl x S2 = 1 selector valve und start P/ B have a positive signal

o x o = o both requirements are not fulfilled
o x S2 = o one requirement is not fulfilled
Sl x o = o one requirement is not fulfilled
OR function
OR Function
If only one requirement is fulfilled, a circuit will be started. Practical example: A helicopter has
two sliding doors. A warning is generated in the cockpit if the sliding doors are open. If both
doors are closed, there is no signal (o), if the front door is open, a signal is generated (1) if the
rear is open, a signal is also generated (1), if both are open, the circuit in the output will get a 1
and the door lights appear in the cockpit.
Sl x S2 = 1 Door 1 and door 2 are open, signal door

o x o = o o x o = o Door 1 and door 2 are closed, no signal door
o x S2 = 1 One requirement is not fulfilled, signal door
Sl x o = 1 Sl x o 1 One requirement is not fulfilled, signal door

Logic OR by simple switch
Equivalent circuit with relay (OR function)

NOT function
NOT-function
It is therefore simply a reversal of the input signal. It is used for twilight switches, for example.
An example from everyday life illustrates this function.
If my mother-in-law comes to visit, I do not go to the theater this evening.
If the statement A "mother-in-law comes to visit" is true, the statement X "visit to the theater
cannot be true.
NAND function
NAND function
The AND-NOT function is an AND gate with a downstream inverter. The state 1 is then present
on the output of the NAND gate, so long as the state 1 is not present on all inputs.
A gate closes if there is a 1 in front of both inputs. Thus if two visitors want to go through at the
same time, then it locks. Only one can ever go from the input to the output. Here it is actually an
AND operation at work. The gate checks whether the states are simultaneously 1 on both inputs.
Only in this case it releases a o on the OUT.

NOR function
NOR function
The NOR function consists of an OR function and a downstream inverter. The state 1 is only
present on an output of a NOR gate if no state 1 is present on any of the inputs
Besides the basic functions AND/OR and its negations, there are more complicated logic circuits
in order to ensure that more complex systems or processes can function
Exclusive-OR
Exclusive OR (XOR)

A mechanical exclusive OR circuit can be achieved by means of two toggle switches with
inversed pin assignment. A current flow in the main current circuit is then only possible if either
the one or the other switch is closed. If both switches are closed or opened, no current can flow.
Exclusive OR (XOR)
The circuit displayed above comprises three parts. Firstly, the inputs are AND-concatenated (Z).
Then they are also negated and finally AND-concatenated (X). Both results are then OR-
concatenated. The end result (Q) corresponds to the logical exclusive-NOR. The output Q is then
always 1 if the inputs A and B are equal. Thus, if both are equal to 1 or 0.

Exclusive OR (XOR)
Equivalence function (XNOR)
The output Q is then always 1 if the inputs A and B are equal. Thus, if both are equal to 1 or 0.

Flipflops
In order to achieve sequential circuits (sequential networks), you also require memory elements
in addition to the logic functions. In this technology, R-S flipflops are used for this purpose.
These are also identified as bistable function blocks. The switching on and off of memory
elements takes place by means of setting and resetting. Irrespective of the set signal, an output
that was set once remains on the value TRUE until it is resettled. When applying operating
voltage, the flipflop should occupy a defined ground or idle state. In the circuit symbol, the basic
position is characterized by a bar on the output for the Logic-I. A distinction is made between the
static and dynamic input control. With static control, the high or low input signals are applied
permanently or in the long term. Dynamically controlled inputs react to a change in state when
switching from low to high or vice versa. In the block symbol, dynamic inputs obtain a triangular
point. The image demonstrates the four standard circuit symbols.

Flipflop with static inputs
Flipflop with static inputs
The ground state of the flipflops marked in images stands for Al =0 and A2 =1. With the static FF
1, the logical state 1 at the input El shifts this into the working state with Al =1. The negation
circuits on the inputs at the FF 2 indicate that it is set in the working state by a logic-o at the
input E. It is at the flipflop FF3 where the control of the dynamic inputs takes place with
increasing positive signal edges when switching from logic-o to Logic-I. The dynamic inputs
with negation circuit at the FF 4 react to decreasing, negative signal edges when switching from
1 to o.
With regard to the flipflops, you can make a distinction between some modalities whose logical
properties are discussed below

Design variants of flipflops
The RS flipflop (not clock-controlled) is a bistable element and the basic module for all flipflops
in digital technology. You can build this flipflop from two NOR-connectives or two NAND-
connectives. With the RS flipflop with NOR gates, we are referring to a 1-active flipflop. With
the RS flipflop with NAND gates, we are referring to the 0-active flipflop.

RS flipflop
Impulse processes for an RS flipflop

An RS flipflop has two inputs which are usually identified with R (reset) and S (set). With a
signal on the "set" input, that is, S =1 and at the same time R= 0, the output Q of the flipflop is
set to 1. If, you activate the "reset" input (so R =1 and at the same time S=0), then the flipflop is
reset: A logic-o is then present on the output Q. If a o is then present on both inputs, the flipflop
remains in the previously set state. Particular attention needs to be devoted to the input state at
which both R as well as S input are active (R= S= 1 at the RS flipflop from NOR gates or R=S=
0) at the RS flipflop from NAND gates. At the same time, the flipflop with the controlled state
accepts a third state at which both outputs accept the same level (when constructed from NOR
gates o, when constructed from NAND gates 1). It is often claimed that this state is instable or
uncertain which is, however, not the case. In fact, it is not the state itself which is uncertain but
rather the subsequent state when R and S are simultaneously switched over to o (thus in the
memory state). In this case, there is a so-called race condition so that the subsequent state is not
clearly determined but rather it depends on which gate is first switched. Since this behavior is not
usually desired for a memory element (as is typically the case with a flipflop), the state R=S=1 is
often identified as "forbidden state". RS flipflops are not suitable for all storage functions in
digital technology. Therefore, the D flipflop symbolizes an advancement (D is derived from
delay) which is also identified as latch flipflop.
The D flipflop consists of an RS flipflop in which the reset input is negated to the set input. This
will avoid the occurrence of an uncertain state. The D flipflop can be a level-triggered and also
an edge-triggered flipflop. However, when a D flipflop has RS inputs, it can also be controlled
clock- independent via these inputs. The D flipflop represents the basic element for static read-
write memory. The single input is identified as data input. The storage is only controlled with the
clock input. Whenever the clock impulse is applied, the value at the input is taken over at the
output.
D flipflop
Another class of flipflops which are mainly used in discrete digital circuits, are the JK flipflops.
A JK flipflop switches its output state when applying a clock impulse if H-levels are present on
both inputs (J and K). This behavior is identified as toggling (tilting). If a JK flipflop has RS

inputs, then it can be controlled independent of the clock. The uncertain state is ruled out with
this flipflop.
The input C of the JK flipflop is the clock input. A square-wave signal should be present here.
Both inputs J and K are control inputs. By way of distinction, the inputs are not identified as R
and S but as J and K (this means "jump" for set and "kill" for reset). Both inputs "J" and "K" are
also identified as preparation inputs because the behavior of the flipflops is determined by their
circuitry. It can be generated by expanding an edge-triggered RS flipflop with two AND gates.
JK flipflop
A particularly safe operation occurs when there is an interaction of two clock-controlled storage
units. One works on the basis of the leading edge and the second storage works according to the
trailing edge of the clock signal. A further improvement is achieved with the dynamic edge-
triggering. This principle or these flipflops are also called Master-Slave.
They react to positive as well as negative clock edges. The data present on the input are read at
the positive clock-edge. The data are displayed with a delay on the negative clock-edge.
The JK Master flipflop consists of two individual JK flipflops which are directly connected to
each other. The outputs of the first, the Master flipflop, are connected to the inputs of the second,
the Slave flipflop. The first flipflop reacts to the rising clock-edge. The second flipflop reacts to
the falling clock-edge. In order that the Slave flipflop reacts to the falling edge, the clock input is
provided with a clock inverter.

Clock inverter
Clock inverter

The function of the Master flipflop is summarized again and divided into four phases
1. Separation of Master and Slave

2. Taking over the input signals in the Master
3. Blocking the inputs
4. Transfer of data from Master to Slave
In principle, the flipflops represent information memories with a one-bit capacity. Larger
memories can be achieved by linking several flipflops. In the simplest form, the storage units
equipped with a limited number of flipflops are referred to as register.
Register
Depending on the type of interconnection, a distinction can be made between parallel and shift
registers. A group of flipflops that can simultaneously save information comprising several bits,
is identified as a parallel register. Both D as well as RS flipflops are well-suited to implementing
such circuits.
Principle structure of a parallel register
A shift register with parallel output can also output the saved data in parallel. The information
saved in the shift register can be removed independent of the clock at the outputs QA, QB, QC and

QD. During the parallel output, the shift register may not, however, receive or acquire any new
bits in the shift clock because information released in parallel could otherwise be distorted. Thus,
serial, parallel data output or data input may not simultaneously take place.
A second option for the interconnection of flipflops results in the serial shift registers.
By connecting several JK or D flipflops in series, it is possible that the information on the input
of the first register is passed on to the following register with each clock pulse and thus pushed
through by the register formed from these flipflops.
Shift register
If 1-signal is present on the data and the clock signal changes from o to 1, then flipflop 1 is set. 1
appears on its output QI. If 0-signal is then set on the input, the flipflop 1 is reset and the flipflop
2 is set with the 2nd increasing clock-edge. Signal 1 now appears on output Q2. With the 3rd
increasing clock-edge, 2 is reset and flipflop 3 is set. Finally, setting 1 takes place on flipflop 4
after three has been reset.
The principle of "pushing on" is explained in a simplified manner in the following block
diagram.
Shift register
By feeding back the last flipflop output onto the input of the first flipflop, a ring-shift register can

be generated in which the set states are pushed. The state of the last flipflop would then set the
first flipflop again.
Firstly, in this way, a bit registered in the last flipflop no longer drops out with the next clock
impulse but instead it is taken over again by the first stage of the shift register. Secondly, this
circuit is supplied with an additional logic which enables it to input the information into the
register in parallel. For its use, one can imagine tickers, which are always displayed recurringly
Shift register

Applications used for aircraft systems, schematic diagrams
Logic circuit and register with the weather radar in order obtain various color displays for weather representation in the display
The block diagram in the above figure demonstrates the process of color display of the weather
radar starting from the video signals to the register structure and decoder all the way to the
display monitor in the cockpit

Position displays of a slat on the wing of a commercial aircraft by means of logic circuits

Interpretation of logic diagrams
Frequency and phase comparison of a NAV system by means of a flipflop
Frequency and phase comparison
The "frequency and phase comparison" has the task of comparing the output signal of the
variable divider with the 25 kHz output signal of the fixed divider (reference divider) in order to
bring about the following:
With the frequency offset of the output from the variable divider opposite the output of the fixed
divider, a DC voltage is formed by the "frequency comparison" which quickly pulls the VCO
into the nominal frequency direction until it is latched.
The locking state of the VCO is then achieved if the output frequency of the variable divider
coincides with the comparison frequency of the reference divider.
In the locked state, the "phase comparison" of the circuit comes into effect. It generates a VCO
finely tuned voltage which is proportional to the phase difference between the comparison
frequency and the divided VCO frequency.

The frequency and phase comparison comprises the following elements:
• The comparison flipflop T 6011/I

• The externally controlled saw tooth generator T 2001 and T 2002
• The sample and hold T 2003
• T 2004 and T 2005 for signal shaping and signal reversal
The output signal of the fixed divider accesses the set input of the comparison flipflop via the
derivative element C 6012, R 6012. Initially, the output signal of the variable divider accesses
the inverter stage T 2005 via the C 2007, C 2006; this, in turn, controls the clock input of the
comparison flipflop. The variable and fixed divider alternately control the comparison flipflop
whereby a square-wave voltage develops on its Q and Q output. The duty cycle of this square-
wave voltage corresponds with the time sequence of the control pulses.
The duty cycle of the output signal at the Q output from the comparison flipflop T 601 is thus
proportional to the time gap of both input impulses from both the variable and the fixed divider.
In the case of consistent frequencies, the following states can develop:

Duty cycle at the phase equalization
For this reason, the phase position of the comparison frequencies is largely proportional to the
adjusted channel frequency and proportional to the tuning voltage of the VCO when locking has
taken place.

In the unlocked state as is the case after the channel switch, the divided clock frequency (2.T)
diverges greatly from the comparison frequency (divergence before 25 kHz: between approx.
10 kHz and 66 kHz is possible).
For the quick fine tuning of the VCO to the nominal frequency, we also see the use of the set
function of the comparison flipflop by the variable pulse and the reset function by the reference
pulse to establish an output square-wave voltage. A mutual locking of the dividers is intended to
ensure that impulses from the variable and from the fixed divider only ever alternately control
the comparison flipflop. For the fixed dividers, the locking works as follows:
If the fixed divider on the Q output of the T 6012 releases a positive square impulse (1), then this
reaches the CLR input of the T 6011/1 via C 6012/R6012 as a differentiated pulse and tilts the
flipflop. It is through this that a positive voltage (1) develops on the Q output of the T 6011/1
which controls the input 12 of the eightfold NAND gate. The remaining 7 inputs of this gate are
also supplied with a positive voltage through the defined position of the fixed divider so that a
(o)- signal appears on the output of the gate. This (o)-signal is fed to the J input (preparation
input) of the two-fold dividing flipflop T 6011/11 which thereby interrupts the dividing process
if an impulse from the variable divider of the comparison flipflop is not tilted by the anticipated
release period of the next fixed divider impulse.
If the flipflop T 6011/1 is reset by the variable divider to its initial position, then the locking of
the fixed divider is reversed. If the fixed divider has not yet completed its cycle, then a (l)-signal
lies on the Q output of T 6011/1. This (l)-signal is fed to the input 4 of the NAND gate T 2021. If
a positive impulse appears on the output of the T 2022 after an entire cycle of the variable
divider, then this is sent as (1)- signal to the input 5 of the T 2021. Thus, the logic (o)- signal is
carried on the output of the T 2021b and influences the divider T 2024. The variable divider is
thus locked.
For stark divergences in frequency of the output frequency of the variable divider from the
comparison frequency 25 kHz, either long-term (1)- or long-term (o)- signals develop
temporarily on the Q output of the comparison flipflop; which result in control voltage jumps for
a quick locking of the VCO via the below described sample-and-hold analysis. The sample-and-
hold analysis is controlled with the square-wave voltages of the O output by the comparison
flipflop. It has the task of releasing an output DC voltage for readjusting the VCOs which is
proportional to the duty cycle of the (1)- and (o)- parts of the square-wave signal. The square-
wave voltage is supplied to the base of T 2001 which blocks with positive voltages and conducts
with negative voltages. In the process, D 6010 shifts the square-wave input voltage by + 5 V.
The trailing edge of the square- wave voltage opens T 2001, and C 2001 is quickly charged on
the operating voltage via the small internal resistance of T 2001. The following rising edge
blocks T 2001, whereby the discharge process of C 2001 commences which discharges in a
constant current via T 2002.

Basic Computer Structure

Computer terminology
The word computer derives from the English word to compute. For as long as anyone can
remember, people have thought about how to work more easily with numbers. The human brain
is a magnificent structure but it is not designed for simple calculation. Only a few people can
calculate more than the small multiplication table in their head without much practice. Thus
people always strived to use tools if they wanted to calculate something. At first, fingers were
probably used which is often the case with small children. However, we only have ten of them
and it not a particularly quick process. And it works very badly when it comes to multiplications.
The so-called abacus was one of the first calculation aids, it was probably invented around 1100
BC in the Indochinese cultural environment. The Romans and Greeks also used the abacus. This
slide rule is a tool with which you can also solve complicated calculations quickly. The actual
predecessors of the computer were Pascal's (1623-1662) and Leibnitz's (1646-1716) calculating
machines.
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz invented the first calculating machine which mastered all 4 basic
calculating operations (addition, multiplication, subtraction, division). It worked perfectly,
however, nobody was willing to buy it. Leibnitz also developed the calculator system with "o"
and "1" which is fundamental for the computer.
Pascal ' s calculator comprised several cogs. This principle is still used today in odometers for
vehicles. They were further enhanced so that intermediate results could also be recorded.
Hollerith (1860-1929) then developed the punched card systems. Tireless efforts enabled the
computer to constantly develop. In 1944 the first computer, the "Harvard Mark I”, was put into
operation at the Harvard University in Cambridge. It was approx. 15 m in length and 2.5 m in
height. This was then followed by the largest computer "ENIAC" which required a base area of
140 square meters. It was operated with vacuum tubes which were very susceptible to problems.
The next computer generation was already equipped with transistors, thus significantly smaller.
It became possible to further develop the memory function when the "chip" was invented in
1965, replacing the transistors. It replaced the transistors. In 1971, the first "microprocessor" was
built, making the computer smaller and easier to handle. This development led to the computer
we know today.
The computer consists of the following components:
• Input interface
• CPU
• Working memory
• Output interface

• Clock generator
• Peripherals
• Mass storage
The input interface serves to adapt and process the input signal.
Assembly groups of a computer
A distinction is made between three types of computers:

1. Analog computer
Here the information is presented and processed in analog form (any value is depicted by
a certain voltage).
2. Digital computer
In these machines, information is presented in the binary form (as a sequence of o and 1).
3. Hybrid computer
These machines combine the properties of both above-mentioned computer types.
A digital computer is able to save and process data in the form of digital values. This first
definition is, however, incomplete because it could lead us to erroneously include the desk

calculator as part of the computer family. This would be wrong insofar as there is a significant
difference between a computer and a calculator.
A computer can undertake any task whereas a calculator can only carry out the operation for
which it was designed. This ability of a computer to carry out varied tasks about which it is
instructed with a sequence of commands does, however, have a disadvantage. It makes a
program necessary, that is, you need to know the language that the computer can understand. The
knowledge acquired about these differences between a computer and a calculator now enables us
to provide a definition of a computer.
Computers are not all built identically. Albeit, almost all are based on the so-called Von
Neumann architecture (VNA). It is based upon a suggestion by John von Neumann from the year
1946. According to this suggestion which focuses on the biological model of human information
processing, computers comprise five functional units:
• Control unit
• Arithmetic logic unit
• Memory
• Input unit
• Output unit
The functional units are thereby connected to each other.
Functional units of a computer

The memory - also referred to as main memory - is the computer component for the storage of
programs to be executed and data which is required or calculated in the course of this execution.
In computer technology, a distinction can be made between two main categories:
Main memory
The main memory, also known as (internal memory), allows data to be temporarily stored while
programs are executed. The main memory is created thanks to the micro-conductors, that is,
electronic circuits which are specialized and fast. The main memory corresponds to the so-called
working memory or RAM. RAM is the abbreviation for Random Access Memory. The random
access refers to how the working memory does not always have to be read through from start to
finish in order to be able to read a certain memory location. The computer can start to read at any
location of this memory and import the required data. All programs and information present in
the working memory can be quickly used and processed. If the working memory is large enough,
the computer can process these data in the volatile memory so that data processing can take place
at high speeds. In the case of small working memories, parts of the active data are outsourced to
the hard disc drive. For that reason, processing is significantly slower. As previously mentioned,
the main memory is a volatile memory with the result that the data need to be stored on the hard
disc drive, for example, before the computer is switched off.
Mass storage
The mass storage (Read only Memory) allows information to be stored over the long-term, even
if the computer is turned off. The mass storage corresponds to the magnetic storage devices such
as hard disc drives, the optical storage devices such as i.e. DVD ROM as well as the read
memories. Programs and data on a mass storage are almost never directly processed by a main
processor but instead, for this purpose, they are firstly copied ("loaded") into working memory
and processed there. The results can then, as required, be written again ("stored") on the mass
storage. Functionally, mass storages can be seen as an extension of the working memory, in
terms of structure they are peripheral devices, which can also save data indefinitely in case of a
supply voltage failure. Two other memory types are PROM and EPROM.
PROM
A PROM is a programmable read-only memory (programmable ROM). The storage content can
be carried to the memory by the operator and then, however, no longer changed.

EPROM
An EPROM is a programmable and erasable read-only memory (erasable PROM). The storage
content can be carried to the memory from the operator and erased again as a whole for example
through UV radiation (UV-ROM).
Information units
The smallest information unit in a computer is a bit. Bit is the abbreviation for binary digit. A bit
can accept two states. ON or OFF. In other words, 1 or o. It is these information units which
enable a computer to work.
Yet, the bits must be saved somewhere so that they can also be read. Data carriers such as for
example hard disc drives, CDs, DVDs, USB sticks or other electronic elements are available for
this purpose. Now you can imagine that it is not possible to save an unlimited number of bits on
the data carriers. Depending on the data carriers available, billions of bits can be saved.
Colloquially, the kilo is used as is the case for weight. However, 1 kilobyte does not comprise
1000 byte but rather 1024. The reason for this is that the measurement unit for kilobyte is 210.
And that results in exactly 1024. Thus, the indication in 'kilobytes" is indeed not entirely
accurate. Nevertheless, it is used everywhere because the correct names are unusual and difficult
for people to pronounce.
An overview of the size indications and conversions that are often used are shown in the
following byte tables. Beforehand, though, there is an explanation for the distinction between
decimal and binary prefixes.
Binary prefixes for measurements (unit prefixes) denoting multiples of certain powers of two.
They are predominantly used with units like bits (symbol 'bit" , rarely "b") or byte (symbol "B")
in order to measure data volumes because, for technical reasons, powers of two often occur here.
In contrast, decimal prefixes are unit prefixes denoting multiples of certain powers of ten. Sl-
prefixes are decimal prefixes for use in the SI unit system, IEC binary prefixes are binary
prefixes intended for use with volumes of data. Both the name as well as the associated symbol is
identified as unit prefix.
Given that there were no specific unit prefixes for powers of two until 1996, it became common
to use the decimal prefixes in connection with storage capacities when referring to powers of two
(with factor 210 1024 instead of 1000), which came closest to the desired powers of two.

Whereas this is rather unproblematic for memory modules which are usually only manufactured
in sizes of powers of two, it raised doubts regarding the precise meaning when, for example,
indicating hard disc capacity in GB or data transmission rates in MB/s or Mbit/s. Additionally,
the variation in high-quality prefixes is increasing with the result that it can often no longer be
ignored. Therefore, the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) which is
responsible for the SI prefixes, explicitly advises against this non-standardized use of SI prefixes
and recommends binary prefixes for designating the powers of two.
From kilobyte to zettabyte (decimal prefixes)
From kilobyte to zebibyte (binary prefixes)

Components
The computer consists of the following components:
• Input interface
• CPU
• Memory
• Output interface
• Clock generator
• Peripherals
Input interface
It serves to adapt and process the input signals and it can comprise the following components:
Converter
• Multiplexer
• Sample-and-hold amplifier
• Analog/ digital converter
• Buffer
CPU
The CPU (Central Processor Unit) is the "brain" of the microcomputer up's. As a result of the
high level of integration of components, it is possible to manufacture a standardized CPU on a
chip. Such a "micro CPU" is referred to as microprocessor (UP).
Memory
The memory of a computer comprises a program memory (ROM) and a data storage (RAM).
The working instructions (z fixed programs) are saved in the ROM according to which the CPU
performs its work. The input and output data and the variable data processed by the CPU,
according to the program, are saved in the RAM, the so-called data or working memory.
Output interface
It converts the data identified by the into digital or analog information can be displayed by the
indicator or further processed by external devices.

Clock generator
It delivers the clock signal for the up. This serves the internal sequence synchronization and it
determines the operating speed of the UP. The clock generators are mostly quartz stabilized in
the range of 100 kHz to 50 MHz
Peripherals
The external devices can be included in the computer peripherals. Typical peripheral devices of
aircraft computer systems are: Sensors, panels, indicator, servos, displays, printer etc. Also other
computer systems (i.e. pitch computer), can belong to the peripherals.
Register
A register is a fast short-time memory. In the case of processors, they are installed in the CPU.
The figure will summarize all information again according to the explanations on the add-on,
components and memory elements of the computer.
Composition and structure of a computer

A computer (Latin computare) is an apparatus that can process information with the aid of a
programmable calculation rule (aglorithm) (data processing system). The English term,
computer, is derived from the verb to compute and it emerged in the 19th century as a name for
census taker. Initially, workers who operated the relevant machinery, were referred to as
computer, the term was then passed over to these machines. Computers are freely programmable
calculating machines - that is, the input, processing and output of data is freely programmable
Originally the processing of information with computers was limited to processing numbers. Due
to the increasing efficiency, new ranges of application opened up. Today, computers can be
found in almost all areas of daily life. They serve to save, process and output information ranging
from commerce to authorities, from structural analysis of buildings to controlling washing
machines and automobiles.
The most efficient computers are used in order to simulate complex processes: for example, in
climate research, with thermodynamic questions; in military tasks, for example the deployment
of nuclear weapons or medical calculations. It is also the case that the computer has become the
central element in aviation for controlling, saving and communicating data. In the next chapter
this will be explained with the aid of a few examples. Firstly, however, we will go back to
computer terminology whereby the chipset plays an important role alongside the hardware and
software.
The central element on the motherboard is the chipset. Indeed, the main processor is the
fundamental element in a computer but it is the chipset which ensures that the various
components work together. The chipset is the link between the individual components of a
computer. Irrespective of what happens in a computer, the chipset always has something to do
with it. It ensures that all components are able to communicate with one another via their
interfaces. In the process, various voltage levels, clock frequencies and protocols are taken into
account and converted among each other.
The chipset has a large influence on the overall efficiency of the computer system. It controls the
interplay and the data flow between the processor, the working memory, the bus systems as well
as the internal and external interfaces. The chipset is configured via the settings in the BIOS.
Depending on the chipset, working memory and processor, various settings here can trigger
significant differences in performance. If the chipset or the motherboard manufacturer makes a
mistake when developing it, this can lead to significant output losses for the entire system. The
processor clock and the fast memory no longer play a role here. The other components can only
marginally contribute to the performance that the chipset fails to achieve. Generally, the chipsets
of the various manufacturers can only have performance differences of up to 10%. Additionally,
the chipset determines which components in the computer system can be used. The components
supported by the chipset are manufacturer specific. Components that are missing in the chipset

can be additionally installed on the motherboard by the motherboard manufacturer. If this is

insufficient, a system can be upgraded by means of expansion cards.
Early home and personal computer systems, typically comprised, alongside the microprocessor, a
range of autonomous interface chips which all led directly to the processor via the address, data
and control busses. A simple address decoder chip selected the relevant chip in each case. As
integration progressively increased, more and more of these distributed functions were combined
in the larger chips. At the same time, certain quasi standards emerged.
The classical chipset architecture roughly consists of two components. One is responsible for
communication between the main processor (CPU), working memory and graphic card. A
connection to the second component integrates all other components via interfaces in the system.
Various chipset architectures emerged over time. The changes to the architecture mainly resulted
in an increasing system speed. Given that the main processor became increasingly powerful, the
speed of the peripheral had to be adapted again and again. For that reason, not only the bus
systems and interfaces became quicker but also the connection of the controller interface on the
chipset. Inevitably it led to ever more functions and interfaces shifting to the processor. Modern
processors are not only characterized by a high computing power but also by a high interface
density
Chipset in the computer system

Due to the increasing integration density, important and often used interfaces were integrated
into the chipset. Chips were thus divided into two or sometimes more. If you see the principal
circuitry of the chipset as a map, then the Northbridge can be found in the north and the
Southbridge in the south. The names originally derive from Intel.
By integrating the memory controller and the graphic chip into the processor, the Northbridge
becomes less important. The CPU assumes an increasing number of tasks. Parts of the chipset
migrate into the CPU. This includes graphic cards, memory controllers and direct connection of
expansion cards, particularly from external graphic cards and drives. Only simple interfaces are
connected via a I/O chip via a PCIe connection to the processor.
Chipset: Bridge architecture (Northbridge and Southbridge)

Intel wanted to herald in a new PC generation with the hub architecture. The reason for the new
architecture was the slow connection between Northbridge and Southbridge. The slow PCI bus
had turned into the bottleneck. Processors which worked ever faster were thwarted by the
connection to the peripherals. The data could be not transferred quickly enough within the
computer system. To solve the problem, Intel as a chip manufacturer, wanted to influence the
market in order to provide their own processors with a better work environment. Although the
hub architecture exhibits similarities with the bridge architecture, several things have changed.
The division on at least two chips as well as the function, has remained the same for the most
part. The Memory Controller Hub (MCH) has the function of the Northbridge. This is where
processors, working memories and graphic cards merge.
Instead of the MCH there is the Graphics Memory Controller Hub (GMCH). Here the function of
the graphic card is integrated in the chipset. It is no longer the slow PCI bus which serves as an
internal connection between Northbridge and Southbridge but rather a hub interface. It is a point-
to-point connection. Other controller hubs can be connected among each other with this
interface. For example, a PCI hub can be connected to the MCH which provides slots for the PCI
bus. More innovative MCHs also have direct connections to PCI express slots. In the hub
architecture, the Southbridge is an extension of the Northbridge in order to quicker connect all
internal and external interfaces and bus systems to the Northbridge. The PCI bus and the
EIDE/ATA interfaces are led directly away from the ICH.

Chipset: Extended hub architecture
Besides the chipset, CPU can be seen as the motherboard in a computer. The motherboard is the
printed circuit board on which all system components of a computer obtain a physical and logical
connection. The most important and some performance-influencing components are permanently
connected to each other on this printed circuit board. For the most part, the configuration of the
motherboard determines the system performance, expandability and sustainability of a computer
system. The majority of motherboards are customized for specific use with a certain processor.
Thus you cannot use any processor on every motherboard. The use of a processor depends on the
motherboard or on the processor socket and the chip.
For example, the processor sockets from AMD and Intel fundamentally differ from one another
and for this reason, they are by no means suited to the other socket respectively.

The so-called Basic Input Output System (BIOS) is also there to communicate with the operating
system about which hardware is installed on the printed circuit board and how it should work
with it. A check at the start monitors whether all connected devices are functional and ready to
use. A small "CMOS static RAM" memory component (Complementary Metal Oxide
Semiconductor) maintains the BIOS parameters and it is also supplied with its own small battery
when the computer is disconnected from the network. For that reason, the time and the date are
retained in the BIOS as well as the settings that you carried out. If, however, you remove this
battery for a period of time then the flash memory loses the changes and it uses the standard
settings during the next start up.
Structure and interfaces of the motherboard
The following figures in this section should explain all aspects of computer technology again and
go into more visual detail.

Structure of a computer system

Computer structure incl. interfaces
Computer technology (as applied in aircraft systems)
A crucial sensor unit which is installed with a high proportion of avionics and digital technology,
is the Air Data Computer (ADC).
The ADC or Digital Air Data Computer (DADC) is a central avionics component in modern
glass cockpits. Unlike individual display instruments, this computer can calculate the Calibrated
Airspeed (CAS), the Mach number, altitude and the vertical speed from the data of the Pilot
Static System. In the process, the incoming pressures are converted into digital signals in order to
depict these in the PFD or MFD as airspeed and/or altimeter display. In modern cockpit systems,
the ADC is integrated into the display monitor and not installed as a separate component for the
display logic. However, the ADC is not only used for the cockpit displays but rather it works as,
for example, a sensor for the autopilot or other stabilization systems.

Air data computer in a modern helicopter system
Air data computer in the block diagram with inputs and outputs

ADC with classic interfaces and "auxiliary drives" such as for example AP or Flight Management Computer
An autopilot is an automatic control system in aircraft or rockets. In principle, modern

helicopters and commercial aircraft are equipped with an Auto-Flight-Control-System (AFCS)
for automatic flight operation. Aircraft continue to get bigger, faster and more expensive to
operate. It is also the ever denser air traffic which is creating an increased work load for pilots. In
order to tackle this problem, the majority of aircraft are being equipped with more or less
complex automatic flight- control systems.

An AFCS system calculates control commands from position and displacement signals. In
contrast to the pure Flight Director, it affects the control forces on the control, and thus on the
aircraft, with the aid of actuators. In this last step of the autopilot circuit, it closes the control
loop in which the pilot in command is only involved as a potential set-point adjuster.
The control loop constantly monitors the command and output variable together so that the actual
value equals the set point. The emergence of a disturbance variable changes the output value
only in the short-term because the controller reacts to a change of state with modified controller
instructions and thus it recovers the desired state.
Autopilot with sensor technology and actuators
The autopilot is a microprocessor-supported computer with analog and digital inputs and outputs.
The computer has two CPUs with processor units which assume the control and monitoring of
the system. Internally, analog and digital interfaces take care of the various autopilot functions.
Given that a high degree of computing power is required for this, the unit must be cooled with
fans.

Analog AFCS system

Sensor technology of an autopilot system
The complexity of autopilot systems is particularly evident on the inputs of sensors and the
output signals for actuators or AP functions.
Alongside stabilization, the system has to process enormous volumes of data in order to enable
the higher-grade functions such as maintaining speed, altitude or even the automatic hover flight
with the helicopter.
Another important computer in aircraft is the Cockpit Display Computer. The Display
Management Computer (DMC) is a central processing unit in the cockpit of our modern-day
aircraft. It is responsible for the processing and display of primary flight guidance information
and aircraft monitoring data. Due to its graphics function, the DMC represents an important link
between human and machine. For smaller aircraft such as for example helicopters, the DMC is
replaced with FCDS (Flight Control Display System) or AMC (Aircraft Management Computer).
The systems work in a similar way, however, they process less interfaces and data volumes.
Besides the cockpit display, so the operation of a graphics card, the AMC is also responsible for
significant monitoring functions such as rotational speeds or pressures and controlling the
autopilots. Due to the extensive integration into the aircraft network, the computer can calculate
trend displays which prevents greater maintenance costs and/or damage to components.

Block diagram FCDS
The FCDS primarily depicts the PFD (Primary Flight Display) and the ND (Navigation Display).
In order to generate the altimeter or the air speed readings, the ADC is required as a sensor and
converter. The operation and display is similar for the artificial horizon in the PFD. Here the
position information comes from the AHRS (Attitude and Heading Reference System). The
FCDM detects the pure function of the graphics card and receives additional inputs from the
NAV or GPS area. It is with the ICP (Instrument Control Panel) and the RCU, that additional
displays or representations can be switched on by the pilot.

Flight Warning Computer in combination with electronic centralized aircraft monitor (ECAM)
The above-mentioned combination of computer systems to monitor and control aircraft systems
is now completely performed by the AMC.
Computer related terminology
Most computer language derives from English words yet this is not always understandable or
intuitive for everyone.

Short briefing in computer terminology which is easy to understand
The following list is by no means exhaustive, however, it covers the relevant designations or
Terminology:









Operating principle, layout, interfaces of the main components

in a microcomputer
Microcomputer systems save and processes more or less large volumes of data depending on the
application and efficiency. Ifyou interconnect a microprocessor with the necessary additional
modules, you are left with a microcomputer. A microcomputer can be understood as a computer
on which all functions of the processor are combined on the integrated component (chip), the
microprocessor. Depending on the application, the spectrum of use ranges from microcontrollers,
that is the simple single-board computers for measurement and control tasks, to the conveniently
equipped PC and workstation.
The embedded programming of such a computer requires knowledge about the display of the
information.
Due to the components used in a microcomputer, all information is binary (dual) encoded.
Depending on the type and possibly also the intended processing of the information, various
codes are used. Thus, numbers are generally displayed differently to characters, natural numbers
for example in the natural binary code, characters in the ASCII code. However, the type of
processing may also suggest a number notation in the BCD or even in the ASCII code. Codes are
based on agreements that are made via software.
Microcomputers are mostly built on a printed circuit board. Such a printed circuit board may
include the following components:
• Microprocessor
• Clock generator
• REPROM
• Input, output device
• System controller
The connection of the individual components is performed by a bus structure (partial omission of
concurrent operation of individual components). A simple microcomputer consists of relatively
few, highly integrated devices.

Structure of a microprocessor incl. bus systems
Structure of a microcomputer incl. bus systems
Information contained in single and multiaddress instruction

words
The primary task of every processor is to process data. For this purpose, it has to retrieve data
from the working memory, manipulate it (that can only be a comparison with the other data, a
calculation or changing the bits) and then storing the result somewhere again.
Every command is processed by the CPU in (at least) 4 steps. The command is read in the form
of a binary data word from the memory. The binary word is interpreted as a command (decoded).
The command is performed. The result of the command execution is saved.

Processing of a command
The commands which the computer can understand and perform are bit sequences. The machine
language for each CPU is often different. The command must contain two data.
• Operation to be performed (what!) Operations-code

• Used operand (with what!) Address
Sometimes the OP-part also includes an indicator field for special data (i.e. addressing mode);
these data often enter directly into the operation code. On the basis of the number of operands in
the address code, a distinction is made between:

Three address command
Such a command structure is easy to understand, however, the commands are very long (10 bytes
or more). In addition, many memory accesses are required which reduces the processing speed.
In many cases, not all data is necessary. This way, the command volume can be reduced if the
addresses of the 1st operands are used as the destination address for the result.
Two address command
The command volume can be reduced even further if it is determined that the 2nd operand is
available in a specific register and the result is stored in the same register. This is of course at the
expense of the processing speed.
One address command
Structures with ACCU (accumulator): 8-Bit microcomputers work almost always with one
address commands (1st source and destination addresses are implicitly given, i.e. accumulator),
16-bit CPUs, on the other hand, are often with two address commands.
Zero address commands/stack calculator
The commands of the ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) are 0-address commands with
enclosed/implicit addressing which means that the ALU operations read and write directly from
the Top of Stack. In information technology, a stack memory (stack for short), is a frequently
used data structure.
The zero address architecture is relatively rare. It exists because a computer can make effective
use of the stack. This requires quick access to the stack in the hardware. It should therefore not
be situated in the working memory but rather in the CPU. For larger computers, this requires
very many memory elements. Furthermore, increased efforts are required for the implementation
of software.

Zero address command
Summary of the address commands
The command register can be found in the control unit which contains all commands that the
processor can execute. Here is where the commands are also decoded. The command decoder

translates the commands and delivers them to the executing unit which then executes the
command. The execution unit delivers the data for calculation to the arithmetic logic unit and it
regains the result from there.
Important data that are required during the execution, are buffered in the registers
A register is the fastest memory in a processor. Then there is also a temporal and logistical
control which accesses the arithmetic logic unit for arithmetic operations. It is from here that the
control bus, the interrupts and the serial input and outputs are also controlled
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALO) / Rechenwerk
The arithmetic logic unit is the actual computer. It is named ALU in short. It is in the ALU
where all arithmetic and logical functions and calculations are executed. The accumulator
(memory) and the flags (event memory), also belong to the ALU. The arithmetic logic unit
enables the command processing work to process data.
It has previously been assumed that a designated memory address is addressed for the address
specification, in which the desired operand is to be found. The address code often only contains
part of the information, by means of which the actual, the effective address, can be determined.

The address does not necessarily have to refer to the working memory, it can also refer to a
register (buffer in the CPU) or the I/O unit (Memory Mapped I/O). Furthermore, a shortened
address specification is possible.
The most important addressing modes are as follows:
Register addressing
The simplest addressing is the register addressing. The register addressing enables access to 8
registers (RO.. R7) of the selected register bank.
The lower 3 bits in the operation code of the command indicate which register should be used.
As a rule, the register addressing is the fastest possible. That is thanks to two properties: The data
are already in the processor, therefore, they do not first have to be transferred from the memory
into the processor. Secondly, you only need a few bits in order to address the register.
Immediate addressing
In the case of immediate addressing, an operand directly follows the opcode. It is viewed as a
constant. With immediate addressing, the constant can thus only be a source and never a goal of
an arithmetic operation. The value of the operand is already defined at the time of programming
and it can be stored together with the program. Given that the immediate addressing considers
the constant to be an integral part of the command, it is indeed slower than the register
addressing but still much faster than the following direct addressing.
The direct addressing represents the only method to access the special function registers. In the
case of direct addressing, it is the operand which follows the command or the specified register
which is regarded as an address. Generally, the working memory must therefore be accessed in
order to retrieve the data. Or, in other words, the address of the operand is an explicit part of the
command.
Indirect addressing
The effective address of the operand is in the register or the main memory space, whose address
is indicated in the command. For the reading/writing of the actual operands, two or more
memory accesses are required. In the command, it is not only the operand which is directly
addressed but also the memory cell in which the address of the operand can be found. In the
microcomputer, addressing is mostly only via two reference stages, for mainframe computers it
is often more than two stages.

Memory associated terms

Operation of typical memory devices
Memories can be referred to as any electronic component that can save data for a limited period
of time. A distinction can thus be made between two major categories of memories:
• The main memory, also known as (internal memory), allows data to be temporarily stored
while programs are executed. The main memory is created thanks to the micro-conductors,
that is, electronic circuits which are specialized and fast. The main memory corresponds to
the so-called working memory.
• The mass storage (also known as physical memory or external memory) allows information
to be stored over the long-term, even if the computer is turned off. The mass storage
corresponds to the magnetic storage devices such as the hard disc drive, the optical storage
devices such as i.e. the CD-ROM or the DVD ROM as well as the read memories.
The most important properties of a storage are the following:
• The capacity, displayed by the global information volume (in bits), that the memory can
record;
• The access time which corresponds to the period of time between the read/write request and
the availability of the data;
• The cycle time corresponds to the minimum period of time between two successive accesses;
• The transfer rate which defines the exchanged information volume per time unit, expressed
in bits per second;
• The non-volatility characterizes the ability of a memory to store the data when it is no longer
supplied with power.

Memory
RAM
The RAM is a read/write memory with random access (random-access memory). The data can be
entered or read directly onto a specific memory cell which is selected by an address. In general,
the RAM is a volatile memory. With these memories, the contents are lost when the power
supply is turned off.
SRAM
A static RAM (SRAM) is characterized by short access times, it processes the data
synchronously to the bus clock. SRAMs are used in caches and they can hold the saved data
without being revived by a low standby current with battery buffering. This is due to the fact that
in the case of SRAMs, flipflops are used for storage instead of MOS capacitors as with the
Dynamic Ram (DRAM).
DRAM
DRAM is the simplest, slowest and cheapest storage type that there is. DRAM chips are
produced in massive quantities on a global-scale. A DRAM memory cell comprises a transistor
and a capacitor which is the actual memory element. In a DRAM memory cell, a bit is saved by

charging the capacitor. The reading and writing takes place via the transistor which operates as a
switch and which insulates the charging of the capacitor or releases it on the bit line. The
transistor is addressed via the word line. The disadvantage of this memory type is that the
capacitor is discharged by the leaking currents and the memory state has to be refreshed time and
again. To ensure that the charging in the capacitor is maintained, a refresh is necessary several
thousand times per second.
ROM
A ROM is a read-only memory with random access. The ROM serves to store the invariable
information (i.e. programs, constants etc.). All read-only memories are non-volatile memories. In
the case of (mask-programmed) read-only memories, the content is invariably installed by the
manufacturer.
PROM
A PROM is a programmable read-only memory (programmable ROM). The storage content can
be carried to the memory by the operator and then, however, no longer changed.
EPROM
An EPROM is a programmable and erasable read-only memory (erasable PROM). The storage
content can be carried to the memory from the operator and erased again as a whole for example
through UV radiation (UV-ROM).
EEPROM
In contrast to the EPROM, an EEPROM can be electronically erased (instead of with UV light).

Memory types
Memory hierarchy
The memory hierarchy develops in the interoperation of memories of different sizes and speed.
The cascade structure is represented as follows:
Memory hierarchy
Register
A register is a fast short-time memory. As regards processors, they are installed in the CPU. The
registers of a processor are memories with low capacity and the shortest access time. They serve
to temporarily save information which is to be instantly processed. Many CPU commands only

function with registers. For example if you want to add two numbers, then both summands need
to be located with the majority of controllers in registers. If the summands are located in the
RAM, then they need to be copied before addition in the register. The classification of the CPU
or the microcontrollers indicates the width of these registers (8/16/32/64 bit CPU).
Furthermore, all microcontrollers have a so-called Special Function Register (SFR). They are
special registers which control all functions and modules of the microcontroller (10-Pins UART,
SPI, Timer etc.). These are physically located on the microcontroller IC, logically, however, they
are outside the CPU and they are addressed via different commands to the normal CPU register.
Cache
A cache is a very fast memory with relatively small memory capacity which is arranged as a
buffer between the central unit (CPU) and the working memory. The purpose of this memory
consists of speeding up the access to frequently used program parts and data. Saving and reading
is done fully automatically while the access frequency of the individual memory areas is
monitored and the least used areas are the first to be overwritten. The cache is managed by a
special program or directly by the operating system.
Main memory
The main memory continuously works together with the CPU, its tasks are:
• Saving the program

• Acquisition and delivery of data
• Saving intermediate and final results
• Acquisition of saved table values and programs from the auxiliary memory, also known as
external memory or mass storage.
Mass storage
The task of the mass storage consists of storing large volumes of data which, when recalled, are
forwarded to the main memory for further processing. Programs are also saved alongside the
work data.
Operation, advantages and disadvantages of the various data

storage systems

A data storage or data storage device serves to save data. The term data storage device is also
used as a synonym for a specific data carrier.
All storage systems have advantages and disadvantages and they are used in different areas of
computer technology.
RAM is used in computer and microcontroller systems as a working memory. Given that RAM is
generally only used as a working memory, RAM is also used as an abbreviation for working
memory. In principle, a distinction can be made between static RAM and dynamic RAM. SRAM
and RANI are volatile semiconductor memories. They lose their memory content after being
switched off.
The static RAM consists of several bistable flip-flops which are set or reset by means of an
addressing logic. How fast the writing or the reading of the memory is executed, is relatively
unimportant for the RAM. Therefore, the use of static RANIs is very easy and thus they can
often be found in microcontroller circuits.
But, due to the rather extensive structure of the individual memory cells, the memory density is
not all too high. However, for small computers, this is perfectly sufficient for the most part
If you require significantly larger memory densities, such as with modern PCs, dynamic RAMS
are used in this case. In principle, only a capacitor and a transistor is used as a memory cell here.
Given that the capacitor, however, loses its energy after only a short period of time, this must be
constantly refreshed. This is ensured by the "refresh" logic in the memory module. The control of
this logic must be taken over by the processor. Thus, the operation of dynamic RAMs is far more
extensive than with static types. Hence, the memory densities are also, however, somewhat
higher here. Today it is possible to have several gigabyte on one chip.
The ROM is a digital read-only memory or permanent semiconductor memory in which data are
permanently and invariably saved. The memory content can thus be reprogrammed or rewritten.
Typically, permanent semiconductor memories include operating systems, application programs
and firmware to which no changes must be made during operation. If, however, the program
changes here or a completely different program is to be housed in the ROM, the component can
no longer be used. This is of course not very effective and it resulted in more innovative read-
only memories having been developed.
A development of the ROM is the EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory) which
is still used today. Here a transistor is blocked or opened by a capacitor by means of a voltage.

This state remains unchanged over several years. If you now want to change the program, you
only need to irradiate the chip with UV light. The silicon bars break up again and the original
state is restored.
EPROMs can be easily recognized by the small quartz windows in the middle of the ICs. As a
result, the EPROM can erase again with a UV eraser. However, the service life of an EPROM is
still very limited. After several 100 times erasing and reprogramming, the memory capacity of
the capacitors decreases and the data can no longer be held.
The disadvantage of always having to erase EPROMs with UV eraser, was remedied with the
EERPROMS (Electrical Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory). These work in a similar
way to EPROMS, only that here the discharge of the capacitors is carried out electronically.
Given that the impact of UV light is avoided, the service life of the modules is also significantly
increased. Modern ICs can withstand several 10000 programming processes without any
problems. The disadvantage ofthis technology is that the writing takes a relatively long time.
Thus, EPROMs can only be applied where only limited data needs to be written in slow
sequential order.
The high-end variant is the flash memory. The flash memory is a memory technology developed
by Intel for fast, non-volatile memories which permanently saves the data after the power supply
has been switched off. The flash memory technology was developed from the technology for
EEPROMs and it uses the quantum mechanical effect in semiconductors. Flash memories come
in two architectures, as NAND gates and as NOR gates. That is, both as single-celled flash
memory cells, the Single Level Cell (SLC) and also as multicellular in which two or three digital
states can be saved.
Flash memory are used, for example, in the following areas:
• USB sticks
• In different designs of memory cards for smartphones, tablets, digital cameras
• On the BIOS memory in computers
• As hybrid hard drive or SSD-, SD-memory cards
For example, a flash memory is therefore used as a fast buffer, for example as a Ready Boost-
Cache. The minimal costs per memory system may also be lower when compared to hard disc
drives, for example with cheap Netbooks.
The flash technology cannot compete with a volatile memory such as the RAM because the
achievable data rates are significantly lower with Flash. Moreover, the access time for NAND

Flash is considerably greater for read and write accesses. In the case of NOR Flash, this only
applies to the writing accesses. The costs per gigabyte for Flash memories are still far greater
than for hard disc drives and optical discs. A main problem with the Flash memory is the error
rate. Sectors are mainly damaged by erase accesses which cannot be exceeded over time and thus
become defect.
The following table summarizes all of the advantages and disadvantages again and it explains the
basic functions with core messages.
Microprocessors
Functions performed and overall operation of a microprocessor
The microprocessor comprises the logic functions of a processor on a single highly-integrated

semiconductor device; integrated circuit IC in MOS technology. The processor is a machine
(synchronous sequential circuit) which can execute a defined number of activities (amount of
machine commands, command set) and thus it controls the entire computer and solves the
arithmetic and logical tasks. It is thus responsible for processing machine commands which exist
in the binary coded form in the working memory and which constitute an executable program in
their entirety. A clock which is externally generated by a quartz generator ensures a
synchronized flow of operations within the CPU. A reset impulse (also when switching on) shifts
the processor in a defined ground state from which it immediately starts with command
processing at a constant, defined address in the working memory.
Nowadays, the processor, the main processor or the CPU is the very heart of any electronic
device. It is used in smartphones, calculators and in computers, for which it was actually
invented. A world without these computing geniuses is inconceivable.

For a long time, the development of processors proceeded according to a seemingly simple
principle. The internal structure was optimized, the structures were made smaller, voltage was
lowered, clock frequency was increased or the manufacturing process was improved. The next
processor generation was born. However, this gamble is highly restricted. Hence, the clock
signal has to cover ever longer distances due to the increasing chip size. To ensure that the time
difference of the clock edges lies in the acceptable range, the clock driver has to become ever
more powerful. For this reason, it increases the power loss of the processor. And hence the chip
area is often scaled-down. At the same time, ever thinner connections are used between the
switching elements. For that reason, the resistance between the connections increases and the
signals move ever slower. That may lead to the signal transit time being below the processing
time of the gates. The physical limits very quickly demonstrated that the clock frequency in
particular could not be infinitely increased. The clock frequency determines, inter alia, the
arising power loss and thus the service life of the processor. Therefore, it was not long before
other performance-enhancing techniques were developed In order to increase the performance of
processors, some function blocks are integrated several times. They work in parallel and thus
they increase the computer speed of the processor.
Control and processor
The processor is the very heart of a computer because it works in a regular rhythm. Generally,
the processor is also described as a CPU (Central Processing Unit). The CPU is contained in
many electronic devices and it serves as a central processing unit. Well-known processor
manufacturers are Intel or ANID. Significant features are as follows:
• Clock frequency: Every processor has a rhythm which is also referred to as clock frequency.
The faster the clock frequency then the quicker the processor can process commands. A
measurement for the speed of the rhythms is hertz. A hertz is a clock pulse per second.
• Cooling: High speeds for clock frequencies lead to major heat losses. The electronics in the
processor may be damaged by the accruing heat. Fans or water-cooling systems are generally
used to dissipate the heat.
The control unit of the CPU assumes responsibility for monitoring the control flow and data flow
and to ensure the correct data transport between the registers, the arithmetic logic unit and the
outside world. If a computer word (program command) is loaded into the CPU, it will initially,
with the aid of the instruction decoder, be analyzed and then converted into a range of control
signals by the control unit in order to influence the further progress of the command processing.
Irrespective of the complexity of the command set, control units are designed as
microprogrammed control units or as hard-wired control units. In the case of CPUs with complex
command sets, microprogrammed control units are used. The actual processing of the data takes
place in the arithmetic logic unit. Arithmetic logic units can be designed very differently

depending on their complexity. It ranges from simple adding units to complex signal processors
which have extensive arithmetic-logical units with several parallel designed operational units.
Registers of a CPU can be divided into universal and support registers. Universal registers serve
to buffer data words and they can be depicted with any values. These registers are designed in
such a way that the can be depicted and read very quickly. From a theoretical point of view, a
universal register would suffice. However, this would lead to major delays when processing
specific algorithms because intermediate results would have to be written into the relatively slow
main memory and read again at a later point in time. The number of universal registers varies
greatly depending on the type of processor. Microprocessors with complex command sets
generally have less registers than those with simple command sets. Support registers are, in
contrast to the universal registers, reserved for a specific task.
Scheme: Processor
Clock
In order to explain the speed of a computer, you need information about how fast the processor
can operate. The measurement unit is megahertz which means one million clock pulses per
second.

In the case of microprocessors, the clock frequency is decisive for operations which are to be
executed in one second, the operations per second (ops). Here a distinction can be made between
the internal and external clock frequency.
The internal clock frequency is the frequency with which the central processing unit (CPU),
processes instructions internally, also known as CPU-clock. These clock frequencies have
developed in the last two decades from a few megahertz (MHz) to several gigahertz (GHz).
The external clock frequency, also known as system clock, is the frequency with which the
microprocessor accesses the level 2 cache and the working memory. The internal and external
clock frequency are directly related to one another.
There is a Front-Side-Bus (FSB) which is the general clock generator in the system, and there is
a multiplier, by which means the processor ' s clock can be adjusted. For example for the Intel
Pentium 4 640 (3200 MHz), this results in the following calculation:
200 MHz FSB is multiplied by 16, results in a clock rate of 3200 MHz.
In order to achieve these states, certain voltage levels need to be generated which the system
interprets as either o or 1. A processor clock is, therefore, a vibration and the more vibrations are
carried out per second then the faster or higher the processor is clocked. The unit for the
vibration is hertz and it can be represented in various powers of ten.
Abbreviation, Unit and value in Hertz for Clock frequencies

Clock Rates
A processor with a clock rate of exactly one hertz is able to process one operation per second.
This means that the period of vibration takes precisely one second. If you were to now overclock
the process on two hertz, it would then already be able to master two operations per second
because the period of vibration only utilizes half of the time. Therefore, the conclusion is that the
higher the processor is clocked, then the narrower the "curves" become in the above-indicated
figure and the more heat is generated.

Register
The computer term register concerns a memory area in the processor which can be addressed
directly with the relevant instructions from the machine language. A large part of the individual
machine instructions refers to the respective register. The individual machine instructions are
dependent on the processor. The amount and the width of the registers also differs from
processor to processor. Width should be understood as the quantity of bits which have a place in
a register.
Common widths are 8, 16, 32, 64 bits. Registers serve to transfer values or save results.
The access to the register takes place much quicker than to the working memory. A distinction is
made between six types of registers: Status register, data register, address register, command
register, general registers (universal register) and the so-called accumulator.
Faster memories are therefore required in which operands, commands, results, memory addresses
and status information can be stored. These registers are built from fast flip-flops and they sit
directly on the CPU and thus they work with the full processor clock. Given that there are only
very few of them (CISC processors have between 8 and 16, RISC processors around 32
registers), they can be directly selected by switching control lines and read or depicted in a clock.
In today' s desktop computers, registers are mostly 32 or 64 bits in width. Embedded systems
such as microcontroller- CPUs still partly use 8 bits for number notation.
Processor - central unit

Arithmetic logic unit
The execution unit consists of registers and the arithmetic logic unit (ALU). An ALU is the most
important part of the execution unit. It executes all arithmetic operations that are required by the
computer: arithmetic, logical and bit-wise operations. By default, it has two data inputs, one data
output, control lines and signal lines. The arithmetic functions that can be executed by almost all
ALUs are: Addition (ADD), subtraction (SUB) and multiplication (MUL). The logic functions
are: Negation (NOT), conjunction (AND), comparison (CMP) and anticoincidence (XOR). The
ALU can link two binary values of the same number of digits with each other. The indication
about what function is to be executed in order to process the register ' s data, comes from the
control unit. The processed information is returned to the register block. Moreover, the ALU
sends a flag to the status register.
.
Interplay ALU and execution unit
The ALU is a combinational circuit which can link one or two operands A and B on the input
with various functions. As soon as all gates are passed through, the result x lies on the output. An
ALU can be manufactured as an integrated circuit for 4-bit, 6-bit, 8-bit or 16-bit. The most
commonly occurring variants are the 8-bit. This is still possible with one bit, however, ALUs

have to be then connected in parallel for higher computing power. Supplying the ALU with
operands or saving the result is implemented differently. The control unit determines which
operation is to be carried out by switching a multiplexer. In this way, the output of the desired
function block is applied to the output of the ALU. Previously in the arithmetic logic unit there
were often two dedicated operand registers (mostly identified with A and B) and a special results
register, the accumulator. Today, there is a range of general purpose registers which can be
switched to the inputs as well as the output. Besides the actual result, there is also a range of
"side information" which is stored in the status register. Each bit of this register has its own
meaning it can be individually evaluated by the control unit.
Schematic representation of an ALU
Integrated Circuits
Operation and use of encoders and decoders
Encoders and decoders serve to convert an input encoding on an output encoding. An encoder is
identified as a switch on which each input is assigned with a binary encoded output value
whereby only one input line may be active simultaneously. It concerns a conversion of a one-hot
code into a binary code.
As a counterpart, the decoder converts a binary input code in such a way that there is only ever
one active output. It is the conversion into a one-hot code. Decoders thus also serve to select an

output by means of control lines. It is designed by always precisely setting the output on 1 in the
value table which is addressed through the combination of control lines. The decoder is
identified either as an n-bit binary decoder (whereby n is the number of control lines) or as one-
hot-decoder whereby n is the number of outputs here. Another term which is often associated in
connection with the decoder is the codec. Codec is an artificial word and it was made up of the
words coder and decoder. Here it concerns a program that encodes and decodes data.
The aim is a decrease in the volume of data and an often associated reduction of the necessary
bandwidth for transmission. The decrease in size is often achieved by a reduction of the dynamic
and a compression of the signal. The dynamic describes the ratio of maximum signal to
minimum signal and it is thus decreased by reducing the maximum. An example here would be
the reduction of sound intensity of a signal. Compressing is for example the removal of available
redundant data. Other examples for transcoders can be found in the processor of a computer. The
instruction decode unit (IDU), is a functional unit of a processor that converts the machine code
into individual instructions which can executed by the processor. The instruction decode unit
(IDU) disassembles the instructions written in the machine code into individual work stages with
which the logical functional units in the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) are activated.
A specific microprogram (often abbreviated to up ) is then executed for each op-code in the
instruction decode unit. This microprogram should not be confused with the program generated
by the compiler which should execute the CPU! (in order to distinguish more clearly it is often
identified as macro program).
In the case of the microprogram, it pertains to several stages (micro instructions) which are
necessary in order to execute a command from the macro program. Each stage is effectively a list
of control lines which are to be switched at this moment. In a pure RISC processor, each micro
program only has one stage. Therefore, only one single operation is performed with the result
that a sequence control is omitted. In the case of the depicted CISC control unit, several stages
are, however, executed successively. These are stored in a special memory in the control unit, the
microprogram-ROM (gP-ROM). This is often designed as an EEPROM in modern processors so
that the microcode can be subsequently changed in order to offset errors in the processor design,
for example. The process of encoding/ decoding a command is as follows:
At first, the micro program address storage is checked, (uP-address-ROM), to which P-start
address the given op-code is led. This address is then loaded into the program counter (UP-PC).
The instruction decode unit can now jump to the appropriate position in the gP-ROM and
perform the first stage. The clock generator of the processor increases the gP-PC by one with
each clock pulse so that another stage is performed in each clock pulse, in other words different
control lines are set.

If the microprogram has been run through completely and thus processed the command, the up-
PC is reset again.
Function of encoder types
In computer circuits, events are often signalized on individual lines and for that reason, events
may occur in parallel. A computer can, however, only process events sequentially one after
another. Thus it is necessary to detect the highest priority event from several active signals and to
communicate with the computer so that it can react to this. Priority encoders serve this purpose.
A priority encoder detects whether at least one of its input lines is activated and it determines the
index of the highest priority, activated line.
Example: A priority encoder for 4 input lines whereby input Xl has the highest priority, can be
specified by the following truth table:
The output Y3 then accepts the value 1 if at least one of the inputs has the value 1. The outputs
Y2 and Y1 deliver the binary encoded index of the lowest active input. If Y3 = pertains to o, the
values from Y2 and Y1 are arbitrary. The calculation of the equation ofY3 is simply:

Y3 = X1 OR X2 OR X3 OR X4
Uses of medium, large and very large scale integration
Many circuits or circuit parts are used time and again in practical electronics. In order to not have
to rebuild or invent, partly complex, circuits time and again, they are consolidated into integrated
circuits (IS integrated circuitry), and molded into a housing.
Advantages of integrated circuits
• cheap
• space-saving
• safe to operate
Disadvantages of integrated circuits
• Defect IC is difficult to recognize

• A special tool is necessary for soldering
• Difficult to purchase spare parts due to type diversity (special types) In principle, a
distinction is made between digital and analog integrated circuits. The analog circuits are
predominantly used in audio technology
Digital ICs comprise circuits that process digital states and logical connectives from digital
technology.
They are manufactured in bipolar technology or in MOS technology. MOS circuits are
particularly cheap to manufacture and they have a lower power consumption.
A crucial aspect when implementing them in digital technology is the level of integration.
The level of integration denotes the number of transistors in an integrated circuitry. Instead of
transistors, it can also refer to logic gates. This is then understood as logical complexity. There is
no clearly defined standard unit for the integration density. The integration levels LSI and VLSI
require computer-aided design methods.
• SSI (Small Scale Integration) Up to 100 function elements on a chip surface of 3 mm2.
Applications: digital gates (logic elements

• MSI (Medium Scale Integration) Up to 1,000 functional elements on a chip surface of

8 mm2. Applications: analog-to-digital combined circuits
• LSI (Large Scale Integration) Up to 100,000 function elements on a chip surface of 20 mm2.
Applications: analog-to-digital combined circuits, memory, microprocessors
• VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration) Over 100,000 function elements on a chip surface of
30 mm2. Applications: Memory, microprocessors
• ULSI (Ultra-Large Scale Integration) 1,000,000 to 10,000,000 function elements.
The development of integrated circuits is characterized by the rapidly increasing functionality

and in the case of memory modules, by the memory capacity.
It went hand-in-hand with the ever increasing integration densities that was possible to achieve
with the continued miniaturization of the components and the conductor paths.
By means of planar technology, it is possible, in a single manufacturing process, to

accommodate all components of a circuit on one silicon chip. Given that the components in an
IC have no external connections, they are referred to as switching or functional elements.
The electrical connections between the components take place via conductor paths which are
vapor-deposited as thin metal film. The integrated circuit is embedded in a plastic or ceramic
housing and is thus protected from damage. The connection contacts which are guided outward,
are connected to the actual chip with the most delicate contact wires. The size of the chip which
is visible on the surface is solely determined by the bonding and it is not at all related to the size
of the integrated circuit.
Multiplexing
Operation, application and identification of multiplexers and

demultiplexers
Multiplex processes are techniques with which several signals are transferred simultaneously or
sequentially via existing transmission routes. Multiplex technology can be used on wired
transmission routes and also in radio engineering. They enable transmission routes to be used
more efficiently because several transmission channels are simultaneously transmitted via one

transmission route. The advantages of multiplex technologies lie in the efficiency, the improved
frequency economy and the increase in data transmission rates.
A multiplexer (in short: MUX) is a selection circuit in analog and digital electronics with which
one input signal can be selected from a number of input signals and through-connected at the
output. Multiplexer can be compared with rotary switches which are not set by hand but rather
with electronic signals. The difference to the relay is that the connections are not achieved
mechanically but rather (nowadays) by integrated semiconductor circuits.
In the case of a cyclical pass-through, parallel data streams can be converted into serial data
streams with a multiplexer. Furthermore, a switching function or every possible switching state
can be achieved with a multiplexer. For signal transmission with optical fibers, there are optical
multiplexers and demultiplexers which operate with optical switches or in the case of the
wavelength-division multiplex, with wavelength-selective elements. The counterpart to the
multiplexer is the demultiplexer with which the consolidated data channels are separated again.
Analog multiplexers work bidirectionally, that is, they can also be used as demultiplexers.
Besides several inputs and an output, a multiplexer has one or several control signals via which it
is defined, which input is selected. The input that is through-connected to the output is that which
has the identifier which is present as a control signal in the form of a binary number. A
multiplexer connected in parallel with the controller ID n-MUX, has n control signals, 2n inputs
and an output, for example. The inputs are mostly numbered consecutively with the numbers o to
2n-1.
The function of a multiplexer on a rotary switch can be illustrated graphically which switches
precisely one input line on an output:

Rotary Switch
2:1, 4:1, 8:1 and 16:1 multiplexers are used in digital technology. By way of example, a 4:1 is
explained below.
The control inputs Sl and S2 select which of the inputs Xl, X2, X3 or X4 are switched on the
output Y. For this purpose, an index must also be calculated from the control inputs. The
designations o and 1 of the control inputs indicate a value with their summary of an index. In the
below- mentioned example, an index range of o to 3 is specified, control input Sl has the value o
and S2 has the value 1. Therefore, a control of S2=1 and S1=o results in the index 2 and switches
it with the input X3 identified with 2 on the output Y.

Multiplexer
Finally, the following image demonstrates the multiplexer in the block diagram with a processor.

Multiplexer
The microprocessor is limited to the most necessary components:
1. A control unit for sequence control (CONTROL)

2. A RAM component (RAM)
3. An accumulator (ACC)
4. An Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) for simple arithmetical operations and bit operations
5. An instruction register (IR) for saving the present command
6. A program counter (PC)
7. A multiplexer (MUX) which switches either the PC or the address code of the present
command onto the address input of the RAM
On the left side of the control unit, the control lines to the other components are indicated. This
machine has a 16-bit width data bus. The 16-bit words of the computer are divided into a 4-bit
operation code and a 12-bit address code.

Control unit
Fiber Optics
Advantages and disadvantages
Modern communication and information technology requires ever greater transmission

bandwidths and amplifier-free bridgeable route lengths. The demands on interference resistance
are growing with increasing interference levels. These partly opposing demands can only be
fulfilled by means of message transmission with fiber-optic cables.
The triumph of optical transmission systems is based on the decisive advantages of optical
transmission compared with the older electrical transmission based on copper cables. The main
advantages here are the considerably higher potential transmission rates (gigabit to terabit per

second), for simultaneously very large potential ranges (up to several hundred kilometers without
booster amplifier). This, in turn, requires lighter cables and less required space as well as less
booster amplifiers which considerably reduces the installation and maintenance costs.
Other advantages are:
• Optical fibers can optionally be laid in parallel with other supply lines. There are no
electromagnetic interferences.
• Due to the optical transmission, there is no occurrence of interference radiation, contact and
mass problems.
The fiber-optic cable can be made out of glass fibers or plastic and is characterized, inter alia, by
its extremely high transmission rate which can amount to up to several billion bits per second
(bit/s). The transmission technology on optical fibers is based on an intensity modulation which
occurs in the form of amplitude, frequency or phase modulation.
An increase in the transmission capacity is possible by the modulation of various wavelengths of

light. Furthermore, wavelengths of light are not sensitive to electromagnetic interferences,
largely bug-proof and, if they are made out of glass, they have extremely low attenuation values.
Other advantages are:
• No crosstalk (unwanted signal scatters on the neighboring fibers)

• No earthing is necessary - possible to install in explosion-prone environment (no sparking)
• Possibility of signal transmission to components at a high-voltage potential, for example in
systems of high-voltage direct current transmission.
• Considerably lighter than copper cables - far less required space than copper cables
• Raw materials - in contrast to copper - practical unlimited availability
• Not a potential fire hazard by parasitic electrical currents (i.e. lightening, short circuit)
• Lower fire load compared with copper cables due to less need for insulation and lower heat
development.
• High security against interception
However, optical fibers are more expensive than copper cables and they require a higher level of
precision and care during laying and installation which requires expensive equipment technology
as well as costly and complex measurement technology.
• High packaging costs

• Weak point connector technology (contamination, alignment)
• Relatively sensitive to mechanical stress

• Expensive equipment technology

• Not easy to lay: With strong bending, the fiber may break in the cable
• Devices cannot be supplied with power via a fiber-optic cable, power over the Ethernet is
also not possible
Fiber optic data bus
The term "Media Oriented Systems Transport" means, in contrast to the CAN data bus, that
address-oriented messages are transmitted to a specific receiver. This technology is used in
aircraft or automobiles for data transmission in the infotainment system. The infotainment
system provides a variety of modern information and entertainment media technology. The name
of this data bus derived from "Media Oriented Systems Transport (MOST) Cooperation".
In order to achieve a complex infotainment system, the optical data transfer is useful because
data cannot be transferred quick enough, and thus not in the appropriate quantity, with the
previously applied CAN data bus systems. Video and audio applications result in transmission
rates in the range of Mbit/s. The transfer of a digital TV signal with stereo sound alone requires a
transmission speed of around 6 Mbit/s. Previously, such information such as for example video
and sound, could only be transmitted as an analog signal. This requires an increased power
requirement of the wiring harness. The data transmission rate of CAN bus systems is limited to a
maximum of 1 Mbit/s. As a result, it was only possible to transfer control signals by CAN bus
systems.
With the aid of optical buses, the data exchange between the components involved takes place in
the digital form. Data transfer with the aid of light waves enables, besides a lower power
requirement and lower weight, a significantly greater data transmission rate. Light waves, in
contrast to radio waves, have very short wavelengths, generate no electromagnetic interference
waves and at the same time they are resistant to these. These connections facilitate a high data
transmission rate as well as high interference resistance.

Optical databus
The entry of fiber-optic cables into aircraft technology ("fly-by-light") is still in the early stages.
The pioneers are the 777 from Boeing with the ARINC 629 and a few military aircraft, however,
a certain disenchantment has set in. Even in the A 380 from Airbus Industries, fiber-optic cables
only have limited use for transferring video data and in the IFE.

In-Flight Entertainment (IRE) architecture of a modern aircraft.
As illustrated above, work is currently taking place on IFE systems with fiber optic data buses.
There are many new companies on the market that are taking advantage of the progress made by
the world of consumer electronics, coupled with clever ideas, in order to score points with their
new products. has been technically possible on the ground for some time, is now also
gradually finding its way into aircraft cabins. Optical transmission systems have long been
established in the upper range of automotive engineering.
For example, the "Fiber to the Screen" system (FITS) works almost according to the traditional
method. The US-American manufacturer initially changed nothing about the conventional
system of a central content server. However, by using optical fiber technology, the company
achieves the discontinuation of distributor units, zone boxes and seat control boxes. Thanks to a
high bandwidth, a "Server/Switch-Unit" can supply any seat individually with AVOD data. The
new system is lighter by more than half in comparison to conventional systems. In addition, the
system is only around half the price of conventional systems and even the installation is much
easier due to the extremely thin glass fiber cable.
Ultimately, the main advantage is the weight reduction and thus the enormous cost reduction for
commercial airline operations.
Fiber optic related terms
Fiber-optic technology is a tried-and-tested principle whereby electrical signals are converted

into light signals. With the aid of glass, quartz, or plastic fibers, the light can be transported over

long distances. At the end of the transfer, light impulses are converted into electrical signals
again.
The term glass fiber is a type of optical fiber whose fibers consist of the raw material glass. It is
often confused with the generic term fiber-optic cable (FOC). Whereas electrical signals in
copper cables migrate as electrons from one end to another, it is photons (light particles) that
assume this function in glass fiber cables. Each color of the light is assigned a certain frequency
of the electromagnetic wave. By using different colors (frequencies), several data channels can
be operated independently on an optical fiber. This makes the optical fiber a transmission
medium for both the present and the future.
Principle of optical transmission (optronics)
In a transmission module, an electrical signal modulates an optical carrier and thus generates an
optical signal. The modulation can take place either in the analog or the digital form.
Luminescence diodes or laser diodes are used as transmitters. The optical signal of the
transmitting diodes is coupled into the optical fibers whereby it is necessary to ensure high-
quality coupling in order to keep the losses from coupling to a minimum.
For lower requirements, the optical fiber can be a multimode step-index fiber-optic cable. For
higher requirements, the grade-index fiber-optic cable is used. For the highest requirements
regarding attenuation and dispersion, only single-mode fiber-optic cables can be considered.
At the end of the transmission route, the optical signal is converted into an electrical signal with
the aid of the receiver module and where necessary, amplified and demodulated.

Structure of an optical fiber and reflection behavior
The easiest way to describe the movement of light in fiber optical systems is ray theory. Light is
dealt with like a simple ray, in the form of a line. An arrow on the line indicates the propagation
direction. The journey of the light through fiber optical systems can then be analyzed by means
of basic geometry. In this way, the whole theme is simple and easy to understand.
The fiber core (glass core), is the central area of an optical fiber and it serves to guide the waves
of light. The core consists of a material with a higher refraction index than the overlying
cladding. On the walls on the inside of the optical fiber, a reflection takes place with the result
that light beam is guided around every corner virtually without loss. The glass cladding is the
optically transparent material of an optical fiber where reflection takes place. The glass cladding
is a dielectric material with a lower refraction index than the core. The dielectric material is non-
metallic and insulating. It thus contains no metallic parts. In the core of an optical fiber with
glass core, light components of different irradiation angles are propagated. In order that a light
beam can even be guided in the core, it must be reflected at the interface between the glass core
and glass cladding, more precisely always towards the glass core. Such a reflection only takes

place if the refraction index of the glass core is greater than the glass cladding and if the
irradiation angle of the light on the fiber front surface is smaller than the maximum angle of
acceptance. Here, light waves of varying transit time develop, the modes, due to frequent
reflection on the boundary layer between glass core and glass cladding. Light waves that cover a
longer distance in the fiber are also identified as high-mode beams, light waves which are guided
close along the fiber axis are identified as low-mode beams.
Principle of optical transmission and optical fiber in an aircraft
Technical terms in optronics
Refraction index
The refraction index is the factor by which the speed of light in optical media is smaller than in
the vacuum.
Modes
Modes are the various routes which the photons of the light can follow along the fiber. Multi-
mode fibers can support many modes.
Splice

Splice is a special type of connection of two strands or two glass fibers in telecommunications.
This connection is permanent and constant. The problem with these connections is the exact
orientation of the fibers to one another. If the orientation is only slightly shifted, attenuations and
reflections occur.
Insertion loss
The insertion of an optical component generates an attenuation of the signal. This is called
insertion loss.
Dispersion
Dispersion is understood as the expansion of a light pulse in fiber-optic cables. In the case of
transmitting a light pulse into an optical fiber, this propagates due to transit times differences of
the various modes. The optical pulse which is fed into an optical fiber is wider on the output of
the optical fiber than on the input. This phenomenon which is known as dispersion, limits the
transmission band width or the bandwidth-length product.
The optical signals are attenuated during transmission. The attenuation develops both due to
impurities and inhomogeneity of the materials as well as due to bending of the optical fibers
when wiring and by the fluctuation of the dimensions. The attenuation is also dependent on the
wavelength used.
Types of optical fibers
A distinction is made between three types of fibers, types of optical fibers:
Single-mode fibers
Single-mode fibers (also known as monomode) can only transfer one mode. Single-mode fibers
are step-index fibers. The fibers have a very small core diameter (around 5 gm to 10 um) and
they only accept one optical fiber and thus there is no modal dispersion with single-mode fibers
which results in a very high bandwidth.
Multi-mode fibers with step-index profile

Multi-mode fibers with step-index profile have a total diameter of 200 to 500 gm. They enable
several light waves to be sent simultaneously. With this type of glass fiber, very many modes are
propagated in the core (multi-mode several modes). The modes are totally internally reflected at
the core-cladding-transition. Thereby, there are modes that are very steep with very many modes

in the core (multi-mode). The modes are totally internally reflected at the core-cladding-
transition. At the same time there are modes that run very steeply and thus they are very often
reflected by the core on their path (higher-order modes) and modes that run very flat and are only
rarely (or ideally not at all), reflected (lower-order modes).
Multi-mode fibers with graded-index profile

Multi-mode fibers (also known as graded), can transfer various modes due to their large core
diameter and the different material layers. In the case of these optical fibers, the refraction index
of the core decreases from the core center towards the glass cladding. For that reason, there is no
"hard" transition between the core and the glass cladding. The core consists of many individual
"glass rings" (like the annual rings of a tree), each with a slightly different refraction index. The
refractive index of the core mostly decreases in a parabolic way to the cladding. The output
signal is still very usable with the result that losses through the soft transition are relatively
small.
Types of optical fibers

Measured variables
Important measured variables of fiber-optic sensors, mainly in the area of aviation:
• Position, path, displacement, elongation

• Temperature
• Fill level
• Rotation rate
• Sound
• Current strength
• Magnetic field
• Chemical composition
• Pressure, force
• Speed, flow rate
• Acceleration, vibration
• Nuclear radiation
• Electrical fields, voltage
Fiber-optic cables or optical fibers are now indispensable in data transfer technology. Due to the
high transmission capacity of the optical fibers, the demand for this technology is continually
increasing in the area of computer networks and in telecommunications. However, there are a
few problem areas in this state-of-the-art transfer technology.
Optical attenuation of the optical fibers
The term optical attenuation is understood as the loss of light energy in the optical fiber path
which was covered, that is, the incoming light energy is lower on the receiver than that fed from
the transmitter into the optical fiber. The attenuation is, as is usually the case in communications
engineering, indicated in decibel (dB) and calculated using the following formula:
D (in dB) = 10 log (Pon/Poff)
With the Pon as the transmission power and Poff as the receiver power. The attenuation increases
with the length and thus in order to achieve a uniform assessment of optical fibers, the
attenuation value is indicated based on a kilometer (dB/km).
The resulting attenuation restricts the performance of the optical message transmission systems
and it is caused by three effects:
• Scattering losses

• Absorption
• Bending losses
Scattering losses
Material impurities or irregularities within the molecular structure of the quartz glass scatter the
light beam upon impact into all directions, that is, the light beam loses its original direction
which results in an attenuation in the direction of propagation. This light scattering (Rayleigh-
scattering) is dependent on the wavelength. As the wavelength increases, the Rayleigh-scattering
decreases.
The Rayleigh-scattering is the reason for the sunset, for example. The shorter wavelengths of the
blue light are scattered or absorbed and the longer wavelengths of the red light are scattered
much less and they reach our eye. The result is a red sunset.
Absorption
impurities of the quartz glass through OH and heavy-metal ions (copper, iron, nickel, chromium,
vanadium and cobalt). These impurities convert the optical energy into heat. As regards optical
fiber manufacturing, efforts are made to keep these impurities in the quartz glass to a minimum.
Here, the special attention is placed on hydroxyl ions which are always present in the glass.
These ions bring about very high damping maxima in the attenuation curve of the glass.
Bending
The third cause for the attenuation is represented by bending in the fibers. In the process, a
distinction must be made between microbending and macrobending.
Microbending is the result of microscopic impurities in the fiber geometry such as asymmetry of
the fibers, fluctuations in the core diameter and wavy boundaries between fiber core and
cladding or as a result of the manufacturing process by mechanical stresses caused by pressure,
strain or torsional flexing.
Fiber bending with radii of curvature in the scale of centimeters are described as macrobending.
In this case, losses appear due to the incomplete total internal reflections of the light on the bent
interfaces between the core and the cladding.
Various errors can be interpreted by experts when measuring the cables. The decisive factor here
is the measured curve progression. The following measuring log provides information about
these sources of error.

Bending
Optical windows
The attenuation of the fiber-optic cable is dependent on the wavelength; the attenuation is
particularly low for certain wavelengths. These are identified as optical windows.
1. Optical window: 850 nm


Optical windows
For data transmission in local networks, it is predominantly the first optical window which is
used because there are very cheap transmitter and receivers available in this field. The second
optical window has a lower attenuation and it is thus mainly used for longer transmission paths
in local networks. However, the transmitter and receiving equipment which is necessary for this,
is far more expensive. The third window is used in the WAN (Wide Area Network) in order to
transmit signals across distances of up to 100 km. For the qualitative assessment of a fiber-optic
cable, it is not only the attenuation which is relevant but also the bandwidth-length product.
Bandwidth-length product
The transmission capacity of an optical fiber depends largely on the following factors:
• Type and structure of the fiber

• Fiber quality
• Fiber length
• Wavelength used
The bandwidth-length product is the product of the maximum transmission frequency with a
length of km which results from the different factors. The measurement unit is "MHz * km", the
value is indicated in the data sheet of the fiber. A fiber with a bandwidth-length product of

600 MHz + km provides a transmission bandwidth of 600 MHz with a length of one kilometre.
For a length of 500 m, the maximum bandwidth would thus amount to 1200 MHz, a fiber with a
length of two kilometers only provides a bandwidth of 300 MHz.
With the aid of a bandwidth-length product, it is thus possible to select the suitable fiber for the
planned operation.
Cable types
To protect against external influences, all fiber-optic cables get a primary protective layer which
is applied directly during the manufacturing process. Given that the primary coating is not
sufficient for complete protection of the fiber under real-life laying conditions, the fibers are
equipped with an additional protective cover, the secondary coating.
Depending on the area of application for the fibers, the structure of the secondary coating is
differentiated between four groups.
• Tight buffered cable: Here, the second protective layer is applied directly and firmly on
the first protective layer of the fiber.
• Composite buffered fiber: With the composite buffered fiber, the secondary coating is
not rigidly connected to the fiber but instead a sliding layer made out of gel separates the
fiber from the outer cladding
• Buffer loose tube: In the case of the buffer loose tube, the primary protected fiber is
surrounded by a plastic tube so that a hollow space remains between the fiber and the casing
• Multi-fiber buffer tube: The multi-fiber buffer tube comprises several primary protected
fibers that are surrounded by a shared plastic tube.
Even the installation of the secondary coating does not entirely complete the cable structure of a
fiber-optic cable. The other cable elements largely serve to protect the fibers from external
influences. In principle, a distinction is made between three cable types:
• Indoor cable for use within buildings

• Outdoor cable for use outside buildings
• Universal cable for use in both the inside and outside area
Within these main groups, there are, on the other hand, a variety of subgroups of different cable
structures for the most varied purposes.

The identification of a fiber-optic cable in the form of a type abbreviation. This DIN key is
defined in the DIN VDE 0888. The meaning of the individual positions can be gathered from the
following table:

Terminations
In order to prevent the so-called Fresnel losses of glass-air-glass transitions (0.34dB), a so-called
physical contact (PC) structure has been established with the 2.5 mm ferrules. A crowned
(convex) ferrule end face with radii of 15 to 30 mm, enables direct contact of the optical fibers
within the plug connection. The result of this end face quality are significantly lower insertion
losses. It is mainly APC connectors that are used for the higher requirements in the WAN
environment. Here, the ferrule has an angle of 80 or 90. As a result, very high return losses (up to
70dB) are achieved. The insertion losses move at 0.1 to 0.2dB. In the IAN area, these
requirements and values are not necessary. With crowned PC end faces, parts of the signals are
reflected at the connector junction (they do not pass from one optical fiber to another) and they
return to the transmitter.
The lost energy is return loss. The ability of a connector to prevent this is called high return loss.
Return loss does not pose a problem for multi-mode and the majority of digital services such as
for example LANs. However, in several applications (mostly hierarchic structures such as video
distribution systems), there is a greatly increased demand for the return loss of a plug connector
(and namely in the plugged-in and unplugged state). For example, in a video distribution system
with a hierarchic structure, if a signal reflected by disconnection disturbs a transmitter laser, then
the reception of the other parts is compromised. Depending on the quality of the polish, PC end
faces achieve return losses of 45db (PC), 50db (Super PC) and 55db (Ultra PC). In order to
achieve a return loss 65db, it is necessary to have a ground angle of the ferrule end face at an
angle of 80 or 90. This end face is called APC (angled physical contact). APC connectors can be
recognized by their green color.
Controlled end faces
Given that the physical contact as well as the geometry of the end face are crucial for a reliable

process, IEC 60874-19-1 (SC) has specified precise definitions regarding the end face geometry.
It is absolutely necessary and it ensures that a plug connection has physical contact at all times.
A low insertion loss as well as high return loss are thus automatically guaranteed.
Assessment of end faces
An interferometer is used in order to professionally assess end faces. Thereby, the crowning as
well as the x and y orientation can be seen and measured accurately. Machine polishes as well as
evaluations based on the interferometer are, for example, a necessary condition for test cables to
measure fiber-optic cable networks in order to carry out reproducible and precise measurements.
In order to optimize the plug connections and end faces, there is the tuning procedure. Tuning is
based on the fact that the insertion loss of a plug connection is largely caused by the lateral offset
of the fiber core (eccentricity). This lateral offset is statically distributed around the middle axis
of the connector ferrules. The usual qualification of fiber-optic cable connectors against a
"reference connector" delivers values for insertion losses in which the extent of eccentricity is
reflected but not its direction. With "tuning", the ferrule is divided into four quadrants. By
definition, the divergence of the fiber core from the ferrule center, must be placed in the quadrant
which is located above the polarizing key of the connector. Technically this takes place by
enabling the ferrule to be fixed in the connector housing in 4 positions, which are offset by 900
in each case. This procedure guarantees that the fiber core centers of randomly plugged, tuned
connectors are always situated in the same quadrant and thus the divergence of the insertion
losses is far lower than that which is the case for non-tuned connectors. Tuning only makes sense
in connection with a high-quality polish or controlled end faces, as described above.
Assessment of end faces

Couplers
In fiber-optic cable technology there are two methods to connect the individual fibers. On the
one hand these are detachable connections that are achieved via connectors and on the other
hand, they are non-detachable connections in which the fiber ends are firmly connected together.
Given that the light is only guided into the core of the fiber, it must be coupled at the connection
points from one core to another. That only functions if both coupling points are configured in a
clean, straight, and flat way and if positioned exactly on top of each other. In the case of a core
diameter of only a few micrometers, the connection of optical fibers represents absolutely
precision work.
Plug connections
Plug connections are required in order to connect optical fiber cables to active components. The
fiber-optic cable connectors mostly consist of a plug pin (ferrule) which guides the fiber
precisely and a housing which carries out the connection to the coupling. The ferrule is a highly
precise, cylindrical metal or ceramic part in whose longitudinal a.xds the fiber is guided. The
front surface of the ferrule is polished in order to avoid attenuations due to scratches.
In the coupling which is also manufactured with high precision, both ferrules are guided on top
of each other by means of a slotted sleeve made out of metal or ceramic and in such a way that
the fiber cores are exactly positioned. The fiber front surfaces are thus pressed together with a
defined pressure.
ST connector
ST connector

This type of connector is suitable for both single-mode as well as multi-mode fibers. The ST
connector is one of the most widely used connector types in the optical network area. The high
number of plug systems of this type which are still in use, is ascribed to the early standardization
and the good value-for-money.
SC connector
SC connector
This connector type has become more important in the last few years. This mainly due to the fact
that the DIN EN 50173 prescribes this connector type for new installations
The plug has an automatic, anti-rotation locking (push-pull locking). The ferrule is produced
from ceramic and the housing is produced from plastic. It is available for both single-mode as
well as multi-mode fibers. Another characteristic of the SC connector is the possibility to
connect two individual connectors to a connector combination by means of a bracket. In this
case, it is referred to as a duplex connector
LC connector
LC connector

The LC connector has grown in importance in the last few years. Due to its smaller dimensions
which is achieved by a ferrule with a diameter of only 1.25 mm (SC and ST connector have a
ferrule diameter of 2.5 mm), the use of this connector allows for a packaging density which is
approximately twice as large in the splice boxes or in active components.
The most straightforward form of optical coupling is the simple, detachable plug connection. For
this purpose there are various types:
• sockets
• rotary latch
• crimp connection (maximization of the contact area)
Fundamental problems of all plug connections:
• High losses on the contact surface

• High losses due to offset
• Multiple refraction due to incorporated external medium (usually air
Plug connection
General source of losses
Intrinsic sources
• Various core diameters

• Various numerical apertures
• Various refractive index profiles
• Contact backscatter/reflection
Extrinsic sources
• Angle connection (cables tilted against each other)

• Lack of contact (cable ends do not touch)

• Unfavorable contact area quality (cutting angle, surface structure, roughness, .
Possible solutions
• Precision sleeves
• Lenses
A break-proof, permanent, self-healing connection is the splice.
Four steps to the splice
1. Cut, smoothen and clean cable ends

2. Combine cable ends
3. Compress and heat up
4. Allow to cool down without pressure
Splice
Fiber-optic cable measurements
The quality of a fiber-optic cable connection must be established by one or several

measurements. With the aid of these measurements, the quality of pre-wired fiber-optic cable
connectors, the cables as well as the present splices, can be assessed.
A key criterion for the assessment of a fiber-optic cable path is the attenuation which should be
as low as possible in order to bridge the largest possible distances. The attenuation can be

determined with two measurement methods: on the one hand, with a transmission measurement
and on the other hand, with a reflection measurement. The following fibers and wavelengths can
be tested thereby:
• 850 nm (multi-mode fibers)

• 1300 nm (single-mode and multi-mode fibers)
• 1550 nm (single-mode fibers)
Transmission measurement
In the case of transmission measurement, the attenuation is determined as an absolute value. This
measurement is then applied if the attenuation is sufficient for an assessment in the case of cable
systems with fiber-optic cable connectors and splices.
Reflection measurements
Another method to determine the attenuation values of a fiber-optic cable connection, is

reflection measurement. The reflection measurement, also identified as OTDR measurement
(Optical Time Domain Reflectometry), has the advantage, as opposed to transmission
measurement, that the quality of the fiber-optic cable system can be assessed and documented
over its entire length. Attenuation increases as a result of pressure loads, compressions or too
narrow bending radii, can be calculated exactly like splice attenuations. The OTDR measurement
represents the attenuation curve over the entire length of the fibers.
The measurement can be carried out on one or both sides. The quality of the input and output
connector can only be measured with launch and receive fibers.
Control Terminals
In optronics, terminals are predominantly used for the control, monitoring and transmission
element. In principle, a distinction is made between remote and control terminals.
A closed-loop/open-loop control instrument for remote control is identified as a remote terminal.

It is used for process technology, energy transmission, energy distribution and energy generation
where it is possible to monitor and/or remote control specific processes from a control room or a
remote center. It includes its own software, options for storing data and a backup battery.
Control terminals are capable of compiling reports, reporting the status of the system and
creating connections to networks.

Remote Terminals
A bridge physically separates two Ethernet LANs. Disruptions such as, for example, collisions
and defective packets do not progress beyond the bridge. The bridge is protocol-transparent, that
is, it transfers all protocols running on the Ethernet. Therefore, both networks involved appear as
a single network for a station. By using a bridge, it is possible to overcome the length restrictions
of the Ethernet because it not only amplifies the signals but also generates a new bit stream on
the transmitter side. The bridge works with the same transmission rate as the networks involved.
The number of series-connected bridges is limited to seven (IEEE 802-1). However, you would
normally connect no more than four bridges in series.
Bridge
Each local bridge is connected to two Ethernet LANs via a transceiver. The bridge receives all
blocks from both network segments to which it is connected like every normal station and it
analyzes the sender and recipient addresses. If the sender address is not in the bridge' s internal
address table, then it is noted. The bridge thus learns and saves the information, on which side of
the bridge the computer with this address is connected to. If the recipient address is known and
the recipient is on the same side as the sender, the bridge discards the packet (filters it). If the
recipient is on the other side or not in the table, the packet is forwarded on. Thus, the intelligent
bridge autonomously learns which packets must and which packets must not be forwarded on. In
the case of manageable bridges, additional address filters can be set which regulate to which
addresses the bridge must always forward information or to which it may never forward
information. A bridge works on layer 2 of the OSI Reference Model.

Bridges can also connect Ethernet segments via synchronous leased lines, satellite connections,
radio connections, public packet switched networks and fast fiber-optic networks (i.e. FDDI). In
principle, such bridges must always be used in pairs.
Using bridges
The switch, like the bridge, is a device ofthe OSI layer 2, that is, it can connect LANs with
various physical properties, i.e. coaxial and twisted pair networks. However, as with the bridge,
all protocols of higher layers 3 to 7 must be identical! A switch is thus protocol-transparent. It is
often also identified as a multiport bridge because it exhibits similar properties to a bridge. Each
port of a switch forms its own network segment. Each of these segments is available to the entire
network bandwidth. Thus, a switch - like the bridge - not only increases the network
performance in the entire network, but also in each individual segment. The switch examines
each packet passing through for the MAC address of the target segment and it can forward it
there directly. The major advantage of a switch now lies in the ability of its ports to directly
interconnect to each other, that is, to establish dedicated connections.
Application of fiber optics in aircraft systems
In aerospace technology
• Fiber optic gyroscope for navigation and position control systems

• Testing of various fiber-optic sensors (i.e. pressure monitoring of engines, in fiber-optic

control systems for aircraft, helicopters for example as part of "Fly by Light" - development
program)
Light in a ring laser gyroscope is subjected to a change in wavelength when the system is rotated.
With this phenomenon, named the Sagnac effect, it is possible to perform a complete navigation
of an object in two spatial directions. Thereby, two laser beams are emitted in a ring laser
gyroscope in opposite directions. They interfere with each other and it is possible to measure the
beat. If the system is rotated, then the number of cancelations per time interval changes. For
positioning, both the rotation angle of the system according to the time as well that from the
distance covered, is required. In doing so, the rotational angle can be calculated via the angular
velocity of the ring laser gyroscope and the associated change of the beat. Given that the
accelerated forces of the moving object lie directly on the ring laser gyroscope, the change in the
beat is a measure for the acceleration of the system. From this, the object ' s covered distance can
be calculated by double integration.
An alternative to the mechanical body of rotation and to the ring laser gyroscope, is the fiber
optic gyroscope. In a coiled fiber-optic cable of around 100 to 1000 m in length, polarized light
of a certain wavelength is introduced via a semi-permeable mirror in such a way that a wave
train runs around to the left and the other to the right. If the gyroscope is dormant, both waves
return to the beam splitter (mirror) in the same time period.
If the conductor, on the other hand, is rotated perpendicular to the layer in which it is laid, the
term of the wave circulating in the direction of the rotation is enlarged whereas the wave in the
other direction is shortened. When both wave trains coincide, it results in an interference which
represents a measure for the phase shift.
In the Boeing 787, fiber optic technology is also used in the area of avionics. The AFDX is also
installed in the A350 and it is a very reliable system. AFDX (for Avionics Full Duplex Switched
Ethernet) is a common name for the ARIXTC standard 664. This standard describes a computer
network and the associated protocol for communicating between aircraft systems.
Attitude Heading Reference System (AHRS)
In today' s modern aircraft, inertial navigation systems are used which can completely function
without mechanics and thus they are insensitive to external influences.
The manufacturing costs are far lower than the first navigation systems which, originally, as is so
often the case in the history of aviation, experienced the first stages of development in the
military sector.

Thus, for example, the V2 rocket in the Second World War was equipped with a precise gyro
platform in order to calculate its own position, speed and the acceleration for the given flight
path.
In the subsequent period, the systems experienced a continuous development and they achieved,
with the so-called Schuler tuning, a drift accuracy of around 0.01 degrees per second.
It was not necessary to reflect upon it for long to realize that such a mechanical INS (Inertial
Navigation System) can also be beneficial when used for navigation in civil aircraft. Particularly
in the period prior to GPS, this was the only option without land-based navigation, through VOR
and NDB, to find the destination with reasonable accuracy.
Another milestone in the development was the ring laser gyroscope (RNG). This comprises a
triangular solid glass body in which three tubes can be found. There is a mirror at each corner at
the end of the tubes so that a triangular resonator path for light develops. The three tubes are
filled with a mixture of helium and neon gas.
A high voltage of approx. 1 kV is applied on both anodes opposite the cathode which results in a
neon discharge. The gas discharge generates two laser beams which circulate in the resonator,
one which circulates in the clockwise direction and a second circulating in the anti-clockwise
direction.
When the RSG is idle, both laser beams have the same frequency. However, if, for example, the
gyroscope rotates in the clockwise direction, then the photon which moves anti-clockwise, has to
cover a shorter distance. When rotated, the path differences generate two different resonance
frequencies and the difference of both frequencies is proportional to the rate of rotation of the
laser ring gyroscope.
Difficulties existed with very small rates of rotation and in helicopter operations, the vibrations
resulted in error displays.
Modern fiber-optic gyroscopes (FOG), work without mechanical components, require no high
voltage (as light sources serve as LEDs), and thirdly the path of light can be lengthened due to
the wind-up capability of the fiber-optics (in principle, several hundred meters are used) and thus
the sensitivity of the gyroscope is improved.
Principally, a light beam runs through a conductor. This splits the beam into two coherent waves
which run through the same self-contained optical path in two counter-directions. In the static

state, the circulation period is the same for both directions. If the optical fiber now rotates, the
light beam running against the direction of rotation has to cover another distance, whereas the
distance for the light beam in the direction of rotation is shortened. The phase shift is, on the
other hand, proportional to the angular velocity.
Today' s complete systems, such as the so-called AHRS, each consist of three FOG' s,
acceleration sensors and magnetic field sensors for the earth ' s magnetic field. An internal
microcomputer converts the raw data determined by the sensors concerning common aviation
data, for example, pitch, roll, heading and turn rates and passes it on via interfaces (ARINC,
RS232 etc.).
With the aid of magnetic field data (compass function), the heading display of the AHRS can be
automatically initialized.
Normally, the system is utilized with a GPS. If the "air data" variables deriving from the
barometric sensors such as airspeed, climb/sink rate and altitude are also added, it is also referred
to as a ADAHRS (Air-Data-Attitude-Heading-Reference-System).
Basic Principle of optic fiber gyroscope with conversion

Basic Principle of optic fiber gyroscope with conversion
Basic principle of ring laser gyroscope
Electronic Displays

Principles of operation of common types of displays used in

modern aircraft
In the area of technology, display is understood as a visualization of characters. Generally, the

English term "display" has become common for technical devices. In terms of the computer, the
word "monitor" is also used. For mobile telephones, it is commonly referred to as display.
Display technology is being constantly developed. In aircraft engineering, the following displays
are used or are in the process of development:
• LED display (light emitting diode)

• LCD display (liquid crystal display)
• CRT display (cathode ray tube)
• OLED display (organic light emitting diode)
LED display (light emitting diode)
An LED-display (light emitting diode) is a light-emitting semiconductor component whose

electrical properties are equivalent to a diode. When there is a power supply, the semiconductor
material emits light.
In principle, a distinction is made between two LED formats:
• Dot matrix LED

• 7 segment LED
Dot matrix displays have a similar housing to 7 segment displays. However, they have more
connections whereby it is necessary to accommodate the display 'hteral" on the breadboard. The
dot matrix displays are equipped with a whole host of LEDs which are arranged in columns and
rows. The individual light-emitting diodes are wired in a matrix structure. As a result of this,
each LED does not have to be individually wired.
If digital circuits become more complex, it will be necessary to eventually present binary
numbers in a clearly identifiable way for the user. In order to facilitate this, so-called 7 segments
displays are used. Such displays are available in various designs and technologies i.e. LED
displays, displays in LCD technology or fluorescence displays.
LED displays can be found in various designs, sizes and colors. These displays house 7
individual light emitting diodes plus one LED for the decimal point for the depiction of numbers.

One side of the light emitting diode is consolidated and placed on one or several pins. Here,
displays with a digit height of 13 mm are used. They have 2 common connection pins. It is
necessary to ensure that this connection is the common cathode. The display color used is a
matter of personal taste.
LCD display (liquid crystal display)
This display is the "liquid crystal display". LCD itself is the abbreviated form for "liquid crystal
display". It is often erroneously referred to as LCD-display. It is actually simply called "the
LCD" or "LC-display". In the majority of modern electronic displays, LCDs are used in the
simple and complex form. With this form of display, images are generated as a result of liquid
crystals polarizing light by means of an electric voltage. An LCD is constructed in various
segments in which a large amount of liquid crystals can be found. It is by means of the electric
voltage, that the crystal orientation can be controlled in the individual segments. Hereby, the
permeability of polarized light is regulated which is guided by a backlight as well as a filter
through the segments. In the case of LCDs, which should be able to display any images, the
individual segments are organized according to a grid. It is then referred to as pixels or picture
points. The higher the number of these picture points, then the more precise the image is on the
LCD.
CRT display (cathode ray tube)
The cathode ray tube or Braun tube is an electron tube that generates a bundled electron beam.
A heating coil is necessary above all for the beam generation (1). As a result of the
thermoelectric effect, electrons escape from the heating coil. These are accelerated due to the
applied anode voltage towards the anode (2). The Wehnelt cylinder (grey "box") is negatively
charged and it repels electrons. It serves to enhance the bundling of the electron beam. A narrow
electron beam now passes through the hole in the anode (2).
To deflect the electron beam, two plate pairs are installed in the tubes. They consist of two
parallel metal plates which face each other at a short distance. (This is referred to as a plate
capacitor).
The electrons reach the screen (5), which lights up where the electrons impact.

Principle of the cathode ray tube or Braun tube
OLED display (organic light emitting diode)
OLED stands for "organic light emitting diode". In contrast to LCDs, OLED displays function
without backlighting. Whereas an LCD works like a filter for the light developed in the
background, OLEDs themselves emit colorful light. These displays do not require any crystals in
order to generate images. The major advantage of OLED displays is based on the fact that they
are very thin and they can be placed on almost any material. An aim of the development is a so-
called "paper display", which can simply be rolled out. For those who own a mobile phone,
OLEDs provide a very high contrast given that they manage without backlighting. Furthermore,
these displays require less energy which conserves the battery.
Advantages and disadvantages of individual display systems

An advantage of OLED displays compared with conventional liquid crystal displays (LCDs) is
the very high contrast given that they can manage without backlighting: black pixels emit no
light. Whereas LCDs only work as a colored filter and some light still shines through in the dark
state, OLEDs only emit colored light when they are controlled which also promises a very good
color display. This procedure is far more efficient by which means OLEDs require less energy
especially when displaying dark images. For this reason, OLED devices get less warm than
equivalent devices with LC displays albeit the energy input for liquid crystal displays was
decreased due to the conversion from cold cathode tubes on LEDs for the LCD backlighting.
The response time of OLED displays is under 0.001 milliseconds for some devices (1 micro
second) and it is thus around 1000 times faster than what is currently the fastest LCD with one
millisecond.
It is not the case that OLEDs can only be industrially manufactured under expensive vacuum and
clean room conditions. Another advantage is based on the alternative option of manufacturing
OLEDs on a large-scale, cost-effective and also typographical manner. This is not the case for
classical LEDs and rarely the case for electronic components and systems.
LEDs are very robust and they have small dimensions and a long service life:.
CRT can be individually created on colored multiple displays. However, they have a high
weight, a tendency to ablation and a large installation depth. This is a serious problem especially
for the new highly complex cockpit systems with many supply lines and ventilation hoses.
LCD have a relatively flat structure, high image quality, long service life and low maintenance
costs.
A disadvantage of LCD displays is the high temperature sensitivity with the result that a no-frost
system is necessary.
The comparatively low service life of some components made out of organic materials
constitutes the main technical problem for OLEDs. In the case of OLEDs, the service life is
referred to as the mean operating time after which the luminance is decreased by half.
OLED are the displays of the future and they are already been used and tested in state-of-the-art
cockpit systems. The colors are more intense, the power consumption is lower and their
manufacture can be guaranteed with conventional inkjet printer procedures.
Use of individual display types in aircraft engineering

1. LED
• Scale depictions
• Test and status displays of avionics components
• Clocks
• Temperature displays
2. LCD
• Instruments
• Entertainment (displays for passengers)
• Clocks
• EFIS or CPDS, FCDS (Flight Control Display System) display systems
3. CRT
• FCDS or CDPS displays
• Weather radar displays
4. OLED
• Scale depictions
• Test and status displays of avionics components
• Clocks
In principle, LED displays have two common formats with which the characters are formed. We
differentiate between dot matrix and segment LED.
The combination of LEDs results in seven segment displays whereas the name, strictly speaking,
is not true because there is almost always an eighth LED available for the decimal point. This
display suffices for the display of digits and even for some letters (for example A... F for
hexadecimal displays). If more symbols are to be depicted, it is possible to access 14 or 16
segment displays (also again with an additional decimal point). With the 16 segment display,
compared to that with 14 segments, both segments above and below are divided once again.
The dot matrix display is even more variable in which all LEDs can be individually controlled.
Modules with 5*8 LEDs are well-suited to alphanumerical displays, modules with 8*8 LEDs are
mostly stackable and they can be combined with larger graphic matrix. But also one or two
modules offer manifold possibilities and they appear very elegant even in a purely numeric
display.

Segment-LED
Segment-LED
If LED lines are to be controlled in lieu of the seven segment displays, port lines without
additional hardware are by no means sufficient. Therefore, LED dot matrix segments with shift
registers are applied. If you perform the binary-to-seven segment decoding in the software, a
decoder is also not required.
Shift registers are used in the circuit. These components comprise of an 8-bit shift register to
whose parallel outputs an 8-bit latch is connected. It is therefore possible to serially clock in
eight bits into the shift register and then take them over into the latch. The binary information is
then statically present on its output lines

Control of LED displays by means of shift registers

Structure and function of a light emitting diode
Structure of a light-emitting diode
An LED is a semiconductor with a PN-junction, therefore a diode which emits light when it is
operated in the forward direction. The light is caused by electroluminescence with the electron-
hole-recombination at the barrier layer. Brightness and light color depend on the materials used
and on the current through the LED. Given that it is a diode which is operated in the forward
direction, the current has to be limited by means of the circuit design. As a rule, this takes place
via a series resistor, via higher capacity LEDs but also via an electronic power source.
Use in aircraft engineering
Status Display for auto pilot

LED error display in autopilot coupler
LED display in the fuel management panel
An additional display type is liquid crystal displays (LCD Liquid Crystal Display) which, more
recently, were replaced by displays with different technology. The most recent development is

organic light emitting diodes, in short OLED, but whose service life is even shorter that of
LCDs. Both types are controlled in the same way.
An LCD display principally comprises two glass plates and a special liquid, the "nematic phases"
or "liquid crystals" in between. The liquid is capable of rotating the polarization plane of light.
This effect is influenced by applying an electric field. To make it possible to generate a field, the
plates are to be vaporized with a wafer-thin metal layer which also contains the display pattern
(seven- segment display, dot matrix, symbols etc.). Both glass plates are then each equipped with
a wafer- thin polarization film. Both films are rotated by 900 against each other. The upper film
is called 'polarizer" and the lower film is "analyzer". The light would not be able to pass without
the liquid between the plates. The liquid rotates the polarization plane of the incident light by
900 without an electric field being applied with the result that this can pass the analyzer
unhindered - the LCD is transparent. If a voltage is now applied to the vapor-deposited metal
layer, the crystals rotate in the liquid. Thus, the polarization plane of the light is rotated by
another 900, for example. The analyzer now blocks the path of the light through the LCD the
LCD is non-transparent.
Diagram of an LCD display
Liquid crystals are organic-chemical compounds that mostly consist of carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen and which form extended rod-shaped to oval-shaped molecules. At room temperature
they are solid states in which the molecules can easily move past each other. The behavior is
comparable with the movement of molecules in a liquid. The liquid crystal particles strive to
identically align themselves against each other - similar to an arrangement in the solid crystal
lattice. For LCD, it is mostly liquid crystals that are used which arise from putting substances
that can be dissolved in oil and water, into a solvent. With a specific concentration of the former,
liquid crystals then also develop.

Structure of an LCD
Example for a cockpit with LCD monitors
LCD monitors, also referred to as flat screens, have almost completely replaced CRT monitors.

They are lighter and thinner than the heavy CRT monitors which contain heavy glass tubes. LCD
monitors have a greater array of shapes and sizes including widescreen and standard screen with
ratios of 16:9 or 16:10 aspect ratios for widescreen models and for standard screen models.
Laptops also use flat screens.
Comparison between LCD and CTR monitor
The CTR screens are also called Braun tubes and they can still be found in the aircraft
construction to some extent. The Braun tube is a funnel-shaped evacuated glass tube. On the
inside it contains an "electron gun" , a deflection system and a fluorescent screen. The electron
gun consists of a heating wire, a Wehnelt cylinder (which encloses the heating wire) and a
pinhole aperture. The heating wire is connected to the cathode (negative pole) of a high voltage
source, the pinhole aperture is connected to the anode (positive pole). The heating wire is also
connected to another voltage source which serves to heat up the wire. The cylinder closes the
electric circuit by a connection to the negative pole of the same voltage source. By heating it up,
(negative) electrons escape from the incandescent cathode. They are accelerated towards the
positive pinhole aperture (anode) and they pass it as a thin electron beam. By means of deflecting
electrodes (plate systems), the direction of the electron beam can be changed. The plate system
comprises two plate pairs that face each other at right angles. If an electric voltage is applied to a
plate pair in each case then the electron beam is deflected away from the negative plate towards
the positive plate. If the electrons impact on the fluorescent screen, then they generate a light
spot in a fluorescent coating.
The display with the CTR is generated in different ways:

• Raster scan
• Stroke scan
In the case of the raster scan, the electron beam is written in lines above the screen. The stroke
scan mode is mainly used to depict characters and symbols in displays. Hereby, the beam is
deflected in such a way that the contours are portrayed directly on the screen. The raster scan is
mainly used to depict two-dimensional backgrounds, for example brown or blue tones of the
ADI in the Primary Flight Display (PFD). On the other hand, the energy input is far higher than
with the stroke scan.
Raster and stroke scan on the CRT
Use of CRT systems in aviation

CRT on RMI MI
CRT on the artificial horizon or PFD
Electrostatic Sensitive Devices

Special handling of components sensitive to electrostatic

discharges
Component and personnel anti-static protection devices
The majority of objects are electrically neutral. That means it contains the same number of
electrons and protons. In order to charge an object, it is necessary to either transfer charges to it
or remove them from it with the result that there is no longer a balance between electrons and
protons. Thus, an electrical charge corresponds to an electron transfer.
Electrostatic discharge (ESD in short), is a spark or a disruptive discharge arising from a large
potential difference in an electrically insulating material and which causes a very short, high
electrical current pulse. The cause of the potential difference is mostly charging due to static
electricity. Electrostatic discharges cause damage in microelectronic components since the
energy of a static discharge in a semiconductor behaves, in relation to the earth, like the energy
of a lightning bolt to a tree.
With intense contact and subsequent separation or in case of friction, parts of the negative
charges from a friction partner are torn out and captured by the other. Electrostatic charges
emerge as a result of this imbalance
Mechanical work is thus necessary in order for an electrostatic charge to develop. Here, a
transfer of electrons from one substance to the other takes place. Static oppositely charged parts
are attracted to one another, same charged parts repel one another. The polarity of the charge
depends on the permittivity value (also known as dielectric constant). The rule states that
materials with a high permittivity (i.e. PA, wool cellulose), are positively charged for the most
part, whereas a lower permittivity correspondingly produces a negative charge. In the case of
insulators, it is generally considered: When touched, the substance with the greater dielectric
constant is positively charged. The temperature, the humidity and the speed of the separation of
two substances are crucial for the amount of the resulting charge. In the case of low levels of
humidity, the surface resistance increases and it is more difficult for the charge to flow off. With
the faster separation of two substances, higher charges develop given that no or only very few
reverse currents can flow.

Charging
Typical causes of electrostatic charge:
• Separating two films (already for example when removing an adhesive strip)
• Running on a synthetic carpet
• Rubbing various materials on top of each other
• Cutting or machining insulators
• Electrostatic induction effect on insulated conductors situated in the DC voltage field
Electrostatic induction is the spatial separation of freely moving electric charges in a conductor
under the influence of an external electric field. The electrostatic induction is a consequence of
the force action exerted on the charges by the field. If a charged and thus a field generating body
is situated in close proximity to a conductor which has an overall neutral and insulated position,
then its electrons are attracted by the body and they concentrate on the side facing it. This results
in a macroscopic negative charge developing there (electrostatic induction charging).
Accordingly, a positive charge forms on the rear side. For that reason, for example, the leaves of
an electroscope repel each other when approaching a charged object.

Electrostatic induction effect
Almost all electrical, electronic and optoelectronic components form part of the electrostatic
sensitive devices (ESD in short). Due to the miniaturization, its sensitivity increases further
which results in ESD protection becoming more important. In order to avoid damage as early and
consistently as possible, many components get appropriate protection structures. Assembly
groups can be equipped with protective components in the input area.
However, these measures often only take effect once and moreover, their efficiency decreases
due to the increasing miniaturization of the structures.
Especially in aviation, these components are used more and more and for that reason, they have
to be protected and the category groups have to be identified. However, the ESD protection not
only affects the aircraft but also the workshops for the maintenance work.

Before protection measures are discussed, ESD classes and effects will round off the theme.
In particular in the case of semiconductors, ESD is one of the most common causes of failure.
Circuits from high frequency technology as well as light emitting diodes which can often only
process reverse voltages of 5-30 V, are particularly sensitive. Thus, these components come
under ESD class 1 and they are subject to protective measures.
So that not all materials used in an electronics manufacture have to be individually measured and
assessed, there is a classification system. This differentiates between four stages which are each
identified with a letter alongside the ESD symbol and, for the skilled user, they immediately
indicate which protection the respective part provides or what risk potential it has:
• L low charging;
Packaging and materials with the property of minimizing the generation of charge
• C conductive;
Packaging and materials with a surface resistance of E02 to E05 Ohm
• D dissipative;
Packaging and materials with a surface resistance of E05 to Ell Ohm
• S shielding;
Shielding against electrostatic discharge
Components of microelectronics can also be penetrated uncontrolledly by the compensating

currents; it can even lead to a regular "breakdown" of the components. For example, local
overheating, gasification, bending moments, conductor path separations and disruptive discharge
holes may develop in the structure of a component.
In the simplest case, the discharge destroys the component. In the vast majority of cases,
components or printed circuit boards are only damaged to such a minor extent that they maintain

their function and pass the final inspection. However, when in use, sooner or later these hidden
damages will result in interferences and failures and leading to substantial repair costs. These
latent weaknesses are named "walking wounded" or 'Latent failure". Therefore in aviation, high
standards have to be implemented and observed in the production, repair or overhauling of
components.
Each damaged component produces an associated cost; this is still low at the start with the
component's individual inspection. If the component is installed in the device and it then fails
during the final inspection, the costs comwith the initial inspection have already been doubled. If
it results in a product failure for the customer, the costs soar to multiples of this amount. In worst
case the failures lead to fatal consequences for both people and machine.
Damages to printed circuit boards due to ESD effect
For this reason, ESD sensitive components or areas must be identified.
Left ESD Susceptibility Symbol; right ESD Protective Symbol

Identification of ESD sensitive components
In order to avoid ESD damage, electronic assembly groups (for example motherboards), or
components with a high internal resistance (particularly integrated circuits, light emitting diodes,
semiconductor lasers), must be managed, packed and stored in an ESD-protected environment
(Electrostatic Protected Area, EPA). In semiconductor manufacturing such ESD workstations
and ESD-protected areas, discharge existing electrostatic charges under controlled conditions
and prevent the charges that mostly develop through static electricity. This takes place by means
of electrically conductive work surfaces, antistatic wrist straps, appropriate furniture, clothing,
shoes, floor covering, ionized ambient air and grounding of all components.
Packaging for ESD-sensitive components must be made out of conductive (electrostatic

dissipative) plastics. There are films, fill and foam materials that conduct through fillers or are
metallized. It is often the case that the sensitive ports of the components are connected to a short-
circuit bridge for transportation.
Two fundamental principles arise from all measures which, if strictly complied with, result in the
minimization or weakening of ESD.
1. Prevention of charging - to minimize unavoidable parasitic charges, for example by

discharging and grounding the body
2. The prevention of fast discharges - discharges can never be prevented but provisions can be
made so that fast discharges do not occur and existing electrical charges can slowly flow off via
a large electrical resistance, for example
The following list of measures results from these fundamental principles and the previous
explanations:
• Electrostatic charge can be prevented by using the appropriate antistatic materials.
Antistatic materials are characterized by the fact that no static charge can be detected by
friction.

• The charge that develops can be discharged by the appropriate conductive materials in
conjunction with suitable grounding measures. A substance is identified as conductive if the
electrical resistance is below 104 Ohm.
• The maximum permitted bleeder resistors are to be observed to enable the charge to be
effectively discharged. The ground resistances must exhibit a minimum value when used in
ESD (electrostatic sensitive) or EX (explosion-proof) areas in order to prevent excessively
high compensating currents or even spark discharges.
• By generating a counter-charge, i.e. with ionizing rods, electronic charges can be neutralized.
At a series of high voltage (mostly AC voltage) conducting needles, air is fed past. The result
is an air curtain made out of positively and negatively charged air ions which offset the
charges on the surface of the charged body.
ESD Compliant [packaging of components

ESD protective measures in the workplace
Awareness of risks and possible damage
Hazards can develop in various situations as a result of ESD which can have fatal consequences
especially in aviation. There have been a few catastrophic accidents in the past which are at least
closely associated with ESD.
The crash of the Hindenburg on the 06/05/1973 or the fatal crash of the TVVA 800 flight on 17
July 1996, very likely occurred due to electrical discharges. The Hindenburg was a masterpiece
of engineering prowess and it was a unique aircraft at that time; at a length of 245 m, it is still the
largest airship ever to have been built in the world to this day.
On the evening of 3 May 1937, the "Hindenburg" took off on a journey from Frankfurt to
Lakehurst in New York. A thunderstorm raged over the city. The Hindenburg did not receive
permission to land and it had to change course again. The airship flew a lap of honor above New
York. But time was running out because at midnight the Hindenburg was supposed take off again
in order to be back in Europe on time for the crowning of the English King George VI on 12
May. The airship approached the landing site again for the second time. The cause of the tragedy
is still subject to speculation today. The most common assumption about the crash is that during
a sharp turning maneuver shortly before landing in Lakehurst, a wire became detached and made
a hole in the skin of the airship. Hydrogen was released and it mixed with the air to create a
dangerous oxyhydrogen gas. The airship was electrically charged by the storm and it discharged
when the landing rope touched the ground. It was wet from the rain and thus extremely
conductive. Therefore, when grounding, it presumably resulted in a strong voltage between the
skin and the structure. A spark developed which ignited the existing hydrogen-air-mixture and
set the rear of the Hindenburg on fire.

Crash of the Hindenburg on 06/05/1937
Flight 800 was a scheduled flight of Trans World Airlines which, on 17 July 1996, was supposed
to fly from John F. Kennedy International Airport in New York to Paris-Charles de Gaulle.
Shortly after take-off, the central wing tank of the Boeing 747-131- exploded and thus the
machine broke apart and plunged into the Atlantic off Long Island.

The cause of the accident was a sparking in the machine ' s almost empty center tank. This
tragedy once again illustrates the importance of ESD countermeasures in connection with the
fuel system. It is especially the refueling of the canister which leads to accidents again and again.
With this type of refueling, electrostatic charges can lead to an ignition or even an explosion. But
how does this charge come about?
If two previously uncharged different substances touch each other, it generally leads to a charge
displacement in their common interface. This can result in an excess charge of the same size but
under reverse signs on both substances. With regard to their chargeability, it is only if both
substances are sufficiently charged and grounded that the excess charge is negligibly small. If
there is sufficient charge and high electric fields are caused thereby, it can result in discharges
which can ignite an explosive atmosphere (air-/fuel mixture).
For this reason, the aircraft authorities and manufacturers of aircraft equipment recommend:
• When refueling from casks, only use hoppers, canisters and casks made out of metal.
• Ground the aircraft when refueling
•And ensure that there is a conductive connection between the aircraft and the metal hopper.
Here it suffices if the hopper is conductively connected by resting on the tank filler neck.
Software Management Control
Awareness of restrictions
In computer technology, software stands for the programs and operating systems which can be
stored in a digital memory. The operating system and the application programs which inject life
into the microcomputer, are permanently saved in the ROM (read-only memory) and they are
non- erasable. In our modern-day era, it is more likely that software is saved on a hard drive.
When the computer is turned on, the data is then loaded from the ROM or from the hard drive
into the working memory and then executed. Here, a distinction is generally made between
system, standard and application software.
System software, also known as basic software, is software which was developed for a specific
hardware or a hardware family in order to enable or facilitate the operation and the maintenance
of this hardware. The system software always includes the operating system but it generally also
includes data bases, communication and particular utility programs. Standard software refers to

software developed company-wide. It is generally designed for the mass-market, however, there
is also standard software for smaller target groups with particular needs. The three most well-
known globally-operating companies in this sector are SAP, Microsoft and Oracle. Omnipresent
application examples are, inter alia, spreadsheet analysis, financial accounting and book-keeping.
Application software is used to address individual user problems or activities. Areas of

application are, for example, imaging or video programs
In aviation, the advancement of digital technology and state-of-the-art computers is subject to

continual development. So for example, software for the open- and closed-loop control of the
microcomputer is required for the engine computer, the Flight-Management-System or the
autopilot.
The software updates can be carried out in different ways. Here, a distinction is made between:
• By means of a USB stick at so-called maintenance checkpoints

• By connecting computers to parallel ports
• Via test or connecting plug with the aid of data carriers
• Directly at the device by inputting security codes on its own keyboard and retrieving the data
via the menu structure
Yet, installing the new data to highly sensitive open- and closed-loop control units in the aircraft
also implies a high security awareness and diverse control mechanisms. Therefore, every
participating entity, whether that is the technician or the pilot, needs to be aware that incorrect
processing scenarios in the course of a software update, can have far-reaching implications.
By using process instructions, it is possible to provide a stringent, standardized process with the
necessary control functions. The technical staff who predominantly carry out the applications,
must be sufficiently instructed about the fact that software updates are not simply a matter of
installing data.
Manufacturers of computer units and the operators are able to very closely define the control
mechanisms. Thus, the following must be ensured:
• After the update, the loading process, if it took place completely and without errors, must be
concluded with a confirmation in the form of a lettering (software update o.k. or similar), by
means of a green indicator lamp or at the highest expansion stage with a complete protocol.
• During the loading process, a certain part of the software may be modified but not the basic

application. To this end, an operating error must be ruled out by the use of security codes.
• The menu navigation must be made simple and unambiguous via constant confirmations but
it must still detect or prevent sources of error.
• When installing the new data, other systems may not be compromised or impaired under
any circumstances.
After the software update, the flight manual and the component ' s logbooks are adapted to the
modification. So for example, in the flight manual (chapter 1) of many helicopters, there is a
page with the current software versions of the FCDS (Flight Control Display System), AFCS
(Automatic Flight Control System) and CPDS (Central Panel Display System). Of course these
have to be updated on an ongoing basis in order to give the pilot a comprehensive overview of
the software versions prior to flying. Due to the modifications, the basic functions are changed
for example in the autopilot range so that the navigation computer can be automatically coupled
with the autopilot.
The software updates can be carried out at different levels. So the core software or the
application software may undergo change.
The software, however, works in parallel with the hardware and ever higher clock rates must be
controlled here. The fact that there are disadvantages of processors having ever faster clock rates,
was quickly recognized by processor manufacturers. Problems are caused in particular by heat
development which is caused by the transistor structures and the high clock rates. Instead of
increasing the clock rate further, multi-core technology has been resorted to which interconnects
several cores in a processor.
The term multi-core processor refers to a microprocessor with more than one complete main
processor core in a single chip. Multi-threaded CPUs are multi-threaded processor cores with
several program counters and register sets which, however, register themselves with the system
as several cores. The software engineers had to react to these new technologies to prevent losing
the increased performance by the processor to the software again. The actual performance
increase mainly depends on how well the software is parallelized. The parallelization of software
is a major challenge for programmers. This is aggravated by the fact that the majority of
applications do not require any parallelization. This is mainly because they wait for user inputs
for most of the time in any case. All of these outlined problems reappear in the continually
developing "high-tech world" of the aviation industry. Thus, software architectures and software
updates have to be well thought-out and tested for possible risks.
Changes to the database are generally possible without an authorized service bulletin from the

device manufacturer, provided that the definition of the database complies with the classification
of the assigned "RTCA document" in "Level E Software" (simple modification). The
classification must be based on a suitable and established analysis. A service bulletin is a
document published by an aircraft or engine manufacturer which includes recommended or
obligatory modifications to an aircraft or an engine.
The following figure should depict all aspects for a safe, simple and efficient software
architecture. It is of course a theoretical consideration because, especially in aviation, it is very
difficult to bind the designations of a good product with a high safety standard within an
acceptable budget. In particular, the continual sustainability and the constant revision process are
scarcely possible to implement for many smaller software companies. Hence, there are a few
companies left that share the market and so the competitive pressure remains within acceptable
limits.
Comprehensive examination of software architecture in aviation
Airworthiness requirements and unapproved changes to

software
Changes to the operational or application software can in principle only be implemented by the
TC holder (Type-Certificate) or by the holder of the STC (Supplement Type Certificate) of the
devices requiring software modifications. As a rule, service bulletins (SB) are published for this

purpose by the manufacturer. Depending on the urgency of the measure, a classification of the
bulletin takes place in accordance with the prescribed or recommended instructions. If the
software change has no or only limited effects on the flight operation, then the manufacturer
supplies an information notice. This for example, may be the case with exceptional date changes.
However, that example only occurs rarely with the result that the informational nature of changes
remains the exception. In practice, manufacturers safeguard themselves on all sides in order to
prevent possible recourse claims or lawsuits. It is not unusual for the TC holder to further
reinforce an SB publication of the STC holder with their own SB on the same subject. Here, the
SB content is briefly prepared, brought in line with the template format of the TC holder and
reference is made to the SB of the STC holders in the implementation rules.
An Emergency Alert Service Bulletin or Alert Service Bulletin is generally followed by an

airworthiness instruction by the regulatory authority. Thus the legal nature is changed and if the
measure is not implemented, this has an impact on the airworthiness.
Given that aircraft are increasingly complex, modern and reliant on computers, the software of
the devices is becoming more and more important. This must be constantly adapted to
modifications, series changes or entire aircraft. Given that especially in cockpit displays,
stabilization/navigation installations and engine controls, nothing or relatively little functions
without processors with software, the importance of an authorized and analyzed modification
procedure makes logical sense. For that reason, the airworthiness requirements for software
changes are high and they are to be extensively analyzed by the design organization. When in
operation, the Continuing Airworthiness Management Organization (CAMO) from Part M or the
holder, is responsible for the implementation, monitoring and complete documentation. Here
consideration should also be given to the changes in the labeling of the cockpit, flight handbook
modifications and the Minimum Equipment List (MEL) accompanying the software update.
The standard DO-178b is also known under the name Software Considerations in Airborne
Systems and Equipment Certification. In addition, it is a standard for software development in
the security- critical area of aviation.
Just as the standard IEC 61508 defines the safety requirement levels SIL 4 to SIL o in the
industry sector, the five levels DAL A to E (Design Assurance Level) from "catastrophic" to "no
effect", are used in the aviation sector. The DAL scale is defined in the standard DO-254 for
hardware systems and in the DO-178B for the software. The standards demonstrate very tight
rules for the development and operation of software and hardware systems.
The safety levels 1-5 listed in the DO-254 can be transferred one-to-one to the classification in
the software sector. Similar to the relation of MMEL (Master Minimum Equipment List) to MEL
(Minimum Equipment List), design organizations themselves can enforce more rigorous criteria.
An unauthorized softening or downgrading is not possible and it contradicts the strong

commitment to safety in the aviation sector.

However, it is often the case that companies define process models themselves or modify
existing ones in order to use their processes which have been established and optimized after
many years of experience. The safety levels do specify a certain approach nevertheless and
therefore the software criticality level must be defined. Specific requirements can then be derived
from this. For example, software which has a higher criticality, must be tested in a more detailed
and extensive way than that with a lower criticality
The failure of a Level A software results in a so-called catastrophic condition and prevents the
safe onward flight and/or landing. An A Level error is permitted no more than once in one billion
flying hours. This type of software is set up redundantly. This fail-safe-system stipulates that in
the event of a software failure, at least one backup component must be available. Generally, the
systems are defined in part with a threefold security and thus they provide the greatest possible
safety.
The failure of a Level B software results in a hazardous condition and reduces the safety reserves
of an aircraft to a minimum. It results in a high work-load for the crew in order to continue to
operate the aircraft safely. Passengers may possibly endure serious or fatal injuries. A Level B
error is permitted no more than once in ten million flying hours.
The failure of a Level C software results in a larger failure condition with increasing workload
for the crew and reduced safety margins. The crew must complete an emergency procedure and
have through backup laws or backup software to make the component available again. A level C
error is not allowed to occur more than once in 100,000 hours.
The failure of a Level D software results in a minor failure condition. Nevertheless, it is

noticeable in regard to safety. An increased level of attention is required from the crew. For
example the failure can compromise communication or navigation. A Level D error is, as is the
case with a Level C error, not permitted in more than one in 100,000 flying hours.
The failure of a Level E software has no adverse effects on the safety of the aircraft or the

passengers. To cite some examples, this could be the failure of a satellite phone or the loss of
video signals for the IFE (Inflight Entertainment Equipment).
Electromagnetic Environment
EMC-Electromagnetic Compatibility
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) relates to the ability of a device, an installation (IAN) or a

system, to work satisfactorily in an electromagnetic environment. This device (installation,
system), should not cause any electromagnetic interference in itself which would be intolerable
for all apparatus, systems and installations present in this environment.
Concepts in connection with EMCV
The electromagnetic compatibility of a device, system or an installation should always be viewed

two-fold, that is, a device simultaneously has the property as interference source and an
interference sink.

Dual functions with the EMC
As illustrated in the last figure, the coupling mechanisms are the key factors in the fault
elimination for EMC.
Coupling mechanisms are identified as those mechanisms through which an interference

generated by the source of disturbance reaches the interference sink. Irrespective of the
transmission medium and distance to the source of disturbance, disturbance variables can reach
the interference sink via different paths or a combination of different paths. The different
coupling mechanisms are depicted in the following figure.

Coupling mechanisms
Explanations on the types of coupling:
• Galvanic coupling occurs if two electric circuits are conductively connected to each other.
Both electric circuits thus have a common impedance, mostly in the form of a common line
segment which acts as a transmission path.
• Capacitive coupling (influenced by an electric E-field, for example, crosstalk on conductors

led in parallel in a cable or cable channel or conductor paths led in parallel on a printed
circuit board.
• Inductive coupling is also identified as magnetic coupling given that it comes about by a
magnetic alternating field generated by a current carrying conductor. The inductive coupling
occurs, exactly like the capacitive coupling, at sources and sinks in close proximity to each
other.
• Radiation interference, conductors in an insufficiently shielded cable or devices act like

antennas and receive radio signals). In contrast to the previously described coupling

mechanisms, radiation coupling takes place through insulating space at a great distance in
terms of the dimensions of source or sink.
• Waveguide couplings often occur at long electrical lines.
The specification for the EMC which is valid throughout Europe is defined in the
Electromagnetic Compatibility of Equipment Act (EMVG) and all corresponding guidelines
have been legally binding in nature since 01/01/1996. The last major modification was made in
2008. Another important legal standard for the EMC is the 2004/108/EC.
The new EMC directive was published in the official journal of the European Union from
31/12/2004. The previous EMC directive 89/336/ EEC is replaced by the new version
2004/108/EC. From the 20 July 2007, the new EMC directive can be applied by manufacturers.
The three most important aspects of electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) in aviation are:
• Storms
• Serious electromagnetic interferences in the air
• Mutual electromagnetic interference between parts in the system
Due to the increasing use of composite materials, the fuselage no longer acts as a Faraday cage
for the protection against direct and indirect effects of lightning. Furthermore, the reliability of
all components and systems under all conditions is of vital importance - especially in storms or
strong electromagnetic interferences. Flight safety can only be guaranteed when all aviation
components up to the entire system itself, have passed rigorous tests.
An EMC-compliant design of installations or devices serves to prevent interferences. A

distinction can be made between:
• Measures to prevent interference

• Prevention of effects of the interferences
• Preventing the spread of the source
The measures are in order of priority whereby the first two (active) measures affect the
interference emission and the third (passive) concern the immunity or interference resistance.
What fundamental EMC protection measures are there
Line-bound interferences can often be relieved with suitable grounding, cable shielding and
filters. The most common and most effective measure against electromagnetic interference is a

Faraday cage and the easiest way to achieve this is through a housing made out of metal. If a
plastic housing is used, this can be glued with metal film, conductively varnished or coated.
In the year 2013, extensive tests were carried out on protection measures against EMC in
aircraft. Here, in a series of tests, the researchers placed metal-coated thin films on the ceiling,
the walls and the aircraft windows. With the aid of this structure, they investigated to what extent
absorbent material changes the electromagnetic properties of the aircraft and whether an
undesired coupling to the navigation and communication systems can be reduced thereby.
Thus, it was possible to gain important knowledge for the further development but also for the
maintenance procedures.
It is absolutely necessary to consider and implement EMC in the product development phase. For
this purpose, the prescribed EMC requirements need to be internally implemented. The planning
steps should imply that, by necessary measures, the operating material/product is tested and
adjusted for EMC even before the serial production. This means the part 21 operations in
aviation must take protection measures into account and rigorously implement them early on in
the design stages.
Extract from a testing protocol-EMC of a design organization:

The catalog of measures are to be continued in the area of maintenance. This can include the
following points in particular:
• Ground loops should be avoided

• Use ICs with spread-spectrum-technology for frequency generating components. For this
technology, the principle of the spread spectrum is used. Here, the frequency spectrum of a
signal is scattered over a larger bandwidth.
• The conductor space is increased and no parallel guide of the cable is permitted
• Install shielding as coupling disruption and where necessary use a reduction loop
• Installation of a filter in the power supply
• Improve the signal quality, flattening of steep switching edges
• Decoupling and shielding of disruptive signals
Similar to electrostatic charging, the dramatic effect of the technical phenomenon EMC, is often
underestimated. A number of accidents and scientific studies do, however, verify the connection
with electromagnetic compatibility.
The extract from the accident information from the flight control office at the German Federal
Aviation Authority (LBA), reinforces this theory.
The flight accident of a gas balloon near to a high-performance transmitter site is still not fully

understood. At the moment, a connection of the cause of the accident with this facility can be
neither ruled out nor confirmed. The previous findings in connection with the accident and
further information from other pilots in command, provide grounds for this accident data. At a
competitive race, a gas balloon which was filled with hydrogen approached a transmitter site
with several antennas after approx. 4 hours travel time and with an altitude of 100 m. The
weather conditions were good and they were not affected by any unusual factors. As was
observed by witnesses, the gas balloon went in immediate proximity to the transmission masts
and traveled inclined above the facility in a timely manner. The balloon skin exploded at a height
of approx. 300 m. All four passengers were killed in the accident.
Before we make a direct connection with the transmitter site and the cause of the above-
mentioned flight accident, we point out the possible dangers for the aircraft and passengers on
board in close proximity to such antenna systems.
Depending on the type of transmitter and its transmission power, there is the danger that the
health of the pilot in command and the passengers may be compromised
• by the field strengths of the existing electromagnetic fields in the immediate surroundings,
• the electromagnetic compatibility of the electrical and electronic devices on board may be
exceeded and it can result in malfunctions of these installations and devices.
• Under adverse conditions, a heating up of metallic components may occur.
This incident demonstrates that the EMC issue in technology and in the flight operation of
aviation must be constantly taken into account in order to prevent accidents from the very outset.
EMI-Electromagnetic Interference
The dream of flying has fascinated us from day one and it has inspired magnificent
developments. This spirit of research resulted in today' s highly developed commercial and
military aviation industry.
However, microelectronic systems (microprocessors, PC, communication systems) which work

ever faster and their simultaneous miniaturization, is making their susceptibility to
electromagnetic interferences ever greater.
Given that technologies are continually developing, the qualitative and regulatory requirements
for avionics and aviation systems as a whole, are also constantly increasing. The most important
issues range from electromagnetic interferences (EMI) to environmental factors such as air
pressure, temperature and the direct and indirect effects of lightning which influence the function
of the materials, components and complete systems. Furthermore, the market requires the use of

innovative materials in aircraft fuselages with the aims of achieving a higher stability with a
lower weight and to reduce the costs in relation to the metals.
Inflight entertainment systems are more than just films. Flights nowadays enable you to have
your own office with you. The use of personal electronic devices is a risk for the flight
electronics both due to electromagnetic radiation as well as line-bound electromagnetic
interferences. The cabling of inflight entertainment resembles an antenna which runs through the
cockpit. As with every antenna, the cabling can also function as the source and as the receiver of
interference radiation. Inflight entertainment systems and personal electronic devices fall in the
frequency spectrum of 2.4 GHz to 5 GHz. Normal WI_AN can be safely operated without
interference at these frequencies.
The tables above include the typical frequency ranges for avionics and personal electronic
devices. Generally, laptops and tablets do not have to be taken into account given that their
frequency bands do not clash with flight electronics. The only clash occurs with GPS. Portable
GPS satellite navigation devices and smartphones with internal GPS navigation use the same
frequency band as the GPS board navigation of the aircraft and they can interfere with the
cockpit systems. The inflight entertainment architecture may not transfer or amplify HF
frequencies above 5 GHz (the GPS range starts there). For this reason, portable GPS devices are

not permitted during the flight. Similarly, this applies to mobile phones given that a high
transmitter, receiver performance is partially reached here.
However, conclusive evidence for interferences of avionics due to mobile phones is lacking
despite the various tests. It was also often not possible to reproduce the reported incidents. The
experts are not surprised by this: The machines are, specifically around airports, exposed to a
variety of electromagnetic waves and the airspace is full of radio waves from radio, television
and other communication signals. Only the right combination and intensity provides for
interferences. However, the frequency ranges of mobile phones and avionics are very different.
The reason for a mobile phone ban in aircraft by the American telecommunications authority
FCC (Federal Communications Commission), was also not due to the safety risk: Mobile phones
at great altitudes can activate channels in a variety of radio cells simultaneously which terribly
overloads the network on the ground. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) still reiterate
their "no" to the use of mobile phones in aircraft after the most recent catastrophe. "Dropouts in
on-board systems caused by mobile phones cannot be tolerated" , according to a spokesperson
from the FAA.
But the industry is working on other solutions: In a few years, the "Cabincall" should be ready
for the market. According to the British manufacturer BAE Systems, it allows the risk-free use of
mobile phones on-board.
With this system, a small mobile radio cell is installed on the inside of the jet via which mobile
phones can be connected to mobile phone networks. The aircraft crew can turn the cell on or off
when required and thereby determining when the passengers are allowed to make calls.
Another possibility to reduce EMC/EMI is the use of fiber optic technology. Thanks to the
dielectric property of optical fiber, electrical interferences are neither emitted nor received. With
its use for signal transmission, electrical disturbances can be ruled out as a problem. Developers
are rather hesitant when using optical fibers due to the limitations regarding costs, repair capacity
on-site and the performance in extreme temperatures. Especially considering the additional costs
for shielding and filtering for copper connections, the efficiency of optical fibers is more
favorable. As a high-speed main line for the inflight entertainment and the passenger network,
optical fibers provide an attractive combination of high data rates and long transmission routes.
HIRF-High Intensity Radiated Field
The High Intensity Radiated Fields (HIRF) involve the generation of high electromagnetic
radiations for testing aircraft and military equipment. By means of high electromagnetic
emission, the susceptibility and immunity is to be tested so that systems can function smoothly if
they are exposed to high levels of radiation during operation. The generated outputs and field

strengths are dependent on the frequency and they lie at frequencies up to 100 MHz at 2.2kW
and at 49 GHz at 200 V/m.
The phenomenon of magnetism and electricity were discovered and researched independently
from each other. Only later was it discovered that these two ranges are linked to one another.
Today there are so-called electromagnets which generate a magnetic field through electric
current. And there are dynamos with which the reversed principle is put into effect; an electric
current is generated by means of rotating magnets.
The situation is similar in the case of electromagnetic radiation. Initially, people were only
acquainted with the more or less static (unchangeable) magnetic fields and electric fields.
Examples are the magnetic field of a rod magnet and the electric field of a battery.
Subsequent research revealed that if fields start to oscillate they produce a field of another
category as well. That is, an oscillating electric field produces (just as fast), an oscillating
magnetic field and vice versa. This kind of oscillating fields are referred to as electromagnetic
fields.
Electromagnetic radiation thus consists of coupled electric and magnetic fields. This also
includes, inter alia, radio waves, micro waves, infrared radiation, visible light, UV radiation as
well as X-rays and gamma radiation.
Electromagnetic environmental influences like those described above, can result in electronic
devices being disturbed or completely failing. High Intensity Radiated Fields (HIRF), from
sources such as TV, radio transmitter, radar and satellite communication systems, can disturb or
greatly restrict the safe operation of avionics.
Therefore, analogous to the disturbance levels of EMC, failure and disturbance categories were
developed for the HIRF range. Both, EASA and other international authorities/institutions
participated in this project. The disturbance levels range from A (catastrophic effect) through to
level E (no effect). For the development of avionics and electronic devices in aviation but also
for the aircraft as a whole, this means reducing impairments through 1--11RF. This can take the
form of shieldings, materials with a strong absorbance or in the last step with fail-safe
installations for failures or disturbances of elementary components. During maintenance, it is
possible to recognize the first signs of impairment through recurring intervals and strict control
mechanisms which can prevent further damage. To conclude this chapter, the balloon accident
should emphasize the importance of this phenomenon once again by looking at it from another
perspective and paying particular attention to electromagnetic radiation.
On the morning of 18 October 1997 in Bitterfeld, eight hydrogen balloons took off at in a race to

Fehrbellin in Brandenburg. Three balloons quickly took the lead and at the front there was a
young aeronaut from the Westphalian Marl who was training to become a flying instructor. A
light south westerly wind drove the trio above the Havelland.
Then the other balloonists bore witness to a tragedy: "Suddenly, as we were at the Nauen
Transmitter Station, we could see the balloon ablaze in front of us. The basket plummeted to the
ground like a stone. " The other crew landed quickly in order to help the balloonist involved in
the crash. But the pilot, her husband and two passengers were dead.
Experts from the German Federal Aviation Authority (LBA) in Braunschweig found an
astonishing explanation after months of investigating for what was initially a mysterious crash:
For the first time in the history of aviation, a flying device crashed because its material failed as
a result of an excessive electromagnetic radiation exposure. Previously, strong transmitters only
ever compromized the control electronics or the radio communication.
According to the evaluation from the altitude recorder, it was possible to reconstruct the
nightmarish journey of Nauen. The balloon approached within one hundred meters of the four
short wave antennas of the transmitter. Then the balloon net separated from the skin, the released
skin shot 300 meters into the air and fell flat.
The basket fell to the ground. The investigations revealed that both human error as well as an
ionization of the approx. one thousand cubic meters of hydrogen in the balloon skin due to strong
electromagnetic radiation, can be ruled out as causes of the accident. Given that electromagnetic
alternating fields give rise to electric currents in conductive materials, the tests focused more and
more on the metal parts.
In the nylon threads of the balloon, extremely fine steel threads are influenced and they should
normally distribute the electrostatic charge through the atmosphere quickly onto the whole skin.
Due to the strong energy of the transmitter, they heated up like coiled filaments and eventually
resulted in the smelting of the nylon rope and therefore the separation of the basket from the
balloon. In addition to this, there was a fire source in the valve which then deflagrated the
hydrogen. '
Lightning/lightning protection
A storm is always an impressive natural spectacle. With bright, jerking flashes and loud thunder,
nature puts its forces on show. From the ground level, this can be a fascinating sight to behold.
However, if you find yourself at an altitude of 10,000 meters in an aircraft, the fascination is
often hampered by a question: What happens if the lightning strikes the aircraft?'

In purely statistical terms, a commercial aircraft is hit by lightning several times throughout the
course of its working life. Nevertheless, the probability that even a frequent flyer witnesses a
lightning strike, is very low. If an aircraft is hit by a lightning strike it is rather harmless for the
passengers. The metal structure of the fuselage functions like a "Faraday cage" and deflects the
lightening around the aircraft to the ground below. For this reason, there is always an entry and
exit point in such an event. These are often only as large as a pinhead.
Due to the progress in the areas of material science/material technology, construction and
manufacturing, aircraft designers are capable of replacing more and more metallic components
with fiber composites. V%en the French fighter jet Mirage 2000 was developed in the 1970 ' s,
composite materials were used for a few components such as the rudder, aileron and vertical
stabilizer which enabled a weight reduction of 55 kg. Modern aircraft such as the Boeing 787
and the Airbus A350 consist of roughly 50% fiber composites. This also includes large
components such as the fuselage, the wing cladding, large parts of the wing, the rudder and the
horizontal stabilizer. The Airbus A400 which has just been delivered, is to be the first aircraft
whose wing is made 100% from fiber composites.
The advantage of the reduced weight has, however, resulted in a few technical challenges given
that composite materials are not electrically conductive. Temperatures of several hundred
degrees which briefly develop when lightning strikes, can cook the resins used in these materials
and thus damaging the structure. For this reason, special metal or glass fabrics are used in the
corresponding components (wing, rudder or rotor blades in the case of helicopters) which
facilitate a safe discharge of the lightning.
It usually remains intact, even if the lightning strike affects it, it still works well enough to make
important inputs e.g. into the FMS or the autopilot. Unless the pilots decide an unscheduled
landing to carry out an inspection. The decision is made on a case by case basis, because the
impacts are always differently strong. In the case of a Boeing 757 from Icelandair, a lightning
strike in the nose of the airliner left a big hole but, the flight proceeded as normal and the
passengers arrived safely at their destination.

Lightning strike in a commercial aircraft
But what measures need to be taken if an aircraft which was probably hit by lightning, is to be
brought to the maintenance organization?
The first step includes a thorough external visual inspection for traces of the entry and exit of
lightning. Although the burn marks which a lightning strike leaves behind on the paintwork are
often only the size of a pinhead, they are usually quickly identified by the trained eyes of
technicians. Due to their many years of experience, the experts know the preferred entry and exit
points with various types of aircraft. Here, it is not the high-lying vertical stabilizer which is the
preferred point of entry; for many aircraft models, the entry traces can be found on the frame of
the cockpit window or on the front edge of the wings. On the other hand, exit points are often the
tail unit tips, wingtips or the rear edges of the wings. It is here where the static wicks are
installed, whose purpose is normally to discharge the natural charge of the aircraft, which
develops due to the friction of the air. Lightning also often escapes via these small wires and
which quite often thoroughly vaporizes them. Their destruction does not, however, have any
safety-relevant effects. If the entry and exit point is localized, then the next step of control
measures is put in place. The impact points are subjected to a more detailed examination from
the inside out. Where necessary, vaporized static wicks are exchanged and the rivets affected by
the lightning strike are non- destructively checked. Lightning damages to the structure of the
fuselage, the wings and the tail unit normally do not occur if aluminum is used. The situation is
different for structures made out of fiber composites. Temperatures of several hundred degrees
which briefly develop when lightning strikes can cook the resins used in these materials and thus
damaging the structure. Therefore, experts must especially look for traces of delamination.

In the case of helicopters, copper strips are laminated on the surface of rotor blades. The
lightning principally enters the front edge of the blades in the area of the nickel erosion strips and
"jumps" over onto the copper strip. Given that both strips are only a few millimeters apart, a
large amount of heat is released during the transmission. This results in a blistering in the area
between the nickel edge and the copper strips. On the basis of the deformation on the blade
surface, the technician can then clearly verify a lightning strike.
Main rotor blade with copper strips and nickel erosion strips
Typical Electronic/Digital Aircraft Systems
ACARS - ARINC Communication and Addressing and Reporting

System
The ACARS (Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System) is a system in

modern commercial aircraft with which, for example, messages can be transmitted or received at
specific stations or at other aircraft.
The first ACARS system was introduced to reduce the load on radio frequencies. Automated
reports on the flight progress were quickly added (on blocks, airborne, landed). These reports
increased the efficiency of the handling process and enabled airline dispatch to act in real time.
Nowadays, ACARS is supplemented by position reports, obtaining of weather reports and
reports by the aircraft sensors for maintenance on the ground, and last but not least there is the
option of free text messages from and to the cockpit, for obtaining AT IS or dispatching a flight

schedule. The messages can be categorized via Datalink into Air Traffic Control, Aeronautical
Operational Control and Airline Administrative Control. However, it is not only the access to
various ground systems and their transmission routes which is set up differently, also the systems
highlighted in the graphic below by dotted lines are merely optionally installed in the aircraft.
ACARS structure and functions
EICAS - Engine Indication and Crew Alerting System
An Engine Indication and Crew Alerting System (EICAS), is an integrated system in modern
aircraft which is used in order provide the flight crew with reports and displays of the engines
and other systems (hydraulics, fuel). It supplies the pilot with the display of the most important
engine parameters on a color screen and informs the crew if certain parameters of the engine
system no longer comply with the standard. This releases the crew from the tiring task of
checking the engine which ultimately means that a flight engineer is not required. EICAS is
mainly used by the American aircraft manufacturer, Boeing. The European counterpart, Airbus,
tends to use the designation ECAM. With EICAS and ECAM, it is possible to control all systems
of the aircraft. For this purpose, the pilot can, as required, recall and display individual systems
on a special page such as the hydraulics system or the fuel system.
Furthermore, EICAS and ECAM also provide warning and error messages for all systems in the
aircraft as well as help when dealing with the warning message. The appropriate system page is
automatically displayed. EICAS or ECAM is installed in conjunction with the electronic flight

information system EFIS. The screens have a redundant design, that is, in the event of failure of
a screen, the information can be switched to other screens.
EICAS in connection with EFIS
EICAS as function overview with the Upper Display Unit (DU) and the Lower (DU)

EICAS in conjunction with Flight-Navigation-Display (FNDZPFD+ND..
FBW - Fly by Wire
"Fly-by-wire" stands for the electronic aircraft control. Here the pilot controls the A320 with a
side-stick, a computer interprets the inputs and forwards the control signals electronically rather
than via cable control, to the rudder and the control elements. The computer also receives
additional data such as altitude, speed, course or angle of inclination from sensors.
The main difference of fly-by-wire as opposed to mechanical-hydraulic systems is the complete

mechanical decoupling of control element (control stick) and actuator. The control signals are
transmitted in a purely electrical way. An expansion of the fly-by-wire concept consists of
running the control signals through a flight control computer before execution. For example, it

can check for plausibility and monitors compliance with certain limit values so that the machine
does not crash or break apart (due to excessive positive or negative G-forces). Moreover, the fly-
by-wire facilitates an automatic and thus much faster reaction to flight path and flight attitude
changes such as those caused by turbulence.
Fly-by-wire systems are quite complex, however, their operation can be explained in simple
terms. If the pilot moves the control stick (or sidestick), a signal is transmitted to a computer via
several cables. Several cables are necessary due to redundancy, in order to ensure that the signal
actually reaches the computer. If three channels are used, this is called "Triplex". In an analog
system, the computer receives the signal, carries out a calculation - adds the signal voltages and
divides by the number of signals in order to get the average voltage and adds another channel to
it. This fourfold signal is then transmitted to the actuator of the respective control surface and
this begins to move. Potentiometers in the actuator return a signal to the computer and register its
position. When the actuator has achieved the desired position, both signals (the incoming and
outgoing) cancel each other out, and the actuator no longer moves. In a digital fly-by-wire
system, a complex software interprets digital signals from the pilot and carries out calculations
on the basis of the flight control principles and data entries from other sensors. The computer
then guides the flight control area in such a way that the desired flight path is achieved.
A FBW aircraft may be lighter than a comparable aircraft with conventional controls. This is
partly due to the lower overall weight of the system components and in part because the natural
stability of the aircraft is relaxed. However, this advantage is most apparent with maneuverable
combat aircraft. The benefits of the FBW control were first discovered by the military and only
later by commercial aviation. The Airbus aircraft have such systems, starting with the A320
series, and Boeing followed with the 777 and later models. Electronic fly-by-wire systems can
react quickly and flexibly to changes in the aerodynamic environment. The movements of the
control surfaces are adapted in such a way that the reaction of the aircraft to control commands is
in line with the flight conditions. Electronic systems require less maintenance when compared
with hydraulic and mechanical systems. A circuit between the pilot and the aircraft can increase
safety. The system can, for example, thwart a compressor stall or prevent the pilot from
overworking the airframe. The greatest problem with fly-by-wire systems is their reliability.
Whereas the conventional mechanical and hydraulic systems gradually fail, the immediate failure
of all control computers can make it momentarily impossible to control the aircraft. For this
reason, the majority of fly-by-wire systems either include redundant computers or a type of
mechanical or hydraulic backup or a combination or both. A mixed control system is generally
not desired and this is also normally avoided in modern FBW aircraft by installing several
independent FBW channels. The probability of a complete failure is reduced to the minimum
which is a requirement of the supervisory and safety authorities for aircraft construction.
History and development fly-by-wire:
• The V2 rocket was the first missile with a complete electronic flight control system.

• The Canadian Avro CF-105 from the 1950's, had an analog 2-channel FBW system (first
flight March 1958). The program was discontinued for financial reasons.
• In the 1960 ' s, the NASA developed a FBW system for the thrusters of the spacecraft in
Project Mercury. An analog FBW system was installed in the lunar module of the Apollo
program.
• The first civil commercial aircraft with a FBW control was the Concorde (first flight: March
1969).
• In the 1970's, NASA began with the development of a digital FBW control. Test aircraft was
an F-8 Crusader. The development continued up to FBW control for the shuttle which had
its first test flights in August 1977.
• Between 1974 and 1985, work was carried out at MBB in Germany on a modified F-104 on a
FBW control.
• At the end of the 1970' s, the FBW control in military aviation became the standard with the
F-16.
• Airbus integrated a FBW control for the first time (first flight: April 1982) in the A310 for the
secondary flight control (slats, flaps, spoiler).
• This was followed by the development into a full-fledged FBW system for the A320.
• In the mid 1990's, Boeing also introduced FBW technology into the civil aircraft (Boeing
777).
Weight savings, lower maintenance costs and a higher level of precision when flying are some of
the benefits of a fly-by-wire system. The weight reduction in contrast to that of a heavy
mechanical system, provides a substantial reduction in the fuel consumption. There are, however,
not only advantages but there are also a variety of disadvantages as is the case with every ultra-
modern system. This is a factor that every airline company has to weigh up and to identifr the
best approach for itself and the model flown.
The mechanical decoupling of control elements and rudders makes an emergency system
necessary in the event of an energy failure. Fly-by-wire is susceptible to electromagnetic
interferences and thus it is the data transmission cables in particular that require sophisticated
shielding. Above all it is the military which is pressing for the introduction of a safer

transmission technology. This could be available with "fly-by-light" and thus with the
electromagnetic resistant optical transmission systems.
Fly-by-wire decouples the pilots from the flight physics and from the forces which occur on the
rudders and the flaps. Modern developments deliver an artificial feedback by reproducing the
forces on control sticks, yokes and pedals in such a way to give the impression that the relevant
devices are connected to the rudders and flaps. This way, the pilot can "feel" the behavior of the
aircraft again.
Fly-by-wire in helicopters? Here too, there are a number of benefits that have already been
implemented. However, the control is more complicated and thus it requires a higher degree of
maturity. The use of fly-by-wire flight control systems offers a specific benefit to the helicopter
in particular, alongside the advantages of cost, maintenance and weight saving, in light of its
complex flight characteristics, the numerous couplings and its natural instability. Accordingly,
fly-by-wire systems will probably find their way into the rotary wing aircraft on a large-scale in
the near future and in the longer-term, they will become the standard in ever cheaper market
segments. The transport helicopter NH90 model is currently in operation with a full-authority
standard fly-by-wire system. The discontinued combat helicopter program RAH-66 Comanche
provided for such a system and a version of the Sikorsky S-92 which is in the development
stages, is being equipped with a fly-by- wire system. As part of the ever more complex mission
requirements in a highly automated cockpit, the use of fly-by-wire systems opens the possibility
of providing input systems which present an advantage in ergonomics, performance and the
workload for the pilots. Particularly with respect to the tactile feedback of information on the
flight condition and the inputs of the co and autopilots control devices, it is hoped that there will
be a decisive improvement of the situational awareness and the handling characteristics. It also
enables the integration of the four axes of the helicopter to be controlled, by one or two sticks,
which may provide beneficial relief

Schematic layout of a fly-by-wire system
FMS - Flight Management System
The FMS (Flight Management System) is an integrated computer which supports the pilot with a
variety of tasks and which processes information.
The flight management system generally consists of two units, an arithmetic and a display device
unit. These computer units can mutually support each other and assume basic functions from the
other computer unit in the case of failure scenarios. The flight management system presents the
primary navigation, flight planning and proposes optimized routes. A database is stored in the
FMS with all important airports, navigational aids, air routes and navigation points as well as
technical data. This must be updated by the operator at regular intervals. If the update should not
take place or take place too late, the aircraft is no longer authorized for flights based on
instrument flight rules (IFR). The inputs take place via the Control and Display Unit (CDU) or
Multifunctional Control and Display Unit (MCDU). Besides the actual basic function
(navigation), the system can perform additional functions such as start and approach calculations,
vertical flight profile control (altitude, climb and descent) and fuel management. Furthermore,
the FMS can display an array of actual data about the aircraft. This includes the roll-attitude,
pitch position, OAT, WCA, LAT/ LONG display and the wind display with the wind force.
These are just a few examples for the display possibilities in a modern FMS. Coupling with the
autopilot is also a standard feature so that the AP takes off with the inputted flight route. Route
changes by air traffic controllers can be quickly changed in the system and, in turn, the
connection to the automatic flight control system can take place. The selected flight routes and

navigation points are displayed in the EFIS and thus enable the pilot to constantly monitor the
navigation of the flight management system.
An FMS consists of four main components:
• The flight management computer (FMC)

• The automatic flight control system or the automatic flight control system (AFCS)
• The aircraft navigation system
• The Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS) or equivalent electromagnetic instruments.
Block Diagram of FMS

Flight management system in connection with EFIS
IRS - Inertial Reference System
An inertial reference system is a 3D measuring system with an inertial measurement unit (IMU)
as a central sensor unit with several acceleration and gyroscope sensors. As has been the case so
often in the history of aviation, its origins lie in the military sector. As early as the development
of the V2 rocket in the Second World War, the team surrounding Wernher von Braun recognized
the necessity of a gyro platform working at high levels of precision. Without such a gyro
platform which knows the exact location in space, its own position, speed and acceleration, the
flight path of a rocket was impossible to control. Against this background, the first so-called
inertial navigation systems developed which were based on three gyros, three accelerometers and
an initially analog arithmetic unit. Here the gyros on the respective (x,y,z) position determined
the location in space. Together with the accelerations from which the speeds, vx, vy and vz were
also calculated, it was possible to calculate and thus control the further course of the flight path
via the arithmetic unit. The six sensors alone are referred to as Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU).
It did not require much reflection to recognize that such a mechanical INS can also be applied in
a beneficial way for navigation purposes in aircraft. Particularly in the period prior to GPS, this

was the only option for military aircraft without land-based navigation, through VOR and NDB,
to reasonably accurately find the destination.
The mechanical inertial navigation systems were developed to perfection in the 1970 ' s by
means of liquid storage. On average, the navigational precision was only around 1 NM positional
deviation per hour. Where required, it was far more precise and this was particularly the case for
rockets.
The maximal possible accuracy was actually not the reason for the desire to replace the
mechanical systems. The major problem was rather the maintenance and service costs for the
very complex mechanics with their gyros stored in liquid. As is so often the case, people wanted
to make savings with simpler systems. And thus the next generation of the INS with ring laser
gyroscopes emerged. At the start of 1990, this system was installed in almost all passenger
aircraft and it has been continually subject to further development. The next step saw the
emergence of the Attitude Heading Reference System (AHRS) on the market which today also
includes air data variables, external temperature and other measurement sensors and it is now
referred to as ADAHRS-GPS. These high quality systems, consisting of INS and GPS, are also
called IRS (Inertial Reference System).
Functional principle of a ring laser gyroscope
GPS - Global Positioning System
The GPS system (global positioning system) is a system invented, realized and operated by the

American Department of Defense (DOD) comprising (planned) 24 satellites (21 are required, 3
are active replacement; today, however, it is mostly around 30 active satellites) that orbit the
earth at a nominal height of 20200 km. GPS satellites transmit signals which enable the precise
localization of a GPS receiver. The receivers can identify their position if they are stationary,
moving on the earth ' s surface, moving in the earth s atmosphere or when moving in low orbits.
GPS is used both in air, terrestrial and maritime navigation, as well as for land surveying and
other applications which depend on precise positioning. The GPS signal is supplied free of
charge to anyone on or near to the planet who owns a GPS receiver and who has an unrestricted
"view" of the satellites. The actual name of the system is NAVSTAR (Navigation System for
Timing and Ranging), but it is only known as GPS (Global Positioning System).
The development of the system goes back as far as the early 1970 ' s. The system has been
continually developed since then. With GPS it is possible, via the known position of the satellites
in space, to determine the precise location in near-Earth space (coordinates: longitude, latitude
and altitude) with a precision of 20 meters to approx. 1 millimeter as well as the exact time
(Universal Time Coordinated, UTC) with a precision in the range of 60 nanoseconds up to 5
nanoseconds. Speed and direction of movement (course) can be derived from the coordinates and
the time.
The GPS system is divided into three basic segments:
• Space segment (satellites)

At the moment, approx. 30 GPS satellites in 6 orbital planes are orbiting the earth. The
orbital planes are inclined by 550 against the axis of rotation of the earth and rotated against
each other by 600. The orbital period amounts to 12 hours at a speed of 4 km/h. The satellite
constellation above a fixed position of the earth is repeated every 24 hours. This
constellation ensures that at least four satellites are visible at every point on the earth at all
times.
• Control segment (control stations)

The control segment serves to monitor the satellites. It comprises a master control station as
well as 9 additional monitor stations that are distributed around the equator. The stations
were distributed in such a way that the signals of all satellites can be measured at least once
a day at all control stations simultaneously. The monitor stations are simple GPS receivers
which collect the data from all satellites located in sight and which transmit the data to the
main control station for further processing.
• User segment (GPS receiver)

This segment comprises all civil and military users which can only obtain the information
from the satellites and use it for positioning with the aid of the GPS receiver.

In order for a receiver terminal to calculate its current position, the data must be simultaneously
received and saved by several satellites. Broadly speaking, it must be clear which satellite has
transmitted a signal from when and where. The distance to a satellite can be calculated by means
of the signals travel time. The data from three satellites suffice for two-dimensional positioning.
In order to also determine the altitude, the signal of a fourth satellite is required.
By means of a continuous recalculation of the current position, the GPS receiver is able to also
precisely calculate the ground speed and ground track. Another option for speed measurement is
the use of the Doppler Effect which occurs due to the movement in the transmitted signals. That
functions according to the same principle as an observer who perceives a siren as a higher tone
when it moves towards him and as a lower tone when it moves away from him. Both systems are
used in helicopters for the automatic hover flight (hover mode) with the autopilot. The
positioning with the aid of GPS can also be simplified based on the same principle that you used
as a child to estimate the distance to a storm. This involves simply counting the time difference
elapsed between the "impact" of the lightning (compared to sound, the speed of light is so high
that the transit time of the light from the impact point to the observer, does not have to be taken
into account) and the arrival of the thunder. The satellites are equipped with atomic clocks. The
standard receiver does not have any. This can result in a delay of one second or an error of
300,000 km!, respectively. In order to confirm its position, a fourth satellite is needed which
prevents or offsets the previous delay.
GPS data

In the future, Europe is to be independent of American GPS and thus for many years, work has
been carried out on the European project, Galileo. With Galileo, the EU and the European Space
Agency ESA, want to end the supremacy of the US service GPS (Global Positioning System).
Therefore, the EU Commission describes Galileo as the most important infrastructure project in
the coming years. Galileo is to provide drivers, rescue services, farmers and other users with a
more precise positioning. From 2020, a total number of 30 satellites in more than 23000
kilometers are to orbit the Earth and to transmit signals to the Earth. In contrast to the US system
GPS, Galileo is not under military control. The first Galileo satellites Giove-A and Giove-B were
only for testing purposes. Giove-A was launched in the year 2005, Giove-B was launched in the
spring of 2008. After only a short period of time, Giove-B failed for two weeks in September
2008 as a result of high space radiation. Thus far, of the 30 planned functional Galileo satellites,
four have been sent into space on their intended orbit. Two satellites were launched for the so-
called in- orbit validation in the years 2011 and 2012. As of 15 Dec 2016 there were 18 satellites
in orbit and Galileo has started to offer some services.
GPS continues to develop further and in the area of aviation, it has been used for precise
approach procedures for some time.
Here, the differential GPS procedure is being increasingly deployed for further enhancing the
display accuracy and above all for using GPS for precision landing approaches. This is a
stationary GPS receiver which compares the positioning via the satellites with its actual position
and transmits the relevant correction data to other specific GPS receivers. The precision in
Germany can be improved by a maximum of 5 meters with just one of such reference receivers.
This procedure makes it possible to achieve the required precision for precision approaches (ILS)
so that the D-GPS can also be used for the IRF operation in the future.

Function of differential GPS
Integrated modular avionics
Aerospace technology has undergone significant change over the decades. Aircraft had to be
continually developed and they have become safer, cleaner more comfortable for the passengers.
"Fly-by-wire" systems, glass cockpits and modern flight management systems have now become
the basic standard for the operation of almost all aircraft. Each system has to complete its own
important task but it also has to work alongside many other critical systems. This makes avionics
system integration indispensable and its further development will and must be an ongoing
primary objective for aeronautical engineers.
Integrated modular avionics (IMA) refers to an airworthy, modular computer-electronic unit

consisting of standardized components and interfaces in hardware and software for
communication between the various systems in an aircraft. Central to this concept are the high-
performance racks as data processing centers. They contain hardware components that can be
used cross-functionally in form of modules. These are limited to a few standard design types and
are produced in larger quantities thus enhancing the safety, in comparison to the conventional
modules built for special uses. The mechanically and electrically closed modules are
implemented as Line Replaceable Modules (LRMs) which will replace the LRUs as the basic

module type. The LRMs and racks among are connected to each other by high speed data buses
and/or by switched networks with high band widths. Even the software architecture follows a
modular approach and distinguishes between the special system-specific parts and the base parts
such as the operating system of LRMs. The modules of the hardware and software are combined
to form a core and they are adapted to their intended functionality by means of special modules,
for example graphic cards, mass storage, special input/output units. The cross-functional use of
modular components enables software to be freely distributed or redistributed to the greatest
possible extent according to the system requirements without being hampered by component
boundaries. It therefore allows a reconfiguration of the core into a system which continues to be
functional if individual modules fail. Thus, the required high availability can be achieved and the
number of unscheduled maintenance activities during operation can be significantly reduced. The
synergy of the modular components in an integrated system takes place via standardized
interfaces for communication at the system level. Furthermore, in the area of modular avionics, a
standardized design is necessary for parameters and installation devices to allow for the desired
cross-sectional use of modular components within a fleet of aircraft or for several types of
aircraft. These architecture standards are a crucial aspect making it possible for a system supplier
respectively, to refer to integrator modules (hardware and/or software) from various
manufacturers.
Summary:
Integrated modular avionics (IMA) is a fixed component of modern commercial aircraft. The
central idea is the provision of standardized hardware which is jointly used by several aircraft
system functions. The advantages of IMA are weight, maintenance and it offers new
opportunities. However, it also entails a complexity with respect to the optimal avionics system,
which is hard to manage on a manual basis. Therefore, computer-aided methods should be
developed which simplify the design of IMA systems. The Aircraft Data and Communication
Network (ADCN) is the standardized digital communication bus between all IMA components.
It has real-time capability and it is highly reliable. As a technology, the Ethernet-based Avionics
Full Duplex Switch Ethernet (AFDX) has become prevalent.

Fundamental IMA system design with AFDX
Example IMA with components and central processing unit AMC for avionics control

Annex
List of Abbreviations









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M5B2-DIGITAL TECHNIQUES AND AVIATION

ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT TRAINING HUB

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M5B2-DIGITAL TECHNIQUES AND ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS ................... 0

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Register ................................................................................................................................... 164

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'There is no reason for any individual to have a computer in his home.”

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Electronic Instrument Systems

The term cockpit literally translates as the crew compartment.

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The following instruments belong to the Basic-T:

• Airspeed indicator (ADI)

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"Old" cockpit from 1958

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Cockpit of a Boeing 767

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Cockpit B737 with structural division

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Colour schemes and operating range on instruments

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Cautions (yellow) and advisories (green displays, Pitot HTR)

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Exceedance of maximum oil temperature of engine 2 in VEMD

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Structure central panel display system (CPDS)

Structure Flight Control Display System (FCDS)

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Warning unit and CAD display

Block diagram CPDS inch interfaces and data buses

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Therefore: 549 = 5*100 + 4*10 + 9 = 5*102 + 4*101 + 9.

Or 168910 = 1*1000 +6*100 +8*10+ 9 = 1*103 + 6*102 +8+101+9

For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

Binary, octal and decimal system

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Thus: 10110112 = 9110

Example 44 of decimal in binary:

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• 10016 (correct spelling)

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Conversions between the number systems

• Decimal into binary / dual and vice versa

Decimal into binary / dual and vice versa

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Another method for converting numbers is Horner' s method.

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Example for a decimal number which is represented as BCD code

• Decimal number: 5862

1*20 + 0*21 + 1+22 + 0*23 = 1 +0 + 4 +0 = 510 = 01012

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Another important character encoding or conversion is the ASCII code.

Therefore: 549 = 5100 + 410 + 9 = 5102 + 4101 + 9.

Or 168910 = 11000 +6100 +810+ 9 = 1103 + 6*102 +8+101+9

120 + 021 + 1+22 + 0*23 = 1 +0 + 4 +0 = 510 = 01012

110 0012 = 023 + 124 + 125 = 618 = 681 = 0 + 16 + 32 = 4810