Group 1

 Specific deterrence A goal of criminal sentencing that seeks to prevent a particular offender
from engaging in repeat criminality.
 General deterrence A goal of criminal sentencing that seeks to prevent others from
committing crimes similar to the one for which a particular offender is being sentenced.

Group 2

 “zone in transition,” surrounding the city center, was home to impoverished immigrant
groups and was characterized by deteriorating houses and factories and abandoned
buildings;
 Social disorganization theory
A perspective on crime and deviance that sees society as a kind of organism, and crime and
deviance as a kind of disease or social pathology
 Social disorganization A condition said to exist when a group is faced with social change,
uneven development of culture, maladaptiveness, disharmony, conflict, and lack of
consensus.

Group 3

 The degree of organization in the gang is defined by its structure and hierarchy; its
connection to larger, more serious organized crime groups; its sophistication and
permanence; the existence of a specific code of conduct or set of formal rules; initiation
practices; and the level of integration, cohesion, and solidarity among the gang’s members.”
 Boundary setting function –sets standards for acceptable and unacceptable
 Reinforce conformity Function- reward and motivate saintly behavior
 Innovative function(flexibility & change) –promote change and progress
 Anomie
A social condition in which norms are uncertain or lacking.
 Social solidarity: social cement
 •Mechanical Solidarity: based on sameness
 •Organic Solidarity: based on differences

Group 4

 Innovation arises when the emphasis on approved goal achievement combines with a lack of
opportunity to participate fully in socially acceptable means to success.
 ritualism refers to the type of behavior arising when members of society participate in
socially desirable means but show little interest in goal achievement.
 Retreatism describes the behavior of those who reject both the socially approved goals and
the means
 rebellion describes the actions of a person who wishes to replace socially approved goals
and means with some other system.

Group 5

 Criminal Subcultures are characterised by utilitarian crimes, such as theft. They develop in
more stable working class areas where there is an established pattern of crime. This
provided a learning opportunity and career structure for aspiring young criminals, and an
alternative to the legitimate job market as a means of achieving financial rewards
  Conflict subcultures emerge in socially disorganised areas where there is a high rate of
population turnover and a consequent lack of social cohesion. These prevent the formation
of stable adult criminal subcultures Conflict subcultures are characterised by violence, gang
warfare, ‘mugging’ and other street crime.

Group 6

 Denying responsibility. They point to their backgrounds of poverty, abuse, and lack
of opportunity: “The trouble I get into is not my fault.”

 Denying injury. They explain that everyone does it or that individuals or compa-nies
can afford it: “They’re so rich, they’ll never miss it.”
 Denying the victim. They justify the harm done by claiming that the victim deserved
the victimization: “I only beat up drunks.”

 Condemning the condemners. They assert that authorities are corrupt or respon-
sible for their own victimization and that society has made them what they are and
must now suffer the consequences: “They’re worse than I am. They’re all on the
take.”

 Appealing to higher loyalties. They use the defence of their family honour, gang,
girlfriend, or neighbourhood: “I have to protect myself.”

Group 7

 Attachment describes the strength of the bonds and relationships that exist with an
individual’s social environment.
 Commitment describes the level of dedication invested in conventional standards and goals.
 By involvement, Hirschi means that someone who is intensively involved in conventional
activities has less time and opportunity to engage in deviant behavior.
 Hirschi sees belief as the fourth factor in social bonding. This refers to the belief in and
validity of the values and norms of the mainstream society

Group 8

 A legitimation crisis is an identity crisis that results from a loss of confidence in

administrative institutions, which occurs despite the fact that they still retain legal authority
by which to govern.
 Children, especially those from deprived backgrounds, turn to delinquency because they
experience status-frustration when judged by others according to middle-class standards
and goals that they are unable to achieve, Cohen claimed. Because it is nearly impossible for
them to succeed in middle-class terms, they also may overcome anxiety through the process
of reaction formation, in which hostility toward middle-class values develops.

Group 9

 Culture conflict theory A sociological perspective on crime that suggests that the root cause
of criminality can be found in a clash of values between variously socialized groups over
what is acceptable or proper behavior.
  The basic nature of group conflict centres on the exercise of political power. Political power
is the key to influence. Differences in social class, and in particular those arrangements
within society that maintain class differences, are the focus for criminological study.
• Powerful groups make laws that reflect and protect their interests. Law is a tool of power
and furthers the interests of those powerful enough to make the law

Group 10

 Secondary deviance:The deviant behavior that results from official labeling and from
associations with others who have been so labelled.
 Master status- a master status is the defining social position a person holds, meaning the
title the person most relates to when trying to express themselves to others.
 Communicative work directed to transforming an individual's total identity lower in the
group's scheme of social types is called a "status degradation ceremony."
 The stigma theory of crime and deviation regards the labeling and tagging processes as
constructive factors identifying an individual as criminal in the eyes of others and to himself.
 A deviant career may be defined as any professional choice that defies social norms.
 Moral entrepreneurs are individuals committed to the establishment and enforcement of
rules against behavior they define as deviant.

Group 11

 Target suitability refers to a person or a property which an offender may approach as

suitable target to commit a crime. The idea is that some targets are more suitable than
others. Target suitability consists of two main dimensions, namely the accessibility of the
potential victim as a crime target and the attractiveness of the person as a target.
 Capable guardian: one who effectively discourages crime; effective detterants to criminal
activity
 Crime generators are places to which large numbers of people are attracted for reasons
unrelated to criminal motivation. Providing large numbers of opportunities for offenders and
targets to come together in time and place produces crime or disorder.
 Crime attractors are places affording many criminal opportunities that are well known to
offenders. People with criminal motivation are drawn to such locales.