The Sun

UNIT 5 THE SUN

Structure
5.1 Introduction
Objectives
5.2 Solar Parameters
5.3 Solar Photosphere
5.4 Solar Atmosphere
Chromosphere
Corona
5.5 Solar Activity
5.6 Basics of Solar Magnetohydrodynamics
5.7 Helioseismology
5.8 Summary
5.9 Terminal Questions
5.10 Solutions and Answers

5.1 INTRODUCTION
From Unit 4, you know that the principles of different branches of physics such as
mechanics, thermodynamics and quantum mechanics are used in astronomy and
astrophysics. In the present and subsequent Units, you will use these principles to
investigate the behaviour and properties of the universe and its constituents.

On the cosmic scale, the Sun is just another star; there are bigger and brighter stars in
the universe. The Sun is, however, very important to us because i) it is the nearest
and the only star in our planetary system and ii) it provides almost all of our
energy. Do you know that a slight variation in the energy received from the Sun can
threaten life on the earth! Further, the Sun being the nearest star, we can study its
structure, atmosphere, and other physical characteristics in greater detail. The
information/data so obtained can be used to test the theories of stellar structure and
evolution. In this way we can improve our theories and have a better understanding of
other stars. In the present Unit, you will study about the Sun.

Due to the efforts of astronomers, today we have detailed information regarding the
Sun. In Sec. 5.2, you will learn to arrive at the estimates of the basic solar parameters
such as mass, radius and effective surface temperature. As far as we are concerned, all
the visible radiation from the Sun comes from its surface layer called the photosphere.
Above the photosphere is the atmosphere of the Sun consisting of two distinct layers
namely the chromosphere and the corona. In Sec. 5.3, you will study the characteristic
features of these layers. Interaction of the Sun’s magnetic field with highly mobile
charged particles in it gives rise to a variety of observable events. These events,
collectively known as solar activity, have been discussed in Sec. 5.4. The theoretical
analysis of the interaction of magnetic field with conducting matter in motion is
known as magnetohydrodynamics and it provides a basis to understand solar activity
and related features of the Sun. Solar magnetohydrodynamics has been discussed in
Sec. 5.5. In Sec. 5.6, you will learn, in brief, about helioseismology which provides
valuable information about the Sun’s internal structure.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:

• estimate values of the basic parameters of the Sun;

5
The Solar System
and Stars
You may recall from Unit 6 of
the physics elective course
PHE-01 entitled Elementary
Mechanics that Kepler’s third
law is given by:
4π2 a 3
T2 =
GM
where T, a, G and M are
respectively the time period,
semi-major axis, gravitational
constant and mass of the Sun.
Spend
5 min.
In astronomy, we encounter
typically small angles (of the
order of minute (′) and second
(″)), for which simple
approximations are used for
trigonometric functions. Thus,
for small values of the angle θ,
tanθ = θ = sinθ
and
cosθ = 1
However, as you know, angles
must be measured in radian if
these formulae are to be valid.
6
• describe different layers of the Sun’s atmosphere;
• describe some of the observed features such as sunspot, prominence and solar
flare associated with solar activity;
• explain the role of the Sun’s magnetic field in solar activity;
• derive the basic results of solar magnetohydrodynamics; and
• explain the seismology of the Sun.
5.2 SOLAR PARAMETERS
The basic parameters of the Sun are its mass (MΘ), radius (RΘ), luminosity (LΘ) and
effective surface temperature (Teff). In the following discussion, you will learn to
estimate these parameters.
11
Mass: You know that the mean distance of the Sun from the Earth is 1.5 × 10 m. It is
called the mean solar distance, a. In astronomy we measure mean distances in terms
of a and it defines the Astronomical Unit (1 AU = mean solar distance). To obtain an
expression for the mass of the Sun, we may use Kepler’s third law under the
assumption that the mass of the planet can be neglected in comparison with the mass
of the Sun. This assumption is valid for the Sun-Earth system and we can write:
4π 2 a 3
= GM Θ (5.1)
P2
where a, P, G and MΘ are the mean solar distance, orbital period (~ 365 days) of the
Earth, gravitational constant and mass of the Sun, respectively. With the values of the
orbital period and the mean solar distance available at present, the value of GMΘ is
estimated to be 132712438 × 1012 m3s−2. Since the laboratory measurements for G
gives a value equal to 6.672 × 10−11 m3kg−1s−2, we obtain:
MΘ ≈ 2 × 1030kg.
This value is taken as the mass of the Sun as it exists today. In fact, solar mass
decreases continuously since the Sun continuously emits radiation and particles which
carry with them some mass. However, the total mass loss during the Sun’s estimated
life time (~ 1010 yrs) is found to be less than 1027kg. This value is much less than the
error in measurement of the solar mass and is, therefore, negligible. This method can
also be used to estimate the masses of the satellites/Moons of the planets in our solar
system. How about solving an SAQ of this nature?
SAQ 1
One of the four Galilean satellites of the planet Jupiter is Io. Its orbital period is
1.77 days. The semi-major axis of its orbit is 4.22 × 1010cm. Calculate the mass of
Jupiter under the assumption that the Jupiter is too massive in comparison to Io.
Radius: The radius of the Sun can be estimated if we know the values of its angular
diameter, θ and the mean solar distance, a (Fig. 5.1). The angular diameter of the Sun
is 32′ and mean solar distance is 1.5 × 1011m. Thus, with the help of Fig. 5.1, we
obtain the value of the solar radius RΘ as:
RΘ =
1
2
[ (1.5 × 10
11
m) × ( 32 × 2.9 × 10 − 4 rad) ]
= 6.7 × 108m.
Astronomical observations indicate that the solar radius is not constant; rather, its The Sun
9
value changes slowly. Over a period of ~ 10 years, the average change is about
2.4 cm per yr. Further, radius of the Earth is 6.4 × 106m. Thus, the Sun’s radius is

1 AU
Sun

32´

Earth

Fig.5.1: When viewed from the Earth, the angular diameter of the Sun is approximately 32′′

almost 100 times larger than that of the Earth. To get an idea of the relative sizes of
the Sun and the Earth, refer to Fig. 5.2.
Sun

Moon’s orbit

Earth

Fig.5.2: The size of the Sun is so big that it can contain the Earth as well as the orbit of the Moon!

Luminosity: The solar luminosity, LΘ, is defined as the total energy radiated by the
Sun per unit time in the form of electromagnetic radiation. To estimate the value of
luminosity of the Sun, let us imagine a sphere with the Sun at its centre (Fig. 5.3). The
radius of this imaginary sphere is a, the mean distance between the Sun and the Earth.
Now, each unit area A of the sphere receives energy equal to S, called the solar
constant. Therefore, luminosity can be expressed as:

LΘ = 4πa2S (5.2)

a
1m
Earth
Sun 1m
A

1 AU

Fig.5.3: Imaginary sphere of radius a surrounding the Sun where a is its mean solar distance from
the Earth 7
The Solar System Since the solar radiation is absorbed in the Earth’s atmosphere, it is obvious that S
and Stars should be measured above the atmosphere. S has now been measured accurately using
satellites and its value is 1370 Wm−2. Substituting the value of S and the mean solar
11
distance, a = 1.5 × 10 m in Eq. (5.2), we get:
26
LΘ = 3.86 × 10 W.

Temperature: The temperature of the Sun at its surface and its interior regions are
different. The surface temperature can be estimated using Stephan-Boltzmann law
which you studied in our course on Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics
(PHE-06). We leave this as an exercise for you in the form of an SAQ.

Spend SAQ 2
5 min.
Assume that the Sun radiates like a black body at temperature T. Calculate T using
−8 −2 −4
Stephan-Boltzmann law. Take Stephan constant σ = 5.67 × 10 Wm K .

On solving SAQ 2, you would have found that the temperature of the Sun is 6000 K.
This estimated temperature is called the effective surface temperature because it is
the temperature of a black body whose surface emits the same flux as the Sun. This is
the temperature of the surface layer of the Sun called the photosphere from which all
the radiation is emitted.
To appreciate the validity of the approximation that the Sun radiates like a black body,
refer to Fig. 5.4. It shows the observed solar radiation in the ultraviolet, visible and
infrared regions of electromagnetic spectrum. Also plotted in this figure is the energy
curve of a black body at 6000 K. In view of the similarity of the two curves, it is fair
to assume that the Sun radiates like a black body at temperature 6000 K.

You learnt that the Sun

radiates like a black body at
approximately 6000 K. You
may think that if all the
energy is radiated outward
from the Sun, its surface
should gradually cool down.
This does not happen
because there is a constant
flow of energy from the
interior of the Sun towards
its surface.

Fig.5.4: Solar energy curve

The Sun is a hot, bright gaseous ball and it does not have a well defined surface like
the Earth. The visible surface of the Sun is called photosphere. Let us learn about it
now.

5.3 SOLAR PHOTOSPHERE

The photosphere (Fig. 5.5) is the visible surface of the Sun. All the light received from
the Sun, in fact, comes from the photosphere. You may ask: Why do not we receive
the radiation in the same form as generated in the interior of the Sun? At the
centre of the Sun, the energy is generated in the form of high energy photons called γ-
Fig.5.5: The Sun’s photosphere
rays. As these photons travel outwards, they collide with particles of matter and lose
energy continuously. By the time these photons reach the surface − the photosphere −
they are reduced to photons of visible region of electromagnetic spectrum. So, visible
8 radiation is emitted from the photosphere.
The density of photosphere is 3400 times less than the density of the air we breathe. The Sun
The thickness of the photosphere is about 500 km and the temperature at its base is
~ 6500 K. The temperature decreases upward and reaches a minimum value of
~ 4400 K at the top. This assumption is corroborated by the Sun’s absorption
spectrum which indicates that the light we receive must be passing through a cool gas
in which photons get absorbed.
The photosphere is not a quiet region (see Fig. 5.6). It shows a granular structure. If
you look at Fig. 5.6a carefully, you can see that the photosphere consists of bright and
irregularly shaped granules; each granule surrounded by dark edges. It has been found
that these granules are very hot and their typical size is ~ 1500 km. The hot gas in the
granules rises up with a speed of the order of 500 ms−1 and bursts apart by releasing
energy. The cool material subsequently sinks downward along the dark edges or lanes
between granules. The rising hot granules are seen only for a very short time (~ 10
minutes) before they dissolve.

Granule boundary

Granule
Granule

(a) (b)
Fig.5.6: a) Photograph of the photosphere showing granular structure; and b) schematic diagram
showing granules and their boundaries

The question is: What causes granulation of the photosphere? It is caused due to
convection (a mode of energy transport by matter, about which you will study in As they look inwards into the
solar atmosphere,
Unit 8). The granulation can be visualised (Fig. 5.6b) as the top layer of a region astronomers have discovered
where, due to convection, hot gas from below the photosphere moves upward. Thus, that, within a distance of
the centre of the granule is hotter and it emits more radiation and looks brighter in about 500 km, the solar
comparison to the edges which are relatively cooler and emit less radiation. atmosphere changes from
being optically thin to
Convection based explanation seems valid because the spectra of granules indicate optically thick. This distance
that their centres are much hotter than the edges. Further, the solar granulation is only ~ 0.07% of the Sun’s
provides observable evidence supporting the idea that there exists a convection zone radius. This region gives the
below the photosphere. impression that the Sun has a
sharp edge as viewed from
the earth.
You may now like to know: What is the chemical composition of the photosphere?
It consists of 79 percent hydrogen and the remaining 21 percent consists of nearly 60
other chemical elements. Interestingly, all the elements of the photosphere are known
elements and their proportion in the earth is more or less the same as that in the As you have learnt in Unit 4,
photosphere. This similarity in the chemical compositions of the photosphere and the optically thin/thick medium
refers to the medium
earth is of utmost importance for understanding the formation of the solar system. characterised by low/high
absorption of electromagnetic
Though the photographs of the Sun give the impression that it has a clear edge, such radiation.
clear and distinct edge does not exist. Outside the apparent edge are the Sun’s outer
layers, collectively known as the Sun’s atmosphere. These layers can be seen and
probed and valuable information about their physical characteristics can be obtained.
Let us learn about the various layers of the solar atmosphere. 9
The Solar System
and Stars 5.4 SOLAR ATMOSPHERE
The Sun’s atmosphere is divided into two layers namely, the chromosphere and the
corona. A schematic diagram of these layers is shown in Fig. 5.7.

Corona

2600 km
Transition zone
2300 km

Chromosphere

500 km

Photosphere

0 km

Sun’s interior

Fig.5.7: Schematic diagram showing the layers of solar atmosphere

5.4.1 Chromosphere
Chromosphere lies above the photosphere (Fig. 5.7) and extends up to ~ 2000 km.
This layer of the solar atmosphere is normally not visible from the Earth because of its
faintness. However, it can be seen during a solar eclipse. The name chromosphere is
derived from the fact that a few seconds before and after a total solar eclipse, a bright,
pink flash appears above the photosphere (Fig. 5.8). The spectrum obtained at that
Fig.5.8: Chromosphere just time is called a flash spectrum (Fig. 5.9).
before a total solar
eclipse

You may be aware that each

chemical element
emits/absorbs electromagnetic
radiations of characteristic
wavelengths. These radiations
of different wavelengths (also
called lines) constitute the
spectrum of the element.
Balmer lines, which fall in the
visible region, are the spectral
lines of hydrogen atom. The
emission/absorption of the
spectral lines is predominantly
dependent on the temperature Fig.5.9: Emission lines observed at the time of total solar eclipse
and density of the material.
You will study about the origin The appearance of pink colour is due to the emission of the first Balmer line (Hα)
of spectral lines in Unit 7. which occurs in the red region. The temperature, density and pressure in the
chromosphere determine the intensities of various emission lines. In the
10 chromosphere, the density decreases by a factor of ~ 104 from that of the photosphere
while the temperature rises to ~ 25000 K within a short distance of ~ 2000 km. The Sun
Therefore, the spectral lines that are not produced at relatively higher density and
lower temperature of the photosphere are formed in the chromosphere as emission
lines (see margin remarks).

At this point, it is logical to ask: Why does the temperature in the chromosphere
increase with height? The clue to the answer of this question lies in observing the
chromosphere just before the total solar eclipse. Hot gas, in the form of jets called
spicules, is observed throughout the chromosphere (Fig. 5.10). These spicules extend
upward in the chromosphere up to a height of ~ 10000 km and last for as long as 15
minutes. This implies that the lower part of the chromosphere is highly turbulent and
the spicules transport energy and matter from the photosphere to the chromosphere.
This causes heating of the chromosphere.

Fig.5.10: Spicules in the Sun’s chromosphere

Now, your next logical question could be: What causes spicules? The origin of
spicules is not yet understood completely. However, it appears to be caused by the
Sun’s magnetic field. Further, just above the chromosphere, there exists a transition
region extending up to ~ 3000 km. In this region, the temperature rises sharply
to ~ 106 K (Fig. 5.11). The transition region links the chromosphere with corona, the
outermost part of the solar atmosphere.

107 1014

1012
106
1010
Temperature (K)

Density (cm─3)

105
108

104 106

103 2
104
4 6
10 10 10
Height from the Sun's surface (km)

Fig.5.11: The variation of temperature and density in the Sun’s atmosphere with distance

11
 The Solar System 5.4.2 Corona
and Stars
Corona, the outermost layer of the Sun’s atmosphere is named after the Greek word
for Crown. Like the chromosphere, the corona can be observed only during total solar
eclipse − when the Moon completely covers the solar disc (Fig. 5.12). You may
wonder why we cannot see corona at normal times! The fact is that the density of
matter in both the chromosphere and corona is very low (see Fig. 5.11). They emit
very little light and, as a result, they are very faint. In the bright light of the
photosphere, they are not visible.
Chromosphere

40000 Corona
Si X
Si VII
Temperature (103 K)

20000 Mg X
O VI
10000 OV

O II
200 Si IV
O II
40
Si II

10
1 2 4 10 20 40
Height above the surface(103 km) Fig.5.12: Two photographs of the solar corona

Fig.5.13: Height versus The spectrum of corona consists of bright lines superimposed on a continuous
temperature plot
showing emission
spectrum. When these lines were first discovered, they were thought to be due to a
lines of different new element, coronium, not found on the earth. Later, it was realised that these lines
ionised atoms were due to highly ionised atoms and not due to the so-called ‘new’ element
coronium. Fig. 5.13 shows the temperature and height in the corona at which emission
lines of various ionised elements are formed. You may note here that to excite the
emission lines from highly ionised elements, say spectral line of SiX ( read margin
remarks), a temperature greater than 2 × 107K is required. The observed emission
lines of highly ionised atoms of iron, nickel, neon, calcium etc., in the spectrum of
corona clearly indicate that the temperature prevailing in corona is very high (more
than 106 K). Now, before proceeding further, how about testing yourself?

Spend SAQ 3
5 min. a) The temperature of chromosphere and corona is very, very high in comparison to
that of the photosphere. Still, we observe that the photosphere is the brightest of
the three. Why?

b) Calculate the temperature at which a particle will have sufficient energy to ionise
a hydrogen atom.

Due to high temperature, electrons in the corona region have high energies. These
In astronomy, it is common
to denote a neutral atom,
electrons interact with ionised atoms and give rise to emission of X-rays. The coronal
such as silicon, as SiI. By X-ray emission is much larger than that of the photosphere. Remember that the
this convention, singly temperature of the photosphere is only 6000 K. So, it emits very little energy in the
ionised silicon is denoted by X-ray region. The Sun, as observed in X-rays is shown in Fig. 5.14 which clearly
SiII. Hence, SiX denotes a
silicon atom whose nine
indicates the existence of very high (~ 106 K or more) temperature in the corona.
electrons have been
removed due to repeated You have already learnt that the temperature of the photosphere is lower than that of
ionisation. the chromosphere and as one goes further up in the corona, temperature rises to more
than a million degree K. This gives rise to a very simple but important question:
Despite being closer to solar interior, why is the photosphere far cooler than the
12 corona? You know that the second law of thermodynamics precludes such a scenario
as heat cannot flow from a cooler region to a hotter region on its own. We also know The Sun
that the radiation from the photosphere passes through corona almost freely because
of its (corona’s) low density. Since hardly any absorption of radiation takes place in
the corona, the existence of such high (~ million degree) temperature in the corona
presents a paradoxical situation. Several mechanisms have been proposed to resolve
the paradox. It is now generally believed that the magnetic field of the Sun might, in
some way, be responsible for coronal heating. You will study the basics of this
mechanism in Sec. 5.5 of this Unit. The observed overlapping of regions of intense X-
ray emission and strong magnetic fields lend support to this idea.

Solar Wind Fig.5.14: X-ray picture of the

Sun
Unlike its visual appearance, the solar corona extends much beyond into the space.
The outer layer of the solar atmosphere, in fact, continuously emits charged particles
which fill the entire solar system. This emission is called the solar wind. It comprises
streams of charged particles (mainly protons and electrons) and causes continuous loss
of mass from the Sun. The phenomenon of solar wind was predicted much before its
detection. Its characteristics can be investigated using rockets and satellites. For
instance, the solar wind velocities range from 200-700 km s−1 at the distance of the
Earth from the Sun. The number density of the solar wind at this distance
is ~ 7 particles per cm3.
You may like to know: What gives rise to the solar wind? In view of the high
temperature prevailing in the corona, the gas contained therein exerts tremendous
pressure outward. In fact, the pressure is much higher than the inward pressure due to
the Sun’s gravity. The gas, therefore, streams outward from the Sun and fills the One of the manifestations of
interplanetary space. In 1962, Mariner II spacecraft detected the solar wind by its on- solar wind is observed in the
board instruments. shape of comets. You know
that the tail of a comet points
away from the Sun. It is
because the solar wind sweeps
along the material of the comet.
Outer radiation belt
Magnetic axis of
the Earth

You know that when a charged

Inner radiation belt
Rotational axis of
the Earth
particle passes through a
magnetic field, it experiences a
force which changes its
direction of motion. The force
experienced by a moving
charged particle is known as
Lorentz force.

Fig.5.15: van Allen radiation belts

As you know, satellites and
space missions comprise
The electrically charged particles carried by the solar wind cannot cross the lines of very sophisticated integrated
force of the Earth’s magnetic field. These particles are deflected by the Earth’s circuits, solar cells and other
magnetic field, spiral around the field lines and move back and forth between the electronic gadgets.
Therefore, care is taken to
magnetic poles of the Earth. As a result, two doughnut-shaped zones of highly minimise the damaging
energetic charged particles are created around the Earth and they are collectively effects of the radiation belts
called the van Allen radiation belts. These radiation belts are shown in Fig. 5.15. on the satellites and space
missions.
Astronomers have observed a variety of short-lived events, collectively known as
solar activity, occurring on or near the surface of the Sun. The root cause of all these 13
The Solar System activities is the existence of strong and localised magnetic field in the photosphere.
and Stars Studies of these events/activities provide valuable information about the Sun and the
nature of its magnetic field. You will now learn about some of these short-lived
events.

5.5 SOLAR ACTIVITY

Sunspots

If you look at the photographs (Fig. 5.16) of the Sun, you see dark spots on its visible
surface. These dark spots are called sunspots. Sunspots can be seen sometimes even
with unaided eye at sunrise or sunset. (But you should not attempt to see the Sun with
unaided eye as it may cause irrepairable damage to your eyes because of its intense
brightness.) Naked eye observations of sunspots date back to ~ 2000 years in China. It
was in the seventeenth century that Galileo, using the telescope which he himself had
fabricated, observed sunspots and found that these dark spots were in motion. This led
him to suggest that the Sun was spinning in space. Galileo also observed that the sizes
and shapes of the sunspots kept changing as they rotated with the Sun.

Fig.5.16: Photographs of a sunspot group

The sunspot temperature is ~ 4000 K. With such high temperature, you may
wonder, why they appear dark! Sunspots appear darker because they are cooler
than their surrounding areas in the photosphere that have an effective temperature of
6000 K. A typical white light picture of a large sunspot is shown in Fig. 5.17. Note
that it consists of a dark central region, called umbra, surrounded by a less dark
region, called penumbra. We do not see such details in the picture of smaller
sunspots.

Fig.5.17: Sunspot structure

At this stage, a logical question is: Why is the temperature of the sunspots lower
than their surroundings? It is due to the existence of strong magnetic fields in the
sunspots. In the presence of a magnetic field, a spectral line emitted by an atom at a
14
single wavelength is split into three lines. This is called the Zeeman Effect. Such The Sun
Zeeman splitting is observed in the spectrum of sunspots. Since the line separation, ∆λ
is proportional to the applied magnetic field, a magnetic field up to ~ 3000 Gauss has
been estimated in sunspots. Fig. 5.18 shows the mechanism of Zeeman splitting of a
spectral line and the Zeeman splitting of a spectral line of a sunspot.

Energy
levels
Transition

Spectrum

(a) (b)

Fig.5.18: Zeeman splitting of a) a spectral line; and b) a spectral line of the sunspot

The presence of strong magnetic fields in sunspots restrains the flow of hot material
from layers below the photosphere. Therefore, within a sunspot, less heat comes up
and they (sunspots) are cooler/darker than the surrounding region. Within a sunspot,
the umbral magnetic field is quite intense ~ 3000 Gauss. It spreads like an umbrella
and weakens in the penumbral region. The field strength in the penumbra is estimated
to be ~ 1000 Gauss.

Sunspots can last for weeks. The question is: How do these cooler regions survive
for so long amidst the hotter regions? This could happen due to the magnetic field.
You know that magnetic field exerts pressure (equal to B2/2µ) across the lines of
force. This pressure, along with the pressure of matter inside a sunspot balances the
material pressure outside and the sunspots can exist in equilibrium.

Sunspot Cycle

The observed motion of the sunspots indicates that the Sun is spinning in space. In
1843, Heinrich Schwabe, a German who observed the sky for fun, discovered a
periodic variation in the numbers of visible sunspots. He found an interval of 5.5 yrs
between the time when maximum number of sunspots (sunspot maxima) were
observed and the time when the minimum number of sunspots (sunspot minima) were
observed. Over the last two centuries, sunspot observations clearly suggest a periodic
variation of about 11 years between two successive sunspot maxima (Fig. 5.19a).

Another important observation pertaining to sunspot is that the sunspot zones migrate
along solar latitude. It is observed that the first sunspot zone appears at latitude
of ~ 35° in, say, the northern hemisphere and it migrates to lower latitudes. It lasts
till it reaches a latitude of ~ 10°. The latitude migration of sunspot zones is shown in
Fig. 5.19b. This is the famous butterfly diagram which shows a period of ~ 11 years
between the successive occurrences of a sunspot at a given latitude. It is believed that
the sunspot cycle is caused due to differential rotation of the Sun; it rotates faster at
the equator compared to higher latitudes.
15
The Solar System
and Stars Number of
Sunspots

Year
(a)

Year
(b)
Fig.5.19: a) Sunspot cycle; and b) butterfly diagram which shows the migration of sunspots from
higher to lower latitudes

Solar Prominences

Refer to Fig. 5.20 which depicts loop like structures surging up into the corona when
the Sun is viewed along the edge of the solar disc. These structures are called
prominences which are intimately connected with and formed due to the Sun’s
magnetic field. The material in prominences comprises hot ionised gases trapped in
magnetic fields associated with the active regions. Since these gases came from
deeper layers of the solar atmosphere, they are cooler and therefore denser than the
coronal gas. It is for this reason that prominences appear as bright structures.
However, when viewed against the photosphere (solar disk), prominences appear as
dark snake like objects, called filament.

Fig.5.20: Solar prominences

Solar Flares

Yet another form of solar activity is called solar flare. Solar flares are sudden eruptive
16 events which occur on the Sun (Fig. 5.21). Each event may involve energy in the
 The Sun

Approximate size of the Earth

Fig.5.21: Solar flare

range of 1022 to 1025 Joules. Usually the flares last anywhere between a few minutes
to more than an hour. A large flare may have linear dimension as large as 105 km and
may be seen as a short-lived storm on the Sun. Such energetic eruptions are usually
linked to sunspots because these quite often occur at the top of magnetic loops that
have their feet in sunspots. Thus, the most likely places of occurrence of solar flare are
the regions of closely packed sunspots. The tremendous amount of energy carried in
solar flare is released in the form of X-rays, ultraviolet and visible radiation, high
speed electrons and protons. You may ask: What is the source of energy in solar
flares? This question can be answered on the basis of a model for solar flare shown in
Fig. 5.22.

Fig.5.22: A solar flare model

17
The Solar System A Model of Solar Flare
and Stars
All kinds of solar activities i.e., the sunspots, prominences, flares etc., are possibly
linked to the release of stored magnetic energy. It is believed that the energetic solar
eruptions are caused due to coming together and merging of magnetic fields in the
active regions (the phenomenon is known as magnetic field reconnection) and
thereby releasing the stored magnetic energy. To appreciate this phenomenon,
magnetic lines of forces can be considered as stretched springs with certain amount of
energy associated with each unit length. If the length of the lines of forces gets
reduced by certain mechanism, energy is released. This is what happens when lines of
force pointing in opposite directions meet and merge with each other (Fig. 5.22).

In order to fix these ideas, you should answer the following SAQ.

Spend SAQ 4
3 min.
a) What is the basis to conclude that the Sun is rotating in space?
b) What is the difference between spicules and solar prominences?

So far, you have studied about the photosphere, solar atmosphere and solar activity.
You must have noted that the Sun’s magnetic field plays an important role in solar
activity. Further, gaseous matter in the Sun is in the ionised form, that is, it is a
conducting matter. We will now try to understand the nature of interaction between
the Sun’s magnetic field and the conducting matter (fluid) in motion. This
understanding is of utmost importance in astronomy because, everywhere in the
universe, we find conducting matter moving in the presence of magnetic fields. The
study of the motion of conducting fluid in the presence of magnetic field is called
magnetohydrodynamics. Let us now turn to this subject.

5.6 BASICS OF SOLAR MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMICS

We begin our discussion of solar magnetohydrodynamics with Maxwell’s equations.
You may recall from the physics course entitled Electric and Magnetic Phenomena
(PHE-07) that three of the Maxwell’s equations can be written as:

∇ . B = 0, (5.3)

∇ × B = µj, (5.4)

and

You are familiar with the ∂B

Ohm’s law expressed
∇×E= − (5.5)
∂t
mathematically as:
j=σE
However, when a conducting where µ, B, E and j are the magnetic permeability of the medium, magnetic field
fluid is moving with velocity intensity, electric field intensity and electric current density respectively. Note that in
v in a magnetic field B, there Eq. (5.4), we have not written the displacement current term. This is because,
is an induced electric field
magneto-hydrodynamic phenomena in the Sun are usually slow whereas the
given as v × B. Thus, in the
presence of two kinds of displacement current gives rise to fast phenomena such as electromagnetic radiation.
electric fields − one due to
charged particles and another Further, if the fluid (conducting matter) velocity is v and its electrical conductivity is
due to their motion − the σ, then Ohm’s law gives (see the margin remark):
Ohm’s law takes the form:
J = σ (E + v × B)
j = σ (E + v × B) (5.6)

18
where (v × B) term represents the electric field induced due to the motion of The Sun
conducting fluid in the presence of magnetic field. Using Eqs. (5.3) to (5.6), you can
readily obtain:

∂B
= ∇ × ( v × B ) + η∇ 2 B (5.7)
∂t

where η = (µσ)−1 is called the magnetic diffusivity. Its value is generally constant in
solar conditions.

SAQ 5 Spend
3 min.
Derive Eq. (5.7).

The first term on the right hand side of Eq. (5.7) gives the change in B due to the fluid
motion. The second term represents the change in B due to conductivity σ. It is
generally called the Ohmic decay of the field. Note that for v = 0, Eq. (5.7) reduces to:

∂B
= η∇ 2 B (5.8)
∂t

Eq. (5.8) is the diffusion equation. It gives the rate at which magnetic field diffuses
out due to conductivity. In the limit of infinite conductivity, we have η → 0, and
Eq. (5.7) becomes

∂B
= ∇ × ( v × B) (5.9)
∂t

Without going into the mathematical details, it is possible to understand the relative
importance of the two terms on the right hand side of Eq. (5.7). To do so, let us obtain
the orders of magnitude, of the values of the two terms. The order of magnitude of the
VB
first term is , where V, B and L are the typical values of the fluid velocity,
L
magnetic field and the dimension of the system. Similarly, the magnitude of the
ηB
second term is . The ratio of the two terms is called magnetic Reynold number,
L2
Rm, and is given by:

VL
Rm = (5.10)
η

If Rm >> 1, the second term in Eq. (5.7), i.e. the diffusion term, is negligible. The
condition Rm >>1 is obtained in two situations: when the conductivity is very high
because η appears in the denominator, and secondly when the dimension of the
system, L is very large. In astrophysical systems, we have Rm >> 1 because of the
second situation as their dimensions are very large. In any case, Rm >> 1 implies that
there is no decay of the magnetic field as if the conductivity of the medium is infinite.
Actually, the conductivity is finite, but the large dimensions ensure that Rm >> 1 and
so there is no decay of the field.

If we drop the diffusion term in Eq. (5.7), the remaining equation (Eq. (5.9)), implies
that the magnetic flux linked to a cross-section of the fluid remains unchanged as the
fluid moves about. In other words, the magnetic field is frozen in the fluid. The
idea of frozen field means that the magnetic flux is transported along with the material
motion. We can show this formally in the following manner: 19
 The Solar System Let us consider a cross-sectional area A placed in a magnetic field B (Fig. 5.23). The
and Stars magnetic flux linked with area A may be written as:
l
Φ= ∫ B.d a (5.11)
A

where da is an element of area on the surface A. Let l be the curve enclosing the area
dl v × dldt A. Let us further assume that, in the time interval dt the area changes from A to A′ as
the fluid moves around. The magnetic flux Φ′ linked with A′ may be different from Φ
because (i) magnetic field B may have changed and/or (ii) some flux might have been
A A' exchanged through the surface of the volume generated between A and A′. Now, the
rate of change of magnetic field is ∂B/∂t. The area of the curved surface surrounding
Fig.5.23: Motion of a closed the volume between A and A′ is v × dl dt where dl is an element of length of the
curve l with fluid with contour of A. Therefore, the difference ∆Φ between fluxes through A′ and A is given
velocity v by:

 ∂B 
 
∆Φ = 
 ∂t ∫ l ∫
.da + o B.. ( v × dl )  dt.

(5.12)
A 

You may recall that area is a Further, using Stoke’s theorem, we can write the second term on the right hand side of
vector quantity having direction
along the normal to the area, Eq. (5.12) as:
whose sense is defined by the

∫ol B.. (v × dl) = −∫ ∇ × ( v × B) . da

right hand rule.
(5.13)
A

So, we can write the rate of change of flux (Eq. (5.12)) as:

dΦ  ∂B 
dt
= ∫ 
 ∂t
− ∇ × ( v × B )  . da

(5.14)
A

∂B
From Eq. (5.9), we have = ∇ × ( v × B) . Thus, from Eq. (5.14), we find that the
∂t
rate of change of magnetic flux is zero. It implies that Φ remains constant. We may,
therefore, conclude that in astrophysical systems the lines of forces are
completely attached or glued to the moving fluid when Rm >> 1.

Now, let us pause for a moment and think about the significance of the above
conclusion for solar activity. Recall that the active regions consisting of sunspots have
strong magnetic fields and solar activities such as prominence and flare occur in these
regions. The structures associated with solar prominences and solar flares are very
similar to the magnetic lines of force. It is, therefore, believed that these activities are
caused due to frozen magnetic lines of force in the conducting fluid.

You have learnt earlier in this unit that, in almost all the events associated with the
Sun’s magnetic field, energy is also transported. The energy transported by the
magnetic field glued to the conducting matter is responsible for heating the
chromosphere and corona. Would not you like to know how it happens? To
understand this process, we begin with the fact that an electric current exists in the
solar atmosphere due to the drift of electrons with respect to ions carrying opposite
charges. If a magnetic field B is also present in the plasma, then a volume force, also
1
called the Lorentz force (= j × B), acts on the material. Since j = (∇ × B ) (from
µ
20
Eq. (5.4)) we may write the expression for Lorentz force as:
 The Sun
1
j× B = (∇ × B ) × B
µ

1  B2 
= (B.∇ )B − ∇   (5.15)
µ  2µ 

The first term on the RHS of Eq. (5.15) denotes magnetic tension and the second term
denotes the gradient of magnetic pressure. Therefore, in the presence of a magnetic
field, a lateral pressure (due to the second term in Eq. (5.15)) acts on a conducting gas.
To maintain equilibrium, the lateral pressure due to magnetic field is balanced by the
gas pressure. The magnetic tension term is similar to the tension of a stretched string.
When a stretched string is distorted, its tension provides the restoring force. Therefore,
when the magnetic field lines (frozen in the conducting fluid) are disturbed we have a
similar restoring force (due to the magnetic tension). Thus, a disturbance may
propagate as a transverse wave along the magnetic field lines. Such waves are called
Alfven waves. The speed of these waves is given by:

B
vm = .
4πρ

where ρ is the density of the plasma. Since Alfven waves propagate along the
magnetic field lines, it is possible to transport energy outward along magnetic field
lines which are threading the outer solar atmosphere. This energy is believed to be
responsible for heating the chromosphere and corona.

SAQ 6 Spend
3 min.
A pressure of 103Pa (Pascal) prevails in the solar atmosphere. What should be the
strength of the magnetic field required to balance such a pressure?

Now, before we close our discussion about the Sun, we will briefly discuss a new area
of solar research called helioseismology.

5.7 HELIOSEISMOLOGY The name helioseismology

derives from the fact that, in
In 1962, Leighton, Noyes and Simon noticed wiggling back and forth of some of the Greek, helios means the Sun
absorption lines in the solar spectrum with periods ~ 5 min. They conjectured that the and the word seismos is
used for an earthquake.
movement of the surface of the Sun is responsible for such observations.

Subsequently, careful observations of the solar surface confirmed the idea of waves As you know, seismology
refers to the study of seismic
rising up and down on the surface of the Sun (Fig. 5.24). Astronomers now use these waves moving inside the
waves to probe the solar interior much the same way as seismologists probe the Earth. Their arrival at
earth’s interior using vibrations caused by an earthquake. various points on the Earth’s
surface enables us to find
the point of origin of these
So far, millions of different vibrational modes also called acoustic modes or p-modes waves. This way we are able
have been observed on the Sun’s surface. All of them have different frequencies and to construct the internal
surface patterns. Thus, the Sun appears to have a rhythmic surface motion similar to structure of the Earth.
that of a beating heart. The observed rise and fall of the surface of the Sun is, in fact,
due to superposition of many different acoustic modes. These modes are now believed
to be driven by irregular motions in the convective envelope under the solar surface.

21
The Solar System
and Stars
Since we cannot go inside a
star, we build theoretical
models which tabulate
pressure, temperature and
density at various depths
inside the star.
22
Disk of Sun
5 min
Position
Time
Fig.5.24: Waves on the surface of the Sun
The combined effect, or the superposition of millions of these acoustic waves, results
in the observed up and down motion of the photosphere with a period of the order of 5
minutes. The extent or size of a wave is called its horizontal wavelength. The relation
between sizes and periods of waves, obtained theoretically, suggested that only
specific combination of periods and sizes can resonate inside the Sun.
Fossat and Grec observed the solar oscillation from the South pole for around 120
hours. The analysis of this continuous record showed that the entire surface of the Sun
is ringing like a bell with periods in the range of 5 minutes and the vibrations may last
for days and weeks.
The natural frequencies of oscillations can be computed for any solar model. In view
of the precision now possible for determining the frequencies, we may compare these
with those computed for a given solar model. In case there is lack of agreement
between the predicted and observed frequencies, the model is slightly modified to
improve agreement. The improvement in the model brings it closer to reality. It has
been found that the depth of the solar convection zone is at a radius of 71.3 percent of
radius of the Sun. It has also been confirmed now that the proportion of helium in the
Sun lies between 0.23 − 0.26. This is quite consistent with the value of 0.25 for
helium believed to have been formed in the early phase of the universe after the big-
bang.
Now, let us summarise what you have learnt in this unit.
5.8 SUMMARY
• The mass, radius and effective surface temperature of the Sun are 2 × 1030kg,
7 × 108m and 6000 K, respectively.
• The Sun’s atmosphere comprises of the photosphere, chromosphere and
corona.
• The photosphere is the visible surface of the Sun and all the radiation we receive
from the Sun is emitted by this layer.
• The photosphere has a granular structure which is caused by convection of hot
gas from below the photosphere.
• The chromosphere, which lies above the photosphere, extends up to ~ 2000 km
and is normally not observable from the earth except during total solar eclipse.
The temperature of the chromosphere is much higher than the photosphere.
• Relatively higher temperature of the chromosphere is perhaps caused due to
spicules − jets of hot gas − which extend upward in the chromosphere.
• The outermost layer of the solar atmosphere, corona is also not visible at normal The Sun
times due to its low material density. The temperature of the corona is of the order
of 106K, much more higher than that of the photosphere.
• The sunspots are the dark spots on the solar disk. They appear dark because they
are cooler than their surrounding areas in the photosphere. The movement of
sunspots indicate that the Sun is spinning in space.
• Solar prominences are the loop like structures surging up into the corona. They
are caused due to the Sun’s magnetic field.
• Solar flares are sudden eruptive events involving energy in the range of 1022 to
1025 joules. The most likely places of occurrence of solar flares are the regions of
closely placed sunspots and they are possible caused due to the release of stoned
magnetic energy.
• The study of the motion of conducting matter in the presence of magnetic field is
called magnetohydrodynamics.

• The magnetic Reynold number is given by

VL
Rm =
η

which indicates that for infinite conductivity (i.e. η → 0), there is no decay of the
magnetic field. In other words, magnetic field is frozen in the conducting matter
in motion.
• Transportation of magnetic flux with conducting matter explains some of the solar
activities like prominence and solar flare.
• Helioseismology has its origin in the observed wiggling back and forth of some of
the absorption lines in the solar spectrum. The movement of the surface of the
Sun, causing these back and forth motion of absorption lines, gives rise to waves
on it. Investigation of the nature of these waves provides valuable information
regarding the internal structure of the Sun.

5.9 TERMINAL QUESTIONS Spend 20 min.

1. In a sunspot, magnetic diffusivity, linear dimension and velocity of conducting

fluid respectively is 103m2s−1, 104km, and 103ms−1. Estimate the magnetic
Reynold number, Rm. Is it possible to assume that the conductivity in the sunspot
is virtually infinite?

2. The temperature inside a sunspot is 4000 K and that of its surface is 6000 K.
Calculate the strength of the magnetic field inside the sunspot which will balance
the pressure inside and outside.
[Hint: Remember that the magnetic pressure is B2/2µ where µ is magnetic
permeability of the medium and its value for the present case can be taken as
4π × 10−7 NA−2].

3. The number density of particles (assume hydrogen) in the photosphere is 1020

particles per cm−3 and the strength of the magnetic field of the Sun is 1 G.
Calculate the velocity of the Alfven waves in the photosphere.

23
The Solar System
and Stars 5.10 SOLUTIONS AND ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions (SAQs)

1. Since the mass of the planet Jupiter is very large compared to its satellite Io, we
can use Kepler’s third law for Jupiter and Io system. Thus, we can write:
4π 2 a 3
= GM J (i)
P2

where MJ is the mass of Jupiter.

From the problem, we have

10 8
a = 4.22 × 10 cm = 4.22 × 10 m

P = 1.77 days = 1.77 × 24 × 60 × 60 s

G = 6.672 × 10−11 m3 kg−1 s−2

Substituting these values in Eq. (i) above, we get

4π 2 a 3
MJ =
GP 2
4 × (3.14) 2 × (4.22 × 10 8 m) 3
=
(6.672 × 10 −11 m 3 kg −1s −2 ) × (1.77 × 24 × 60 × 60 s) 2

= 1.97 × 1027 kg

2. According to the Stephan-Boltzmann law, the amount of energy radiated by a

black-body per unit time per unit area at temperature T is given by

E=σT4 (i)

where σ is Stephan constant.

The energy radiated by the Sun can also be expressed in terms of its luminosity LΘ
as

LΘ
E= (ii)
4πR 2

where R is the radius of the Sun.

Comparing the above two expressions, we can write

LΘ
= σT 4
2
4πR

Rearranging the terms and substituting the values of R (= 6.7 × 108m),

σ (= 5.67 × 10−8 W m−2 K−4) and L = (3.86 × 1026W), we get,

1/ 4
 LΘ 
T =  
24  4πR 2 σ 
 1/ 4 The Sun
 3.86 × 10 26 W 
= 
 4 × (3.14) × (6.7 × 10 8 m) 2 × (5.67 × 10 −8 Wm − 2 K − 4 ) 
 
1/ 4
 3.86 × 10 2 
=  × 1016 K 4 
2
 4 × 3.14 × (6.7) × 5.67 

= 0.5895 × 104K

≈ 6000 K.

3. a) It is because the density of matter in photosphere is much higher than the

density of matter in chromosphere and corona.

b) We know that the ionisation energy of the hydrogen atom is 13.6 eV. Further,
energy acquired by a particle at temperature T is kBT. If this energy is equal to
the ionisation energy of the hydrogen atom, it will be ionised. Thus, we must
have
k BT = (13.6 × 1.6 × 10 −19 ) J

(13.6 × 1.6 × 10 −19 J)

T=
(1.38 × 10 −23 JK −1 )

4
≈ 13.6 × 10 K.

4. a) Motion of sunspots.

b) Spicules are the jet like structures comprising hot gas and is observed
throughout the chromosphere. Prominences look like structures surging up
into the corona.

5. Ohm’s law can be written as:

J = σ (E + v × B)

Taking curl of both sides, we get:

∇ × J = σ (∇ × E + ∇ × (v × B))

Using Eqs. (5.4) and Eq. (5.5) we can write:

1 ∂B
(∇ × ∇ × B) = − + ∇ × ( v × B)
σµ ∂t

1 ∂B
[∇(∇. B) − (∇.∇) B] = − + ∇ × ( v × B)
σµ ∂t

From Eq. (5.3), we have ∇ . B = 0. Thus, we get

∂B 1
= ∇ × ( v × B) + ∇2 B
∂t σµ

25
The Solar System
= ∇ × ( v × B) + η∇ 2 B
and Stars

which is Eq. (5.7).

2
6. We know that the pressure generated by magnetic field B is equal to B /2µ. Thus,
3
for generating pressure equal to 10 Pa, we must have

B2
≈ 103 Pa
2µ
−7 −2
Substituting µ = 4π × 10 NA in the above expression, we get:

B ≈ 5 × 10 −2 T = 5 × 10 2 G.

Terminal Questions

1. The magnetic Reynold number is given by (Eq. (5.10)):

VL
Rm =
η

Substituting the values of V, L and η from the problem, we get

(10 3 ms −1 ) × (10 7 m )
Rm =
10 3 m 2 s −1

≈ 107

Yes, conductivity can be taken to be virtually infinite because Rm >> 1.

2. On the basis of the equation of state for the sunspot and using the fact that
magnetic pressure is equal to B2/2µ, we can write:

B2
= Nk B (T2 − T1 )
2µ
where N is number density. Since µ = 4π × 10−7 NA−2 , T2 = 6000 K and
T1 = 4000 K, we can write:

B2 = 2 × (4π × 10−7 NA−2) × (1023 m−3) × (1.38 × 10−23J K−1) × (2000 K)

B = 0.08 T = 800 G

3. Velocity of Alfven waves is given by

B
vm =
4πρ

where ρ is density. Substituting the values of B and ρ, we get:

1G
v =
m 4π × (10 × 1.6 × 10 − 24 g cm −3 )
20

≈ 25 cm s−1.
26
 The Solar Family
UNIT 6 THE SOLAR FAMILY
Structure
6.1 Introduction
Objectives
6.2 Solar System: Facts and Figures
6.3 Origin of the Solar System: The Nebular Model
6.4 Tidal Forces and Planetary Rings
6.5 Extra-Solar Planets
6.6 Summary
6.7 Terminal Questions
6.8 Solutions and Answers

6.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 5, you have learnt about various features of the Sun such as solar atmosphere,
solar activity and energy transportation. You know that the Sun is the only star in our
solar system. It is the most massive object in the system and all the planets revolve
around it. You have already studied about the solar system in your school science
course as well as in Foundation in Science and Technology (FST-1) course.
Therefore, you know most of the facts and figures such as mass, density, distance
from the Sun, and surface temperature of all the nine planets of the solar system.
However, being a student of physics and astronomy, you may not be satisfied only
with the facts and figures and would like to know: How did the solar system come
into being? Is it possible to explain the observations pertaining to the solar system on
the basis of the principles of physics? Do all the stars have planetary systems similar
to our solar system? Does life exist on any other planet? In the present unit, we shall
address some of these issues.

In Sec. 6.2, you will recapitulate some facts and figures about the solar system. This is
necessary because any model for the formation of the solar system must be consistent
with these observations. In Sec. 6.3, you will learn the nebular model which is at the
core of all the contemporary theories of formation and evolution of the solar system.
In this section you will also discover that the nebular model explains most of the
dynamic properties of the solar system. Further, it has been argued that the
gravitational force gives rise to tides in the oceans on the Earth and planetary rings
around the outer planets such as Jupiter and Saturn. The genesis of tidal forces and
planetary rings has been discussed in Sec. 6.4. And, in Sec. 6.5, you will learn about
the efforts made by astronomers to investigate the existence of extra-solar planets.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:

• describe the planets of the solar system;

• understand how the terrestrial planets differ from the jovian planets;
• explain the nebular model of the solar system;
• discuss the role of gravitational forces in generating tides and in the formation of
Earth’s tidal bulge and planetary rings; and
• discuss the possible existence of extra-solar planets.

27
The Solar System
and Stars 6.2 SOLAR SYSTEM: FACTS AND FIGURES
The solar system consists of the Sun, nine planets (see the margin remarks), satellites
of planets, asteroids and comets. The nine planets, arranged according to their
increasing distances from the Sun, are: Mercury (Buddha), Venus (Shukra), Earth
In a recent development,
the International
(Prithvi), Mars (Mangal), Jupiter (Brihaspati), Saturn (Shani), Uranus (Arun),
Astronomical Union Neptune (Varun) and Pluto (Yama). The sizes of these planets with respect to the
(IAU) has decided to Earth are shown in Fig. (6.1).
remove Pluto from the list
of planets in the solar
system. So, the solar
Note in Fig. 6.1a that the sizes of the first four planets are similar to that of the Earth
system now has only and they are called terrestrial planets. On the other hand, from Fig. 6.1b, it is
eight planets. Pluto has obvious that the sizes of the next four planets are bigger than the Earth. They are
now been categorised as called jovian planets. The status of the ninth planet, Pluto, is somewhere in-between.
an object of the Kuiper
belt, found in the outer
region of the solar
system. Kuiper belt Relative sizes of the terrestrial planets Relative sizes of the jovian planets
contains many objects of (Earth = 1) (Earth = 1)
the size of Pluto. In fact,
it was the realisation that
R = 11.3
many more objects of the R = 0.38 R = 4.0
size of Pluto could be
discovered in future that
prompted IAU not to
consider Pluto as planet.
Mercury
Uranus

R = 1.0
R = 0.95 R = 1.0 Jupiter

Earth
R = 9.4

Venus R = 3.9
Earth

R = 0.53
R = 0.26 Neptune
Saturn

R = 0.18
Moon
Mars
Pluto

(a) (b)

Fig.6.1: Sizes of a) terrestrial; and b) jovian planets relative to the Earth

The properties of the terrestrial and jovian planets are different. For example,
terrestrial planets are mainly made of rocks and metals having an average density of
4 or 5 g cm−3 whereas jovian planets consist mainly of gas and ice with an average
density of 1 or 2 g cm−3.

All these planets revolve around the Sun in elliptical orbits. The planetary orbits are
almost in the same plane except that of Pluto which is inclined at an angle of ~ 17° to
the common plane (Fig.6.2). Asteroids are believed to be the captured objects which
were wandering in the solar system. Their orbits are mostly located in between the
orbits of Mars and Jupiter. Since all the planets revolve round the Sun, it is considered
the ‘head’ of the solar family. In addition, the Sun contains almost 99.87% of the total
mass of the solar system. Among the planets, Jupiter and Saturn are the most massive,
accounting for 92% of the mass of all the planets.
28
 The Solar Family

Earth
Mercury
Venus Sun

Mars

(a)

Jupiter
Uranus
Saturn

Neptune
Pluto

(b)

Fig.6.2: Orbits of the a) terrestrial; and b) jovian planets in the solar system

Table 6.1 summarizes some basic data about these planets and the Moon. Many of
these features could directly be attributed to the distance of a planet from the Sun.
Table 6.1: Some basic data of planets and the Moon

Planets Mass [kg] Density Mean Rotation Period Revolution Inclination of Percentage of
[g cm−3] distance (hours or days) Period (days) orbit to the light reflected
from the plane of the
Sun (km) Solar System
(deg)
23 7
Mercury 3.30×10 5.4 5.8×10 58 d 88 7.0 7
24 8
Venus 4.87×10 5.2 1.1×10 243 d 245 3.4 76
24 8
Earth 5.97×10 5.5 1.5×10 23 h 56 min 365.25 0.0 39
23 8
Mars 6.42×10 3.9 2.3×10 24 h 37 min 687 1.8 18
27 8
Jupiter 1.90×10 1.3 7.7×10 9 h 55 min 4333 1.3 51
26 9
Saturn 5.69×10 0.7 1.4×10 10 h 30 min 10743 2.5 50
25 9
Uranus 8.70×10 1.1 2.8×10 17 h 14 min 30700 0.8 66
26 9
Neptune 1.03×10 1.7 4.5×10 18 h 60280 1.8 62
22 9
Pluto 1.00×10 2.1 5.9×10 6 d 09 h 17 min 90130 17.1 15
22 5
Moon 7.35×10 3.3 3.8×10 * 27.33 d 27.33 5.0
* This is Moon’s mean distance from the Earth.

SAQ 1 Spend
5 min.
Using the data given in Table 6.1, verify Kepler’s third law:

T2
= Const .
r3
where T is the orbital period of a planet and r is its mean distance from the Sun.

Further, as mentioned above, the division of planets into two groups namely,
terrestrial and jovian, is based on the similarity of some major characteristics of the
planets in a particular group. Table 6.2 lists these characteristics of terrestrial and 29
The Solar System jovian planets. Such classification helps in developing theoretical models for their
and Stars formation and evolution.
Table 6.2: Characteristics of the terrestrial and jovian planets

Characteristics Terrestrial Jovian

Basic form Rocky Gas/Liquid/Ice
Mean orbital distance (AU) 0.39−1.52 5.2−30.1
Mean surface temperature (K) 200−700 75−170
Mass (relative to the Earth) 0.055−1.0 14.5−318
Equatorial radius (relative to the Earth) 0.38−1.0 3.88−11.2
Mean density (g cm−3) 3.96−5.42 0.68−2.30
Sidereal rotation period (equator) 23.9 h − 243 h 9.8 h − 19.2 h
Number of known Moons 0−2 8−20
Ring systems No Yes

We present some salient features of the individual planets in Table 6.3.

Table 6.3a: Salient features of the terrestrial planets

Mercury Venus Earth Mars

• It can be seen near • It appears as the third • Its crust, extending to
the horizon at brightest object in the
sunset or sunrise sky after the Sun and
with unaided eyes. the Moon, as it is
nearest to the Earth.
• Like the Moon, it
has no atmosphere • Its surface is dry, hot
and its surface is and volcanic. Its
full of craters. atmosphere contains
about 96 percent carbon
• It is, at the same dioxide, 3.5 percent
time, the coldest nitrogen and remaining
and the hottest half percent is water
planet because its vapours, argon,
periods of sulphuric acid,
revolution and hydrochloric acid etc. • Its rotation axis is
rotation are almost
equal which keeps • The planet is covered
its same surface by a thick cloud mainly
face the Sun all consisting of sulphuric
the time. acid droplets.
• Its atmosphere
• Its surface • Its surface temperature
temperature varies is very high (~ 470°C)
between + which is perhaps
340°C to − caused due to the
270°C. greenhouse effect: the
infrared radiation
emitted by the planet is
not allowed to escape
due to the presence of
carbon dioxide in its
atmosphere thus
causing the heat
received from the Sun
to be trapped and raise
its temperature.
30
• Though half in size
10 km deep under the of the Earth, this
oceans and up to 40 planet has various
km under the similarities with the
continents, consists Earth
mainly of silicon
(27.7%), and oxygen i) A day on Mars is
(47.3%). Elements 24h 40 minutes
like aluminium, iron, and a year lasts for
calcium, sodium etc. 1.88 Earth year,
make the bulk of its
matter and less than ii) its rotation axis is
2% is made of all tipped at 25° and
other elements. thus has seasons
and polar caps.
tipped by ~ 23° • This is the most
causing various extensively probed
seasons and polar planet and a few
caps. automated
laboratories have
also been landed.
consists of distinct The atmosphere and
layers called geology of this
troposphere, planet has many
stratosphere and features similar to
ionosphere. the Earth.
Troposphere
comprises mainly of • Martian surface has
78% nitrogen, 21% craters of all sizes
oxygen; stratosphere and enormous
contains ozone which volcanoes.
absorbs the harmful
ultraviolet radiation • Martian soil, like the
from the Sun. Earth, is mostly
made of silicates.
However, due to the
presence of 16
percent iron oxide in
its soil, it has the
characteristic red
colour. It is also
known as the Red
Planet.
 Table 6.3b: Salient features of the Jovian planets The Solar Family

Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto

• It is the largest • It is the second • This planet is • This planet was • This planet was
(having diameter largest planet smaller than discovered in predicted to exist
11.2 times that exceeded in Jupiter and four 1846 and it is so theoretically to
of the Earth) and size and mass times farther far away that, account for the
the most massive only by Jupiter. from the Sun. In seen from this observed
planet (contains Like Jupiter, it a telescope, it planet, the Sun irregularities in
71% of all the consists mainly appears as a would look like the orbits of
planetary mass). of hydrogen green disc with a bright spot! Uranus and
and helium. vague markings. Neptune.
• It is like a • Its colour is
spinning ball of • It is the last • Its axis of faint blue which • It is a very small
gas and liquids (sixth) planet rotation is tipped is caused due to (about one-fifth
with no solid visible from 97.9° from the larger the size of the
surface. In this the Earth. It perpendicular to percentage of Earth), cold and
regard, it is has beautiful its orbit. This methane present dark planet.
similar to the rings (which causes its poles in it.
Sun. It has a can be seen to nearly point • Unlike most
large number of through a towards the Sun • Its cloud planetary orbits,
satellites. telescope). The and it would temperature is Pluto’s orbit is
rings are, in seem that the about − 237°C. quite elliptical
• It is covered by a fact, a planet is rolling and therefore it
turbulent, thousand along the orbit • Like other can come closer
gaseous tightly packed like a wheel. jovian planets, to the Sun than
atmosphere individual this planet also Neptune.
comprising of ringlets. • The rings of this has rings.
hydrogen, planet were • Being so far away
helium and small • The discovered as • Two Moons of from the Sun, this
traces of water temperature at late as 1977 this planet are planet is cold
vapour, its cloud tops is (Voyager 2) and visible from the enough to freeze
ammonia, − 180°C. It is they comprise of Earth. most compounds.
methane etc. colder than very dark
Jupiter. material, as black • Triton is the • Its mass is only
• It has a Great as coal. largest Moon of 0.002 times the
Red Spot on its • This planet is this planet Earth mass!
surface which less dense than • It has a large which is
has an oval water and number of orbiting it in the
shape. It is big being mostly Moons. clockwise
enough to liquid and direction i.e.
accommodate rotating opposite to the
two Earths! It is rapidly, its rotation of the
presumed to be shape is planet. Triton
due to huge flattened. also has
cyclonic atmosphere of
disturbance in its • It has a large its own
atmosphere. number of comprising of
satellites nitrogen and
• In view of its orbiting at the methane.
composition, edge of the
size and the rings. These
number of satellites
Moons, Jupiter (Moons) are
looks like a star composed of
having its own rock and ice
‘solar system’! and have
craters.
• It has rings and
it emits radio • Its main
waves. satellite, Titan,
is very large
(diameter
5800 km) and
has atmosphere
of its own as
dense as ours.

31
The Solar System At this stage, you may pause for a moment and think about what have you learnt till
and Stars now. You have basically recapitulated what you learnt in school about the solar
system and have acquainted yourself with the characteristic features of each of its
planets. In the next section, you will learn about the origin of the solar system. A
model for the origin of the solar system must explain its characteristic features listed
below:

i) Most of the mass of the solar system is contained in the Sun.

ii) Except for Mercury and Pluto, the orbital planes of all the planets are more or less
in the same plane.

iii) When viewed from above, the planets are found to revolve around the Sun in the
anticlockwise direction; the direction of rotation of the Sun is also the same.

iv) Except for Venus, Uranus and Pluto, the direction of rotation of planets is the
same as their direction of revolution.

v) The direction of revolution of the satellites of each planet is the same as the
direction of rotation of the planet itself.

vi) Total angular momentum of all the planets is more than the angular momentum of
the Sun.

vii) Terrestrial planets comprise mainly of rocky material whereas jovian planets
comprise mainly of gaseous material.

Spend SAQ 2
3 min.
List some common features of terrestrial and jovian planets.

6.3 ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM: THE NEBULAR

MODEL

The formation of the Earth or, in fact, the entire solar system has been of considerable
interest to human being for ages. A variety of speculative ideas were proposed which
gave rise to two kinds of theories: catastrophic and gradualistic. According to the
catastrophic theories, the planets were formed out of the material ejected from the Sun
when a giant comet collided with it or the planets came into being due to ripping-off
of material from the Sun caused by the tides generated by a close by passing star.
However, these theories do not explain many features of the solar system. Further,
during the 20th century, astronomical evidences have been found which support the
gradualistic theories. According to these theories, formation of planets is a gradual
process and is a natural by-product of the formation of stars like the Sun.

Contemporary gradualistic theories of the solar system are based on the nebular
hypothesis. According to this hypothesis, the Sun as well as the planets formed from
an interstellar cloud of gas and dust. A model of the formation of the solar system
based on this hypothesis is called a nebular model. The basic principle of physics
underlying the nebular model is the Newton’s law of gravitation. According to the
nebular model, formation of stars including the Sun, begins when the interstellar
cloud with enough mass and low internal pressure, contracts due to its own gravity.

Can you guess the consequences of gravitational contraction of an interstellar

cloud? You are on the right track if you think that it leads to increase in density of the
32 cloud. Simultaneously, the kinetic energy of the particles in the cloud increases which
causes increase in its temperature. As a result, the internal pressure of the collapsing The Solar Family
cloud increases. Eventually, the gravitational contraction is balanced by the internal
pressure of the cloud. The contracting cloud is called a protostar and when its
internal temperature is high enough to initiate thermonuclear reactions, a full-fledged
star (such as the Sun) is born. This is the general picture of the formation of a star
according to the nebular model.

Well, you may ask: How did our solar system come into existence? According to
the nebular model, our solar system formed due to gravitational contraction of the
rotating interstellar cloud called the solar nebula. Due to rotation, the solar nebula
takes the form of a disc (Fig. 6.3). When the Sun formed at the centre of this disc and
became luminous enough, the remaining gas and dust was pushed away due to the
Sun’s radiation pressure. The blown away gas and dust condensed into various planets
orbiting the Sun. One of the natural consequences of the solar nebula model is that
most stars in the galaxies should have planetary systems!

(a) (d)

Venus (e) Uranus Mercury

(b) Jupiter Earth

Saturn
Neptune
Pluto Asteroids
Mars (f)
(c)

Fig.6.3: Schematic diagram showing different stages (a to f) of the formation of the solar system

Formation of Solar Nebular Disk

You must have noted that one of the significant features of the solar nebular model is
the formation of a disk of interstellar cloud around the Sun. You may ask: Is there
any evidence supporting the formation of the disk? Two facts support this
assumption. Firstly, as you know, the orbits of planets, except that of Mercury and
Pluto, lie in nearly the same plane. Such coplanar planetary orbits are consistent with
the formation of nebular disk. Secondly, the rotation of the Sun and revolution of the
planets is along the same direction and their equatorial planes are very close to the
plane of the solar system. Thus, the motion of the Sun and the planets are consistent
with the disk hypothesis.

Your next logical question could be: Can we explain the formation of nebular disk
on the basis of physical principles? It can indeed be done provided we assume that
the interstellar cloud, giving rise to the solar system, had some initial rotational
motion. Having assumed this, we can invoke the principle of conservation of angular
momentum to explain the formation of a disk. As the cloud contracted due to gravity,
each gas and dust particle would come closer to the axis of rotation. To conserve the
angular momentum during the contraction, the particles coming nearer to the axis of
rotation must revolve faster. At some point, due to the increased speed of revolution, 33
The Solar System the centripetal acceleration of the particles of the cloud balance the gravitational
and Stars contraction and equilibrium is attained.

To understand the flattening of the rotating cloud, refer to Fig. 6.4. Particles at points
A (near the pole) and B (near the equator) have the same angular momentum because
points A and B are equidistant from the axis of rotation. Thus, it is energetically more
favourable that particle at A falls under gravity along the line AB and reaches the point
B (closer to the centre) than say a particle at point C to come to point B. It is so
because, in the first situation, no change in angular momentum is involved. Thus,
rotating cloud near the poles contracts more than those near the equator giving rise to
the formation of disk.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig.6.4: a) Interstellar cloud with initial rotational motion; b) due to gravitational attraction,
material at the poles contracts along the rotation axis; and c) the final disk shaped solar
nebula

The principle of the conservation of angular momentum also explains why most of the
planets rotate along the same direction. It is because each planet has retained some of
the angular momentum of the solar nebula. Let us discuss the angular momentum of
the solar system to appreciate this point better.

Angular Momentum of the Solar System

The present distribution of angular momentum in the solar system seems inconsistent
with the basics of the nebular model. The argument goes like this. Since the Sun and
the planets are formed from the same spinning interstellar cloud, the angular
momentum per unit mass of each of them must be same. The facts are otherwise: the
Sun possesses approximately 99.9% of the total mass of the solar system but only 1%
of its total angular momentum; orbital angular momentum of Jupiter exceeds the
rotational angular momentum of the Sun by a factor of 20; among the planets having
99% of the total angular momentum of the solar system, Jupiter possesses the most of
it! To appreciate these facts and figures, you should solve an SAQ.

Spend SAQ 3
5 min.
Calculate the total angular momentum of the Sun-Jupiter system assuming that Jupiter
has a circular orbit of radius 5.2 AU, and its orbital period is 11.86 yr. Assume that the
Sun interacts only with Jupiter.

You may ask: How does the nebular model explain the inconsistency in the
distribution of angular momentum? It is proposed that during the formation of the
34 solar system, the angular momentum is transported from the central part of the nebula
to the outer regions. Two possible mechanisms for such a transfer have been The Solar Family
suggested. According to the first mechanism, the interaction of the charged particles
and the magnetic field of the evolving Sun causes transfer of angular momentum. You
know that charged particles spiral along the magnetic field. Thus, the charged
particles created by ionisation of solar nebula by the Sun are dragged along by the
magnetic field of the rotating Sun (Fig. 6.5). The magnetic field links the outer
nebular matter (charged particles) with Sun’s rotation. As a result, the nebular
material in the outer region gains angular momentum at the expense of the Sun. The
other mechanism suggested for transfer of angular momentum is based on viscosity.
You know that due to viscosity, motion of fluid in one part is affected by the motion
of the fluid in the adjoining part. Thus, it is quite possible that the slow moving
particles located at outer edges of the nebula gain in velocity due to their interaction
with the fast moving particles in the smaller orbits of the nebula and vice-versa. This
may cause transfer of angular momentum from the Sun to the outer planets of the
solar system.

Now, you will learn about formation and evolution of planets according to the nebular
model.

Formation of Planets

You know that the solar nebula consisted of gas and dust. As the solar nebula Fig.6.5: Magnetic lines of force
of the rotating Sun
contracted, it became hot enough and most of the dust particles evaporated. So, the
solar nebula consisted mainly of gaseous matter. The question is: How did the
planets form from the solar nebula? The formation of planets is a two-stage
process: firstly, small solid particles are formed from the gaseous matter and then
these particles stick together and grow into planets.

Depending upon the temperature of the nebular region, the nebular gas condensed into
solid matter of different types. In the inner region, the temperature was very high and
materials with very high melting points were formed. The sequence of condensation
of gas into different types of materials, from the centre of the nebula (the Sun) to its
periphery, is called the condensation sequence and is given in Table 6.4.

Table 6.4: The condensation sequence

Temperature Material(s) formed Planet

(K) (Temperature of formation)
With the help of computers, it
is possible to study the
1500 Metal oxides Mercury (1400 K) behaviour of a large number of
particles when they interact in
1300 Metallic Iron and the manner as in the process of
Nickel accretion. Such computer
experiments are called
1200 Silicates
simulation. The results of such
simulation studies suggest that
1000 Feldspars Venus (900 K) there could be as many as 100
planetesimals of the size of the
Moon along with a large
680 Troilites (FeS) Earth (600 K)
number of smaller objects in
Mars (450 K) the region of inner planets. In
addition, there could be about
175 H2O, Ice Jovian (175 K) 10 bodies with masses
comparable with the planet
Mercury and many other
65 Argon-neon Ice Pluto (65 K) objects of the size of the planet
Mars.

From Table 6.4, it is evident that terrestrial planets formed from high density materials
and jovian planets formed from low density materials.
35
The Solar System
and Stars
The creation of a massive
object, like Jupiter,
influences the orbits of
nearby planetesimals. Most
of the objects present in the
asteroid belt today had their
orbits changed gradually into
more eccentric orbits till they
were sucked in by Jupiter. It
is also likely that they either
left the solar system or
crashed into the Sun. This
process might in fact have
resulted in the smaller mass
left in the asteroid belt and
also a smaller planet Mars.
As we go further from Jupiter
and beyond in the nebula, the
material density becomes
very low. So, the accretion
process for the formation of a
planet-like object takes much
longer time. Saturn perhaps
took twice as long to form as
Jupiter, while the planet
Uranus took an even longer
time. The planet Neptune is
estimated to have taken twice
the time it took to form
Uranus.
36
Having discussed the general chemical composition of planets, we now focus on the
evolution of planets. The evolution of planets involves three stages:
a) The first stage involves the growth of macroscopic grains of solid matter from the
interstellar cloud. The size of these grains range from a few cm to a few km and
they are called planetesimals. Planetesimals can grow through two processes:
condensation and accretion. In the condensation process, grains grow by adding
one atom at a time to a ‘nucleus’ atom, from the surrounding gaseous cloud. This
is similar to the growth of snowflakes in the Earth’s atmosphere. In the accretion
process, solid particles stick together. Further, the planetesimals would tend to
rotate in the plane of the solar nebula.
b) In the second stage, planetesimals coalesce and form protoplanets − objects
having planetary sizes and masses. You may ask: How do the protoplanets
form? Since all the planetesimals are moving along the same direction in the
nebula, they collide with each other at a low relative velocity and stick together to
form protoplanets. Further, growth of protoplanets is helped by gravity because
the nebular matter is attracted by the protoplanets.
c) At the third stage, when a protoplanet grows into a stable planet, a large amount
of heat is generated in its core due to the decay of short-lived radioactive
elements. Heat is also generated due to collision of these planets with other
objects. Due to high temperature, the planets melt and facilitate the process of
gravitational separation in which materials in the planet segregate themselves
according to their density. Therefore, the inner regions of the planets hold heavier
elements and compounds and lighter elements are pushed to the surface.
This, in the nutshell, is the ‘story’ of planet building! You must have noted that
there are many unanswered questions and many ifs and buts in the mechanism
described above. To understand the details of formation of planets is still an active
area of research in astronomy and astrophysics. We will, however, not go into
those details and close our discussion with a few words about the success of the
nebular model.
The solar nebular model successfully accounts for the following three important
features of the solar system:
i) Disk shape of the solar system: The model suggests that the rotating solar
nebula ultimately evolves into disk shape due to gravitational contraction and
conservation of angular momentum.
ii) The orbits of most of the planets are coplanar: As per the model, this situation
exists because of the disk shape of the solar nebula from which planets are
formed.
iii) The direction of rotation of the Sun and the directions of revolution of most of
the planets are the same: It is so because the Sun and the planets formed from
the same rotating nebula.
You have also learnt that the condensation sequence of the solar nebula explains why
terrestrial planets comprise of compounds having high melting point and jovian
planets comprise of ices and gases.
The nebular model has some very obvious limitations. You know that the Moon’s
surface is not smooth; it has craters of varied sizes, small and large. Also, its surface
composition is extremely poor in hydrogen, helium etc. These observations suggest
the continued collisions of bigger planetesimals with the Moon’s surface even after its
formation. It is quite likely that other objects (planets) in the solar system experienced
similar collisions with planetesimals. Thus, the theory of solar system formation must
account for massive encounters endured by planets in the early stages of their
formation. These massive collisions or encounters are possibly responsible for The Solar Family
different orientation of the spin axis of the planets in the solar system. It is now known
that Venus, Uranus and Pluto have retrograde rotations.

The cause for tipping of rotation axis, retrograde rotation etc. of planets cannot be
understood as such by gradualistic models like the nebular model. We need to
consider catastrophic events. During the formation of the solar system, the wandering
planetesimals did perhaps collide with other planets such as Mercury, Venus, Earth
etc. The collision with Mercury ripped off its low density mantle while such a
collision with Venus flipped its rotation axis. A collision with Earth led to the
formation of the Earth-Moon system. Further, massive planetesimals crashed into
Mars as well as other outer planets changing orientation of their rotation axes. It is
also possible that some of these planetesimals were captured by planets as their
Moons.

Now, before you proceed further, how about answering an SAQ?

SAQ 4 Spend
7 min.
a) List two evidences supporting the assumption that a disk shaped solar nebula
existed during the evolution of the solar system.

b) Why do terrestrial planets comprise mainly of materials having high melting

points?

c) What is the difference between the condensation and accretion processes?

6.4 TIDAL FORCES AND PLANETARY RINGS

You must be aware of tides occurring on the Earth’s surface. In fact, those of you who
live in the coastal areas must be quite familiar with tides. Two high tides occur once in
every ~ 24 hours depending on the local features of the coastal area and its latitude.
However, generally people are not familiar with the tidal bulge of the Earth along the
equator which measures around 10 cm. Do you know what causes tides or tidal
bulge of the Earth? It is caused due to the difference between gravitational force of
the Moon at different locations, say points A and B, on the Earth (Fig. 6.6). Due to
similar reasons, tidal bulge (as large as 20 m) caused by the Earth has also been
observed on the Moon. The larger value of the bulge of the Moon is because the Earth
is more massive than the Moon.

Tidal effects play an important role in astronomy, particularly in understanding the

creation of large number of satellites and ring systems in the jovian planets. We now
derive an expression for the tidal force for the Earth-Moon system. Then we shall use
this concept for a qualitative explanation of the formation of planetary rings.

A B

Moon
Earth

Fig.6.6: Tidal bulge of the Earth is due to the difference in gravitational force of the Moon
experienced by mass elements at, say points A and B, on the Earth.

37
The Solar System Let a mass m on the Earth be located at a distance r from the centre of mass of the
and Stars Moon (Fig. 6.7). If the mass of the Moon be M, the magnitude of the gravitational
force acting on m, in the direction shown, is given by:

Mm
F =G , (6.1)
r2

where G is the gravitational constant.

r dr
M
m m
Moon
Earth

Fig.6.7: Gravitational force on an element of mass m located on the Earth at a distance r from the
centre of mass of the Moon

Now consider a similar mass located at a distance dr from the earlier mass element
along the same line. The difference between the gravitational forces experienced by
these two mass elements can be obtained by differentiating F in Eq. (6.1):

Mm
dF = −2G dr (6.2)
r3

Note that the difference in the gravitational forces on the two equal masses separated
by a distance dr will cause them to move with different accelerations. The differential
force given by Eq. (6.2) is called the tidal force. The r3 term in the denominator of
Eq. (6.2) clearly shows that the tidal force has a stronger dependence on distance
compared to the gravitational force (which varies as 1/r2). Further, in case of the
Earth-Moon system, the tidal force becomes more pronounced if the mass element is
closer to the Moon.

Now to appreciate the effect of the tidal force of the Moon on mass elements located
at different points on the Earth, e.g., at the equator and at the poles, let us obtain a
general expression for the tidal force considering the Earth as a two-dimensional
object. Let us consider an element of mass m located at the centre (C) of the Earth and
another element of mass m located at an arbitrary point (P) at latitude φ on the surface
of the Earth (Fig. 6.8). By assuming that the Moon lies along the x-direction, the
components of gravitational force at points C and P can be written as:

Mm
FC , x = G ,
r2

FC , y = 0,

and

Mm
FP, x = G cos θ ,
s2

Mm
FP , y = −G sin θ. (6.3)
38 s2
where s is the distance between points P and the centre of mass of the Moon. The Solar Family

x
P
θ
R
s
φ
θ
Earth
C
r
Moon

Fig.6.8: The schematic diagram of the tidal force on an arbitrary point on the Earth due to Moon

Let the unit vectors along the x- and y-directions be î and ĵ , respectively. Thus, from
Eq. (6.3), the difference between the magnitudes of gravitational forces at the points P
and C can be written as:

∆F = FP − FC

 cos θ 1   sin θ 
= GMm  2 − 2  ˆi − GMm  2  ˆj (6.4)
 s r   s 

Further, s can be expressed in terms of r, R and φ as:

s 2 = (r − R cos φ) 2 + R 2 sin 2 φ

 2R 
≈ r 2 1 − cos φ 
 r 

Substituting for s2 in Eq. (6.4) using the small angle approximations, cosθ ≈ 1 and
R
sinθ ≈ sin φ, and using binomial expansion we obtain:
r

GMmR
∆F ≈ (2 cos φ ˆi − sin φ ˆj) (6.5)
r3

SAQ 5 Spend
6 min.
Derive Eq. (6.5).

You may ask: What does Eq. (6.5) signify physically? This expression clearly
indicates that the magnitude of the tidal force is dependent on the latitude. For mass
element located at the equator of the Earth, that is, for φ = 0, the magnitude of tidal
force is maximum. And, at the poles, where φ = π/2, the magnitude of the tidal force is
minimum. This is the cause of tidal bulge around the equator and also causes tides in
the oceans.
39
The Solar System In the above discussion, we have considered the Earth-Moon system to be an isolated
and Stars one. In fact, we must also consider the tidal forces due to the Sun. When the Sun,
Earth and the Moon are all aligned in a straight line, the differential forces discussed
above add up to produce large tides on the Earth. These tides are called spring tides.
When the Sun, Earth and the Moon form a right angle, the differential forces due to
the Sun and the Moon are directed opposite to each other and the tides on the Earth
(known as neap tides) are very small.

Yet another effect of tidal force is that the Earth’s speed of rotation is slowed down.
This results in longer days at present compared to many years ago. Further, just as the
Moon causes tides on the Earth, the Earth also gives rise to tides on the Moon. You
know that on the Earth we see the same side of the Moon which implies that its
rotation and revolution periods are the same. It is quite likely that earlier the Moon’s
rotation period was shorter than its orbital period. As time progressed, because of the
tidal friction, the rotation period of the Moon increased and has become equal to its
orbital period (also called one-to-one synchronous rotation). We find such
synchronous motion to be quite a common phenomenon in the solar system. For
instance, the two Moons of Mars and four Moons of Jupiter and majority of Saturn’s
Moons are in synchronous rotation. Many moons of the outer planets behave in a
similar manner.

You know that most outer planets of the solar system have rings around them
comprising of small (~ 10 µm to 10−5m) particles. The concept of tidal forces can be
invoked to understand these ring systems. There are two possible scenarios. Since the
jovian planets are massive, tidal gravitational force of the planets on their satellites
must be very strong. Thus, if a satellite comes very close to, say, Jupiter, it
experiences a strong tidal force and breaks up into pieces. The particles formed during
such a process revolve around the planet in ring formation. According to the second
scenario, during the formation of jovian planets, the tidal forces restrained the
particles from condensing into a satellite.

You may argue: The tidal forces must ultimately disrupt the ring system; what
maintains the ring system? It is suggested that the Moons associated with these
planets play an important role in preserving the rings. The particles in the rings are
restrained from moving out of their orbit due to the combined gravitational forces of
these Moons.

Human beings have always wondered about the existence of planets around other
stars. Only in recent times there has been a confirmation that planets do exist outside
the solar system. These planets are called extra-solar planets. You will learn about
them now.

6.5 EXTRA SOLAR PLANETS

On August 4, 1997, the Hubble Space telescope took the first image of an extra-solar
planet around another star (Fig. 6.9). The picture shows a double star located at about
450 light years away towards the constellation of Taurus. It was the first direct look at
a planet outside our solar system. It is now believed that this planet is a “runaway”
object, thrown out of the binary system, as indicated by the filament tracing. The
planet is located at about 1500 times the Earth-Sun distance from its parent. The
Fig.6.9: Photograph of an binary system is believed to be 300,000 years old and the planet seems to be quite
extra solar planet similar to Jupiter with a mass of around 2-3 times that of Jupiter. This discovery led to
taken by Hubble
telescope careful investigation by several groups of astrophysicists and by now more than 100
such extra solar planets have been found.

Young planets in the new systems are difficult to detect as the parent stars
40 overshadow their feeble glow. Since it is difficult to detect a planet orbiting a distant
star, we look for alternative methods of detection, such as the influence of the planets The Solar Family
on their parent stars. You may like to know: What are these influences? It is easy to
think of gravitational influence. As the planet orbits the star, it will tug at it from
different sides causing it to wobble back and forth. The gravitational influence gives
rise to the following methods for detection of the planet:

a) Astrometric Detection
b) Radial Velocity Detection

The first method is based on measuring the position of a star relative to its background
stars. If the star is accompanied by an orbiting planet, it gets a tug from the planet and
its position changes a little. This change in the position of the star is measured which
would show a periodic change (back and forth) indicating the presence of an orbiting
object.

The second method is based on Doppler effect. As an orbiting planet tugs on to its
companion star, the light from the star experiences a Doppler shift. If the planet pulls
the star slightly away from us, the light emitted by star would shift towards red end of
the electromagnetic spectrum while if it tends to pull the star towards the Earth, the
light would be shifted towards the blue end of the spectrum. To measure the Doppler
shift, we choose a particular spectral line and observe its shift from red to blue and
back.

In 1995, Michel Mayor and Didier Qucloz of the Geneva Observatory observed that
the Sun-like star, 51 Pegasi is wobbling back and forth at the rate of 56 ms−1. The only
valid explanation for this observation was the presence of a planet like object orbiting
the parent star. The mass of the planet was estimated to be half the mass of Jupiter
with a radius of about 0.05 AU. Subsequently, Mayor also detected a planet of about
0.16 times the mass of Jupiter orbiting the star HD 83443 in the constellation of Vela
about 141 light years away from the Earth.

Recently David Charbonneau, Timothy Brown and Robert Gilliland used the Hubble
spectrometer and made the first direct detection and chemical analysis of the
atmosphere of the planet HD 209458b orbiting a yellow, Sun-like star, HD 209458, in
the constellation of Pegasus. The mass of the planet is estimated to be 70% of the
mass of Jupiter. It passes in front of its star every 3.5 days and contains sodium in its
outer layers. The extremely short period of the planet suggests its very close proximity
to the star and therefore its atmosphere getting heated to around 1100 degrees Celsius.

Many new results are pouring in and are compelling astronomers to have a re-look on
the theories of solar system formation. The search for extra-solar planets is going hand
in hand with the search for life in the Universe. Exploration of the solar system has so
far not revealed any signs of even primitive life on any of the planets or their
satellites. Scientists strongly believe that there must be a large number of extra-solar
planets where conditions are suitable for the existence of life. Indeed, some of these
planets could be hosting life more advanced than our own. It is possible that some of
these intelligent beings are trying to contact us just as we are looking for them. It must
be remembered that any message from any of these beings would be coded in radio
waves. That is why SETI, an organisation searching for Extra Terrestrial Intelligence,
is looking for such signals in the radiation at radio frequencies coming from outside
the solar system. Scientists are hopeful that someday they would be able to detect
extra-solar intelligence.

Let us now summarise what you have learnt in this Unit:

41
The Solar System
and Stars
6.6 SUMMARY
• The first four planets of the solar system namely Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars
are called terrestrial planets and they mainly comprise of solid matter. The next
five planets, namely Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto are called jovian
planets and they mainly comprise of ices and gases.

• One of the significant features of jovian planets is the ring system.

• Some of the characteristic properties of the solar system are:

i) Most of the mass of the solar system is contained in the Sun.
ii) Orbital planes of all the planets except Mercury and Pluto are coplanar.

iii) The direction of rotation of the Sun and direction of revolution of the planets
is the same.
iv) Total angular momentum of all the planets is more than the angular
momentum of the Sun.
• According to the nebular hypothesis of the origin of solar system, the Sun as
well as the planets formed from an interstellar cloud of gas and dust. A model
based on this hypothesis is called nebular model.
• According to the nebular model, formation of stars including the Sun takes place
when the interstellar cloud contracts due to its own gravity.
• The contracting interstellar cloud takes a disk shape due to its rotational motion.
Formation of nebular disk causes coplanar planetary orbits.
• The present distribution of angular momentum in the solar system seems
inconsistent with the basics of the nebular model.
• The angular momentum problem is addressed by proposing that there is a transfer
of angular momentum from the inner to outer regions of the solar system during
its evolution.
• The formation of planets results due to condensation of nebular gas as per the
condensation sequence.

• The formation of planets involves three stages:

i) Formation of planetesimals,
ii) Formation of protoplanets, and
iii) Stabilisation of the planet.

• Tidal forces result due to the difference in gravitational force at two points on the
Earth. For the Earth, tidal forces due to the Moon have a significant effect. Tidal
force at the equator is maximum and at the poles, its value is minimum. The
general expression for the tidal force is given by

GMmR
∆F ≅ (2 cos φ ˆi − sin φ ˆj)
r3

• In the recent past, a few extra-solar planets have been detected.

6.7 TERMINAL QUESTIONS Spend 20 min.

42
1. Explain, in your own words, the theory of the solar system formation based on The Solar Family
nebular hypothesis.
2. Explain how angular momentum can be transferred from the Sun to the outer
planets of the solar system.

3. Is it possible that the Earth also suffered collisions with other bodies of the solar
system and its surface also had craters like those on the surface of Mercury? Can
you guess what happened to those craters?

4. Explain how extra-solar planets can be detected. Why can they not be seen
directly?

6.8 SOLUTIONS AND ANSWERS

Self Assessment Questions (SAQs)

1. To verify Kepler’s third law, let us calculate (T 2 r 3 ) for three representative

planets, say the Mercury, the Earth and the Saturn. From Table 6.1, we have

TMercury = 88 days = 88 × 24 × 60 × 60 s = 7.6 × 106s

and
rMercury = 5.8 ×10 7 km = 5.8 ×1010 m
So,
(TMercury ) 2 (7.6 ×10 6 s) 2
=
(rMercury ) 3 (5.8 ×1010 m) 3
= 2.9 ×1019 m − 3s 2

Similarly, using data from Table 6.1, you can easily show that:

(TEarth ) 2
= 2.9 ×1019 m − 3 s 2
3
(rEarth )
and
(TSaturn ) 2
= 2.9 ×1019 m − 3s 2
3
(rSaturn )

Since the ratio (T 2 r 3 ) for all the three planets has the same value
2.9 ×1019 m − 3s 2 , Kepler’s third law is true.

2. See text.

3. For two bodies of mass M1 and M2 moving around their centre of mass, the
reduced mass is given by:

M 1M 2
µ=
M1 + M 2

So, for the Sun-Jupiter system, we can write:

43
The Solar System MΘ M J
and Stars µ=
MΘ + M J
≈ MJ

Using Kepler’s third law, it can be readily shown that the angular momentum L
and the period T of the orbiting mass are related as:

2πabµ
L= .
T

where a, and b respectively are the semi-major and semi-minor axes of the
elliptical orbit of the planet. As per the problem, the orbit of Jupiter is to be
considered circular. Thus, we can write:

a = b = 5.2 AU

= 5.2 × 2.279 × 1011m

Substituting the values of MJ = 2 × 1027 kg and T = 11.86 yr, we get:

L=
(
2 × 3.14 × (5.2 × 2.279 × 1011 m) 2 × 2 × 10 27 kg )
(11.86 × 365 × 24 × 3600 s)

17.63 × 10 51 kg m 2
=
4.44 × 10 9 s

= 3.9 × 10 42 kg m 2 s −1

4. See text.

5. Refer to Fig. 6.8. From Eq. (6.4), we have the difference between the magnitudes
of gravitational force at points P and C as:

∆ F = FP − FC

 cos θ 1 ˆ  sin θ  ˆ
= GMm  −  i − GMm   j
 s2 r2   s2 
s 2 = r 2 + R′ 2
= r 2 + R 2 sin 2 φ
= (r − R cos φ) 2 + R 2 sin 2 φ
2 2 2 2 2
≅ r − 2r R cos φ + R cos φ + R sin φ
= r 2 − 2r R cos φ + R 2
 2R 
≈ r 2 1 − cos φ  (neglecting higher order terms in R)
 r 

Substituting for s2 and making small angle approximations, cos θ ≈ 1 and

R
sin θ ≈ sin φ, we can write:
r

44
 The Solar Family
   R 
   sin φ 
 1 1 ˆ  r ˆ
∆ F = GMm  −  i − GMm  j

 r 1 − 2 R  2
 
 r 1 − 2 R 
cos φ  
2 r 2
  cos φ    
  r     r 

GMm  r   R sin φ  ˆj

=  − 1 ˆi −  
2  r − 2 R cos φ
r    r − 2 R cos φ  

GMm  2 R cos φ  ˆ  R sin φ  ˆj

=   i −  
r 2  r − 2 R cos φ   r − 2 R cos φ  

≅
GMm R
r3
(
2 cos φ ˆi − sin φ ˆj ) (because r>> 2 R cos φ).

Terminal Questions

1. See text.
2. See text.
3. See text.
4. See text.

45
The Solar System
and Stars UNIT 7 STELLAR SPECTRA AND
CLASSIFICATION
Structure
7.1 Introduction
Objectives
7.2 Atomic Spectra Revisited
7.3 Stellar Spectra
Spectral Types and Their Temperature Dependence
Black Body Approximation
7.4 H-R Diagram
7.5 Luminosity Classification
7.6 Summary
7.7 Terminal Questions
7.8 Solutions and Answers

7.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 5, you have studied about the Sun and in Unit 6, you have learnt about the
solar system. You also learnt the characteristic features of the solar atmosphere and
solar activity. You now know that the Sun is the nearest and the only star in our solar
system. All the stars, including the Sun are located at very large distances from the
Earth. Thus, a logical question is: How do we obtain information about the stars? All
the information about stars is obtained by analysing their spectra and this is the
subject matter of the present Unit.

You may recall from Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics (PHE-06) course
that the radiation emitted by an object at a given temperature covers a range
(spectrum) of wavelengths with a characteristic peak wavelength. The value of the
characteristic wavelength depends on temperature of the object. Therefore, by a
careful analysis of the radiation emitted by a star, we can estimate its temperature. In
addition, we can also obtain useful information regarding composition, pressure,
density, age etc. of a star on the basis of its spectrum. In Sec. 7.2, we briefly
recapitulate the atomic origin of emission and absorption spectra and explain how the
temperatures and luminosities of stars can be inferred from their spectra.
One of the earliest uses of stellar spectra was to classify stars on the basis of strength
of certain spectral lines. Later on, it was discovered that the relative strengths of
spectral lines depend basically on the star’s temperature. The spectral classification
has been discussed in Sec. 7.3. The most comprehensive classification of stars was
done on the basis of the correlation between their luminosities (an observable
parameter of stars) and temperatures. This classification gave rise to Hertzsprung-
Russell (H-R) diagram about which you will learn in Sec. 7.4. This diagram is of
utmost importance in astronomy. In Sec. 7.5, you will learn yet another classification
of stars, called luminosity classification, which tells us about the size of a star.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
• explain the atomic origin of emission and absorption spectra;
• discuss the correlation between the strength of spectral lines of an element and the
temperature of the region containing the elements;
• list the spectral types of stars and their characteristic features;
• discuss the salient features of different groups of stars on the H-R diagram;
• describe the need for luminosity classification of stars; and
46 • estimate the size of a star on the basis of its luminosity class.
 Stellar Spectra and
7.2 ATOMIC SPECTRA REVISITED Classification

To appreciate the relation between the physical parameters of an object and the
radiation emitted by it, let us imagine heating an iron bar. First, the iron bar begins to
glow with a dull red colour. As the bar is heated further, the dull red colour changes to
bright red and then to yellowish-white. If we can prevent the bar from melting and
vaporising with further increase of temperature, it would glow with a brilliant bluish
colour. This simple experiment reveals how the intensity and colour of light emitted
by a hot object varies with temperature. Similar is the situation with stars. You must
have noticed, while looking at night sky, that all stars do not look the same in terms of
their brightness or colour: the differences are determined by their surface
temperatures.

If you happen to look at Orion

nebula (Fig. 7.1), it has not only
blue stars but also some red
stars. Similarly the brightest
visible star to the naked eye −
Sirius (Vyadh) − looks whitish;
Canopus (Bramhahrudaya) is
yellowish and Aldebran
(Rohini) is reddish.

Fig.7.1: The Orion nebula

From Unit 3, you know that spectroscopy refers to the analysis of light in terms of its
wavelength and it is extensively used to obtain information regarding temperature,
composition etc. of stars. Such analyses provide valuable information. But, the
question is: How do we analyse the light from a star? To answer this, we need to
recapitulate the atomic origin of emission and absorption of light. Recall from the
Modern Physics (PHE-11) course that:

i) Electrons in an atom exist in certain allowed energy states. Each

element has a characteristic set of energy levels (see Fig. 7.2).

0 0 0

−0.85 eV n=4
−1.50 eV n=3

−3.40 eV n=2

−13.60 eV −25eV −25eV

n=1
(a) (b)

Fig.7.2: Energy level diagram of a) hydrogen atom; and b) helium atom

47
The Solar System ii) When an electron makes a transition from a higher energy level to a lower
and Stars
energy level, radiation is emitted. An electron goes from a lower energy level
to a higher energy level when it absorbs energy and vice-versa (Fig. 7.3). Such
transitions follow certain selection rules and are always accompanied by the
emission/absorption of radiation. You know from Unit 9 of the PHE-11 course
that the wavelength (or frequency) of the emitted/absorbed radiation is
determined by the difference in the energies of the two atomic energy levels:

∆ E = E2 − E1 = hv (7.1)
where E1 and E2 are the energies of the levels involved in transition, h is Planck’s
constant , v is the frequency of the emitted/absorbed radiation and ∆ E is the
energy of the corresponding photon.

etc…
E4 Level 4

E3 Level 3

E2 Level 2
Energy

Bright emission line

E1 Level 1

(a)

etc…
Level 4
E4
Level 3
E3

E2 Level 2
Energy

Dark absorption line

E1 Level 1

(b)
Fig.7.3: The atomic electron a) emits radiation when it makes a transition from a higher energy
level to a lower energy level giving rise to emission spectrum; and b) makes a transition to
a higher energy level on absorbing radiation giving rise to absorption spectrum

To understand the origin of atomic spectra, refer once again to Fig. 7.3 which shows
the energy level diagram and transition of electron between these levels for a
hydrogen atom. In Fig. 7.3(a), a hydrogen atom makes a transition from the 2nd
energy level to the 1st, giving off light with an energy equal to the difference of
energy between levels 2 and 1. This energy corresponds to a specific colour or
wavelength of light -- and thus we see a bright line at that exact wavelength! This is
an emission spectrum.

On the other hand, what would happen if we tried to reverse this process? That is,
what would happen if a photon of the same energy was incident on a hydrogen atom
in the ground state? The atom could absorb this photon and make a transition from the
ground state to a higher energy level. This process gives rise to a dark absorption
line in the spectrum as shown in the figure. This is an absorption spectrum.
48
If light from a star with a continuous spectrum is incident upon the atoms in its Stellar Spectra and
Classification
surrounding atmosphere, the wavelengths corresponding to possible energy transitions
within the atoms are absorbed. Thus, an observer will see an absorption spectrum.

−0.54eV
n=∞ 0 eV
−0.85eV n=4
−1.51eV n=3
−3.39eV n=2

Lyman series

−13.6eV
n=1 1215 1025 972 950 937
λ (Å)
(a)

n=4
n=3

n=2
Balmer series

4000 5000 6000 7000

λ (Å)

n=1
(b)
Fig.7.4: Emission of radiation by hydrogen atoms corresponding to Lyman and Balmer series:
a) Transitions to level n=1 gives Lyman series; and b) Transitions to n=2 level gives Balmer
series

On the basis of above, we can understand the genesis of atomic spectra. Let us take
the simplest example of the spectrum of hydrogen atom. In Fig. 7.4 we show the
various spectral series for the hydrogen atom. The transition of electrons from higher
energy levels to the lowest (n = 1) energy level gives rise to emission of a series of
characteristic wavelengths known as Lyman series. Similarly, transition of electrons
from higher energy levels to the first excited (n = 2) energy level results into the
emission of another series of characteristic wavelengths called the Balmer series.
You may note that some of the spectral lines in Balmer series fall in the visible region
of the electromagnetic spectrum (Fig. 7.4b). This makes them very useful spectral
lines for spectroscopic analysis. Further, transitions to the second excited (n = 3)
energy level give rise to the Paschen series.
Emission Spectrum
Now, let us consider the nature of emission of radiation by hydrogen gas (a collection
of many hydrogen atoms) kept at a high temperature. Each atom in the gas can
49
The Solar System absorb thermal energy as well as the energy due to collisions with other atoms. As a
and Stars
result, each atom would absorb a different amount of energy. Therefore, the electrons
in the lowest energy level of various atoms get excited to different higher energy
levels (Fig. 7.5). The question is: What kind of emission spectrum would we obtain
in such a situation?

etc… etc…
Level 4 Level 4
Level 3 Level 3

Level 2 Level 2
Energy Energy

Level 1 Level 1

Fig.7.5: At high temperatures, electrons in hydrogen atoms get excited to various higher energy
levels; transitions to levels 2 and 3 are shown here as examples

To answer this, let us consider a hydrogen atom in this hot gas whose electron has
been excited to the second excited energy level (Fig. 7.6). This electron can return to
the lowest energy level either directly (Fig. 7.6a) or in steps. For example, it can go to
the first excited energy level and then to the lowest level (Fig.7.6b). In the two cases,
the energies of the emitted photons would be different. Thus, in a gas of hydrogen
atoms at high temperature, electrons can be excited to many possible levels and can
make transitions to any of the lower levels emitting radiations of the corresponding
frequencies. This implies that photons of different frequencies will be emitted and we
will observe more than one emission line in the emission spectrum of a hot gas.

etc… etc…
Level 4 Level 4
Level 3 Level 3

Level 2 Level 2
Energy Energy

Level 1 Level 1

(a) (b)

Fig.7.6: Different ways of transition of electron in a hydrogen atom from an excited energy level to
the lowest energy level

However, you must remember that the spectrum of hydrogen gas is not continuous,
that is, not all frequencies will be emitted; radiations of only those frequencies will be
emitted whose energies are equal to the difference in energy between the allowed
energy levels. Therefore, the emission spectrum of hydrogen gas contains bright lines
of certain definite frequencies.

The frequencies contained in the emission spectra of each element are unique:
no two elements have the same type of emission spectra because each one of
them has a characteristic set of allowed energy levels.
50
Absorption Spectrum Stellar Spectra and
Classification
Let us assume now that the hydrogen gas is not at a high enough temperature to excite
the electrons to higher energy levels. In such a situation, there is no emission of
radiation. If white light (continuous spectrum) is passed through this cool hydrogen
gas, it will absorb light of only those frequencies which give electrons just enough
energy to make a transition to one of the excited energy levels (see Fig. 7.3b).
Therefore, just as photons of certain energies are emitted by hydrogen gas at a high
temperature, photons of the same energies are absorbed by the cool hydrogen gas.
You can argue that atoms absorbing photons and giving rise to absorption spectrum
will eventually re-emit photons of the same frequencies. Thus, it should cancel out the
effect of absorption and we could not observe any absorption spectrum! The question,
therefore, is: How to explain the observed absorption spectrum? The re-emitted
photons are repeatedly absorbed by the atoms of the cool gas before they finally
escape it. These re-emitted photons escaping from the gas travel along different
directions. Thus, the photons of certain frequencies, which were originally coming
towards the spectroscope as a part of white light, are scattered by the atoms of the
cool gas. As a result, the intensities of the light corresponding to these frequencies are
very low and we observe an absorption spectrum.
Thus when white light passes through a cool hydrogen gas, we obtain a series of dark
lines and such a spectrum is called the absorption spectrum.

Do remember that for any element, the dark lines of absorption spectrum occur
at exactly the same frequencies (or wavelengths) where we observe bright lines
in its emission spectrum.

Now, before proceeding further, you should answer an SAQ to fix these ideas.

SAQ 1 Spend
5 min.
a) Why do the spectra of different elements have different sets of lines?
b) What do you understand by a continuous spectrum? Under what condition do we
observe it?

Let us pause for a moment and think: How does the knowledge about the origin of
spectral lines help in analysing stellar spectra? Firstly, you have learnt that each
element produces a unique set of spectral lines. Therefore, observing the spectrum of a
star, we can tell which element(s) are present in its atmosphere. Secondly, the nature Strictly speaking, the stellar
spectra tell us about the
of spectrum  emission or absorption  depends on the temperature prevailing in the composition of the star’s
atmosphere through which star light passes. Thus, the nature of spectrum gives us an atmosphere. However, it is
idea about the temperature of the star’s atmosphere. generally believed that the
composition of the
In addition, stellar spectra also provide information about the density of the star’s atmosphere reflects the
composition of the star itself.
atmosphere and the motion of stars with respect to the Earth. Whether a star is moving
towards or away from the Earth can be inferred on the basis of Doppler effect:

According to the Doppler effect, there is an apparent change in the wavelength

of radiation emitted by a star due to its (star’s) motion; if the star is moving away
from the Earth, the wavelengths are shifted towards longer wavelengths (the
phenomenon is known as red shift) and if the star is moving towards the Earth,
the wavelengths are shifted towards shorter wavelengths (the phenomenon is
known as blue shift).

With this background information, you are now ready to study stellar spectra. In this
context, it is useful to remember a set of empirical rules of spectroscopic analysis
given below:
51
The Solar System i) A hot and opaque solid, liquid or highly dense gas emits a continuous spectrum;
and Stars
Fig. 7.7a (you have learnt about optically thin and thick media in Unit 4).
ii) A hot gas produces emission spectrum and the number and position of the
emission lines depends on the composition of the gas (Fig. 7.7b).
iii) If light having continuous spectrum is passed through a gas at low temperature, an
absorption spectrum consisting of dark lines is produced (Fig. 7.7c). Again, the
position and number of dark lines are characteristic of the elements present in the
gas.
iv) When light with continuous spectrum passes through a very hot, transparent gas, a
continuous spectrum with additional bright lines is produced.

Fig. 7.7 shows some of these situations.

Hot light source

Spectroscope
Cloud of gas

Continuous spectrum
with dark lines

Spectroscope Spectroscope (c)

Continuous spectrum Bright-line spectrum

(a) (b)

Fig.7.7: Diagrammatic representation of empirical rules for spectroscopic analysis of stellar spectra

7.3 STELLAR SPECTRA

Before discussing stellar spectra, you may like to know how they are obtained using a
spectroscope. Refer to Fig. 7.8 which shows how to obtain a spectrum using a
spectroscope. Light from the telescope (pointing towards the star) is passed through a
slit, a collimating lens, through the prism of the spectroscope to obtain the spectrum.
The resulting spectrum is focussed by another lens and can either be viewed directly
or photographed.

Prism
Red
Light from
telescope
Source slit Violet
Collimating lenses

Fig.7.8: Schematic diagram of a spectroscope

For a casual observer, all stars look alike. But, if observed carefully, some stars appear
bright and some faint. It is usually difficult to make out the colours of stars if they are
52 fainter than the second magnitude. This is due to poor colour sensitivity of the human
eye to fainter light. Stellar spectra, however, show that individual stars differ widely Stellar Spectra and
Classification
from one another in brightness and spectral details. While spectra of some stars
contain lines due to gases like hydrogen and helium, others show lines produced by In earlier times, the spectrum was
exposed on a photographic film.
metals. Some stars have spectra dominated by broad bands of molecules such as The film was then developed in
titanium oxide. the usual way and scanned for
intensity at each point of the film.
A typical spectrum of a star consists of a continuum, on which are superposed dark The data so obtained was plotted
absorption lines. Sometimes emission lines are also present. An example of a typical to obtain the spectrum. Now-a-
stellar spectrum is the solar spectrum (Fig. 7.9). Solar spectrum can be easily obtained days, with the advent of modern
detectors like the CCDs (about
by passing a narrow beam of sun light through a prism. It consists of a continuum which you have studied in Unit
background superposed by dark lines. 3), the spectrum can be directly
stored in a computer and plotted.

Fig.7.9: Solar spectrum

The dark lines in the solar spectrum are called Fraunhofer lines. You know that the You have learnt in Unit 1 that
the brightness of stars is
intensities of spectral lines indicate the abundance of various elements to which the expressed in magnitudes.
lines belong. The important lines in stellar spectra are due to hydrogen, helium,
carbon, oxygen, neutral and ionised metal atoms. Bands in the spectra are caused by
the molecules such as titanium oxide, zirconium oxide, CH, CN, C3 and SiS2.
Similarities in stellar spectra provided the basis for classification of stars into certain
categories. The earliest classification was done by Annie J. Cannon. She classified
more than 2, 50,000 stars by observing the strength of absorption lines, particularly,
the hydrogen Balmer lines. In this way stars have been classified into seven major
spectral types, namely, O, B, A, F, G, K and M.
For greater precision, astronomers have divided each of the main spectral types into
10 sub-spectral types. For example, spectral type A consists of sub-spectral types A0,
A1, A2.... A8, A9. Next come F0, F1, and so on. Thus there are 70 sub-spectral types
possible. However, in practice, all 70 types have not been observed. The advantage of
the finer division is to estimate the star's temperature to accuracy within about
5 percent. The Sun, for example, is not just a G star, but a G2 star, with a surface
temperature of about 5800 K.

7.3.1 Spectral Types and Their Temperature Dependence

Fig. 7.10 shows a set of spectra of seven main types of stars: O, B, A, F, G, K and M
(hottest O-type to coolest M-type). It was shown by M.N. Saha, an Indian scientist,
that Cannon’s spectral classification can be explained primarily on the basis of the M.N. Saha’s conclusion that
temperatures of stars because the intensities of spectral lines depend on the surface Cannon’s spectral classification
temperature of a star. To elaborate this argument, let us take the case of spectral lines is based on surface temperature
of stars is based on the fact that
of hydrogen Balmer series as an example. ionisation of atoms is a process
similar to chemical reaction.
You know that 50 to 80 percent of the mass of a typical star is made of hydrogen. This means that at a given
However, only a small fraction of the stars show Balmer lines in their spectra! It is so temperature, relative number of
atoms in various stages of
because most of the stars do not have sufficient surface temperature to raise the ionisation which are in
electrons in hydrogen atoms to the second and higher energy levels. And, as you equilibrium, is fixed. Further,
know, for production of Balmer lines, electrons in the hydrogen atoms make the intensity of an absorption
transitions from the higher energy levels to the first excited energy level. For example, line is a function of the number
a M type star whose surface temperature is about 3000 K, does not have enough of atoms which can absorb
radiation corresponding to this
energy for production of Balmer lines. Therefore, even though there is an abundance line and this number itself is a
of hydrogen in the stars, Balmer lines may not be observed in the spectra of all of function of temperature.
them: the surface temperature prohibits the formation of Balmer lines of hydrogen.
53
The Solar System H Hδ Hγ Hβ
and Stars Hydrogen Balmer series lines

350 nm 400 nm
Various 450 nm 500 nm
KH metals
lonized Ca Calcium

Fig.7.10: Examples of spectra of various types of stars (O to M type)

On the other hand, very hot stars with surface temperatures higher than 25000 K also
do not contain Balmer lines in their spectra. Can you guess why is it so? It is because
such stars are so hot that electrons of the hydrogen atoms are ripped off and the atoms
are ionised. Such ionised atoms cannot produce spectral lines. It is only when the
surface temperature of a star is between 7500 K and 11000 K that the conditions are
favorable for the production of Balmer lines. Therefore, surface temperature of a star
determines which spectral lines would be formed and what their intensities would be.
After hydrogen, the second most abundant element in stars is helium. A helium atom
has two electrons which are held very tightly together in their lowest states. Hence,
helium absorption lines are seen in the spectra of relatively hot stars with surface
temperatures in the range 11000 K to 25000 K. In stars hotter than 25000 K, one of
the two electrons in helium atoms is torn away. The question is: Are the spectral
lines produced by singly ionised helium atoms similar to those produced by un-
ionised helium atom?

The spectral lines produced by singly ionised helium are different from those
produced by neutral or un-ionised helium. Further, stars with temperatures in excess
of 40000 K are so hot that helium is completely ionized which cannot produce any
spectral lines.
In some stars, conditions are favourable for a molecule to produce spectral lines. Very
cool stars with temperatures less than 3500 K show very strong, broad bands of
titanium oxide (TiO). Table 7.1 shows the values of the temperature and some other
important parameters of seven main spectral types.
Table 7.1: Spectral types and their parameters
Spectral Approx. Hydrogen Other spectral Naked-eye Color
class temp. (K) Balmer features example (Star)
lines
O 40,000 Weak Ionised He Meissa (O8) Blue
B 20,000 Medium Ionised and Achenar (B3) Blue/White
Neutral He
A 10,000 Strong Ionised Ca weak Sirius (A1) White
F 7,500 Medium Ionised Ca weak Canopus (F0) Yellow/White
G 5,500 Weak Ionised Ca Sun (G2) Yellow
medium
K 4,500 Very weak Ionised Ca Arcturus (K2) Orange
strong
M 3,000 Very weak TiO strong Betelgeus (M2) Orange/Red
54
There is an alternative method to determine the temperature of a star on the basis of its Stellar Spectra and
Classification
spectrum. This method is based on the principle of black body radiation and you will
learn it now.

7.3.2 Black Body Approximation

As you know, the colour and brightness of a star is different from other stars. You also
know that these parameters depend on temperature. Does it, therefore, mean that we
can estimate the temperature of stars on the basis of their observed colour and
brightness?
It can indeed be done if we consider a star as an ideal object called black body. Refer
to Fig. 7.11 which shows a set of black body spectra at various temperatures. Note
that hotter bodies radiate most of their total energy in the shorter wavelength part of
the spectrum. On the other hand, the cooler bodies have the peak of their radiation at
the longer wavelength side of the spectrum and the total energy radiated by them is
relatively low.
It has been observed that the outer envelope of a star’s spectrum is quite similar to a
black body spectrum at a certain temperature. Thus, a stellar spectrum can be
approximated to a black body spectrum. You should, however, note that the
absorption features of stellar spectra distinguish it from the black body spectrum.
Therefore, the main spectral types, namely O to M, can be considered as referring to
different temperatures. In other words, we can say that spectral type directly refers to
the effective temperature of the star (see Table 7.1).

0
log10 Fλ

-2

-4

-5 -4.5 -4 -3.5
log10 λ (cm)

Fig.7.11: Black body radiation curves for various temperatures

To estimate the temperature of an astronomical object such as a star on the basis of

black body approximation, go through the following Example carefully.

55
The Solar System
and Stars Example 1
An astronomical object named Cygnus X-1, a strong X-ray source, is found to radiate
like a black body with peak wavelength at 1.45 nm. Calculate its temperature. Assume
that the constant for Wien’s displacement law is equal to 2.9×10−3 mK.
Solution
You may recall from Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics (PHE-06) course
that the Wein’s displacement law is given by:
λpeak T = constant
where λpeak is the value of wavelength corresponding to the peak of the black body
spectrum and T is the temperature of the black body. For Cygnus X-1, we have

λpeak = 1.45 × 10−9m

and
value of the constant = 2.9 × 10−3mK.
Thus, temperature of Cygnus X-1,

2.9 × 10 −3 mK
T= ≅ 2 × 10 6 K .
−9
1.4 × 10 m

As you know, the temperature of a star is not a directly measured quantity; rather, we
infer this parameter on the basis of black body approximation. Would it not be better
to classify stars on the basis of a parameter, say luminosity, which is more easily
measurable? This is what was attempted by Ejnar Hertzsprung and Henry Norris
Russell and their classification of stars resulted in a graph known as H-R diagram.
You will study about it now.

7.4 H-R DIAGRAM

H-R diagram is a graph which enables us to simultaneously classify stars on the basis
of their temperatures and their luminosities. Since H-R diagram involves parameters
such as temperature, luminosity and radius, it would be advisable to first recapitulate
these terms and their interdependence in the context of stars.
The luminosity (L) of a star is defined as the total energy radiated by it, in one second,
consisting of radiations of all wavelengths. On the other hand, you may recall from
Unit 1 that the absolute visual magnitude refers only to the visible range of the
electromagnetic radiation. Therefore, corrections need to be applied for the radiations
emitted at other wavelengths. The required extent of correction depends upon the
temperature of the star. This correction is called Bolometric Correction (B.C.) and
for medium temperature stars like our Sun, its value is small. After making necessary
correction, we obtain the absolute bolometric magnitude: for the Sun it is + 4.7 and
for Arcturus, it is − 0.3.
Thus, the expressions for the apparent magnitude as well as the absolute magnitudes
of a star are written as:

mbol = mv + B.C. (7.2a)

and
M bol = M v + B . C . (7.2b)

where mbol, mv, M bol and M v are respectively the apparent bolometric magnitude
apparent visual magnitude, absolute bolometric magnitude and absolute visual
magnitude of a star. Further, the absolute bolometric magnitude of a star can be
56 calculated from the following relation:
 Stellar Spectra and
bol bol  L 
M star − MΘ = −2.5 log  star  (7.3) Classification
 LΘ 
You have already learnt that a difference of 5 in absolute magnitude implies a ratio of
100 in luminosity. So, the luminosity of Arcturus is 100 LΘ . The most luminous stars
can have luminosities of the order of 105 LΘ , whereas the least luminous ones have
luminosities ~ 10−4 LΘ .
Thus, if we can measure the parallax of a star, we can find its distance, calculate its
absolute visual magnitude, calculate the bolometric correction and obtain absolute You have learnt in Unit 1
bolometric magnitude. As a result, we can estimate the luminosity of a star in terms of how the parallax of a star is
the Sun’s luminosity. How about solving an SAQ to check your understanding of the measured.
terms discussed above?
SAQ 2 Spend
5 min.
The absolute visual magnitude of a star is 8.7 and for its temperature, the bolometric
correction is − 0.5. Calculate the absolute bolometric magnitude and the luminosity of
the star.

You know that one of the fundamental parameters of a star is its diameter and it is
related to the star’s luminosity and temperature. To appreciate the relation amongst
these parameters, consider a normal candle flame which has a low surface area. The
candle flame, despite being very hot, cannot radiate much heat and its luminosity is
low. However, if the candle flame were 25 cm long, it would have larger surface area.
In this case, despite being at the same temperature, it would radiate more heat and
would have high value of luminosity.
In the same way, a star’s luminosity is affected by its surface area and temperature. To
obtain a relation between the luminosity and diameter of a star, we can assume the star
to be spherical in shape having surface area 4πR2, where R is the radius. Further, from
basic thermodynamics (PHE-06 course), you know that, the total energy radiated by a
black body per second per unit area is σT 4 (Stefan’s law). Assuming that the star
radiates like a black body, we can express its luminosity (L) as the product of its
surface area and the energy radiated by it per unit area per second, i.e.,
L = 4πR 2σT 4 (7.4)
Thus, by comparing the luminosity L of a star, with LΘ , the luminosity of the Sun, we
get:
2 4
L  R  T 
=    (7.5)
LΘ  RΘ   TΘ 

where RΘ and TΘ are the radius and temperature of the Sun.

Let us now refer to Fig. 7.12 which shows a H-R diagram for all known stars in our
solar neighbourhood. Note that the H-R diagram is a plot between absolute magnitude
or luminosity (along y-axis) and temperature (along x-axis).
The H-R diagram contains quite a lot of information about stars. Since the absolute
magnitude or luminosity refers to the intrinsic brightness of a star, H-R diagram
relates the intrinsic brightness of a star with its temperature. Moreover, the H-R
diagram separates the effects of temperature and surface area on the luminosity of the
stars because the brightness of two stars at the same temperature is proportional to
their radii. This feature enables us to classify stars in terms of their diameters.
Further, you must remember that the location of a star on the H-R diagram is in no
way related to its location in space: a star located near the bottom of the diagram
simply means that its luminosity is low and similarly, a star in the right indicates that
its temperature is low (because the temperature decreases away from the origin) and
so on. Another interesting feature of the H-R diagram is that the position of a star on 57
The Solar System it changes with time. This implies that the star’s luminosity and temperature change
and Stars
with its age. Again, this change in position of a star has nothing to do with the star’s
actual motion.
The stars have been divided into different types/groups on the basis of their location
on the H-R diagram. In Fig. 7.12, you may note that the distribution of stars follows a
pattern such that a majority of stars fall along a central diagonal called the main
sequence. The main sequence stars account for nearly 90 per cent of all stars. The
other types of stars such as giants, supergiants, white dwarfs populate other regions.
The giant stars (named so because of their big size) located at the top right of the H-R
diagram have low temperature but high luminosity.
Spectral class
O B A F G K M

Supergiants
-20 17

6
Red giants
3.2
Absolute magnitude

-10 Main
sequence 1.8
1.5
1.3 (a)
1
5 0.7
White dwarfs 0.5

0.3
10

20000 10000 7000 6000 5000 3000

Temperature (K)

Spectral Class
O B A F G K M
−10

−−−−5

0
Absolute Magnitude

(b)
+5

+10

+15

+20
20,000 14,000 10,000 7000 5000 3500 2500

Temperature (K)

Fig.7.12: a) A schematic H-R diagram (Note that on the main sequence, masses of the stars are
indicated in units of solar mass.); and b) magnified version of the H-R diagram
58
When we move further up in the H-R diagram (Fig. 7.12), we find super giants. Stellar Spectra and
Classification
These high luminosity and low temperature stars must be extraordinarily big in size. It
has been estimated that the diameters of super giants are roughly 100 to 1000 times
the diameter of the Sun! Further, when we come to the bottom left (below the main
sequence), we come across stars known as white dwarfs  stars which are very hot
but their luminosity is very low. Obviously, white dwarf stars must be very small in
size compared to the Sun to have such low luminosities.

Example 2

A bright star in Orion constellation, Betelgeuse, has a surface temperature of 3500K

and is 105 times more luminous than the Sun. Calculate its radius in terms of RΘ , the
radius of the Sun. What kind of star could it be on the basis of the H-R diagram?

Solution

We have

LB
TB = 3500K; TΘ = 5800K; = 105
LΘ

From Eq. (7.5), we have

LB R B2 TB4
=
LΘ 2 4
RΘ TΘ
or,
10 5 = [3500 5800]4 (R B /RΘ )2
or,
R B ≈ 1000RΘ

The luminosity and surface area of Betelgeuse is much higher than the Sun whereas
its temperature is lower than the Sun. These characteristics, as per the H-R diagram,
indicate that Betelgeuse is a super giant.

To fix the ideas expressed above, you should answer the following SAQ.

SAQ 3 Spend
8 min.
a) Suppose that the surface temperature of two stars A and B is the same and the
luminosity of A is higher than B. Which of the two stars is bigger in size? Why?

b) Choose a typical giant star in Fig. 7.12 and estimate its radius.

Although the basic H-R diagram depicts stars in terms of their temperatures and
absolute magnitudes, we can have its many other representations as well depending
upon the extent of information we wish to incorporate in it. Fig. 7.13 shows a
composite H-R diagram incorporating several parameters such as luminosity, absolute
magnitude, temperature, and spectral type.

59
The Solar System
and Stars

Fig.7.13: A composite H-R diagram showing various parameters of the stars

Spend SAQ 4
5min.
a) In which part of the main sequence are the less massive stars located?

b) A main sequence star has a luminosity of 400 LΘ. What is its spectral type?

Thus, on the basis of above discussion, you will agree that the H-R diagram provides
information about the following parameters of stars:

a) size
b) luminosity
c) mass
d) spectral type, and
e) absolute magnitude

It is because of this reason that the H-R diagram is so important in astronomy. So far,
you have studied about stellar spectra and classification of stars on the basis of their
temperature. You have also learnt that, on the basis of H-R diagram, one can get an
idea about the size of a star. However, to get a better idea about the size of a star, we
can use the correlation between the sharpness of spectral lines and luminosity. This
gives rise to luminosity classification. You will learn about it now.

7.5 LUMINOSITY CLASSIFICATION

We have discussed earlier in this unit that the luminosity of a star predominantly
depends on its size: the bigger the star is, the higher is the value of its luminosity.
Detailed study of the stellar spectra helps in ascertaining the density and size of a star
which give a fairly good idea of its luminosity. You may ask: Which features of the
stellar spectra provide such information? Recall that the spectrum of an isolated
atom differs from that of the gas of such atoms. The difference is manifested in the
form of broadening of spectral lines of the atom in the latter case due to collision
between atoms.

The next logical question is: Under what conditions can collisions readily take
place? For frequent collisions, a denser gas provides a better environment than a rarer
gas. Therefore, if the spectral lines in stellar spectra are broadened, we can safely
conclude that the density of the star is high. Examples of such stars are the main
sequence stars. On the other hand, giant stars have very low densities. As a result,
their spectral lines are fairly narrow compared to the main sequence stars.

60
Thus, sharp lines in the stellar spectra clearly indicate that the size of the star is large Stellar Spectra and
Classification
and hence its luminosity is high. The converse is also true. Thus, looking at the width
of spectral (absorption) lines, we can obtain a fairly good idea about its luminosity.
Table 7.2: Luminosity classes
As such, stars have more or less continuous range of luminosities. Still, on the basis of
the width of their spectral lines, they are categorized into various luminosity classes. Ia Bright supergiant
Table 7.2 gives the various luminosity classes denoted by Roman numerals I to V
Ib Supergiant
with the supergiants further subdivided into classes Ia and Ib.
II Bright giant
The star Rigel (β Orionis) is a bright supergiant (class Ia) and Polaris, the North star is
a regular supergiant (class Ib).The star Adhara (ε Canis Majoris) is a bright giant III Giant
(Class II); Capella (α Aurigae) is a Giant (III) and Altair (α Aquilae) is a subgiant
(IV). The Sun is a main-sequence star (V). Thus, the complete spectral classification IV Subgiant
for the Sun is G2V. This complete classification is also called the spectro-luminosity
V Main-sequence star
classification. The spectro-luminosity class of star Vega is A0V.

Refer to Fig. 7.14 which shows the position of luminosity classes on the H-R diagram.
You must remember that the lines corresponding to each class is just an
approximation; star of a particular class may lie just above or below the line
corresponding to that class.

Fig.7.14: H-R diagram depicting the location of luminosity classes

Now, let us sum up what you have learnt in this unit.

7.6 SUMMARY
• Emission and absorption of radiation is caused due to transition of electrons in
atoms between allowed energy levels. Analysis of stellar spectra provides
information about the temperature and size of a star.
• On the basis of the strength of spectral lines, particularly Balmer lines, in stellar
spectra, stars were classified into seven main spectral types namely O, B, A, F,
G, K and M. It was shown by M N Saha that this classification essentially refers
to the temperatures of stars.
• H-R diagram enables us to classify stars on the basis of their temperatures and
luminosities.

61
The Solar System • Luminosity of a star is defined as the total energy rediated by it in one second
and Stars
consisting of radiations of all wavelengths. The relation between luminosity,
radius and temperature of a star is given by:
2 4
L  R   T 
=  


T


LΘ  RΘ   Θ 

• On the basis of H-R diagram, stars are grouped into four categories namely main
sequence, giants, super giants and white dwarfs. Stars of each group have
characteristic temperatures, sizes and luminosities.
• The density of a star affects the sharpness of its spectral lines. This fact is used for
luminosity classification of stars.
• According to the luminosity classification, stars are classified into five classes: I,
II, III, IV and V with class I further sub-divided into Ia and Ib.

7.7 TERMINAL QUESTIONS Spend 25 min.

1. Assign spectral class to each of the objects whose characteristics are given below:
a) Temperature ~ 40,000K
b) Weak Balmer lines but moderately strong Ca lines
c) Strongest hydrogen lines
d) Molecular bands of TiO
e) Neutral helium lines
bol
2. A star has luminosity ~ 100 LΘ and apparent bolometric magnitude, m star = 9.7.
bol
If Sun has M Θ = + 4.7, calculate the distance of the star.

3. Calculate the radius of a star which has the same effective temperature as the Sun
but luminosity 10,000 times larger.
4. In the following table, which star is a) the brightest; b) the most luminous; c) the
largest; and d) the smallest?

Star Spectro-luminosity type mv

1. G2V 5
2. B1V 8
3. G2Ib 10
4. M5III 19
5. White Dwarf 15

7.8 SOLUTIONS AND ANSWERS

Self Assessment Questions (SAQs)

1. a) Spectra of different elements have different lines because their atomic energy
levels are different.
b) A continuous spectrum contains all wavelengths. We get such a spectrum
when the density of a system is high, as in a solid.
2. From Eq. (7.2b), we know that
M bol = M v + B . C .
Substituting the values of M v and B.C., we get, M bol = 8.7 − 0.5 = 8.2
62
 Further, from Eq. (7.3), we have: Stellar Spectra and
Classification
Lstar (M bol − M bol )
= 10 − 4 star Θ
LΘ
= 10 −0.4 (8.2−4.7 )
1
=
25
LΘ
Thus, we get, Lstar = .
25

3. a) Since LA > LB, the surface area of A is greater than the surface area of B. So, A
is bigger.

b) In Fig. 7.12, we find that the temperature of a typical giant star can be taken as
5000 K. So, we can write for a typical giant, T = 5000 K. Further, the
luminosity of a typical giant can be written as, L = 100 LΘ
Thus, using Eq. (7.5), we get:
2 4
L  R   T 
=    
LΘ  RΘ   TΘ 
or,
2 4
 R  L  TΘ 
  =   = 100 × (6 / 5)
4
R
 Θ  LΘ  T 
or,
R = 14.4 RΘ .

4. a) Lower part of the main sequence.

b) From Eq. (7.3), we have

bol bol  L 
M star − M Θ = − 2.5 log  star  = − 2.5 log 400 = ─ 6.5
 LΘ 
Thus,
bol
M star = ─ 6.5 + 4.7 = ─ 1.8

If we look at the H.R. diagram to identify the class of the star having this
value of absolute magnitude, we find that its class should be B7,
approximately.

Terminal Questions

1. (a) O (b) G (c) A (d) M (e) B

2. We have from Eq. (7.3):

bol bol  L 
M star − MΘ = −2.5 log  star 
 LΘ 
or,
bol
M star = 4.7 − 2.5 log (100) = − 0.3
63
The Solar System
and Stars
Further, we have:

bol bol  d 
m star − M star = 5 log  
 10 
9.7 − (− 0.3) = 5 log (d/ 10 )
or,
d = 1000 pc .

3. From Eq. (7.5), we have:

L1 L2 = R12T14 R22T24
or,
10 4 = R12T14 RΘ2 T14 ;
or,
R1 = RΘ 10 4 = 100 RΘ

4. [Hint: Use Fig. 7.12 to determine the absolute magnitudes.]

The answers are: a) 1; b) 3; c) 3; d) 5.

64
 Stellar Structure
UNIT 8 STELLAR STRUCTURE
Structure
8.1 Introduction
Objectives
8.2 Hydrostatic Equilibrium of a Star
8.3 Some Insight into a Star: Virial Theorem
8.4 Sources of Stellar Energy
8.5 Modes of Energy Transport
8.6 Simple Stellar Model
Polytropic Stellar Model
8.7 Summary
8.8 Terminal Questions
8.9 Solutions and Answers

8.1 INTRODUCTION

In Unit 7, you have learnt about the classification of stars on the basis of their spectra.
You know that the H-R diagram is obtained on the basis of the luminosity, and
effective temperature of stars and enables us to classify them in the most
comprehensive manner. A careful look at this diagram reveals that there are gaps
between families of stars, e.g., between the main sequence and giants. You may
wonder why such gaps should exist when we have such a large number of observable
stars! Further, you may like to know: What causes some ordinary stars to become
giants and others to become dwarfs? These and similar other questions cannot be
answered on the basis of observations alone. We require the knowledge of the
physical conditions in the interior of the stars. In other words, we need to know: How
the temperature, pressure and density of a star vary in its interior? In the present unit,
you will study the physical principles which form the basis for understanding the
internal structure of stars.

You know that the Sun is emitting radiation at a constant rate and its diameter shows
no significant variation with time. This implies that the Sun as well as other stars are
in mechanical and thermal equilibria. In Sec. 8.2, you will study about hydrostatic
equilibrium and its consequences for the variation of density and pressure inside a
star. In Sec. 8.3, you will learn how to estimate the internal temperature of a star on
the basis of the virial theorem: statement of relation between the kinetic and potential
energies of a system in equilibrium. In addition to the considerations of hydrostatic
and thermal equilibria, the mechanism of energy generation and transport play an
important role in deciding stellar structures. In Sec. 8.4, you will learn why only the
energy generated due to nuclear reaction needs to be considered as the source of
stellar energy. You will also learn some important mechanisms of nuclear energy
generation in stars. In Sec. 8.5, various modes of transportation of energy from the
interior to the surface of stars have been discussed. You will discover the conditions
for the formations of convective and radiative zones in the stellar interior.
Finally, in Sec. 8.6, we discuss the computation of a simple stellar model. We also
discuss how the results of this model compare with the observations.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:

• list the basic assumptions for the theoretical study of stellar structure;

65
The Solar System • show that the values of interior pressure and temperature of a star are higher than
and Stars the values at the surface by several order of magnitudes;
• explain that the nuclear energy generation is the only important energy generation
process in stars;
• predict when a radiative or a convective zone will be formed in the stellar interior;
• compute polytropic stellar model and compare the theoretical results with
observations; and
• solve numerical problems based on these concepts.

8.2 HYDROSTATIC EQUILIBRIUM OF A STAR

You know that stars, including the Sun, are made of hot gas. We cannot probe the
interior of stars to determine their physical parameters and their variation with time
and distance because of their high temperatures and enormous distances from the
Earth. The question, therefore, is: How do we determine the internal structure of a
star? Astrophysicists construct theoretical models of stars and compare their
predictions with observations. To keep the theoretical analysis simple, the following
assumptions are made:

i) The star is spherically symmetric: You know that stars have rotational motion
which alters their spherical shape. Since the rotational motion is slow in most
cases, it does not have appreciable effect on the shape of the stars. Spherical
symmetry is, therefore, a valid assumption.

ii) The star is in dynamic equilibrium: Dynamic equilibrium means that the energy
radiated by a star is equal to the energy supplied from its core. This assumption
seems valid because luminosities of stars have been observed to be constant over
a considerable period of time.

iii) The star is in thermally steady state: This implies that the temperature at each
point within a star is constant over a considerable period of time. Note that this
assumption does not mean that the entire interior of a star is at the same
temperature.

Under these assumptions, the theoretical understanding of stellar structure is based on

four equations based on certain fundamental principles of physics. First of all, let us
consider the principle of hydrostatic equilibrium.

You know that the observable stellar parameters such as luminosity change very
slowly. We can, therefore, safely assume that a star is in hydrostatic equilibrium, that
is, it is neither expanding nor contracting (at least not very rapidly). This equilibrium
is maintained by a balance between the force of gravity acting inwards and that due to
the gradient of pressure of the gas acting outwards. To find out the consequences of
the hydrostatic equilibrium, let us consider an element of volume dV at a point A
inside a star at a distance r from its centre (Fig. 8.1). If ρ(r) is the density of matter
inside dV, that is, at a distance r from the centre, the mass enclosed in the volume
element dV is ρ(r) dV. Further, if M(r) is the mass inside the sphere of radius r, the
gravitational force acting on the mass inside dV is given by:

GM (r )
ρ(r )dV (8.1)
r2

66
 Stellar Structure

dV (=dA.dr)

dP.dA

r dr

Fig.8.1: An element of volume dV at a distance r inside a star in hydrostatic equilibrium

Now, in view of the spherical symmetry of the star, the pressure, density and
temperature may be taken as identical at all points over the spherical surface of radius
r. Therefore, the net hydrostatic force acting on the volume element dV and pushing it
outward can be written as:

dP . dA, (8.2)

where dA is the area of the volume element dV perpendicular to r and dP is the

pressure difference between two sides of the volume element along the radius. For
hydrostatic equilibrium, the gravitational force must be equal and opposite to the
hydrostatic force. Thus, on the basis of Eqs. (8.1) and (8.2), we can write:
GM (r )
ρ(r )dV = −dP.dA
r2
dP
=− .dV
dr

This yields the equation of hydrostatic equilibrium.

Equation of Hydrostatic Equilibrium

dP GM (r )
=− ρ(r ) (8.3)
dr r2

We can also write Eq. (8.3) as

dP
= − ρ(r ) g (r ) (8.4)
dr
GM (r )
where g(r) is the acceleration due to gravity given by g(r) = . From Eq. (8.3),
r2
it is obvious that it is the pressure gradient that supports the star and not the pressure.
If we denote the mass of the whole star by M and its radius by R, the mean density,
< ρ > of the whole star can be expressed as:
M
<ρ>= (8.5)
4 3
 πR 
3 

67
The Solar System Let us now consider a spherical shell of the star between radii r and r + dr. The
and Stars 2
volume of the matter enclosed in this shell is 4πr dr. Since ρ(r) is the density of
stellar matter at distance r, the mass of this spherical shell is:
dM (r ) = 4π r 2 ρ(r ) dr

Thus, we can express the total mass inside the sphere of radius r as:
r
M (r ) = ∫ ρ (r ) 4 π r 2 dr
0

Differentiating both sides of the above equation with respect to r, we get the mass
continuity equation for the star:

Mass continuity equation

dM (r )
= 4πr 2 ρ(r ) (8.6)
dr

Eqs. (8.3) and (8.6) constitute two basic equations of stellar structure. Further, the
state of hydrostatic equilibrium in a star enables us to obtain a relation between its
gravitational potential energy and the kinetic energy of its constituent particles. This
relation is known as the virial theorem. You will learn about it now.

8.3 SOME INSIGHT INTO A STAR: VIRIAL THEOREM

You may be aware that the virial theorem is applicable for a system of perfect gas
particles. However, this theorem can also be applied to a star because it (star) can be
considered as a system of free particles. To obtain the relation between the potential
and kinetic energies of a star, let us consider the equation of hydrostatic equilibrium
(Eq. (8.3)). On multiplying Eq. (8.3) by 4πr3 and integrating over the radius of the
star, we get:

R dP R GM (r )
∫0 dr
4πr 3 dr = − ∫0 ρ(r ) r 2
4πr 3 dr (8.7)

On integrating by parts, the left hand side of Eq. (8.7) gives:

Actually, the pressure on R R R

dP
∫0 ∫0 3P4πr
the surface of a star is not 3 3 2
4πr dr = P 4πr − dr
zero. Its value is, however, dr
much smaller than the 0
pressure in the interior.
Therefore, it can be Since P = 0 at r = R, the first integral on the right hand side vanishes and the above
assumed to be zero. This is equation reduces to:
also the case with density.
R dP R
∫0 dr
4πr 3 dr = −3 ∫0 P 4πr 2 dr

Thus, Eq. (8.7) can be written as:

R R GM (r )
−3 ∫0 P 4πr 2 dr = − ∫0 ρ(r ) r
4πr 2 dr (8.8)

Now, assuming that the star comprises of monoatomic gas, its total thermal (or
68 internal) energy U can be written as:
 R Stellar Structure
2U = 3 ∫0 P 4πr 2 dr (8.9)

SAQ 1 Spend
3 min.
Derive Eq. (8.9).

Substituting Eq. (8.9) in Eq. (8.8), we obtain:

R GM (r )
2U = ∫0 ρ(r ) r
4π r 2 dr (8.10)

The right hand side of Eq. (8.10) can be expressed in terms of the gravitational
potential energy. The gravitational potential due to the mass M(r) inside the sphere of
GM (r )
radius r is − . Therefore, total potential energy due to all mass elements dM (=
r
4πr2ρ(r) dr) of the star is:

M GM (r ) R GM (r )
Ω=− ∫0 r
dM = − ∫0 r
4πr 2 ρ(r )dr (8.11)

Thus, on the basis of Eqs. (8.10) and (8.11) we get the virial theorem.

Virial theorem

2U + Ω = 0 (8.12)

You can see from Eq. (8.11) that the gravitational potential energy Ω of the whole star
can be determined only if we know the variation of density ρ(r) inside. Assuming that
ρ(r) ≈ < ρ > , the mean density of stellar matter, we may write:

4
M (r ) ≈ πr 3 < ρ > (8.13)
3

Substituting < ρ > for ρ(r ) and M(r) from Eq. (8.13) in Eq. (8.11) and integrating, we
get:

3 GM 2
Ω≈− (8.14)
5 R

Now, to find an expression for the internal energy of a star, we make use of the
equation of state of a gaseous system:
4 3
M (r ) = πr < ρ >
ρ 3
P= k BT (8.15)
µm
4 2
dM = π . 3r < ρ > dr
−23 −1
where kB (= 1.38 × 10 J K ) is the Boltzman constant, T is the temperature and 3
µm is the mean mass of a gas particle. For pure hydrogen gas, µ = 1. Substituting
dM
Eq. (8.15) in Eq. (8.9), we get: = 4 π r dr
2
<ρ>
3 R 3 M k BT
U= ∫
2 0
P 4πr 2 dr = ∫
2 0 m
dM
69
The Solar System since 4πr 2 dr = dV and ρdV = dM . If we define the mean temperature of the star,
and Stars
1 M
<T >=
M 0 ∫ TdM , then the above expression can be written as:

3 kB
U= M <T > (8.16)
2 µm

Substituting the expressions for potential energy (Eq. (8.14)) and internal energy
(Eq. (8.16)) in the virial theorem (Eq. (8.12)), we get:

1 µmG M
< T >=
5 kB R
Thus
< T > ∝ M 2 / 3 < ρ > 1/ 3 (8.17)

where R has been expressed in terms of the mean density.

Spend SAQ 2
10 min.
a) Verify the results contained in Eqs. (8.14) and (8.17).

b) Assume that the Sun is made of pure hydrogen (µ = 1). Show that the mean
temperature of the Sun is < T > ≅ 4 × 106K.

On solving SAQ 2, you must have appreciated that the internal temperature of the Sun
can be estimated without making any detailed calculations. Further, it is obvious from
Eq. (8.17) that if two stars have the same mass, the denser one will be hotter. For a
sun-like star, the effective surface temperature is Te ≈ 5780 K. And from the solution
of SAQ 2, we find that the mean solar temperature, < T > ≈ 4 × 106 K. This means
that the internal temperature must be much higher. You may ask: What causes such
high internal temperature in stars? To answer this, we must investigate the sources
of energy generation in stars. The stars can have possibly three kinds of energy
sources: gravitational, chemical and nuclear. You will study about them now.

8.4 SOURCES OF STELLAR ENERGY

Let us first consider the gravitational energy as the source of energy for stars. From
Eq. (8.14), note that when the whole matter of the star is scattered at infinity, its
gravitational potential energy is zero. When the stellar matter is assembled to make a
3 GM 2
star of radius R, its potential energy becomes − . This means that during the
5 R
gravitational contraction of a star, that is, during the formation of a star, an energy
3 GM 2
equal to is released.
5 R

It can be shown (TQ 2) that the Sun’s energy would last only for about 107 yrs if
gravitational energy was its only source. But, the results obtained on the basis of
radioactive dating of different types of meteorites, deep terrestrial oceanic sediments
and lunar rocks suggest an age of ≈ 5 × 109 years for the Sun. Thus, the gravitational
potential energy cannot be the source for solar luminosity. We must look for some
other source of energy for stars like the Sun.

70 We are now left with two other possible processes, namely, chemical and nuclear.
The possibility of a chemical process as the source of energy in stellar interior is also Stellar Structure
ruled out on the basis of results obtained in the following example.

Example 1

Assume that the Sun consists of hydrogen and oxygen and the proportion of these
elements is such that the entire solar material could be burned and transformed to
water vapour. Show that the total energy available from this process would last only
4
for ~ 10 yr given that 10 eV is liberated in the formation of each water molecule.

Solution
−27 −27
The molecular weight of water (H2O) is 18 u = 18 × 1.6 × 10 kg = 28.8 × 10 kg.
30
The mass of the Sun is 2 × 10 kg. Therefore, the total number of water molecules
present in the Sun is given by:

2 × 10 30 kg
≈ 6 × 10 55.
− 27
28.8 × 10 kg

Thus, total energy liberated due to the formation of water vapours in the Sun is:

6 × 1055 × 10 eV × 1.6 × 10−19 J (eV)−1 ≈ 9.6 × 1037 J.

Since the Sun radiates energy at the rate ~ 4 × 1026 Js−1, the duration over which the
Sun would radiate all its energy generated due to formation of water molecules is:

9.6 × 10 37 J
≈ ≈ 2.4 × 1011 s ~ 10 4 yr .
26 −1
4 × 10 Js

In view of the fact that the Sun has an estimated age of ~ 5 × 109 yr, the result of the
above example clearly shows that chemical process cannot be responsible for
generation of energy in stars.

Let us now look at the possibility of nuclear processes for generating energy in a sun-
like star. You may recall from your school physics that nuclear reactions are of two
types: fission reactions and fusion reactions. In nuclear fission, large unstable nuclei
like 238U break into smaller nuclei and energy is released. Since the abundance of
such nuclei is negligible in stars, such a process is also ruled out as a source of stellar
energy. We are, therefore, left with only fusion process to be considered as possible
energy source.

In nuclear fusion process, two lighter nuclei combine and form a new nucleus and
energy is released. The amount of energy released depends on the binding energy per
nucleon of the elements involved in the reaction. You may recall that the binding
energy of a nucleus is the energy required to separate its constituent nucleons by a
large distance. Refer to Fig. 8.2 which depicts binding energy curve. Note that as the
mass number increases from zero, the value of binding energy per nucleon increases.
This implies that if two or more, lighter nuclei (such as hydrogen) are fused together
to create a relatively heavier nuclei (such as 3He or 4He), we will have surplus of
energy. This is precisely what happens in fusion reactions: enormous amount of
energy would be released due to fusion of hydrogen nuclei and consequent production
of helium. Further, Fig. 8.2 also shows that the value of binding energy per nucleon
saturates at around mass number 50 and shows a very slow decrease beyond. The
nature of the binding energy curve, therefore, indicates that small-mass as well as
large-mass nuclei are less tightly bound than medium mass (such as Fe) nuclei. 71
The Solar System
and Stars
Spend
5 min.
To know the amount of energy
released due to fusion of four
hydrogen nuclei and formation
of a helium nucleus, note that
the total mass of four hydrogen
atoms is 4.031280 u while that
of a helium atom is 4.002603 u.
The mass defect is 0.02867u
and in accordance with the
2
Einstein equation, E = mc , the
energy released due to fusion
of four hydrogen nuclei into a
helium nucleus is equal to
2
(0.02867 u) × c where c is the
velocity of light.
72
Before proceeding further, you may like to convince yourself whether or not the
energy generated due to nuclear fusion can account for the observed luminosity of the
Sun. To do so, solve the following SAQ.
Fig.8.2: Variation of the binding energy per nucleon with mass number
SAQ 3
Assume that originally the Sun comprised only of hydrogen and that the inner 10
percent of the Sun’s mass could be converted into helium. For how long would the
Sun be able to radiate at the rate given by L = 4×1026 Js−1. The mass of the Sun is
MΘ = 2×1030 kg.
On solving SAQ 3 you find that the Sun would indeed be able to radiate energy at the
present rate for another 5 billion years by fusing hydrogen into helium.
Now the next logical question is: How is the fusion of hydrogen nuclei into helium
nuclei made possible? In other words, you may like to know what the pre-conditions
for nuclear fusion to take place are and how these conditions are obtained in the stellar
interiors. Nuclear fusion involves fusion of two positively charged nuclei against
Coulomb repulsion.
The possibility of such a process can be understood on the basis of the potential
energy curve that an atomic nucleus would experience when it approaches another
atomic nucleus (Fig. 8.3). Note that the potential energy curve consists of two distinct
regions. Region I corresponds to the situation when separation between the two nuclei
is such that their potential energy is due to Coulomb repulsion. Region II represents
the situation when two nuclei are very close to each other and the curve is in the form
of a potential well. The potential well illustrates the strong nuclear forces that bind the
nuclei. From Fig. 8.3, it is obvious that the two nuclei can fuse only when the
approaching nuclei are able to overcome the repulsive Coulomb barrier. This means
that the approaching nuclei have sufficient energy to overcome the barrier.
The question is: At what temperature, the approaching nuclei will have sufficient
energy? Using classical dynamics, we find that the temperature required to provide
sufficient energy to two nuclei so that they overcome Coulomb’s barrier is much
higher than the core temperature Tc (~ 1.5 × 107 K) of the Sun. Thus, classical physics
fails to explain the possibility of fusion reactions in stars. You must convince yourself Stellar Structure
about the inadequacy of classical physics to explain nuclear fusion by solving the
following SAQ.

Coulomb barrier

← Ekin ∼ kT
Energy

H
Distance

He Nuclear potential well

(binding energy)

C
O
Si
Fe

Region II Region I

Fig.8.3: Schematic representation of the potential energy barrier experienced by an atomic nucleus
approaching another atomic nucleus

SAQ 4 Spend
5 min.
Suppose that two nuclei have charges Z1e and Z2e and in order to interact, they must
−13
be separated by a distance ~ 10 m. Calculate their mutual potential energy. If their
relative kinetic energy is 3 kBT, calculate the temperature required by two hydrogen
nuclei to overcome this potential barrier.

The temperature in the core of the Sun is ~ 1.5 × 107K. At this temperature, only a
few proton-proton fusion can take place. There is, however, a finite probability that
particles with insufficient energy can tunnel thorough the potential barrier and react.
Now, let us look at some thermonuclear fusion reactions through which lighter nuclei
fuse and release energy.

In stars like the Sun, one of the prominent thermonuclear reactions is the so-called
proton-proton chain or p − p chain. This reaction proceeds sequentially through
three steps as given below:

H 1 + H 1 → H 2 + e + v, (1.19 MeV)
H 1 + H 2 → He 3 + γ, (5.49 MeV)
73
The Solar System He 3 + He 3 → He 4 + H 1 + H 1 , (12.85 MeV)
and Stars

Note that in these reactions, four hydrogen nuclei combine to form a helium nucleus.
The amount of energy liberated at each step is given within brackets. The p − p chain
produces most of the energy in Sun and other such stars.

Further, a relatively smaller amount of energy in the Sun is also generated by the
thermonuclear reaction known as carbon-nitrogen-oxygen (CNO) cycle as given
below:

H 1 + C12 → N 13 + γ, (1.45 MeV)

N 13 → C13 + e + v, (2.22 MeV)
H 1 + C13 → N 14 + γ, (7.54 MeV)
H 1 + N14 → O15 + γ, (7.35 MeV)
O15 → N 15 + e + v, (2.71 MeV)
H 1 + N15 → C12 + He 4 , (4.96 MeV).

You may note that in the CNO cycle, the carbon destroyed in the first step gets
regenerated in the last step. Further, similar to the p − p chain, CNO cycle also
produces a helium nucleus from four hydrogen nuclei. A CNO cycle, however, cannot
begin unless carbon is present.

The thermonuclear energy generated in the stars depends on the abundance of

fusionable matter and the interior temperature of the stars. This provides us a basis to
link the luminosity of stars with its mass. Let ε denote the rate of energy generated per
unit mass in thermonuclear reactions. Then, the luminosity dL caused by an element
of mass dM can be written as:

dL = ε dM (8.18)
2
Since dM = 4πr ρ(r) dr, Eq. (8.18) can be expressed as:

dL
= ε 4πr 2 ρ( r ) (8.19)
dr

Eq. (8.19) is one of the basic equations of stellar structure.

The energy generated at the core of a star must flow towards its surface because the
temperature of the core is very high compared to the star’s surface. Further, since the
star’s surface continuously radiates energy, it will cool off unless the radiated energy
is replaced. Energy transport in the star has important consequences for its structure
because the transport process determines the temperature (and pressure) of different
layers of the star’s interior. Would you not like to know what the different
mechanisms of energy transport in a star are? This is the subject matter of the next
section.

8.5 MODES OF ENERGY TRANSPORT

There are three basic energy transport processes: conduction, radiation and
convection. Fig. 8.4 shows a schematic diagram for these three processes.

74
 Stellar Structure
Conduction
Convection

Radiation

Fig.8.4: Three modes of energy transport: conduction, radiation and convection

Conduction is the most familiar form of heat flow and this process works through
vibrating atoms. The energy of the vibrating atoms is transferred to the nearby cooler
atoms by collisions and energy transport through conduction works better in solids
and not in gases. You will learn later in this Unit that conduction is responsible for
energy transfer in stars like white dwarfs whose interior is in a crystallised form
having density ~ 106g cm−3. For ordinary gaseous stars, conduction process is not
important.

Radiation is the next most familiar mode of energy transport and is responsible for
energy transport in some layers of the interiors of almost all the stars. The process of
energy generation in the central region of a star produces very high energy photons
which are γ-rays. As these photons travel outwards, they collide with matter. At each
collision, γ-ray photon loses energy and when it reaches the surface, its frequency lies
in the visible range. The progress of photons is extremely slow as they travel outward
and this, in fact, regulates the solar luminosity at the level of ~ 1026 Js−1. The
absorption of the energy of γ-rays by the stellar gas, is characterized by the
absorption coefficient, also known as the opacity, kλ of the gas. The subscript λ
indicates that the absorption depends on the wavelength. The important sources of
opacity at high temperatures inside a star are:

i) Electron scattering: The scattering of photons by free electrons.

ii) Photoionisation: The energy of photon is used for successive ionisation of
atoms/ions.

We can obtain an expression for the opacity on the basis of qualitative arguments.

Consider a slab of the stellar gas of thickness dx. Let Fλ denote the flux of radiation
that strikes at one end. If the mass density of the gas is ρ, the amount of radiation
absorbed by the slab is proportional to i) the density of matter in the slab ii) the
incident flux and iii) the thickness of the slab. Thus, the amount of flux absorbed is:

dFλ ∝ ρFλ dx

= −k λ ρFλ dx, (8.20)

where the minus sign indicates absorption. Photons generated inside the Sun do not
reach the solar surface directly; they are scattered by the electrons and nuclei. This
scattering is isotropic and thus their forward and backward scattering is equally likely.
The travel of photons inside a star is, therefore, like that of a drunken person. It is also
called the random walk. It takes thousands of years for these photons to reach the
star’s surface. To have an idea about the time taken by a photon to reach star’s surface
from the core, go through the following example carefully.
75
The Solar System
and Stars
Example 2

Suppose that the energy transport due to radiation process is analogous to the
random walk. Compute the time taken by a photon, generated in the core of the Sun,
to reach the solar surface. Given that for the Sun, the mean free path is l ~ 0.5 cm for
−3 6
photon at an average density and temperature of 1.4 g cm and 4.5 × 10 K,
respectively.

Solution

You may recall from Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics (PHE-06) course
that, according to the theory of random walk, we can write the mean square distance,
< D 2 > moved in N steps as:

< D 2 > = Nl 2

< D2 >
This gives N = , the number of steps required to travel a distance < D 2 > in
2
l
< D2 >
steps of size l in one dimension. For three dimensional space, N ~ 3 . Now,
l2
for the photon at the core which has to reach the surface, we have < D 2 >= R 2 .
Hence, the time taken for the photon to reach the solar surface is given by

3R 2
t=
c.l

since, in each step, the time taken is l/c where c is the velocity of light. Substituting
the values of R, c and l, we get

r t ≅ 30,000 yr.

Now, you may like to know: How does the radiative transport of energy give rise
r + dr to temperature gradient in stars? To find out, let us consider a thin spherical shell
around a spherical surface of radius r as shown in Fig. 8.5. Let the temperature of the
sphere be T. Since the spherical region within radius r acts as a source of black body
radiation, the radiative flux incident on the inner side of the shell can be expressed by
Fig.8.5: Spherical shell of (Stefan Law):
thickness dr around
a surface of radius r
F(r) = σT 4, (8.21)

where σ is the Stefan’s constant. Similarly, the radiative flux emerging outward from
the shell surface at r + dr is:

F (r + dr) = σ (T + dT )4 (8.22)

where T + dT is the temperature at the surface of radius r + dr. It is important to

mention here that dT is negative because the surface at r + dr is cooler than the inner
surface of the shell located at r. Since dT is very small compared to T, we can expand
(T + dT)4 using binomial expansion. Doing so, we get:

F (r + dr) = σ T 4 + 4σ T 3 dT
76
Therefore, the flux absorbed by the shell can be written as: Stellar Structure

3
dF = F (r + dr) − F(r) = 4σT dT (8.23)

Combining Eqs. (8.20) and (8.23), we get:

4σT 3dT = − k(r) ρ(r) F(r) dr (8.24)

2
Since luminosity, L(r) = 4πr F(r), we can rewrite Eq. (8.24) as:

dT k (r )ρ(r )
=− F (r )
dr 4σT 3

k (r )ρ(r )  L(r ) 
=−   (8.25)
acT 3  4πr 2 

ac
since σ = , where a is a constant and c is the velocity of light. Eq. (8.25) gives the
4
temperature gradient within a star due to radiative transport of energy. This expression
3
needs to be multiplied by an extra factor of on the right hand side so that it
4
becomes consistent with the one obtained by incorporating the details of such a
process. We, therefore, write the temperature gradient as:

dT 3 k (r ) ρ(r )  L(r ) 
=−   (8.26)
dr 4 acT 3  4πr 2 

Eq. (8.26) is yet another basic equation of stellar structure.

Now, let us consider the third mode of energy transport, namely, convection which
plays an important role in stars. Convection refers to the process in which heat energy
is transported by mass motion, i.e., by transport of the hot/cool matter itself. You are
familiar with convection currents or bubbles moving up and down when water in a
beaker is gradually heated from below. Such a motion also takes place in certain
regions in stars with hot fluid masses rising outward releasing their heat energy and
the cooler matter sinking downward to receive more energy. Fig. 8.6 depicts the
photospheric granulation which is a strong evidence supporting convective transport
of energy at the base of Sun’s photosphere. Convection causes mixing of the stellar

Convective
zone

Radiative
zone

Fig.8.6: Photospheric granulation of the Sun which is caused due to convective transport of energy
in which the hot matter comes out to the solar surface from layers below the surface

constituents in certain regions inside a star and produces homogeneity of chemical

composition by transferring heavy elements from interior to the surface. You may ask: 77
The Solar System Under what condition(s) does convection become the dominant mode of energy
and Stars transport? The process is dominant when the temperature gradient becomes too
steep. Steep temperature gradients are generally created in regions with high opacity
which restrains the flow of energy through radiative process.

To determine the temperature gradient in a convective region of a star, we consider a

situation where hot bubbles of gas rise up and expand adiabatically. After rising
through a characteristic distance, the bubbles lose extra heat and get mixed up with the
surroundings. For such a process, the bubble’s adiabatic temperature gradient is given
by:

 dT   γ − 1  T dP
 dr  =  γ  P dr (8.27)
  ad  

γ
Eq. (8.27) can be obtained by using the adiabatic relation P = K ρ and the equation of
k
state of the gas, P = B ρT . Also, from the equation of state, we have P = NkBT,
µm
where N is the number of particles per unit volume. In astrophysics, it is usual to take
the mass of a particle as µm, where µ is called the mean molecular weight and m is the
dP
mass of a proton. Further, for we use Eq. (8.3) in Eq. (8.27). With these
dr
substitutions, it is possible to write Eq. (8.27) as:

 dT   γ − 1  µm GM (r )
 dr  = −   (8.28)
  ad  γ  kB r2

Eq. (8.28) is one of the basic equations of stellar structure. You should note that only
if the actual temperature gradient in a star is steeper than the adiabatic gradient given
by Eq. (8.27), convective transport of energy can take place. We call the actual
temperature gradient in such a case as superadiabatic. Therefore, for convection to
take place, we must have:

 dT   dT 
  >  (8.29)
 dr  actual  dr  ad

In fact, it can be shown that convection dominates the radiative transport of energy in
 dT 
a region if   is slightly superadiabatic. In any case, the actual mode of
 dr  actual
energy transport in a region inside a star depends on the temperature gradient existing
there.

Now, you should pause for a moment and think what you have learnt so far. You have
learnt to derive certain equations on the basis of the principles of physics connecting
various parameters of a star. These equations are known as the basic equations of
stellar structure. You may ask: Why did we do all this? How do equations of stellar
structure help enhance our understanding of stars? These equations are used to
develop theoretical models of stars. If the predictions of these models are in
agreement with observations, we can conclude that the assumptions made about the
parameters of stellar interior are valid. In case of disagreement between theoretical
prediction and observations, the models are ‘fine-tuned’ by modifying the initial
assumptions. You will indeed appreciate that this is the only way to investigate the
interior of stars because we simply cannot look into those interiors. In the next
section, you will learn to develop a stellar model on the basis of equations of stellar
78 structure.
 Stellar Structure
8.6 SIMPLE STELLAR MODEL
Developing a stellar model essentially involves solving the equations of stellar
structure for a star. As such, it is a very complex task because large numbers of
equations with several unknowns need to be solved. This does not mean that we
cannot get a physical picture of a star. We find that, with some valid approximations,
simple stellar models are easier to calculate. Such models help understand the basis of
some of the empirical laws, such as, mass luminosity relation. Before discussing any
stellar model, let us first list the basic equations of stellar structure.

Basic Equations of Stellar Structure

In the previous sections, we used the following basic physical principles to obtain the
equations of stellar structures:

• Hydrostatic equilibrium,
• Equation of state for stellar matter,
• Mechanism of stellar energy generation, and
• Modes of energy transport in stellar interior.

These basic equations are used to compute theoretical stellar models. This is
equivalent to “constructing a theoretical star”! Once different models are computed,
their location in H-R diagram is found out. It is so because the H-R diagram sets a
detailed standard to be met by any theory of stellar structure and evolution. A
theoretical model is wrong if the physical characteristics of the computed “star” are
such that its location falls in the gap or empty regions of the H-R diagram. The
physical parameters of a star at any point in its interior are temperature, T(r), pressure
P(r), density ρ(r), and luminosity L(r). The basic equations of stellar structure are:

dP GM (r )
Hydrostatic equilibrium: =− ρ(r ) (8.30)
dr r2

dM
Mass continuity : = 4πr 2ρ(r ) (8.31)
dr

dT  3  kρ L(r )
Energy transport: = −  3 2
(8.32)
(radiative)
dr  4ac  T 4πr

dT  1  µm GM (r )
Energy transport: = −1 −  (8.33)
(convective) dr  γ  kB r2

dL
Energy generation: = 4πr 2ρ(r )ε(r ) (8.34)
dr
(Thermal equilibrium)

Equation of state: P (r ) = Rρ(r )T (r ) (8.35)

In the above equations, ε(r) is the thermonuclear energy production rate per unit mass.
You have learnt about it earlier in relation with luminosity. Further, the opacity k
occurring in these equations depends on temperature and density of the gas. In fact,
the exact form of the opacity relation depends on the process responsible for it.
Computation of stellar opacity is, however, a complex process and is usually
approximated by Kramer’s opacity relation given as
79
The Solar System ρ
and Stars k = const.Z (1 + X ) (8.36)
T 3.5

where X denotes the amount of hydrogen in a gram of stellar matter (it is also called
the abundance of hydrogen), Z denotes the abundance of heavier elements. (In
astrophysics, elements heavier than helium are called heavier elements.) The opacity
relation given by Eq. (8.36) is valid for stars on the main sequence.

To obtain the values of physical parameters by integrating the stellar structure

equations, we invoke the following boundary conditions:

M(r) = 0 and L(r) = 0 at r = 0 (the centre of star), (8.37)

and

M(r) = M; L(r) = L and T(r) = Teff at r = R (surface of a star)

(8.38)

With this background information, we are now in a position to discuss a stellar model.

8.6.1 Polytropic Stellar Model

In such a model, there is no need to know the actual source of energy generation in the
star. Further, we assume that any change in the equilibrium structure of a star takes
place in such a way that the specific heat remains constant, i.e.,

dQ
= C = constant (8.39)
dT

where C denotes the heat capacity when neither pressure (P) nor volume (V) is
constant. We call such a change as a polytropic change. An adiabatic or an
isothermal change, therefore, represents a polytropic change of zero and infinite
heat capacities, respectively. Instead of the adiabatic relation dQ = 0, we now have
dQ = CdT. In such a situation, the first law of thermodynamics

dQ = CV dT + PdV

takes the form

CdT = CV dT + PdV

Now, using the equation of state for a perfect gas, PV = RT and the fact that
R = CP − CV, we can write the above expression as:

(C − CV ) dT = (C P − CV ) dV (8.40)
T V

where CP and CV are the specific heats at constant pressure and constant volume,
respectively. Let us now define an exponent γ′ similar to the adiabatic exponent γ:

CP − C
γ′ = (8.41)
CV − C

Thus, we can write from Eq. (8.40) that

80 TV γ′−1 = const, PV γ′ = const . (8.42)

SAQ 5 Spend Stellar Structure
5 min.
Derive Eq. (8.42).

It is usual to express the physical variables, e.g., density, pressure and temperature in
terms of the polytropic index n defined as:

1
n= (8.43)
γ′ − 1

Since PV γ′−1 = const. , we can write:

1
1+
P = Kρ n (8.44)

where K is a constant. Further, the density is expressed in terms of a non-dimensional

parameter θ defined in terms of the central density ρc as

ρ = ρc θ n. (8.45)

We, therefore, get the following expressions for pressure and temperature:

P = Pc θ n+1 (8.46a)

T = Tc θ (8.46b)

n +1
µm
where Pc = Kρ c n and Tc =   Kρ c . We shall see below that Pc and Tc are the
1/ n

 kB 
central pressure and temperature.

SAQ 6 Spend
5 min.
Derive Eq. (8.46a) and (8.46b).

With this formal introduction to polytropic changes, let us consider the following
stellar structure equations:

dP GM ( r )
Hydrostatic Equilibrium: =− ρ( r ) (8.47)
dr r2
dM
Mass continuity: = 4πr 2 ρ(r ) (8.48)
dr

Substituting Eq. (8.48) in Eq. (8.47) and rearranging terms we can write:

1 d  r 2 dP 
= − 4π G ρ(r ) (8.49)
r 2 dr  ρ dr 

Substituting for P and ρ from Eqs. (8.44) and (8.45) in Eq. (8.49), we get:

 1
− 1
 (n + 1) K ρ n  1 d  r 2 dP  = − θ n (8.50)
 4πG c  r 2 dr  dr 
 
81
The Solar System To write Eq. (8.50) in a simpler form, let us introduce a dimensionless variable ξ as
and Stars follows:

r = αξ; (8.51)

1
 1 2
 (n + 1) K n − 1 
where α = ρ . Substituting Eq. (8.51) in Eq. (8.50) and rearranging
 4πG c 
 
terms we get:

Lane-Emden equation

1 d  2 dθ 
ξ  = − θ n (8.52)
2 dξ  ξ
ξ  d 

Eq. (8.52) is known as Lane-Emden equation. Solution of this equation, for a given n,
provides the density and pressure profile inside a star. The boundary conditions
under which this equation must be solved are:

dθ
θ = 1 and =0 at ξ = 0. (8.53)
dξ

θ is also known as Lane-Emden’s function.

Analytical solutions of Eq. (8.52) with the specified boundary conditions are possible
only for n = 0, 1 and 5. The analytical expressions for the Lane-Emden functions for
these values of n are:

ξ2
n = 0; θ 0 = 1 −
6
sin (ξ)
n = 1; θ1 = (8.54)
ξ
1
−
 ξ 2  2

n = 5; θ 5 = 1 +
 3 


Fig.8.7 shows the density profile inside a polytrope for n = 1.5 and 3.

Spend SAQ 7
10 min.
Verify that the Lane-Emden equation (Eq. (8.52)) is satisfied by the solutions given by
Eq. (8.54).

The general solution of the Lane-Emden equation is in the form of a series for θn as
given below:

ξ2 n 4
θn = 1 − + ξ − ... (8.55)
6 120

82
 Stellar Structure
1
Polytropes

0.8

0.6 n = 1.5
ρc
ρ /ρ

0.4
n=3

0.2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
r/R
Fig.8.7: Density profile of a polytropic star
Current stellar models calculated for the Sun that fit the observations indicate that a
large fraction of hydrogen at the centre of the Sun has been converted to helium
(estimated 40 percent hydrogen and 60 percent helium). Energy transport is still
radiative in the solar interior upto ~ 0.73 RΘ and beyond this distance, the temperature
gradient reaches a value which sets up convection. Fig. 8.8 illustrates the internal
structure of the present Sun.
Photosphere

Chromosphere

2000 km
Convection
Zone
330 km
Radiative
Zone
1.6 × 107 K
160 × 103 kg m−3
≈ 1/4R 0.80R Corona
1R

Core

8 × 104

20 × 103 5 × 105
106
Temperature (K)

4 × 10−4
6 × 103 K

8 × 10−5

Density (kg m−3)

Fig.8.8: The internal structure of the Sun as per a stellar model which shows the main regions of
the Sun and values of its important physical parameters 83
The Solar System Computation of actual stellar models involves complex mathematics and needs
and Stars extensive computer resources. It is primarily due to the complexities of the equations
of stellar structure.

Now, let us summarise what you have learnt in this Unit.

8.7 SUMMARY
• To understand the internal structure of stars, theoretical models of stars are
developed and the predictions of these models are compared with observations.

• The principle of hydrostatic equilibrium is one of the fundamental principles of

physics invoked for investigating stellar structure.

• The equation of hydrostatic equilibrium is given as:

dP GM (r )
=− ρ( r )
dr r2

• The mass continuity equation is given as:

dM (r )
= 4πr 2 ρ( r ).
dr

• The relation between total thermal energy and the gravitational potential energy of
a system of perfect gas particles such as a star is given by the so called virial
theorem:

2U + Ω = 0.

• Of the three possible sources namely gravitational, chemical and nuclear of

energy generation in stars, only nuclear processes can give rise to such high
internal temperatures. Energy is generated in stars due to fusion reactions,
particularly due to fusion of hydrogen nuclei and consequent formation of helium.

• One of the basic equations of stellar structure, as given below, relates the
luminosity (an observable parameter) of a star with its density:

dL
= ε 4πr 2 ρ( r )
dr

where ε is the rate of energy generated per unit mass in thermonuclear reactions.

• Energy generated at the core of a star is transported to its surface through one or
more than one of the three basic energy transport processes namely conduction,
radiation and convection.

• The temperature gradient in a star is produced due to radiative transport of

energy and is given as:

dT 3 k (r ) ρ(r )  L(r ) 
=−  
dr 4 acT 3  4πr 2 

• Equations of stellar structure are used to develop theoretical models of stars.

If the predictions of a model are in agreement with observations, we conclude that
84 the assumptions made about the parameters of stellar interior are valid.
• Developing a stellar model basically involves solving equations of stellar Stellar Structure
structure. This is quite a complex process because a large number of equations
with several unknowns are to be solved.

• In polytropic stellar model – a relatively simple stellar model – we do not need to

know the source of energy generation. In this model, it is assumed that any change
in the equilibrium structure of a star do not alter its heat capacity:

dQ
= C = constant
dT

• The Lane-Emden equation is given as:

1 d  2 dθ 
ξ  = − θ n
2 dξ  dξ 
ξ 

Solution of this equation provides the density and pressure profile inside a star.

8.8 TERMINAL QUESTIONS Spend 25 min.

1. Show that when four protons combine to form helium, the energy released is
~ 26.7 MeV.

2. At present, the Sun radiates energy at the rate of ~ 4 × 1026W. Assuming that the
gravitational contraction is the only source of the Sun’s radiant energy, how long,
since its creation, it would have radiated energy at the present rate? Take
M Θ = 2 × 10 30 kg and RΘ = 7 × 10 8 m .

3. Show that Eq. (8.55) is consistent with Eq. (8.54).

8.9 SOLUTIONS AND ANSWERS

Self Assessment Questions (SAQs)

1. The left hand side of Eq. (8.8) is:

R R 3 R
3∫0 P 4πr 2 dr = 3 ∫0 PdV = 2
2 0 ∫ PdV = 2U

3
since the internal or thermal energy can be expressed as
2∫PdV .

2.a) From Eq. (8.11), we can write the total potential energy as:

R GM ( r )
−Ω= ∫0 r
4πr 2 ρ(r ) dr

Assuming that ρ(r) ≈ < ρ > , the mean density of stellar matter, we can write:

R GM ( r ) RG 4π 3
−Ω= ∫0 r
4πr 2 < ρ > dr = ∫ 0 r 3
r < ρ > 4πr 2 < ρ > dr

85
The Solar System R 4 π 4π 4 R M2
and Stars = ∫0 3G
3 3 0
∫
r < ρ > 2 dr = 3 G.r 4
R6
dr

(using Eq. (8.13))

2 R
3GM
∫0 r
4
= dr
R6
or,
3 GM 2
Ω=−
5 R

This is Eq. (8.14). Further, from the virial theorem (Eq. (8.12)), we can write:

Ω
U =−
2

3 GM 2
= (using Eq. (8.14))
10 R

Also, from Eq. (8.16), we have:

3 kB
U= M <T >
2 µm

Comparing the above expressions for U, we can write:

3 GM 2 3 kB
= M <T >
10 R 2 µm
or,
1 GM µ m
< T >=
5 R kB

Further,

4
M= πR 3ρ
3

or,
1
 M 3
R ∝  
 ρ 

Substituting this value of R, we get

2 1
<T > ∝M 3 <ρ> 3

which is Eq. (8.17).

b) Eq. (8.17) can be written as:

1 GM µ m
<T > =
5 R kB
86
 Substituting the values of G, M, R and kB, we get: Stellar Structure

1 (6.7 × 10 −8 cm 3 g −1s − 2 ) × (2 × 10 33 g) × (1.6 × 10 −24 g)

<T >= .
5 (1.4 × 10 −16 erg K −1 ) × (7 × 1010 cm)

6
≈ 4 × 10 K.

3. Mass of four hydrogen atoms = 4.031280 u

Mass of a helium atom = 4.002603 u

So, the mass defect = 0.02867 u

Thus, the energy released per gram when four protons combine to form helium
is

(0.02867 u) × (9 × 10 20 cm 2 s − 2 )
=
4.0328

≈ 6 × 1018 erg.

Thus, we can write:

(2 × 10 33 g) × (6 × 1018 erg g −1 )
lifetime of the Sun =
( 4 × 10 33 erg s −1 )

= 3 × 1017 s

≈ 1010 yr.

4. We can write the potential energy of two nuclei Z1e and Z1e separated by a
distance r as:

Z1 Z 2 e 2
P.E. =
r

e2
= if Z1 = Z2 = 1
r

Since the potential barrier will be overcome by the relative kinetic energy of
the two nuclei, we can write:

e2
3k B T =
r
or,
e2
T=
3k B r

4.8 × 4.8 × 10 −20

=
3 × 1.4 × 10 −16 × 10 −11

≈ 5 × 107 K.
87
The Solar System 5. From Eq. (8.40), we have:
and Stars

(C − CV ) dT = (C P − CV ) dV
T V

If we define an exponent γ ′ as

Cp −C
γ′ =
Cv − C

we can write:

CP − C
γ′ − 1 = −1
CV − C

C P − C − CV + C
=
CV − C

C P − CV
=
CV − C

Further, Eq. (8.40) can be written as:

dT dV
(CV − C) + (C P − CV ) =0
T V
or,
dT dV
+ ( γ ′ − 1) =0
T V

′
TV γ −1 = Const.

Further, using the equation of state of a perfect gas:

PV = RT

we can write:

dP dV dT
+ = .
P V T

dT
Substituting for , we get:
T

dP dV
+ γ′ =0
P V
or,
′
PV γ = Const.

6. From Eq. (8.44), we have:

n +1
P = Kρ n

88
 n +1 Stellar Structure
= K ρc θ( n
) n (using Eq. (8.45))

n +1
n
= Kρ c θ n +1

= Pc θ n +1

n +1
n
where Pc = Kρ c

Further, we can write pressure as:

kB
P= ρT
µm
or,
µm P
T=
kB ρ

n +1
µm ρ n
= K (substituting Eq. (8.44))
kB ρ

µm µm
= Kρ1 / n = K (ρ c θ n ) 1 / n (substituting Eq. (8.45))
kB kB

µm
= Kρ1c/ n θ
kB

µm
= Tc θ where Tc = Kρ1c/ n
kB

7. Lane-Emden equation (Eq. (8.52)) is:

1 d  2 dθ 
 ξ  = − θ n
2 dξ dξ 
ξ 

For n = 0, this equation reduces to:

1
d  2 dθ 
 ξ  = −1
ξ 2 dξ  dξ 

ξ2
And, for n = 0, we have θ = 1 −
6

Substituting this value of θ in the left hand side of the above equation, we get:

1
d  2  ξ  1 d  ξ 3  1  3ξ 2 
 ξ  −   = − = − = −1.
ξ 2 dξ
  3   ξ 2 dξ  3  ξ 2  3 

89
The Solar System sin ξ
and Stars Further, for n = 1, we have θ = from Eq. (8.54). So, we get:
ξ

dθ cos ξ sin ξ
= −
dξ ξ ξ2

dθ
Again, substituting this value of in the left hand side of Lane-Emden
dξ
equation, we get:

1 d
2
(ξ . cos ξ − sin ξ )
ξ dξ

1 sin ξ
=
2
[− ξ sin ξ + cos ξ − cos ξ] = − = −θ
ξ ξ

as required.
−1 / 2
 ξ 2 
For n = 5, we have, θ = 1 +
 3 

or,
−3 / 2
dθ 1 ξ 2  2ξ
= − 1 + .
dξ 2  3  3

dθ
Substituting the value of in the left hand side of Lane-Emden equation, we
dξ
get:

  2
−3 / 2 
1 d  ξ3 1 + ξ  
−   
ξ 2 dξ  3  3  
 

  2
−3 / 2
 2
−5 / 2 
1  3ξ 2 1 + ξ  ξ 3
3  ξ  2ξ 
= − + . 1+ .
ξ 2  3  3  3 2  3  3
  

−3 / 2 −5 / 2 −5 / 2
 ξ 2  ξ2  2   ξ 2   ξ2 ξ2 
= − 1 + + 1 + ξ  = − 1 + 1 + − 
 3  3  3   3   3 3 
  

−5 / 2
 ξ 2 
= − 1 +
 3 


= − θ5 , as required.

Terminal Questions

1. When four protons combine to form a helium atom, the mass defect is 0.02867 u.
Thus, energy released in this process:
90
 E = mc 2 Stellar Structure

= (0.02867 ×1.6 ×10 − 27 kg) × (9 ×1016 m 2 s − 2 )

= 4.128 ×10 −12 J

4.128 ×10 −12

= eV
1.6 ×10 −19

= 26 MeV.

2. Assuming the Sun to be a sphere, its gravitational potential energy can be written
as:

3 GM 2
Ω=
5 R

So, the time τ for which the Sun will radiate with its luminosity, L can be written
as:

3 GM 2 1
τ= .
5 R L

3 GM 2 1 1
= . . yr .
5 R L 3 × 10 7

3 (6.7 × 10 −11 m 3 kg −1 s −1 ) × (4 × 10 60 kg 2 ) 1
= × yr .
5 (7 × 10 8 m) × (4 × 10 26 kg m 2 s −1 ) (3 × 10 7 )

1
= 10 8 × yr
5

≈ 2 × 10 7 yr .

3. Eq. (8.55) is:

ξ2 n 4
θn = 1 − + ξ − ...
6 120

For n = 0, this equation reduces to:

ξ2
θ0 = 1 − → a constant
6

for n = 1,

1 1 ξ3 ξ5 
θ1 = sin ξ =  ξ − + − ... 
ξ ξ  3! 5! 


91
The Solar System
1  ξ3 ξ5  ξ2 ξ4
and Stars = ξ− + − ... = 1 − +
ξ  6 120 
 6 120

ξ2 n 4
=1− + ξ − ...
6 120

for n = 5,

−1 / 2
 ξ 2  1 ξ2 − 1 − 3 1 ξ4
θ 5 = 1 + =1− . + . . .
 3  2 3 2 2 2 9


ξ2 ξ4 ξ2 5 4
=1− + =1− + ξ − ...
6 24 6 120

ξ2 n 4
=1− + ξ − ...
6 120

Thus, we find that Eq. (8.55) is consistent with Eq. (8.54).

92