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    Outline for General Chemistry

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    9 views11 pages

    Outline For General Chemistry

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    ALLEN MAAC

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    Allen G Maoc Bete fe OUTLINE FOR UNIT (The Chenictry of Eek Mate) /' (O METALS Occurance of Metals Mineral ~a naturally occuring substonce with a range of chemical composition. Ore - a mineral depocit conéantrated enough fo allow economical reravery of a desired = 0 deposit in Earth's crust of one. er more valuakle. minerals Houndont metals in the Earth's cract: {Henin reali Magan Skim Psi Titanium jMorganése Seawater = a rich seuree ep come metal fons, such as Nat, Mg2t ond Ca2t . Monganece nodules ~ are, combinations op rock on the sem buttem which ie composed of concentric Layers op iron ond morgvece, hydrerides around a core Principal Mis Type Mierals “Treambines wetaTs_| Fay hw, Biju, PAP Corborates Baca Wother Fe}, CaCDy (eae meat one MG Gay magnet eVpacoye MaC0s (dolewite),PoCOy (ceruscite)s Zn COs (smit te! Falites Cae tae tate ACICULORLIA amy am i HDs 24,0 (ewe) Al» Gerard) Feo awake oe GuO (crete) Nady Cyroast) 5 Consett el oo [Frasphates Cay ns pn ret Cag 08 Cyeonyaptte Siivates Beg Ma Sig Clery Zr Ceiron Nath Cte) Molo), Ga) Sulpides bs 1, Gyanochit) aS Chal ee) FeSa (ere) gs meh S (grieve) ZnS (ephaleritel Salpates Sg ries Cag (any te Da ngeaTe) SPD Cues, MS» Tholepante) aig > slews the, eact chumieal rental ee Sey rumain i marta or mative lee) hte atre Rebuchion — a process vere an alla! wal tg undecgo te perm an cllalt metal atom Sodium and Fotcelum - ore islated primarily prom brinec Lecliton of NaCl axd KCt) Patosium ~ une the pest alll! natal fo bx prepared by eletralyats Lithiuet= fs ebtoinad wecty pree the mineral spocumene LIAL (S04), Metalic Bond ~ perce that belie stems foyer in a metal. cubstance ~ Type of camizal bond parsed between peitvely ohorged atoms in which the ree teetrons ave shared among a brite ef cations Delocatized Eltron ~ an dectrom in an alomjon or wilecule yt assecntd with ony single atom or @ singe covalent bend ~cemmenly geen in slid metals METALLURGY Metargjeal Rcee = he elonce ond egy op sxmrating nls prom i rs odor compounding alloys Alloy ~ a solid solution either of two eee aches a metal or metals with one or more vionmeals THREE PRINCIPAL STEPS IN THE RECOVERY OF A METAL FROM ITS ORE ARE: L freparation of the Ofe it is the separation of deciced minevals From waste materials Gonque ~ is usually clay ond siveate. minerals Methods used? “Flotation ~ is a very useeul process For carrying out this separation. In Hale. process: [.The ore (¢ plac qromded ard added to water covtaiving ll awd deter qu 2.The liquid tween bate of Hu Form a rot ™ 3.the oll preferentially wets the mineral pocticles, which are Yen carvied tothe top iv the prot while the garque ecttles te the bottom. AuThe Froth is skimmed ofp yallowed te collapse and dried to recover the mineral particles . Electromagnetism (ex: magnetite ond cobalt) ether prysical poration procecs wakes usr of the waynttic properties of certain minerals Catt alctee Ferromagnetic metal egreci Nogreite (F204) ~ cam be eegocated prom the qavge by vsing a strong electromagnet Ferromagnetic watale ~ are clrongly attrected to magnets. “Amalgamation ex: Geld ad Side) a Amalgam = isan alloy of mercury with another wetal oy metals. Merviry = forms awalgons wilt o wambee of: wetals = con Mucepore be uctd to exact metal From ore The gel er silver is recoueed by dretiling OFF mercury 2. Production of Metals the production op a pre wetal weetale (a their combined porns aluoye hove positive oxidation numbers Freltminary operations ~ may be vecescacy to cowert the ore de 0 chemical clnte. more, suitable reduction Sulfur dioxide - a votorious air pollutant Fyrowetallurgy - invelve in most major metallurgical processes at high temperatures Types of Redwetion Procees. L-Ctemical Reduction - we can use a wore aleetroposttive metal aso reduelng agext to seperate 0 less clectropesttive metal prom Its compowud at Wl Fempereture st ydrogea cout Moadicoee tedacing agent tn the poraten or tangahen wn 2 Electrolytic: Reduction 18. suitable fer very clectropositive metale such avd aluminum. The process is usually carried gut enthe ovlkydrous wolten oxide or halide ep wetn| 3, The Puripicotion of Metals ~ metals prepared by reduction waually need Further 4 omtment to removed Inipurities “the extent of puripication, of course depends om how the metal will be used ‘Me common purification procedures ave! | Distillation Fractional distillation separation of metals that have low boiling prints, prow other metals Mend process - one well-known wtethed of froctioual distillation = amed apter Ludwig Mondo British chemist of German ortgin gor the. parigication nickel Carbon menoride gue ~ is pasted ever the impure. widkel wetal at cbeut 7o'e ty farm the volatile. ttracarbonylnickel Fare metallic wickel is removed From Ni (CO), by heating the gas of 200% “The carbon woroxide Hut is veleaced i recycled back tite the process 2. Electrolysis - isthe process op troncperring copper prom the anede to the cathode, 3. Zone Refining - the use. of a vetal red containing a Few impurities (5 drown thoreugh on dlectrie heating ceil that welts the metal. -analegous to the Freezing of seawater, in which the calid #hst seporatec is westly pure selvent = water. —the liquid metal acts a6 the salvent and he impurities ac the solutes Top te Bettom ~ an impure red [¢ wored slouly trough « heating cell- Ae the wetal red moves Forwordythe impurities diesslve ja the metten portion of the metal while pure metal eryctallizes out in Front op he wollen zone Metallurgical Process lam wagnesim, I dewghn and palverication Preis ploatotion and other methods [Tey tovcerivated ore | and other operations Ceorcenteated Ore Feasting, calcination, reduction (chemical lectrocheanical) ce peetal Hlectrerepining or ony ether technique: Pure metal The Metallacgy of Iron fax Materials Iron Ore = tortain prom 50% te around 7 Ores used tn the production ef iron hematite (Fe,0,) smnagnetite (Fey09) Tarte (Fe €05) «limonite CFes0s-*H,0 where x ts typically oround (5) Scaap iron oud ateel are’also widely used talay a6 raw wateials in ieen-ord steel making. Coke ~ supplies heat For chemical reetions and produces carbon menoxide (62) to reduce iron ore ron pdepencling ow grove (hematite ig levct 70% iron) Limestone ~ used os a plux to react with ond remove impurities in motten Iron sHot gases (0H C23, 1h0, Qs 02 aud pucls) ~ used to burn ke The Metall leon Onewica! roctitis : sing hematite cc the ctarting ore: BFes0s tCO —7 2FegOy + COs Fey + CO 3FL0 + COs Fe0+CO—> Fe C0, We cencts ult coke te parm mere CO: CDs + C Leche) —> 200 reduction ef FeO te in: FeD*CO7 Fat CO, Slag - a mixture of ealefuw silicate and calcium alumin ote that rewalns molten at te Pumace temperature, Removal of \mpurities CalOg(s) 9 Ca06)4 C0; @) OU F S10, (8) —> Casids (a0 + Al, 0s (5) 7 Ca O5)3 (0 Blast Furnace Process ~0 reproctory-lined chomber with a diameter op about 4 to lm (20 te 3514) at its widest ard a height op 40m (125 -#) Fiy Iron ~ product of bhaet furnace Steel ~ am alloy ef tron cowtaining prom 0.02% ond 21% carbon by weiglt. tt often inchides ether alloying . Stainless steels 4 Tool eteele Casting of ingots - a dicerete production frocess Steele produced by BOF or electric Furnace ave solidipied For subsequent processing either as cast inget’s or by continuous cacting. Continuous casting - @ cemti-continuous process = veduces Elidiieation time by an order op wagnitude Steel Making Cupola ~ also called ac purnace is commonly used for converting pig iron Inte gray cast iron Cast Won = iron laid by waltng op Belch oe py ton cud serap iron au eake by het alr Wet “1s extremely hard ond brite «24 ts more pu than 1g Won ~it fine arowad (8) op carbon content < GY) qi irom Pabic Oxygen Farace: be) i" saccounts for 70% ef steel ion In US eainatie pte Leese comms +Bessemer process used alr blown up through the welten pig ven 4s burn off iepurities suses pure ox “Typical "BOF vessel is 5m (loet) inside diancter and can process (50 te 200 tons per heat +Entire oyele time Gap te-tap fine) takes 45 min Plain Caron Steels “carbon te tHe principal alloying clement Cowal amourt op ether elements) = strength nereaces with carbon content but ductility is duced igh Earbon cteele con be heat srested to form wnrtensite woking the sta very hard and strong sLow carbon steel contain lecs than 0.20% C,used inautomebile clzct-metal prrts, plate ctee| Fer Fabrication ,rallraad galls fediam corbon steals ~ rane Dtuton 0. 20 % ard O£0%C jused in mechivery eomponerts ard eugine parts such 02 erankchapts avd connecting weds sHigh carbon steele - contain carbon in artourts greater tan 0+60%, used in aprings uth toole ard blaces wear-resistant parts many mean be creted prom ote, Wonomer ef Fema ceubination optwo or wore dipperent wonomers Homopolywers - a polymer that Is mode up of only type of movowmer (j flene) Grade af tal tele gor wen de farenecitots,plrterd tier torbon based products Tolywer Molecules Macromolecules - a molecules ( polymers that are gigantic The backbone of each of a carbon -dhain paywer fs nsfring of carbon ats ond wit tach welecule the atoms are Wound tegetlier by covalent Inrferato The Chemistry of Polynar Molecules ‘The lydrocarbon ethylene (Calta) is a gas at ambient temperature aud pressure which has the Fotawing woleenlar etructure D8 * ts Ethylege gus mo fey ety lene) Ee sieeea at 4 it Fluovocarbous ~ a Family of polymers where Polytetmpluorcethylene (having trode nase. Teton) beloi oleae Structures. of mee " al ” sLinear = o4e Hoss in which the repeat writs or joined trgther wud end it sigle chains = Hiese long chains are plecible. steve each civcles reprecerts a wait hase extéusive une der Waals and bydregen bonding behueen she chains 5 Colette py ve dhloride), pelystyrese spoly (methyl methacrylate), srylon ove the pluore carbons, +Brand ~ the din gacking egticlenoy '5 reduced with the Formation ef side broches lich results in a leecieg op He plymer dousity sCrosslinke + adjacent Urear choles ove j 6 by cowlent bonds. ~the process of croeellnking is celiwved atther durivg cyithests er by o kenreversib, chemical veaction ~exosslinkleg is occompliched by additive atows or weleeules Hat are covalently bowed 40 the doing = wan ep the ruline elastic wuarteriale are erossiabed Meter mthece are multipunctional wonomere Ferwiny Hinee er Wore active covaleutt bees wo polymer that is highly erccslinked may alse be elaccleted ac a welwork pevyiners ~thece materiale have didiaetive mechanical and Yheanal properties; the epories ochyurethanes, ord pherol- pormaldehyde belong 40 W's group, 7 AMlote tat polymers way awe wore than ove distinctive qtructucal type Common Polymeric. Material Felyner Feeyle Sywol — Menomere Propet op Blymer Uses of Fewer Tajcens ne othr Een typtoeleds abe opto, &% “Sof Sept and pestle sire lesulation: & WETS, lrvenctie te acide ant bees . teeny aul Tayetylene Haylee -Sinlar te LNPE Opaque wile juice detergents and & Need’ Mevergilteyetier tenghr, shame bee Packets crates ave wre yey Siri mere dense yeveing folyviay| chloride, Vinyl chloride ~Variable -Ragid ig wet Algld Plumbing pipe, haute siding, a se eral ato yctie, Ba tartetadttape Pe wV ne ene and chin ct pon Saptened! Goucher hoses, wterpro no “Ch plymetted. Resilot fo sect oot ,shener curtains tv tubing dheniele eluding aes, Polystyrene. nn ee 5 Polypropylene. Prepylen . very tough “Yogurt, cream yond ‘yorory repylene. pane sida ety Battle eps - Yogurt cream & ane wentherabill wargorine covtainers.Carretigs oe it. casual purutture j luggage a Wey Festa elle bene Pobyettrylene. Ethylene glycol “Trewsporenyctrong shatter Soptdriak Uetles tor pad teeptvalate —RO-Gts “OH reetstoat Containers beverage gasses i 8 fo Impervious te acide ond fleece pabries carpet yarns, ce Ore’ thc prt, eu. iber-pilingulation PERE or PET ¥ “OW “Most coctly oF the six Molecular Weight and Degree of Polymerization . Heleculor weight ea be ertlned a ‘the wencurement op viecos tty aud esmetic pressure (ehysicnl pepe) The mamber molecular weight Mn te obtained by dividing the chaing Into a cetes of site roages ard then deterwining he number Fraction of chains within each sire youge He = EXIM, Equation | Mi = wean tuldite) welecular welgit op wine momge j X) = I5 the proction of Whe total yumber of caine within the correcpeedtng Equation 3 vue the repent unt welculor wait The legit of palmer chains hag appected mony felywer prpcties Melecular weight (abort to glut) tereacee HS aeltng or sePteing teapurbre Melecular weight (odg/aelY of shert chains usvally exist ae lqulds at room Yemporatare Molecular welt (Didglac exists as wary colds onl copt vesins Yedecalar weight UDyG0g!ns| aud sweral will) exe as sill they ace couetings ew as hgh piper Same paner vnieclal can ocquite various popertios Ip IF IS praduced with dipfereut welecular oeaht Thermoplaste and Thermosetting folywers Melecular ctneture bas aguat eect on how polymers react ty mechanical forces at luted temp Thermoplastics or Hheemoplactic pelymers arc ther wosets or ermosetting plyaers Thermoplastic Plywers ATheemopncttee cepts upon heating ond later ltqery, then tt bardens whew excled- Ts process [5 reercible owl cout be repurted Expesure ep 0 wolten Hhermorhtie polymer 42 a veey high fewpuntire results te on Inveversble degredation Thermoselting Yelywers a Trernocetting pdymers ore wetuark polymers, they do vet soften upon lating aud Hey become permarently acd during “their por wotion tletwerk pilymers howe comleut evacclinks between adjaceat meleular claing Colypelymevs, eed tf two repecet unite, Toyethebie rubbers are ucwally copolymers Copolymers Deceviphion fandom we diprerent wits ave roudomly dicperged olorg He chain Aterwating 4wo reget untts alternate chain positions Bock —deatteal repeal wantte are cluctered ia bletks along th clan Gmpt — omopeymer side branches oF one type may be qmpted te howepolmer main chains hat art composed of a dipperant repeat unit’ Polymer Cryetallinity Iw crystalline state, the atomic arrar Im polymer wertertals ove wore complex as compared to metals ond cernuics becauce in pelymeve It invelies welecules (vetted of just atoms or ions fe etallivity ~ to the meleculor chains te preduce au ordeced etoyule arrow. out ve ve “qeorte eo oy ust vaterolec one epten quite. compen Tolymer wlecules ore epten pactialy eryctlline or cumleryctallite having crystalline regions dicpreed Hla the amalaing avurphous watecial Awerdions region - the veeult of amy chat diserder or misalignment that Mader owd arpects the. strict ordering op exery seqneut of emery chain, Engineered Nanomaterials Introduction to Nanomaterials and Nowotechnelogy Nanomaterials has attmetive properties ood awtaring ttebuological possibilities hich can be any One of toe four bneie types’ Luctals seeramtes ,pelymere and composites) Manonatetae leat the itesteton of materials slence afiysterchenetry sd pr mony ote wout Interesting applications ~also of biology oud medicine The Firat and broadest - dertaition of muowaterials —these are materials uhece the sires of the individual building bles are lege than love (avery emall scale), a least in one dimencion ums equivaleart tthe diameter of approximately 500 atoms) Nanomaterials are developed to show wnoative crencteristice compared te the some materfa) without the vawoccale features ulich includes, inereaced ctrengts chesical activity or conductivity Naveteelegy "bottom up” approach ~ processes where atoms or mole cules are used ae building block Cemntional Teeulegy - "4ep~down" approach ~ means starting From large pieces op wateeial a Yhe expected etructure by wechonieal or chemical wetiode Nanotubes and wanoreds-are usually reperred to ag one-dimussional raveparticles ZnO wanerede hase leagits op about !Svm ond diameter rouging prem [20 42 HO mat Monoparteles and pullerenes —are gunerally denowinated as rere —“dinensional structures Fullerenes ave molecules of carbon atoms with Kollow shapes Their struchires are based on rexagerall rings of carton atoms jpined by covalent bewdc.Some fullerenes lwdde rings ulte THE or stven carbon atoms Tro examples of fullerenes are buckwinsterpallerenes and navortubes Nowoplates In particular qraphemes, could be considered as two dimensional nauaporticles, Gold vovenlates bas a ste of apovoximately 40mm in the plate and Yheir thickness ruges From 25 40 GO wm Formation oF Honowaterials Terwation or Fede and Plates cin She Ferwation op Mewerods avd vavoplates, the (npluence oF surface energy ie te be considend. or vorapierial anestruchutes ike le bepsally ipertout. (1 Hie ease og an sotopic Cmmeibe) ctructutes. Bt for curpace active molecules It 18 possible to grow reds or pltes wen From isetropic woterials The second pocsibiltty of ebtaining wavorode and wouctubes Is related to lyycred etricturesywhere, the eaystal etructure ts built prom layers held together with vour der Woals perees vather than by deetroctatie attrection The qureral arraugoweut of 0 porticle eryctalized (9 such a layered ctructure where He loyere are independent. The circumference op each layer jthe bende are vot saturated (these “dauglivg bods") “itcompounds that cryctalline Im layered structures show a tedeney te form owotubes. te: Poron witride (BN), (WS, MoS ,W5e, MoS, aud wert importantly, earben The bwdiegs at the circumference of the layer are vot saturated: The dualiog Borde Cohort les) weed additonal anergy thus thee ts a strony Healeaey 40 saturate Yhece dawgliag bovde. The wef caipc Hat exyhlize ery one duncon tae third psy of any rawotubes. thie Is the wmect premlely say to obtain leny Fibers but Hts te megliible as rummbers of compounds comlng into question is gual. twegulite = the most Important cenigeund In Hic centext with an idea cewpesition oF ASSi29(0%)y, The ratio of silcon ome olumieum fe fairly flexible ont can be used to adjust the tube diameter, Graphite avd pullecates as special medigication of carbon is wtivin the lagers (electrical condnestivity) perdendicularly fo the layers (qraphtte tam ineulator) within the Wyers are etrong covalent fonds Between the layert are weak von der Waals bends awd, accordingly it ts possible fo cleave, Peeee op wonecrystalline qvaphite. Graphene single layere or getileyond because op ts structure and bowing gmphene ie ¢ptem denominated ag cut ipinitely extended tuo -dimenctonal arowatie compound Fullerenes are dnreediwengtonal arowattes and touststs of a cembivation op hexagons and Purtagons ;the arreungewent leaves, gaps between Hie heragenc .Spherieal sbmpee are porwed bby combining a larger vuwber of Hace structures. Torwation of Carloon Nanotubes

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