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ELEMENTS OF GRAMMAR PREPARED BY

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 ELEMENTS OF
GRAMMAR
PREPARED BY
DR. MOHAMMAD SARAIREH
TRANSLATION
DEPARTMENT
YARMOUK UNIVERSITY
SENTENCE STRUCTURE
PARTS OF
A SENTENCE
SUBJECT and PREDICATE
(MAJOR DIVISIONS)
Subject Predicate
(Theme) (Ream)
Sam went home.
Mary is a teacher.
I made him a controller.
She became better slowly.
SUBJECT and PREDICATE
Generally:
Subject: What is being talked about.
Predicate: What is said.
The subject determines concord (agreement).
The subject exhibits inversion.
Sam goes home on foot.
They are good teachers.
Does Sam go home on foot?
Are they good teachers?
Operator, auxiliary, and predication
Sentence

Subject Predicate

aux as predication
operator

He had given her an apple

Had he given her an apple?

2.4 Range of Operators
Which aux can be an operator?
1.1 He was questioned.
1.2 Was he questioned?
2.1 He has been questioned.
2.2 Has he been questioned?
3.1 He should have been questioned.
3.2 Should he have been questioned?

Note: The left most aux is the only operator.

Range of Operators
The concept of control.
In the sentence:
AUX1 AUX2 AUX3 MAIN VERB

He should have been questioned.

He should have been studying.

SHOULD controls the next element to be a base form.

HAVE controls the next element to be the pp form.
BE controls the next element which is the main verb
to be either pp in a passive sentence
or -ing in a progressive one
Special cases:
1. When an aux is absent, a do form is used.
1.1 He speaks English. (No BE, Modal, or Have)
1.2 Does he speak English?
2. When a BE form is present as an aux (in passive
and progressive forms) or as a lexical verb, it is
the operator.
2.1 He is a student.
2.2 Is he a student?
2.3 He is reading a novel.
2.4 Is he reading a novel?
2.5 He was taken to hospital.
2.6 Was he taken to hospital?
Special cases:

1. When there is a HAVE form as a lexical verb,

we have different uses:
2. American English: (Do form is inserted)
She has a car.
Does she have a car?
3. British English: (The Have form is the operator)
She has a car.
Has she a car?
2.5 Sentence Elements

Is sentence structure random?

For example, a continuous string of sounds as this:
1. Thisboywillspeakveryslowlytothatgirl.
is not what native speakers would accept.
They would not accept this as well:
Th isb oyw illsp eakve ry slo lyto tha tgirl.
But they would say, it should be:

This boy will speak very slowly to the girl.

On what basis do native speakers say this is
acceptable, but that one is not?

They say so because they refer to a set of rules they

have internalized while learning the language.

So, a sentence is not a set of words randomly

arranged.

It has a certain linear sequence of constituents.

By “constituent” we mean chunks of words that
are grouped together. For example, a Prep.
Phrase is a constituent: on the table. It consists of
the Preposition and the Noun.
This sentence can be divided into categories:

[This boy] will speak [very slowly] to [that girl].

[This boy] will speak [very slowly] to [that girl].

This sentence can be divided into categories:
S (Phrase structure rules)

VP
PP

NP AdvP NP

Det N Aux V Deg Adv P Det N

[This boy] will speak [very slowly] to [that girl].

1. I know him (Subject Verb Object)
2. I know that she is smart.
(Subject Verb Object)
Sentence Sentence

Sub Predicate

Verb Object

I know him
I know that she is smart
2.6 Complements

Subject Verb Complement

1. A required or optional complement is

determined by the verb. In grammar this
is known as verb subcategorization.
Subcategorization: What a verb requires as
its complement.
2.6 Complements
Subject Verb Comp
SC
Be 1. Adam is a man (nom)
2. Adam is manly (adj)
3. Adam is smart (adj)
In 1, the Comp is a noun, so the complement is
called “predicate nominative.”
In 2 & 3, the Comps are adjectives, so the
complement is called “predicate adjective.”
(These are subjective comps.)
This applies to all linking verbs.
2.6 Complements

Subject Verb Comp

Run: Adam ran θ

Adam ran quickly
Adam ran a store

Run can have a zero comp, an adverb, or a

noun.
2.6 Complements
Subject Verb Comp
buy: *Adam bought θ
Adam bought a car
Adam bought me a car
Adam bought a car for me

Buy cannot have a zero comp. It minimally

requires a direct object. It can have two objects:
direct and indirect. The comp can also be a
direct object and a prepositional phrase.
2.6 Complements

Subject Verb Comp

put: *Adam put θ

*Adam put a book
Adam put a book on the shelf

Put cannot have a zero comp. It requires a

direct object and a prepositional phrase.
2.6 Complements (Objective Comp)
Subj Verb DO Comp
OC
1. We consider Adam smart
2. We consider Adam a genius
Tests:
We can use as before the OC.
We consider Adam as smart.
We can express the DO and the OC in a
sentence:
Adam is smart.
2.7 Categories of Verb

Different terminology:
Intensive = intransitive
Extensive = 1. mono-transitive = drink
2. ditransitive = give, buy
3. complex transitive =
make, let, have, help (to) + base
Extensive verbs are intransitive in such
structures as:
It rained heavily.
where the comp is anything other than a DO.
2.7 Categories of Verb

Progressive vs. non-progressive verbs:

There are verbs that can be used in both the

simple form and the progressive form.
They are called “DYNAMIC.”

Other verbs can only be used in the simple

form. They are called “STATIVE.”

For more information refer to

Azar, Betty. Understanding and Using English Grammar.
2.7 Categories of Verb
Non-progressive verbs:
1. Mental State:

Know believe imagine want

Realize feel doubt need
Understand suppose remember prefer
Recognize think forgot mean

2. Emotional State:

Love hate fear mind

Like dislike envy care
appreciate
2.7 Categories of Verb
Non-progressive verbs:

3. Possession:

possess have own belong

4. Verbs of Sense and Perception:

taste hear see

smell feel
2.7 Categories of Verb

Non-progressive verbs:

5. Other Existing States:

seem cost be consist of

look owe exist contain
appear weigh include
2.7 Categories of Verb
Progressive and Non-progressive verbs:
Think:
1. I think he is a kind man. I thought he . . .
2. I am thinking about him I thought/think . . .
(In 2 there is a mental process.)
Have:
1. I have a car. I had a car.
2. I am having a good time. I had/have . . .
Taste: (verbs of senses)
1. This food tastes/tasted good. (intransitive)
2. I am tasting/was tasting the food. (transitive)
3. I tasted/taste the food
2.7 Categories of Verb
Progressive and Non-progressive verbs:
Smell:
1. The flower smells nice.
2. I was smelling the flower. I smelt/smell . . .

see:
1. I see you.
2. I am seeing my doctor tomorrow.
(future time expressions must be used in 2)
feel:
1. This wall feels cold.
2. I am feeling the wall. I felt the wall.
2.7 Categories of Verb
Progressive and Non-progressive verbs:
look:
1. He looks ill.
2. He is looking for his book. He looked/looks . . .

appear:
1. She appears ill.
2. The moon is appearing on the horizon.
3. The moon appeared . . .
weigh:
1. This rock weighs 10 kgs.
2. He is weighing the groceries. He weighed . . .
2.7 Categories of Verb
Progressive and Non-progressive verbs:

Be:
• Adam is foolish. (permanent characteristic)
• Adam is being foolish today. (Temporarily)

Other adjectives are these:

Nice kind lazy careful silly

Patient rude polite impolite
2.7 Categories of Verb

Cognate Verbs:
The comp is implied in the verb.

1.1 Adam sang a song.

1.2 Adam sang.
2.1 Adam danced a dance.
2.2 Adam danced.
3.1 Adam ate food.
3.2 Adam ate.
2.9 Categories of adverbial:
What adverbial forms fall as predicate.
1. He is a student.
2. He is a student at YU. (adj + place)
3. He is now a student. (time)
4. He is at YU. (place)
5. *He is now. (time)
6. He is careful. (adj)
7. *He is carefully. (adv of manner)
NOW, at YU, Carefully are adverbs of
different categories (time, place, manner).
Time and manner unacceptable with Link V.
2.9 Categories of adverbial:
What adverbial forms fall in the predicate?
1. He searched it carefully. (process)
2. *He searched it careful. (process)
3. He worked faithfully. (process)
4. *He worked it faithful. (process)
5. *He is a student carefully. (linking)
6. *He is a student careful. (linking)
7. *He knew it carefully. (mental state)
8. He became careful. (linking)
9. *He became carefully. (linking)
Generally, -ly adverbs occur with process
verbs only.
2.10 Types of sentence structures

Basic sentence-structure rules:

On next slide.
A diagrammatic Sentence structure (Click)

These are the general rules of all possible sentence

structures, minimally and maximally (without
structure repetition).
2.10 Types of sentence structures
These are the general rules of all possible sentence structures,
minimally and maximally (without structure repetition).
2.10 Types of sentence structures
Basic sentence-structure rules:

1.
V stat Adv Adv.
Subject Intensive place time
Optional
•She is in London (now).
2.10 Types of sentence structures
Basic sentence-structure rules:

2.
V stative SC Adv. Adv.
Subj Intensive place time

She is a student (in London) (now).

2.10 Types of sentence structures
Basic sentence-structure rules:

3.
Sub V stative DO Adv. Adv.
• Extensive place time
• Optional Optional

He heard the explosion (from his (when he was

office) studying)
 2.10 Types of sentence structures
Basic sentence-structure rules:

4.
Sub Adv V dyn SC Adv. Adv.
process intensive place time
Optional Optional Optional
•They (gradually) became famous (in Europe) (during these
•times).
2.10 Types of sentence structures
Basic sentence-structure rules:

5.
Sub V dyn DO Adv. Adv. Adv.
• Exten process Place Time
• Mono- Optional Optional
transitive Optional
1. They ate the meat (hungrily) (in their hut) (that night).
2.10 Types of sentence structures
Basic sentence-structure rules:

6.
Sub V dyn IO DO Adv. Adv. Adv.
• Exten process Place Time
• di-trans Optional Optional Optional Optional
He offered (her) a drink (politely) (outside the hall) (before the concert).
 2.10 Types of sentence structures
Basic sentence-structure rules:

7.

Sub V dyn DO OC Adv. Adv. Adv.

Exten process Place Time
Complex Optional Optional Optional
trans
•They elected him chairman (without (in (this morning).
argument) Washington)
 2.10 Types of sentence structures
Basic sentence-structure rules:

8.
Sub V dyn Adv. Adv. Adv.
Exten process Place Time
intrans Optional Optional Optional

The had (quietly) (at the station) (before we noticed it)

train arrived
2.10 Types of sentence structures
Basic sentence-structure rules:
Analysis of examples: (All examples-Word file)
1. She is in London (now). (PDF)
2. She is a student (in London) (now).
3. He heard the explosion (from his office) (when he was
studying).
4. They (gradually) became famous (in Europe) (during these
times).
5. They ate the meat (hungrily) (in their hut) (that night).
6. He offered (her) a drink (politely) (outside the hall) (before
the concert).
7. They elected him chairman (without argument) (in
Washington) (this morning).
8. The train had arrived (quietly) (at the station) (before we
noticed it).
2.10 Types of sentence structures
Basic sentence-structure rules:
1. The train had arrived (quietly) (at the station) (before we
noticed it).

In this example, BEFORE WE NOTICED IT

is not really optional as such.
To show time sequence we need this.
Main Clause Adv. Cls
past perfect + simple past

When we have simple past in the main clause,

the adverb clause becomes optional.
2.11 Element Realization Types

This simply relates to constituents in a sentence.

For example, the predicate part consists of a main
verb + (complement).
This form of verb + comp is called Verb Phrase.
The head in a VP is a verb.

A Finite Verb shows tense, mood, aspect, and voice.

A Non-finite verb does not show tense or mood, but it
shows aspect and voice.
2.11 Element Realization Types
This simply relates to constituents in a sentence.
For example, the predicate part consists of a main
verb + (complement).
This form of verb + comp is called Verb Phrase.
The head in a VP is a verb.
Sub VP
V Finite (simple present, indicative, active)
1. She is a student.
V Finite (pres. Prog, indicative, active)
2. She is helping Adam.
V Finite (pres. Prog, indicative, passive)
2. Adam is being helped.
2.11 Element Realization Types

This simply relates to constituents in a sentence.

For example, the predicate part consists of a main

verb + (complement).
This form of verb + comp is called Verb Phrase.
Sub VP VP
finite non-finite
1. She wants to be a student.
2.11 Element Realization Types

This simply relates to constituents in a sentence.

For example, the predicate part consists of a main

verb + (complement).
This form of verb + comp is called Verb Phrase.

VP Subject VP
non-finite finite
1. Reading a novel, Mary fell asleep.
Gerund
2.11 Element Realization Types

This simply relates to constituents in a sentence.

For example, the predicate part consists of a main

verb + (complement).
This form of verb + comp is called Verb Phrase.
The main verb can be preceded by auxiliaries.
Subj Aux1 Aux2 Main V
1. Adam θ θ read a novel.
2. Adam will θ read a novel.
3. Adam will have read a novel.
4. Adam will have been reading a novel.
2.11 Element Realization Types

This simply relates to constituents in a sentence.

The subject position can be as follows:
(1 pronoun, 2 noun, 3 phrase, 4 clause)
Subject V. Phrase
NP VP
1. He is a student.
2. Adam is a student.
3. To study English is easy.
4. That Adam is a student surprises me.
2.11 Element Realization Types
This simply relates to constituents in a sentence.
The subject position can be as follows:
Subject Verb Phrase

The very tall man

who was my teacher was driving that car.
when I was at school

The subject consists of a Head Noun (MAN) with its

modifiers (THE VERY TALL), an adjective clause
(WHO WAS MY TEACHER), and an Adverb Clause
(WHEN I WAS AT SCHOOL).
2.11 Element Realization Types

So, virtually a Noun Phrase (NP) position can be:

1. A pronoun
2. A noun (common or proper)
3. A Phrase
4. A Clause

The ID position is rarely a phrase or a clause.

They cannot be realized by a that-clause.
2.11 Element Realization Types

A complement can be realized as follows:

1. Adam was the president. Subj. Comp

2. Adam met the president. Direct Object
3. Adam bought the president a rare book. Ind Obj
4. We consider Adam the president. Obj. Comp
2.11 Element Realization Types

Adjective constituents: Adj Phare = Adj P

These constituents modify noun positions.
The head is an adjective.
Adj. Phrase
1. Adam was smart.
2. Adam was very smart.
3. Adam was smarter.
4. Adam was much smarter.
5. Adam was very much smarter.
2.11 Element Realization Types
Adjective constituents: Adj Phrase = Adj P
These constituents modify noun positions.
The head is an adjective.
Noun Phrase

Adj. Phrase

1. A smart teacher taught me.

2. A very smart teacher taught me.
3. A smarter teacher taught me.
4. A much smarter teacher taught me.
5. A very much smarter teacher taught me.
2.12 Parts of Speech
I. Content Words: Open Class
A. Nouns: Identifying nouns:
A.1 Proper Nouns: Nouns that can name particular
things; they are usually capitalized.
A.1.1 Names of people: Adam, Ahmad, Mary.
A.1.2 Names of publications: Jordan times, USA
Today, Gone with the Wind, etc.
A.1.3 Names of the days of the week: Sunday, Friday
A.1.4 Names of the months: January, February, etc.
A.1.4 Names of historical events: World War I.
A.1.4 Names of geographical places: The Dead Sea,
The Alps, The River Nile, Lake Michigan.
2.12 Parts of Speech
I. Content Words: Open Class
A. Nouns: Identifying nouns:
A.2 Common Nouns: Nouns that can name kinds of
things. Concrete Abstract

Human Thing Animal Plant Idea

man chair bird rose beauty
woman table lark flower kindness
boy book lion tree coverage
girl bed donkey spinach arrival
baby room horse apple poverty
doctor house crow oak necessity
nurse stone rabbit apple love (n)
teacher plane fish paragon hatred
2.12 Parts of Speech
I. Content Words: Open Class
B. Adjectives: Identifying adjectives:
They modify nouns.

C. Adverbs
They modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs

C.1 Place
C.2 Time
C.3 Manner
2.12 Parts of Speech
I. Content Words Open Class
D. Verbs: Identifying verbs:

D.1 Linking verbs

D.2 Action verbs
D.2.1 Intransitive **(run, laugh, leave)
D.2.2 Monotransitive (eat, speak, arrive)
D.2.3 Ditransitive (buy, give, write)

You should refer to your earlier notes about verbs.

2.12 Parts of Speech
II. Function words: Closed systems
A. Pronouns: Identifying pronouns:
A.1 Personal/possessive/reflexive pronouns:

Nominative Accusative Possessive Possessive Reflexive

Case Case modifier pronoun pronoun

I me my mine myself
We us our ours ourselves
You you your yours yourself
He him his his himself
She her her hers herself
It it its its itself
They them their theirs themselves
2.12 Parts of Speech
II. Function words: Closed systems
A. Pronouns: Identifying pronouns:
A.2 Impersonal pronouns:

One, none, you,

1. One can study English at YU.

2. You should always be polite.
2.12 Parts of Speech
II. Function words: Closed systems
A. Pronouns: Identifying pronouns:
A.3 Demonstrative pronouns:

this those
that these

Adj Noun Pro. Verb

That book belongs to Adam.
Pro. Verb
This belongs to me.
2.12 Parts of Speech
II. Function words: Closed systems
A. Pronouns: Identifying pronouns:
A.4 Relative pronouns:

who whom whose

which that
when
where
what
2.12 Parts of Speech
II. Function words: Closed systems
A. Pronouns: Identifying pronouns:
A.5 Indefinite pronouns:
each everyone everybody nobody
any anyone anybody
what whatever
whoever
whomever
which whichever
either
neither
another
2.12 Parts of Speech
II. Function words: Closed systems
B. Prepositions:

According to beyond on account of

About by in spite of
Before during through
Against except under
Behind of within
2.12 Parts of Speech
II. Function words: Closed systems
C. Modifiers:

C.1 Articles:
C.1.1 Definite: the
C.1.2 Indefinite: a, an
2.12 Parts of Speech

II. Function words: Closed systems

C. Conjunctions:

C.1 Coordinators: and, but, for, so, etc.

In compound sentences.

C.2 Subordinators: when, although, because, etc.

In complex sentences.
2.12 Parts of Speech

II. Function words: Closed systems

D. Interjections:
2.17 Pro-forms

Grammatical properties are more indicative of

function words than their distinctions as
speech parts.
Example: “sitting” is a verbal element.
However, in a structure like this one:
“The sitting girl”
it functions as an adjective.
Pro-forms make using the language practical. We
do not need to repeat what can be recoverable
from the previous structure.
2.17 Pro-forms
What is more to the point is the use of pronouns.
Where are pro-forms used:
1. Replacing Nouns:
Adam saw Mary in the market and greeted her.
Mary saw Adam in the market and greeted him.
2. Replacing Noun Phrases:
Adam bought the blue big car; I bought the red one.
In a complex Sentence:
The man invited the little girl because he liked her.
2.17 Pro-forms
3. Replacing Adverbials: Compound Sentences:
Adam went to Amman, and Sam went there too.
Adam left on Friday, and Sam left then too.
Adam searched the big room very carefully, and the
small one less so
4. “So” can replace a predication:
She hoped that he would search the big room
carefully before her arrival, but he didn’t do so.
5. Pro-predication can be achieved by the operator only:
Speaker A: He didn’t give her an apple.
Speaker B: Yes, he did.
Question and negation:
2.18

Wh-Questions: They are special sets of pro-forms.

Here certain information needs to be provided.
So, these questions are used to elicit information.

1. Mary is in London.
2. Mary is there.
3. Where is Mary?
2.18 Question and negation:
What can we inquire about?
They make a smart one the chairman every year.
1. Subjects: Who makes him the chairman every
year?
2. Objects: Whom do they make the chairman
every year?
3. Complements: What do they make him every
year?
4. Adverbial: When do they make him chairman?
5. Adjective: Which one do they make the
chairman every year?
6. Action (Predication): What do they do every
year?
2.18 Question and negation:

The wh-proform is followed by the operator

(aux), unless it replaces the subject.
Wh-words that are used as pro-forms:
Who Whom Whose
What
Where
When
Why
Which
How
Question and negation:
2.19

Yes-No Questions:
They challenge the validity of the entire
predication.
There is always subject-aux inversion.
1. With BE forms:
He is a student. Is he a student?
They are students. Are they students?
Question and negation:
2.19

Yes-No Questions:

2. With Modals:

He will be a student. Will he be a

student?
They will be students. Will they be
students?
Question and negation:
2.19
Yes-No Questions:
3. With HAVE forms:
He has been a student.
Has he been a student?
They have been students.
Have they been students?
They had been students.
Had they been students?
Question and negation:
2.19
Yes-No Questions:
4. With Do forms:
He speaks English.
Does he speak English?
They speak English.
Do they speak English?
They spoke English.
Did they speak English?
Negation and non-assertion:
2.20
It is achieved by placing “NOT” between the
operator (aux) and the predicate.
He is speaking English.
He is not speaking English.
They can speak English.
They can not speak English.
They have spoken English.
They have not spoken English.
They speak English. (No aux)
They do not speak English.
Negation and non-assertion:
2.20

assertion – positive and declarative

Sentence positive
interrogative
non-assertion negative
negative

Therefore, non-assertive = interrogative or negative.

Negation and non-assertion:
2.20
Evidence that non-assertion = interrogative or
negative:

1. He offered her some chocolate. (Assertive)

2. He did not offer her any chocolate.(negative)
3. Did he offer her any chocolate? (interrogative

A. The interrogative itself questions the idea; i.e. it

cannot be assertive.
B. The use of “any” in 2 and 3 but not in 1.
 REVIEW OF
ELEMENTS OF
GRAMMAR
Operators

1. Computers are commonplace today.

Subject: Computers
Predicate: are commonplace today
Q: Are computers . . . . today?
Answer/Y Yes, they are commonplace today.
Yes, they are.
Yes.
Answer/N No, they aren’t commonplace today.
No, they are not. (they aren’t)
No.
Operators

2. We have a computer here.

Subject:
Predicate:
Q:
Answer/Y
Answer/N
Operators

2. Most people have had good experience.

Subject:
Predicate:
Q:
Answer/Y
Answer/N
Operators

3. A special period will need to be set aside.

Subject:
Predicate:
Q:
Answer/Y
Answer/N
Operators

4. This jumbled sequence of detail keeps dancing

in front of his eyes.
Subject:
Predicate:
Q:
Answer/Y
Answer/N
Operators

5. The process of changing a computer program

can be compared with human dreams.
Subject:
Predicate:
Q:
Answer/Y
Answer/N
Constituent Parts of a Sentence

Complement
S V A N A
Computers are fairly commonplace today.

Predication
Constituent Parts of a Sentence

Computers are fairly commonplace today.

Subject: Computers
Predicate: are fairly commonplace today
Comp: fairly commonplace
Adv: today
Constituent Parts of a Sentence

Full-scale computers have a large number of programs.

We must change all the programs tomorrow.

Constituent Parts of a Sentence
Subordinate or Dependent Clauses

Sam thinks that Adam is ill.

Subject = Sam
Predicate = thinks that Adam is ill
Object = NCls = that Adam is ill
Constituent Parts of a Sentence
Subordinate or Dependent Clauses

What he says is true.

I was saying could you come tomorrow?

Can you tell us when we shall see the results?

Objects and Complements

1. Someone will get a doctor quickly

2. They became famous doctors.
3. Keep quiet. Keep those children quiet.
4. Can you give them something to keep them
quiet.
a. Intensive e. intransitive
b. Extensive f. monotransitive
c. Stative g. ditransitive
d. Dynamic h. complex transitive

1. He appeared rather worried.

2. He offered her his hand.
3. We elected him president.
Describe the underlined part as one of these:
a. Simple finite VP f. non-finite clause
• Complex finite VP g. prep. phrase
• Simple non-finite VP h. noun phase
• Complex non-finite VP i. adj. phrase
• Finite clause j. adv. phrase
1. Fire can cause great damage.
2. The Great Fire started in a bakery.
3. It burnt furiously for four days.
4. He gave us a vivid account of it.
5. The man who spoke to us is Sam.
6. They suddenly decided to christen Bing Ben.
7. Leaving us at the gate, they disappeared.
8. Leaving us at the gate like that was thoughtless.
9. Hand the man at the gate your ticket.
10. I thoroughly enjoyed meeting June again.
Parts of speech:

1. Is it right to say that right wrongs no man?

2. One cannot right all the wrongs in the world.
3. Before the Fire, there had been a plague, the
like of which had not been known before and
has not been seen since.
4. Growth in weight results in the development
of muscles and fat.
5. Dry hair thoroughly with a warm towel and a
comb.
Stative and Dynamic:

1. This tank holds 10 liters.

2. Hold the handle very firmly.
3. Answer the question more precisely.
4. He is a fool. Don’t listen to him.
5. I was having my coffee quietly.
6. Smell this meat. Does it smell bad?
Pro-forms: (Make structures precise)

1. The man who spoke was Sam.

2. Hand the man at the gate your ticket.
3. I said, “The man at the gate.”
4. Sam saw the fire, and Adam saw the fire.
5. A.: Are we on the right road?
B.: Yes, I think we are on the right road.
Wh-questions:

1. DDT was sprayed over the area.

2. He wrote an account of the fire.
3. The fire started in the bakery.
4. It burnt furiously.
5. Twenty students took the exam.
6. Three inches of rain fell last night.
7. Sam helped Adam.
8. Sam went to London to study English.
Assertion, non-assertion:
a. assertion, positive, and declarative
b. non-assertion, interrogative, positive
c. non-assertion, interrogative, negative
d. non-assertion, negative
1. Have you finished this chapter yet?
2. Some of the others have finished it already.
3. Why haven’t you finished it yet?
4. Have you got much to do?
5. I haven’t much to do in the morning, either.
6. I have plenty to do in the morning, too.

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