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Procedia Computer Science 219 (2023) 1412–1419
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CENTERIS – International Conference on ENTERprise Information Systems / ProjMAN –
International Conference on Project MANagement / HCist – International Conference on
Health and Social Care Information Systems and Technologies 2022

MMG– International
CENTERIS Signal Analysis for on
Conference Muscle Performance
ENTERprise Assessment
Information Systems / ProjMAN –
International Conference on Project MANagement / HCist – International Conference on
Health and Social Hazem*,
Tasneem Care Information SystemsHisham
Hassan Soubra, and Technologies
Othman 2022

MMG Signal Analysis for Muscle Performance Assessment

Faculty of Media Engineering and Technology, German University in Cairo, Cairo 11511, Egypt

Abstract Tasneem Hazem*, Hassan Soubra, Hisham Othman

Skeletal muscles' Faculty
activityof can
MediabeEngineering
measuredand viaTechnology, German University
electromyography (EMG) in Cairo, Cairo 11511, Egypt
and mechanomyography (MMG): neural
drive and muscle state information influence both signals. Hence, both EMG and MMG can be utilized to investigate
Abstract
neuromuscular physiology in different aspects. In this paper, using the mechanomyogram (MMG) signal, a Digital
Signal Processor (DSP) model was created in Simulink to study and evaluate muscle performance. DSPs allow the
Skeletal muscles' activity can be measured via electromyography (EMG) and mechanomyography (MMG): neural
conversion of real-world phenomena into digital data for computerized analysis and manipulation. The MMG signal,
drive and muscle state information influence both signals. Hence, both EMG and MMG can be utilized to investigate
which represents a low frequency vibrational signal recorded when a muscle is contracted, is used as an input by the
neuromuscular physiology in different aspects. In this paper, using the mechanomyogram (MMG) signal, a Digital
runtime simulator to evaluate muscle performance. As a result, the DSP simulator will not only display graphs and
Signal Processor (DSP) model was created in Simulink to study and evaluate muscle performance. DSPs allow the
values that represent muscle strength, but it will also allow for greater flexibility in treatment modalities and provide
conversion of real-world phenomena into digital data for computerized analysis and manipulation. The MMG signal,
significant support for the anticipated therapeutic and functional treatment outcome of Neuromuscular Electrical
which represents a low frequency vibrational signal recorded when a muscle is contracted, is used as an input by the
Stimulation (NMES) rehabilitation intervention of disabled people.
runtime simulator to evaluate muscle performance. As a result, the DSP simulator will not only display graphs and
© 2023 The
Keywords: Authors.
DSP; Published Simulink;
Signal processing; by Elsevier B.V. Runtime Simulation; Mechanomyoghram; MMG parameters extraction; MMG sensor;
values that represent muscle strength,Matlab;
but it will also allow for greater flexibility in treatment modalities and provide
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0)
significant
Peer-review
Muscle support
under
performance; for the
responsibility
NMES; Muscleanticipated
ofstrength; therapeutic
the scientific
Muscle fatigue. and
committee of thefunctional
CENTERIStreatment outcome
– International of Neuromuscular
Conference Electrical
on ENTERprise Information
Systems / ProjMAN - International Conference on Project MANagement / HCist - International Conference on Health and Social Care
Stimulation (NMES) rehabilitation intervention of disabled people.
Information Systems and Technologies 2022
Keywords: DSP; Signal processing; Simulink; Matlab; Runtime Simulation; Mechanomyoghram; MMG parameters extraction; MMG sensor;

Muscle performance; NMES; Muscle strength; Muscle fatigue.

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +0-000-000-0000 ; fax: +0-000-000-0000 .

E-mail address: tasnem.hazem@gmail.com

1877-0509 © 2022 The Authors. Published by ELSEVIER B.V.

This is an open access
* Corresponding author.article under the CC BY-NC-ND
Tel.: +0-000-000-0000 license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0)
; fax: +0-000-000-0000 .
Peer-review under responsibility
E-mail address: of the scientific committee of the CENTERIS – International Conference on ENTERprise Information Systems /
tasnem.hazem@gmail.com
ProjMAN - International Conference on Project MANagement / HCist - International Conference on Health and Social Care Information Systems
and Technologies 2022
1877-0509 © 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.
1877-0509
This is an © 2022
open The article
access Authors. Published
under the CCbyBY-NC-ND
ELSEVIER B.V.license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0)
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0)
of the CENTERIS – International Conference on ENTERprise
Peer-review
Information under responsibility
Systems of the scientific
/ ProjMAN committeeConference
- International of the CENTERIS – International
on Project Conference
MANagement on ENTERprise
/ HCist Information
- International Systems /
Conference
ProjMAN - International Conference on Project MANagement
on Health and Social Care Information Systems and Technologies 2022 / HCist - International Conference on Health and Social Care Information Systems
and Technologies 2022
10.1016/j.procs.2023.01.430
 Tasneem Hazem et al. / Procedia Computer Science 219 (2023) 1412–1419 1413
2 Author name / Procedia Computer Science 00 (2019) 000–000

1. Introduction

Muscles make up a substantial part of the body and are susceptible to injuries from accidents, overuse, inflammation,
illnesses, and infections, as well as medication adverse effects. Many issues and ailments can affect them, causing
weakness, discomfort, and loss of mobility or paralysis. Some of these muscle injuries can be excruciatingly painful
and last a long time. A correct diagnosis is required in order to detect and treat these muscle problems. Despite the
widespread use of electromyography (EMG) as a solid supporting tool for the assessment of skeletal muscles for
decades, mechanomyography (MMG) has been presented as another method to analyze muscle mechanical activity
[1].

MMG records and quantifies the low-frequency lateral oscillations of active skeletal muscle fibers. These
oscillations, which are generated by electrical stimulation, rely on belly thickening [2], length of muscles [3], pressure
waves [4], as well as muscle fibers recruitment [3]. During almost all voluntary muscle actions, MMG reflects the
summation of the dimensional changes in the fibers of each non linearly recruited motor unit. MMG has the ability to
quantify muscle function in a non-invasive manner, which strengthens its potential for clinical applications. The
frequency content of an MMG signal provides valuable information on muscle contractile properties related to the
muscle fibers type and composition. Many researchers have lately used MMG to quantify muscle activation. The
characterization of neuromuscular disorders [6], the development of prosthesis and/or switch control [1], the study of
MU activity [8], the examination of mechanical properties during exercises [9], and the investigation of rehabilitation
systems [20] are examples of these applications.

Digital Signal Processors(DSPs) are micro-processing units specially designed for performing operations on signals
while optimizing performance. Signals can also be altered or manipulated to improve their quality or to give
information that people are unable to see (e.g. echo cancellation for cell phones or computer-enhanced medical
images). Although analogue signals can be treated, digital signal processing has the advantages of speed and precision.
They are designed to do mathematical operations like addition and subtraction quickly and efficiently while
consuming little energy. A computer can use the information from a DSP to operate things like security systems,
telephones, home theatre systems, and video compression. Your smartphone, for example, contains a DSP that can
decode MP3 files, increase the bass of your music, perform active noise cancelling math, and recognize your voice
when you say ”Hey, Google!”. Wireless headphones have DSP units that turn Bluetooth transmitted data back into
audio signals, while in-home cinema speakers have DSP units that decode data streams into a surround sound
experience. In addition, signals can be compressed to make them travel faster and more efficiently from one location
to another (e.g. teleconferencing can transmit speech and video via telephone lines).

Since technologies rely on third-party off-the-shelf systems and platforms, many real- world usage situations may
be impossible to duplicate and test at design time. These systems make internal software verification extremely
difficult. To address this issue, the research community has developed a reference architecture for equipping a software
system with a model that is ”causally connected” to the system and allows reasoning about it not only at design time,
but also at runtime. An active simulation with an identification, an associated model and its current execution state, a
simulation state, and a set of actions is known as a runtime simulation. Therefore, in this study, runtime simulation
was used to enable the user to interact graphically and visualize the results. This paper is organized as follows: Section
2 presents the literature review related to our work, sections 3 and 4 present our approach and the experimental set-up
of our case study. Section 5 discusses the experiment process and the results. Finally, a conclusion follows in section
6.

2. Literature Review

2.1. MMG Signal

While electromyography (EMG) and mechanomyography (MMG) are both methods for measuring skeletal muscle
electrical activity, there is no systematic comparison between the two signals. The study in [11] provides a new in
1414 Tasneem Hazem et al. / Procedia Computer Science 219 (2023) 1412–1419
Author name / Procedia Computer Science 00 (2019) 000–000 3

silico model for EMG and MMG simulation, and tests the hypothesis that MMG surpasses EMG in terms of spatial
selectivity. The study shows that non-invasive MMG can overcome surface EMG’s limitations, particularly in terms
of spatial selectivity. While EMG can be recorded intramuscularly or on the surface of the body, non-invasive
measurements are preferred in exercise. Surface EMG signals, on the other hand, have lower spatial selectivity since
the volume conductive properties of subcutaneous tissues function as a low-pass filter. Thus, by increasing the
thickness of the tissues, it causes a strong modulation of EMG signal amplitude. In contrast, MMG recordings do not
rely on sensor-tissue contacts and thus are particularly appealing for long term measurements. This results in high
technical demands for MMG recording systems. In addition, MMG signal is better in terms of spatial selectivity, noise
sensitivity, complexity, propagation property and experimental cost.

Regarding the MMG signal processing and applications, The work in [12] adopts the method of combining the
Empirical Mode Decomposition (EMD) with the traditional digital filter to eliminate noise from the MMG signal with
non-stationary and nonlinear characteristics, and improved the results that are produced. Using the filtered signal as
an input to a neutral network system that is established to classify hand gestures. Thus, the MMG signal has presented
various methods used to extract its parameters and different studies confirming the wide application of those
parameters to examine various aspects of muscle activity with experimental and clinical applications. Similar to article
[13] that presents the limitations of the methods as well as the underpinning technical guidelines and domains where
each method is well-suited to position the state of the art in MMG parameter extraction, thus providing the theoretical
framework for improving on current practices and expanding the opportunity for new insights and discoveries.

2.2. DSP Runtime System

With the development of information technology and microelectronic technology, the digital realization and
processing of information are more and more widely used, especially because of the high performance of DSP
operations, e.g. the study in [21]. Therefore, DSP models evolve at an exponential rate in various sectors, enabling
engineers to create various applications. The literature research focused more on finding similar simulations for
biomedical signals. The most frequently found DSP simulation model was concerned with the electromyography
(EMG) and electrocardiogram (ECG) signals. The study in [14] a construction of a digital signal processor-based
system for a personal computer was created using the EMG signal to monitor muscle activity during walking and
estimate the power spectrum of the obtained data under normal and diseased situations as described in this study.
In addition, the software has been developed for system initialization, data acquisition, processing of acquired data,
and data display for five channels. However, as it has been mentioned previously, MMG produces better results
than EMG. As a result of the comprehensive search, the research gap has been identified as the need to develop
a full runtime simulation that analyses muscle performance using the MMG signal rather than the EMG signal.

3. Our Approach

3.1. Signal Extraction

The MMG is a recording of low-frequency vibrations detectable over a contracting muscle that is thought to be
linked to the mechanical actions of many muscle fibers. As mentioned before in this article, the MMG recordings can
be detected through different types of transducers, such as microphones. In this study, a condenser microphone was
used to record the MMG signal. Since a capacitor is essentially two metal plates in close contact, condenser
microphones are referred to as ”capacitor microphones.” The higher the capacitance, the closer they are. A condenser
capsule is made in the same way. It is made out of a thin membrane that is attached to a solid metal plate. At least on
its surface, the membrane, or diaphragm, must be electrically conductive. Gold-sputtered Mylar is the most common
material, but some older models use a very thin metal foil. The diaphragm travels back and forth in relation to the
 Tasneem Hazem et al. / Procedia Computer Science 219 (2023) 1412–1419 1415
4 Author name / Procedia Computer Science 00 (2019) 000–000

solid back plate as sound waves strike it. The spacing between the two capacitor plates, in other words, fluctuates. As
a result, the capacitance varies in accordance with the frequency of the sound waves.

In this paper, a 3D cylindrical model was printed (as shown in Fig. 1. (a)) to create an air chamber between the skin
surface and the condenser microphone. The air chamber converts the muscle vibration to a pressure change, which is
then detected by a condenser microphone. The size of the air chamber is considered to have an effect on the MMG
recording. Thus, according to [15], the air chamber was created with a length of 15 mm. In addition, the condenser
microphone used was 9.7 mm in diameter and 6.7 mm thick. The pressure in the air chamber is modulated by the
vibration on the skin surface caused by muscular contraction. Because air compression and expansion are too rapid
and too tiny to induce any temperature change in the air chamber, this pressure shift is considered adiabatic. According
to the findings, skin vibration (i.e. muscle vibration) displacement is linearly transferred to pressure in the air chamber
and measured using a condenser microphone as the MMG.

3.2. System Overview

The system, shown in Fig. 1. (b), takes as an input a MMG signal that is recorded by the condenser microphone and
amplified through an amplifier circuit then filtered using a low pass filter. After that, the DSP model takes over by
smoothing and rectifying the filtered MMG signal. As a result, the sampled signal is ready to be processed and
analyzed in both time domain and frequency domain representation. The processing of the signal evolves by extracting
the embedded parameters from the filtered MMG signal, such as Root Mean Square (RMS) and Frequency Variance
(FV). Subsequently, MMG signal features that have been extracted are used to indicate the results of the muscle force
assessment [16], muscle fatigue monitoring [17], and clinical examination of neuromuscular disorders.

a b

Fig. 1. (a) 3D model and condenser microphone; (b) System Overview.

1416 Tasneem Hazem et al. / Procedia Computer Science 219 (2023) 1412–1419
Author name / Procedia Computer Science 00 (2019) 000–000 5

4. Implementation

The initial phase was the hardware implementation of the custom built sensor to acquire the raw MMG data. The
signal was then amplified, filtered, and sent to Simulink, The run-time simulation is performed through Simulink, an
add on product to Matlab, that provides an interactive, graphical environment for modelling , simulating, and analyzing
dynamic systems. The software then takes over, requiring the creation of a DSP simulation system to generate muscle
performance analysis by representing the MMG signal in both time and frequency domains.

4.1. Hardware Implementation

• Phase 1 “Signal Extraction and Amplification”:

The MMG signal was obtained using a 3D customized model with a condenser microphone firmly
attached to the model’s external surface, as illustrated in (Fig. 1.). The condenser microphone was then
linked to an amplifier circuit, which was built on a breadboard by using a LM386N IC to amplify the
MMG signal (see Fig. 2.(a)). The LM386 is a low-voltage audio amplifier that is commonly found in
battery-operated musical instruments such as radios and guitars. The amplified sound signal was obtained
at the amplifier output (PIN 5).

• Phase 2 “Signal Filtering and Reading”

The amplified sound was given as an input to a second order low pass filter circuit that was created using
two (1000k) resistors and two (1 uF) capacitors. The aim of the filter is to allow only low frequencies to
pass through while attenuating high frequencies. Pass band frequencies are those below the cutoff
frequency, whereas stop band frequencies are those above the cutoff frequency. The pass band is the
filter’s band width. Then, The MMG signal is supplied to the Arduino Mega 2560 analog input (PIN 0) at
the end of the filtration process. The Arduino Mega 2560 is a micro-controller board based on the ATmega
2560 that is connected to a computer using the Simulink Analog Input model, which reads the Arduino
Mega 2560’s analog input at PIN 0. Finally, Simulink has acquired the MMG Signal through the Simulink
”Analog Input Block” that runs on target hardware.

4.2. Software Implementation

• Phase 3 “Time Domain Representation”

The filtered time series signal obtained in Simulink is now ready to be sampled and quantized (as
illustrated in Fig. 2.(b)). The MMG signal is first sampled at 1000kHz, after which it is quantized at a 25%
value. Changes in the time domain features, which generally reflect changes in motor unit recruitment
during muscle contractions, have been used to estimate muscle effort, monitor muscle fatigue, and
examine neuromuscular diseases. These changes can be represented by the root mean square (RMS). The
square root of the mean square value defined for a certain time interval, T in seconds, is the RMS
amplitude as a measure of the magnitude of the variable value.

• Phase 4 “Frequency Domain Representation”

The magnitude of the alterations is determined by the type of muscle action, which can be dynamic
(eccentric or concentric) or static (non-eccentric or concentric) (maximal or submaximal effort). The
frequency properties of the signal have been used to demonstrate the amount and pattern of spectral
compression, which has important therapeutic implications. According [18], the objectivity of MMG
 Tasneem Hazem et al. / Procedia Computer Science 219 (2023) 1412–1419 1417
6 Author name / Procedia Computer Science 00 (2019) 000–000

signal analysis obtained during muscular actions depends on the use of a suitable signal processing
technique. The technique used in the frequency domain representation is Fast Fourier Transform (FFT).
FFT is the gold standard used to convert time or space to frequency or vice versa by projecting the data
set in a space of sine and cosine. A “signal analyzer tool” in Matlab has been used to represent the signal
in the frequency domain representation. Because not all aspects of signals are visible in the time domain,
investigators have always assessed the frequency content of the signal using Diemont et al [19] advice
and Kwatny et al [20] computation to estimate the MPF, the average of frequencies in the power spectrum.
In addition, the model in Simulink calculates the frequency variance, which is the degree of the signal
spread in a power spectrum density.

a b

Fig. 2. (a) Amplifier Circuit; (b) Sampling and Quantization

5. Testing & Results

5.1. Procedures

Isometric exercises were used to complete the MMG surface analysis methods in the brachial biceps. Five healthy
right-handed participants who engage in regular physical activity volunteered to participate in this study. A health
history questionnaire was completed by all subjects in order to gather information regarding their physical health
history. The subjects were told to be prepared for strength testing by not doing any hard activity in the previous 24
hours. The MMG sensor was placed on the individuals’ right hand biceps (as shown). The volunteers were in a
standing position, supported by the wall in an upright trunk position with a 45° forearm flexion, for the brachial biceps
muscle study. With loads of 3 and 9 kilos, the MMG signal of the brachial biceps muscle was monitored every 10
seconds during isometric contraction.

5.2. Results

One of the main goals of displaying the RMS graph and value is to collect muscular force indices. The signal’s
amplitude is determined by muscle fiber fluctuations under tension, increases with increasing muscle force due to the
high contraction level, and provides information on the level of muscle activation required for functional tasks. In
addition it has been used to estimate muscle torque, may thus correlate with muscle effort. In addition, in a power
spectrum density, the frequency variance (FV) measures the magnitude or degree of signal spread. FV decreases
dramatically during incremental voluntary contraction, which is a key aspect of the MMG signal. The aforementioned
frequency domain metrics showed differences between distinct muscle activities as well as between normal muscles
1418 Tasneem Hazem et al. / Procedia Computer Science 219 (2023) 1412–1419
Author name / Procedia Computer Science 00 (2019) 000–000 7

and those with neurological abnormalities, according to the researchers. These facts appear to be particularly important
in muscle research because they can be utilized to distinguish and identify motor unit control techniques that underpin
various muscle movements and firing rates. However, the frequency variance is still under implementation and testing.

6. Conclusion and Future Work

Using the MMG signal, this paper developed a unique DSP runtime simulation that can analyze skeletal muscle
performance. As previously stated, various study outputs have recognized the importance of MMG factors in the field
of skeletal muscle research. MMG is the mechanical manifestation of the neurophysiological events that underpin
muscle contraction, as well as the mechanical counterpart of the motor units’ electrical activity. Not only were MMG
parameter extraction methods examined in this work, but also MMG signal extraction from the muscle was tested
using a condenser microphone. In results, during muscle contractions, changes in muscle fiber geometry, which are
recorded indirectly as MMG signals, reflect the slow bulk movement of the muscle as well as the pressure waves
caused by muscle fiber dimensional changes. In addition, the DSP system could perform signal analysis utilizing
sophisticated tools to represent the signal in both the time and frequency domains. In results, it would become a vital
tool in the clinical reports to assess muscle strength, monitor muscle fatigue, and detect neuromuscular disorder.

Both time and frequency domain approaches were used in this investigation. The increase of improved and resilient
signal processing techniques, and the resulting quick and intelligent processing, may be the likely reason for the poor
application of these traditional algorithms. The inability to track quick changes in the frequency content of the input
signal is a common shortcoming of frequency domain analysis. Thus, while analyzing dynamic muscle contractions,
it is necessary to measure frequency variations (in time) during specific muscular activities that reflect motor unit
recruitment and firing rate in order to estimate torque generation across the range of motion investigated. In effect,
the signal contains more information than is immediately apparent from a time domain and power spectrum analysis.
In this case, wavelet algorithms ignore signal stationary and project signals into wavelets, which are orthogonal space
functions. The wavelet transform can be used to investigate changes in a signal’s spectral density utilizing wavelets’
increased frequency resolution. When dealing with non-stationary signals, the wavelet transform algorithm has proven
to be more appropriate than the Fourier transform strategy.

a c

Fig. 3. (a) Time Domain Representation ; (b) Frequency Domain Representation ; (c) RMS Graph
 Tasneem Hazem et al. / Procedia Computer Science 219 (2023) 1412–1419 1419
8 Author name / Procedia Computer Science 00 (2019) 000–000

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