HEC hapter Overview Introduction ae ‘Compounds 2.3, Impure substances - Mixtures 2.8.1. Materials ~ Substances and Mixtures 2.4, Elements 2.4.1. Classification of Elements based on Physical and Chemical Properties 2.4.2. Physical Properties of Metals 2.4.3. Applications of Metals in Daily Life 2.4.4, Physical Properties of Non-metals 2.4.5. Applications of Non-metals in Daily Life 2.4.6. Comparison of the Physical Properties of Metals and Non-metals, 2.4.7. Metalloids 2.5. Mixtures 2.5.1. Types of Mixtures 2.5.2. Properties of Mixtures 2.6. Compounds 2.6.1. Properties of Compounds 2.6.2. Difference between a mixture and a ‘compound 2.6.3. Criteria of Purity of compounds Physical and Chemical Changes 2.7.1. Physical Changes 2.7.2. Chemical Changes 2.7.3. rapigrence between Physical and 2.8. What is a Solution ? 28-1. Why is a solution called a true solution ? 3.8.2, Aqueous and Non-aqueous solutions 2.8.3. Components of a solution Conte ‘garam thatitcontains particles of different kinds. Therefore, ‘masala is called an impure substance or a mixture. all the matter around us is not pure. In fact, matter us is of two types : iy Pure substances and Gey Mixtures Let us now discuss, pure substances and mixtures in little more detail. 2.2, PURE SUBSTANCES — ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS q ‘A pure substance is made up of only one kind of particles. These particles may be either atoms or molecules, Thus, — “9 \/Acoure substance may also be defined as a | material which contains o1 i | gloms or molecules. Based upon the nature of the constituent particles, @ pure substance is of two types, i.e., elements and compounds. A pure substance which is made up of only one kind of atoms is called an element |) | while that which is made up of only ane | kind. : called a For example, hydrogen (H), oxygen (0), nitrogea (N), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (1), carbon (©) silicon (Si), sulphur (S), phosphorus (P), iron (Fe) aluminium (Al), copper (Cu), silver (Ag), gold (Au) mercury (Hg), etc. are all elements because all of theft are made up of only one kind of atoms. On the other hand, substances like water, aleohdl cther, carbon disulphide, sugar, carbon dioxid& ammonia, hydrogen chloride, camphor, naphthalene cic. are all pure substances because all of them are: YP of only one kind of molecules Thus, all and compounds are pure substances,mixtures ve kind of nolecules dof. particles, nents and Pr am | j, nitroge erview 2.84. Types of solutions 2.8.5. Properties of Solutions 2.8.6, Concentration ofa Solution 2.8.7, saturated, Unsaturated and supersa- turated Solutions | re 2.8.8. Solubility 2.9, What is a Suspension ? 2.9.1. Properties of a Suspension 2.10. What Is.a Colloidal Solution ? 2.10.1. Dispersed Phase and Dispersion Nedtim 2.10.2. Types of Colloids/Coloidal Systems/ Catloidal Dispersions 2.10.3. Emulsions 2.10.4: Properties of Colloids 2.10.5. Applications of clos in Dally Life 2.10.6. Comparison of characteristics of True Solution, Colloidal Solucion and Suspension 2.1, Separating the Components of a ‘Mixture 2.11.1. How can we obrain coloured Gomponent (dye) from Blue of Black Ink? Sipvaporation 2.11.2 How can we separate Cream from MIL? ecéntritugation 2.1.3. How can we separate a mixture of two Timiseible Liquids ? = Separation using @ Separating Funnel 211.4. How can we separate a mixture Gommon salt and Ammonium chlorid Sublimation 5. Isthe Dye in Black Inka Single Golour? romatography 24 2.11.6. How can be separate a mixture of two Miscible Liquids — Distillation 2.11.7. Fractional Distillation 2.11.8. How can we obtain different G from Ait ? — Fractional Distillation 2.11.9. How can we obtain pure Copper Sulphate from an Impure sample ? 2.11,10. Purification of Drinking Wate @ NCERT Textbook Activities with Discussion and Conclusion IR Textbook Question and Exercises wi Answers ¢NcrRT Exemplar Problems with Answers, Hints and Solutions © Highes Order Thinking Skills Questions With Answers Value Based Ques: Sige Roswers) © Mock}rest 2 TT one kind of particles. care similar (0 a ‘into simpler particles by any physical process. For example, peter isa pure substance because it has uniform composi [-consiss of only one Kind of partic called watet molecules which cannot be separated into ‘ts constituents (hydrogen and oxygen) by any simple physical process. Teis interesting to note that many pore substances such as sotum chloride (common salt), copper sulphate (heela thotha), potassiom permanganate. (lal dai. cae carbonate (marble), etc. do not consis of fnolecuies but contain ions. For example, sodiam Chloride does not consist of NaCI molecules but contains sodium (Na*) and chloride (CT) ions. You svill learn later in this chapter that all these pure. tubstances contain two or more elements combines together in fixed proportion by mass 2.3. IMPURE SUBSTANCES — MIXTURES Anni -¢ is a material which contai aa or more different Kinds of particle en | chemically but are physically mixed | together in any proportion. These are obtained by mixing wo or mo substances, (which do not react chemically), im any proportion, Thus. mixtures are impure substances. ‘The pure substances present in a mixture are called the components or the constituents of the mixture, For example, if we dissolve some common salt(sodium chloride) in water, both of which are pure substances, the solution of common salt in water is known as a mixture. It has been obtained by simple mixing of mical reaction. and any amount of water to get mixtures having different compositions. Thus, a mixture has a variable comspésition, i., does not have a fixed composition. therefore, no definite formula can be given fo a ‘ure. In other words, a mixture does not have a ‘We will discuss later in this chapter that even mixtures are of two types, ie., homogeneous. and — amma hererogencous.bh Matter (Solid, Liquid or Gas) aa (Wo fixed composition) Heterogeneous Homogeneous Elements Compounds ce . ess acc carecaee, Unie oareontcr Net=a or oxarple, alin or example, ron Canto er canbe broken down nto. For example arin figs and sulphur, wn tortor foment by choral ot walt S00 a water, sulphur in sugar and sand, salt electrochemical reactions: For example, water, methane, sugar, sat, etc. ‘and sand, iodized salt, ‘wood, blood, water in il, te carbon disulphide, water in alcohol, et. . + Metals. Non-metals Metalloids (iron, copper, (Hydrogen, oxygen, __(SIlicon mercury, etc.) sulphur, chlorine, germanium, etc.) antimony, et.) asis of chemi elements, compounds and mixtures From the above discussion, we conclude that on the b round us can be divided into the following three categories, namely, This is shown in the following dia 2.3.4. Materials-Substances and it. In fact, material is les, it is called consists of two or more kinds of particles, ii without even defini th sts of only one kind of par a general term used for all types of mate 4a pure substance or simply a substance and Dae i 5 ined te tem clement in 1661, Antoine Lee 194), a French chemist was the first-to-give a useful definition of an element as follows met fn te inp fro te ba form of par substance which eal bed uilt up from simpler substances by any physical or chemical method.) For example, iron isan element because wi a am on lent ecause we may break iit pees, as small s possible but sino ope ol, sh aga rn cant bb from simpler substances, Smilay water isnot an element because it can be broken into hydDven ang enyeea ee NS Bl a ne sme tan kn ie ign and ohn by psig esi BM tyaogen and oxyze ar elemens becuse thy canot be broken inf simple substances Th, Wale made up of two or mre elnent, Hence. lanenvad aorta in O¥YEeR. In fact, ll compounds a foo omar cements Herc, cent asad ob the bling blocs ofall compote the discovery of radioactivity, it has been fons ted © be correct now a days. This is because afi und that elements can be broken into simplet subsaaee rom simpler substances. Hence, the defini Furthermore, a number of elements have be Fe ee of an glement has been modified as follows : os stance that cont Fe caga al nce that contains only one kind of atoms. i An element is now defined as a pure sui ete. auton Malle uc Reta}called voisier an| a weve ye that ty, But nds a wand’ se altel initio” iron is made up of ont ent Similarly silver i made ug sn atoms (Fig 2.1) called iron atoms, Therefore, ron eis ta clomens iP of only one kind of atoms (Fig. 2.16) called silver atoms. ad 18 Elements have becn discovered so far. Qu ofthese 90 elements have been found to oeeur in nature ao ig 28 have been synthesized by the Scientists in the laboratories by suitable chemical p elements are found to exist in all the three states of matter, ie. Solid, liquid and gas at foom (eepernture and ordinary pressure, A few examples of each category are given below : ‘Bolid elements. Majority of the elements are solids emper a yy of the elem solids at room temperature. For example, iron, copper, damium, silver, gold, sodium, potassium, sulphur, phosphorus, carbon graphite or diamond), iodine, etc. Alquid elements. Mercury and bromine are the onl’ two elements which are known to exist in the gud state, Galliusn vecome liquid al a temperature slightly above room temperature (303 K). =Binseous state. | its ate gascous a 100m temperature, These are hydrogen, oxygen. trogen, BAR Classification of Elements based on Physical and Chemical Properties athe basis ropertic, elements have been divided i the fllsing dhree types W Metals (ii) Non nd (iil) Me vids. BAG Physical Properties of Metals Some important physical properties of metals are described below tule are malleable, This means that metals can bs hammered or beaten to form thinsheets Mats. are malleable, This means 1 allele. Some are more malleable than Ober Foe Gegisabins,Howove, Alf meal ol metal, Aluminio. copper and iron a als highly malleable egos are the mont male hammer to form Nery thin sees eles Tee meal and foils cof applica DSitver foi i used tor decorat Si) Aluminius s are used for w g EMMI boule caps are also made up of aluminium fo ow aa ovenne _ be shin wires. Li DMetals ar nis means that metals canbe: drawn of streiched into ike saa teats are ductile This meses Gold and silver ae the most ductile metal Gold is 90 © pat ae orm a wire of about 2 Kilometer length. Copper and-aluminiam n be drawn into thin wires cites and food items like biscuits, chocolates, making utensils, containers and bodies of that 1 gram, Stkare also highly ductile andca Metals a eats Per peat Copper Tr Me 36cm SS neigh hema oe NTS ern a wl Sica af et flowed aun The coi rr as Anon tl etc ap of copper or aluminium metals because they a heat, Mercury metal is also a poor conductor of heat. ” en ietals offer very littl “ arly, in peneral, metals are also good conductors of electricity. That is metals offer very htle ee ene rata hence show high electrical conductivity. Siver i the Bes Stor o electricity followed by copper. the electric wires are usualy ‘ade of copper and aluminium because they are not of ‘cheaper than silver and gold. Among copper and alum cold, aluminium and tungste ‘ mly very good conductors of electricity but they are ium, aluminium is more widely used for making vires because aluminium is cheaper than copper and also on weight to weight basis, the electrical conductivity of aluminium is vice that of copper ‘The metals like iron and mercury offer very high re are poor conductors of electricity eACMetals are lustrous. Metals have a shining surface when freshly prepared. This property of shining surface of metals i called metallic lustre. For example, silver has a shining white surface, gold ix@ yellow while copper is reddish brown, Silver and gold are used for making jewellery because they-have-a tight shining surface which isnot easily tarnished by moisture and atmospheric gases. Due to their shining surface, metals are good reflectors. Silver metal is an-excellent reflector of light and hence is used for sistance to the flow of electric current and hence silvering of mirrors Metals are generally hard. Metals are generally quite hard. But all metals are not equally"ha Their hardness varies from one metal tothe other. For example, iron, aluminium, copper, etc. are very hard and hence cannot be cut with a knife. However, metals ike sodium and potassium are quite soft and henoe can be easily cut with a knife 46. Metals have high tensile strength. Metals have a high ten s . a th. Metals have a high tensile strength. This means that metals ‘caf hold large weights without breaking. For example, steel (which is an alloy of iron and carbo) is vefy Strong and hence has a high tensile strength. Due to this, itis used for construction of buildings, bridges, metals a which a carbon) Although most of the metals are strong, yet some of the metals are not s sodium Sength % ture except mercury which is a liquid sates of For exan and potassium metals are not strong and hence have low tensile strength, \7 Metals are solids at room tempe Benerally have high melting and boiling points, However, sodium and potassium have points ; sodium = 371 K, potassium = 336 K. Gallium and ae eve room eracerama um and cesium become liquid at temperafre ove room temperature (303 K). 3 v% Metals generally have high densities e ar ly have high densities except sodium and potassium which h and dia Ur Metals usually have silver o g vitae } _ Vay hi ~A1, Metals are sonorous. Th f | tus. This means that metals make a ringin property that metals are used fo a ging sound when hit. It is because ofthis for making bells, cymbals (manjir ai : Is (manjira) and wires of violin, guitar, sity jy, pi how 2.4.3, Applications of Metal ily Life 0, Metals and their alloys (homogeneous m ellow « ous mixtures of two or more m | lines, girders, cars, tucks, buss, shipe, acento int MENS, elect fans, sewing machines, ral et 3s, ship, aeroplanes ee ng machines, railway ay 2.4.4. Physical Properties of Non-metals hi The physica es of non-metals are just opposite to 5a, fescribed below posite to those of metals. Some of these properties fe an Oy oft Aa,vir shining 5 used for nat metals in) is very 5, bridges, , sodium perature pera jensities which is of this sitar ailwe) spertic® Y). This means that non-metals ewnnot enol malleable Tht i-when they ae besten with 8 They are actualy brittle and break inta-small pieces Rie rece tatnor-metals cannot be drawn or etched into wires on ‘example, sulphur and phosphorus are not ductile. seh sal Pe en Fora n ductile but are actually brittle Se eee 3 ee of heat and electricity. This means that non-metals do not allow feat and electricity to pass through them. For example, sulphur and phosphorus are non-metals which do acc onduct heat and electricity. Therefore, many non-metals act as insulations. However, there are some exceptions. For example, diamond is an allotropic form of carbon. It is a metal which is a good conductor of heat oe oa conductor pol sce Graphite is another allotropic form of carbon. It is also a. miei butis@ good conductor of electricity. Therefore, graphite is used for making electrodes of batteries and dry cells. re = +A. Non-metals are not lustrous but actually have dull appearance. This means that non-metals do gplhave a lustre oF a shining surface, They actually have a dull appearance. For example, sulphur and osphorus do not have a shining surface but have a dull appearance. Howeverdtodine is an except. It is ‘non-metal which has a shining surface like that of metals, oo <5-Non-metals are generally soft except diamond which is extremely hard. Most ofthe solid non- metals are quite soft. They can be cit with a knife, For example, sulphur and phosphorus are non-metals thich are quite soft and can be easily cut with a knife. Howeves; diamond" (which is an allotropic form of carbon) is the hardest natural substance known. jNon-metals are not strong. This m als cannot hold large weights without breaking ‘Thus, non-metals w tensile strength. For example, graphite i ‘metal. Tr has a Tow strength. That is when heavy weight is placed on a graphite sheet, it breaks into pieces \J-Non-metals may be solid, liquid or gases at room temperature, Non-metals exist in all the three sites of matter, ive., solid, liquid and gaseous, For example, boron, carbon, sulphur and phi phosphorus are, ‘Glnon-metals; bromine is iquid non-metal While hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and chlorine are gaseus on-metals. 8 that no Solid non-metals have comparatively low melting and boiling points except boron, graphite {nd diamond which have high melting and boiling points. For example, melting point of sulphur is 114°C (G87) while that of phosphorus is even lower (44°C or 317 K). The melting point of graphite is, however, Weyhigh (3700°C or 3973 K) _3. Non-metals have low dens densities. For example, density of sulphur is 's however, high 410. Non-metals have many different colours. For example, sulphur is yellow, phosphorus is white, Se oF nak chlorine is yellowish green, bromine is eddish brown while hydrogen, ctals are generally light elements. That is they have low jem? which is quite Tow. The density of iodine (4-94 g/cm?) 980, nitrogen are colourless. “dL, Non-metals are not sonorous. This means that unlike metals they do not produce ringing sound When hit Witr-a hard object. 245; Applications of Non-metals in Daily Life. Although the number of non-metals is small as compared to metals, yet they play an important role in lyfe. For exampleoak tol Vc 3 sation of vegetable oi manufacture of ammonia whic! vii) Oxygen is another non-met presence of oxygen gas i at is essential Baming) of fuels which provide us energy ships and aeroplanes and-for generatin trucks, tains, 2.4.6. Comy ‘The main points rison of the ‘one of the most a For ta fre te.) which are reaui ‘carbohydrates, proteins, oils and s hydrogen. It is present in the com ls to make vegetable ghee. Large a this used as a refrigerant and also for tal which is equally important 1 for breathing to sustain life for various purposes suc 3g electricity. Physical Properties of Metals am of difference in the physical properties of metals an srmporianx nonnenas case. all he We "growth and maintenance ypounds fed for growth and maintena mounts of has cookin ‘on this earth is made-up of sins, enzymes. etc. S16 al of living organisms, fof carbon (1¢., carbohydrates, sce of life, tis also used fop f hydrogen are used fOr the making fertilizers for existence of life. This is because Trig also essential for combustion (or for running cars, buses, fats. \d_Non-metals 1d non-metals are given in the Le eee en TTT To et memetals oe iference in Physical Properties of Metals and Nor DUTABLE 21 Di [PROPERTY METALS NON-METALS [Je Malleability and ductility [2 tase |. condstnty Hardness LA: Sonorousness [A Metting and boiling points (2% Density 2.47. Metalloid netals. For example, silicon (Si), Metals are malleable (can be hammered int thin sheets) and ductile (an be drawn into wires). Metals have lustre and can also be polished Metals are good conductors ofheat and electricity Metals are generally solids at room temperature except mercury which is a liquid Metals (except alkali metals such as sodium, potassium, hard, Metals is they ave high tens cannot be easily broken. strength, That dhence Metals ae sonorous, et Tinging sound when struck, ls Metals g Mets generally have high meling and Boling points excep meciry whichis gud atom enperate and la mln sn ating pina) Except alkali met als like sodium tals generally have es inbetween those of metas an jermanium (Go, Non-metals are neither malleable nor ductile, They are actually brittle. ~ Excep graphite and iodine, non-metal potiahed (excep diamond) Non-metals are bad conductor | elect except diamond which il ‘hich isa good conductor of lel Non-metals (except bromine) are ether solids or gases at room temperatutt | Non-metats (except 4 amond’ and boron) ar om) ae soft Non-metals have ave low tensile strengil and hence can be easily brokén Non-metals are not sonorous | Non-met cl Nor-metals (except carbon and bor) ave low melting and boiling pois ™-metals generally have low densi mixtut separa examy througflso used for used for the is is because tmbustion (or Fears, buses, given in the 4 talleabe or ‘tle ‘non-metals fo cannot be | \ | aductors of fwhich is a ind graphit ‘nperatur fmond’ and } | ite strength ker tana pron | low density ‘etalloids (re | qIPER AROUND US FORE — nents show some ‘peso el properties of metal i but are brite Hk le and thee ee ont A tet properties of non-metal or example DEY S Y are neither good conductors of electcty nor nom isolators) like non-metal. They sre ne sp wxTuRts MHL ate generally sembconductors, ea a Leo ar pare tenes (lento compo ee | but are physically mixed in any prop on oe i Se epee ‘but is actually a mixture of two or more pure subst For Bs, ccc, Tae eon sring Someone epee ee sh Types of Mintures, . dusified into the following two types : a Deis homer Talc onponmn fool tad there are no boundaries of separation between them. ei gi 1 as follows, A hom nt, The components of a homogeneous mikure are not visible to the naked eye or even under a microscope. There are no/*isible boundaries of mln between the components of a homogeneous mixture In other words, i homogeneous mixture id, gas or slid. For smposition throug tauisisof only one phase, The single phase of the hom cumple, eneous mixture inthe liquid phase. Ithas uniform composition - mposition and are equally sweet. on between sugar and water molecules in the sugar solution. ds is also @ homogeneous mixture in the liquid phase. For sane aoton or atcono- and Wace a TOM G To understand the meaning of concentration of a solution, let us take two beakers and label them as A i and B. Place 50 miL of water in each one of them. Dissolve a few crystals of copper sulphate in beaker and mass an one full sapula of coper sulphate in beaker B. Stir well to obtain a clear transparent solution, Repeat th is expre above experiment by taking 100 mL. of water in each beaker. You will observe that the four beakers have different shades of blue colour. Thus, we conclude that in a solution, the relative amounts of the solute anid the solvent can be varied. Depending upon the amount of solute present in on, it can be called @ dilute, concentrated, or saturated solution. Dilute and concentrated at s. Solution 0 in beaker A is dilute a5 Compared to that obiained in beaker B. 3 M However, in scientific terms, the concentration of a solution may be defined as the amount of solute Present ina given amount (mass or volume) of solution or the amount of solute dissolved in-e eiveeamaar OF Tt volume of a solvent, Thus, Concentration of solution = Amount of Amount of solution Concentration of solution =AM0unt_of solute i, Amount of solvent oe are various ways of expressing the concentration oF @ SOWMHOH, but here, we shall discuss olf [m Some of the more common methods. Depending ee nding upon the type of iat i in liquid, these methods are divided into the following two et whether solid in liquid or liguil ies : ae a orMass by mass percentage or mass percentage of a solution = Mass of solute Mass of solution Mass of solute ‘Wass of solute + Mass of solvent) ed a8 follows 100. (ii) Mass by volume percentage. I is de The mass of the solute in grams dissotved in 100 millilitres or 100 mL of the solution. | For example, a 10 percent mass by volume solution of common salt in water means that {'grams of common salt are present in 100 mL of the solution. In other words, a 10 percent mass by volume solution of common salt is prepared by first completely dissolving 10 grams of common salt in a small amount of waier and then finally making the volume to 100 mL.. The mass by volume percentage of a solution can also be caleulated by using the following formula. : Mass of solute Mast by volume percentage of a solution = Tass of Se 100 Concentration of very dilute solutions Ifa very small amount of a solute is dissolved in a a of the solvent, the values of mass by mass and mass by volume percentages will be very low. In order to increase their values, the concentration isexpressed in parts per million or simply as ppm, It may be defined as follows. arte-ty-mass (or volume) of solute per million parts by mas Ast oo eee x105 or Nolumeof solute 45 : Mass of solution Volume of solution Mass of solute Mathematically, ppm The concentration of poisonous gases such as nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO,), sulphur dioxide (S0,), etc. in the atmosphere is expressed in ppm. For example, if the concentration of Sulphur dioxide (SO;) in air is 10 ppm, this means that 10 parts by volume of sulphur dioxide are present in 10° Parts by volume of air. 2. Liquid in liquid solutions. Ifa solution is prepared by dissolving a liquid solute is a liquid solvent, ‘concenigation of the solution is usually expressed in volume by volume percentage or simply volume | Perentage of the solution. It is defined as follows a The volume of the solute in millilitres dissolved in 100 millilitres or 100 mL of the solution. For example, a 20 percent solution of alcohol in water means 20 mL of alcohol are dissolved in 100 ‘iL of the solution, note that 100 mL of the solution also include 20 mL of alcohol. This means, 100 mL of= — Derwarcenrss wae ane ‘alcohol in water by mixing 20 el of aboot and Serene stent ett ee ne ona Se eas ihn len te cae a ne on wt dy Volume of solute in ml whene by volume percentage of a solution = een nm tn most ofthe commercial products soc as solutions of medicines, y70ps, ce he conceteti aa tie commer slr ferns at ded eee a ee i ee said madicing i expressed etter in terms of weight by weight peseeatagy Naa ap sanbal win) or by weighty volume percentage denoted by the symbol w/t), Fleas note tg Rae ear hor bocr ised m place of mace. For example, a popular brand of antacid syrup, Gag crrnins abou 9A nie of magnesum bpdoxide and 3% wf of aluminium hydroxide besides otber medica entioned. Ie aaa al Please note that if for a solution, the terms like w/w, w/v, v/v are not as wh 2.8.7. Saturated, Unsaturated and Supersaturated Solutions ‘Saturated solution. When we dissolve a solute (ie., sugar) in a solvent (i.e., water) with sting initially the sugar will dissolve readily in water. But after a while, the process of dissolution will Become Slower and slower. If, howev ep on adding sugar to the solution-formed with stiPeng aiimaueles stage will be reached when no more sugar will dissolve, Instemd-t-witt starPsetiling at the bottom ef the beaker. Such a solution is called a saturated solution. Thus, WHA solution which contains the maximum amount of solute dissolved in a given quantity of the solvent at the given temperature and which ca ‘called a saturated solution, inot dissolve any more solute at that temperature ution, more solute is adde it will remain u ibrium between the dissolved and the undissolved ot Iftoa saturated s is always an e¢ Sf 2 dissolved solute dissolves is equ Solution and gets deposited. As a result, the amount of dissolved or the undi Calcium carbonate + Watet (Lime water) (Insoluble) insoluble’ hi ‘Tee solution tums milky due to the formation of a suspension of ¢; is solution is allowed to rbed for some so alors {undisturbed for sometime, the particles of the ‘5. The particles ofa suspension cannot s sion cannot pass through a ¢ the sold partes remain as a residue on the Tere filter paper. ‘Thus, when a suspension is Paper. f ons are either opaque or translucent, some other liquid. only thoseParticle size 100 0m but ‘True Solution Colloidal Solution : ‘Suspension FIGURE 2.2. Particle sizes of a true solution, a colloidal solution and a suspension jms Due'to relatively smaller size of icles, these 1s but actuz ne e ‘ye heterogeneous. Since the colloidal solutions are heterogeneous in nature, therefore, to distinguish them isturbed “fom ime solutions, the term “‘soP” is used in place of solution. The particles of the colloidal sol are called colloidal particles. D, ce Deporasel id. Dispersed Phase and Dispefsion Medium We have stated above that colloidal solutions are heterogeneous mixtures. This means that the rim) that, stituents or components of a colloidal solution are not present in one single phase, but are actually Present in two separate phases. Tliese are called the dispersed phase and the dispersion medium. The | visible, ideslike component which hasbeen dispersed or distributed throughout in a solvent-like medium is wvime, (léd.the dispersed phase or the discontinuous phase while the solvent ike medium in which the — ise has been distributed or dispersed is called jy. BBE Mle heterogeneous system thus obtained ig called the colloidal ar Timay be noted here that the dispersed phase in a colloidal solution is comparable to solute particles oxide! ina ine solution. Similarly, the dispersion medium is comparable to a solvent. However, there is one important difference between the true solution and the colloidal solution. In true solution, the solute and ter tesolvent are present in one single phase but in colloidal solutions, they are present im (WO Se tases ea SRE i ue 210.2, Types of Colloids/Colloidal Systems/Colloidal Dispersions sim Just as in true solutions, both the solute and solvent can exist in any one of the three states of matter et, li liquid or gas) in the same way, in colloidal solutions also, both the dispersed phase andthe dispersion file! Medium can be a solid, liquid or a gas. Thus, nine different types of colloidal solutions should have been [ssble. But actually there are eight and not nine because gases always mix together to form homogeneous "MRS Some common examples of colloids are given in Table 2.3 " ——YS < Coloured gemstones, milky 888 igord sote-M™oddy water, milk of ‘ oe [et reece mec : lasma, gelatin, etc. jae ee Solid aerosol Ai jely, cheese, butter, curd shoe polish te ‘ es cod liver oi wo oe = Fog, clouds, mist, sprays. fr see ont |S Sl ‘ed Sold foam) Froth, whipped eream, Soap Father, shving) se . Gas Foam ip feed as follows: fen special names Ai r im, the sols are giv Farther, depending upon the dispersion medium, th Dispersion medium Name ot the sol Pra. Aquasol or Hydroso Alcohol Aleosol Benzene Benzosol Gases Aerosol si A :mulsions Em RA ol in which both the dispersed phase and the dispersion medium are liquids are |) raixtt j aaa iar 7" ces | Zated emul = I an emulsion ar immissible wih each other, One of these iquds way AEE { which is insoTUBIe in water is called the oll, These emulsions are of (WO Iypes — se emulsions, oi the dispersed phase and water is the digpensiy medium, Gg) Water-in-o emulsions. Ia these enlsions, watris the dispersed phase and oils the dlgpersion met These emulsions ae usually prepared by shaking oil and water vigorously. However, these embllaa I Of to pure liquids are usually not stable-To make them slable, smallamounts of certain other substan are added during their preparation The substances which are ‘added to stabili ers or emulsifying J ls. These stabilize the sols by reducing the sur a | xan he Sistanes which are commonly used as emul soaps, proving, uaa | ge " h persed in water and milk prove 2.10.4. Properties of Colloids J. Heterogeneous nature. A colloidal so ase) and the dispersion me e of particles, The size (dia (0-7 — 10° cm) 08 ‘dium (continuous phase). of the colloidal particles lies nd suspensions, n between those of true soluti the range 110088 thio Te7] = vt When colloidal particles are they are seen ta he (Fig. 2:3). Such a aler_was firs time 1 English scientist in-1928 and salled Brownian movement after his name. Thus, Fron moronent may be defined as continuous Jing colloidal sol. = ae _ Gate is believed that Brownian movement arises eto iting of the cold price By the particles of the dispersion medium from different directions with different forces. = = fall effect. The colloidal particles are big enough to scatter light passing through j ql are_big enough io scatter light passing it Asa sz te path of light Becomes visible. This scattering of a beam of light by collotdal pariles reeled fal effect after the name of the scientist who discovered it : 7 Wienithe beam of light from a torch is passed through a true solution of copper sulphate, ‘Tyndall effect is Wot observed, ie. the path of light is not visible (Fig. 24). However, when the same light is passed through & ‘mitre of water and milk, Tyndall effect is observed and the path of light becomes visible. The reason for this 7 siservation is thatthe particles of a true solution are so small that they do not scaier Tight and hence the path of (Cisitis nor visible, £e., Tyndall effect is not observed. In coniras, the particles of a colloidal solution are big noughto seater light and hence path of light becomes visible, ie. the Tyndall effect is observed Tas, Tyndall effect can be used to distinguish between a tue solution and eollidal solution: econ) Torch et 4 Path of light is not vsibié Pat of fights Visible @ Solution of Nai + Water copper sulphate 214 (a) Solution of copper sulphate does not show Tyndall eect FIGURE 24g) Minture of water and milk shows Tyndall elect *A semipermeable membrane allows solvent molecules and small solute particles of true solutions to pass ‘hrougiT But not er colloidal particles. It may be either natural or synthetic. ‘The most Commonly Used natural Boeet but nox the bigger colloidal parti y sy ednatural imeable membrane is the pig's bladder.Foloidal particles do not come the ‘colloid do mot settle down un . sols are quite stable oa .e whet itive or negative on any colloidal sol can be determined by a aS Ee co ary. Ue he nese of he elec Hele the colloid move towards the ‘oppositely charged electrodes. On Teaching the electrode, they y Tose thejr ‘charge and combine together to form big particles which ultimately settle down. This phenomenon is called coagulation. Fie movement of colloidal particles towards one of the electrodes under the influence of an ele ‘eld is called electrophoresis. Using this technique, the charge on colloidal particles can be. determing For example, + (Positively charged sols. Haemoglobin and hydroxides of metals like iron, aluminium, chrom calcium, etc. {9p Negatively charged sols. Colloidal particles of metals like copper, silver, gold, etc. ; metal sulphides like rsenic sulphide, cadmium sulphide, etc. ; gelatin, starch, clay, mud, ete 4 _9-Coagulation Pie process by which small colloidal particles lose their charge and combine together to form big sized particles which ultimately setile down is called coagulation. ‘The coagulation is generally carried out by addition of electrolytes* like sodium chloride, bari chloride, alum, etc. When an electrolyte* is added to a colloidal solution, the particles of the sol combine with oppositively charged ions and thus get neutralized. The neutral particles then start combining togelltt to form particles of larger size which settle down, For example, bleeding from a cut can be immediate) ‘ “ Eames eri, Ee reason being that the colloidal blood particles are negativel)) PP sitively charged ferric ior s c : che nan oe prt le, Aare an ee hie oR ee “Electrolytes are salts which when dissolved | : lytes are salts which when dissolved in : ¢hloriaé (NaC) gives sodium (Na") and chloride (CI) ions gen se"2°-ianization to form ions. For example, soli) (CI) ions chloride (CI>) ions and alum (potassium aluminium, oc end femic chloride (FECL) gives ferric (Fe) Aluminium (AI) and sulphate ($O2~) ions. » K280,.Al(S0,)3.24 H,0) gives potassium !" y y disposal. Sewage water contains colloidal particles of di ny charge, they can be coagulated by applyi thus obtained is used as a manure. tion of rubber. Latex is a of negativel ‘electric field. Thus, sewage water can be purified ibber particles in water. fiquid obtained from rubber trees. Rub : te hich provides positively charged H¥ i SAEs ae aes sion wth jal Solution and Suspension ion, colloidal solution and suspensions are given ‘True Solution Colloidal Solution ‘Suspension size | < 10-7 em (or 10° mor 1 nm) | A Appearance | Clear and transparent Homogeneous [AMiirabiity | Pass through ordinary filter paper as well as animal membranes (having pores smaller than filter papet) [Siting ot | Parictes do not setle down on Particles standing, ie, true solutions are stable PVeitity | Soiute particies are not visible even under a microscope. effect | Does not scatter light and hence does not show Tyndall effect. Between 10-7 — 10S cm (10? to 107 m or 1 nm = 100 nm) ‘Translucent Heterogeneous Pass through ordinary filter paper but not through semipermeable membranes. Colloidal particles also do not settle on keeping, ie, colloids are also stable. However, they can be made to settle by centrifugation (refer to page 75). Particles themselves are invisible but their presence can be detected under an ultramicroscope. Shows Tyndall effect due to > 10° em (or 107 m or 100 nm) Opaque Heterogeneous Neither pass through filter paper nor through semi permeable membranes. Particles of suspension settle down on standing, ive. suspersions are unstable Particles are generally ‘visible to the.naked eye. ‘Shows Tyndall effect scattering of light.stion. A solution which contains the maximum-amount of the en quan ofthe solvent atthe given temperature and which cannot olf at hat temperature is called strated solution. I oer word cog me ina saturated solution isthe same asthe solubility ofthe solute at nie “Unsaturated solution. A solution which can dissolve more solute in it at the given temperature is called the unsaturated solution. f 8 Supersturated solution. A solcion which remporariy contains more solute than the Saturation level is called a supersaturated solution. Unlike Saturated. sol on " sable, When it is disturbed either mechanically or by addition of a few crystals-0 dissolved solute, precipitation of some additional solute occurs. 8. A suspension isa heterogencous mixture in which the solute particles do not dissolve but remain suspended throughout the bulk of the medium. The particles of a suspension are big enough (> 100 nm) to be seen by the naked eye. For example, lime water used for white wash is a suspension of calcium hydroxide in water. (Colloids are heterogeneous mixtures in which the size of the particles lies in between those: 6f true solutions (less than 10-° m usually in the order of 10-* cm) and suspensions (© 10% em). Their particles are too small to be seen with the naked eye but are big enought to scatter light. These particles are called the dispersed phase and the medium in which these particles are distributed is called the dispersion medium. Depending upon the nature Gold liquid or gas) of the dispersed phase and the dispersion medium, there are eight HyPss of colloidal solutions. Gases, however, mix together to form homogeneous mixtures, M1, Colloidal solutions are quite stable, pass thro ugh filter paper without leaving any residue, a ain however be separated either by passing through semipermeable membranes oF by a special technique called centrifugation, 12, They show Brownian movement and Tyndall effect. 13, Colloidal particles carry charge which n Aare two types of colloidal sols Negatively charged sols. Colloidal partic é Metal sulphides such as arsenic sulphide « peise ) Positively charged sols. Haemog hromium, calcium, etc ay be either positive or negative, Therefore, there of metals like gelatin, clay, mud, et copper, silver, gold, ete. ; lobin an bin and hydroxides of metals like iron, aluminium, Ke moremen of olidshoartices towards one j Metric FoI called ectrophores IS. Conguiat re hi; 1 TBSP nnn. toiea cm il a iS mixture of blue lute) in water (solvent). The Put a few drops of blue (or black) ink on a watch place it on a beaker half full of water as shown 2.5. The water in the beaker is heated and the od will, in turn, heat up the Ti ink will evaporate and ultimately a blue (or residue will be left on the watch glass. Temay be noted here that direct heating of ink is soided because the blue or the black dye may decompose ndirect heating, J This method can be used to separate non-volatile omponents (solutes) dissolved in volatile solvents. For i yn-salt from Sea water or lakes containing {ommon salt. Sea water is collected in open shallow beds dhring high tide and allowed to evaporate in the hot sun, ~* Thesalt left behind is collected, purified in the factories FIGURE 2.5, Evaporation ‘and sold in the maket. < 211.2, How can we separate Cream from Milk ? — Centrifugation + a Sometimes, the solid particles in a liquid migturé are very small and thy tee BW Therefore, stich particles cannot be separated by filtration technique. However, such mixtures can be ly separated by the technique of centrifugation( This technique is based upon the princi is rotated at a high speed, the lighter particles stay on the surface of the liquid while the heavier icles are forced to the bottom of the liquid. Forexample, when milk is rotated at a high speed in a centrifugation machine\ The lighter fat particles her to form cream which stays on the surface while the heavier particles of the milk are Weome two the BoM As a result, separation occurs and the cream is collected from the outlet olde near the Top of the ceburifugation machine while the milk is collected through an outlet provided tthe bottom ofthe nrachine. By using the technique of centrifugation, different varieties of milk contanin, Rerenesmunteot cream such as full cream, toned anid double toned Varieties of milk are prepared. Thes Packed in polypacks or tetrapacks and then sold in We market Applications of centrifugation., j) The technique of centrifugation is used in diagonstc laboratories "West and urine tess sacide — wK snes to Separate butter from cream. :Pi a one component (i using a separating uintures canbe separated BY i funnel, The rechnique is based upon the rnineiole that ‘when a mixture of 0 oe figuids is allowed to stand-they separate oo” feo separate layers depending upon thei ensiies. Let os separate a mixture of Kerosene Git and water. Pour the mixture of Kerosene oil ‘and water in a separating funnel (Fig. 2.6) ‘The separating funnel is then allowed (0 stand for sometime when kerosene oil and water form two separate layers. The kerosene oil being lighter than water forms the upper layer while water being heavier forms the lower layer. The ndaryof separation of the two liquids is ornare Row place a beaker below the FIGURE 2.6, Separation of two immiscible laid imnel and open the stopcock, The lower layer Fa wees te spark of espn fennel as soon ste ol ayer races stopcock, Now remove the beaker containing water and replace it by another beaker. Once again open the “Applications of solvent extraction. 4 This technique is used to separate ®pixture of oil and water or mixtures of any two immiscible liguids like benzene Moroform and-waterether and -r, carbon tetrachloride and water, elt G#To extract, organic compounds present in aqueous solutionsjusing a water immiscible organi¢ solvent life chloroform, benzene, ether, carbon tetrachloride, (pe um ether, etc. 3g ) In the blast furnace, during extraction of from) two separate layers are formed. The upper layet consists of the Bie licate) while the lower layer consists of'molten irdn. The lighter slag ‘i removed from the upper hole while the molten iron is removed from the bottom hole of the furnace. 2.11.4. How can we separate a Mixture of Common salt and Ammonium chloride ? — Sublimation ‘We have already Studied in chapter | that on heating, ammonium chloride undergoes sublimati ie, it changes directly from solid to gaseous state without passing thror c ons }out passing through the-imtermediate liquid stat Heat, sublimation Sold Vapours Cool, sublimation rot Some examples of substances which undergo sublimation are naphthalene, anthracene, benzoic acid, iodine, etc. fmmbatun Chl a Thus, the process of non-volatile components of blimation can be used to separate sublimable vo a tie mixture consisting of ammonium, aie le and common salt if e720 oh 1 BEI LELED