SCIENCE @ HUSTLING y) STUDENTJESSON1 VGUCOINO & LT RELL ON BICAIEE T BIDE S The lithosphere (solid part of the Earth) is composed of three major layers, the crust (outermost layer), the mantle (the middles layer), and the core (the innermost layer). The Earth's crust is composed of several broken plates that move continuously. These movements are caused by the properties and processes that occur in the Earth's interior. Due to intense heat in the Earth's interior, the molten rock (magma) in the mantle moves in a cyclic pattern forming convection cells. In the cell, the warmer material from the lower layer of the mantle near the core rises. As it rises, moving away from the core, it slowly cools down and eventually sinks again ond is replaced by the rising warmer material forming a never-ending cycle. This movement is extremely slow that its effects can only be discerned after thousands or millions of years. Mid-Oceanic Ridge Ocean subduetion Continental 3 Oceanic Lithosphere Lithosphere J Ae Figure 3.13 Convection Cell "THEORIES ON THE MOVEMENT OF THE LITHOSPHERE————————— |. Continental Drift theory (Alfred Wegener) This theory states that the Earth was once composed of only one supercontinent called Pangaea. Through time, this supercontinent split into two sub- continents, Laurasia and Gondwanaland. Million years further, Laurasia split into a few smaller continents forming the continents in the northern hemisphere of the Earth. This includes Asia, Europe, North America, South America, and Africa. 2. Seafloor Spreading Theory Proposed by Harry Hess of Princeton University States that the seafloor is continuously spreading and the extra crust gets recycled into the mantle 3. Plate Tectonies Theory States that the crust is composed of different plates which move either towards, away or past each other. The modern version of the Continental Drift Theory of Alfred Wegener———rees oF Voucanoes In Terms of Structure (Bagley, 2018): Characteristics Cinder Cone Volcano - Steep slope - Emits ash during eruption Shield Volcano - Wide base - Emits lava - Looks like a shield hence the name Composite Volcano or Stratovolcano - Half way of having steep slope and wide base - Emits both ash and lava Composite Volcano Cinder Cone Volcano Shield Volcano lavafiows In Terms of Activity Characteristics Active Volcano These are volcanoes that are “currently erupting or are expected to erupt in the near future" Dormant Volcano These are “not currently erupting but have erupted within recordable history and are expected to erupt again in the future." Extinct Volcano “These volcanoes are considered as dead and are not expected to erupt in the futurJESSON 2 “EAR THQMAKE ERIGEAEER Earthquake - shaking and trembling of the Earth's crust caused by a sudden release of energy. It occurs when rocks along a certain fault line suddenly move. During an earthquake, a sudden release of stored energy in the Earth's crust creates seismic waves. Sometimes they cause tsunamis and fire which may lead to loss of life and huge damage to property. Seismology - study of earthquakes and the waves they create Seismologists - scientists who study earthquakes Seismic Waves - the energy that is released is carried by a vibration ——— We Es OF SEISMIC WAVES: Types oF Body Waves P-Waves or primary waves - travel faster than other seismic waves. It is considered as the first signal from an earthquake to be felt. This may be transmitted through gases, liquids and solids. S-Waves or secondary waves - a type of elastic wave and are one of the two main types of elastic body waves, It is also called as shear waves. ‘Types of Surface Waves Love Wave - named after Augustus Edward Hough Love. It has a horizontal motion that is transverse to the direction the wave is travelling and is considered to be the fastest surface wave and moves the ground from side to side Rayleigh Waves - move in an elliptical motion, producing both vertical and horizontal motions. This moves the ground up and down and side to side in the some direction that the wave is moving, It is named after Lord Rayleigh. ———]9caTion oF aN SPICENTER The epicenter is usually the location where the waves from an earthquake are highly intense. As aresult, it is also the area where the most damage can possibly occur. However, it is not always the case. In order to locate the epicenter of an earthquake, you need to determine the time interval between the arrival of the P and S waves (the S-P interval) on the seismo- grams from at least three different stations, What causes an earthquake? An earthquake is caused by a sudden slip on a fault. The tectonic plates are always slowly moving, but they get stuck at their edges due to friction. foul } Fault - the area where an earthquake occurs or where the surface slipped Hypocenter or focus - the location below the earth's surface where the earthquake startsEpicenter - the location directly above it on the surface of the earth The magnitude of an earthquake is based on the measurement of the maximum motion recorded by a seismograph. The most commonly used are the Local Magnitude (ML) or known as the Richter magnitude, the surface wave magnitude (Ms), body -wave magnitude (Mb), and moment magnitude (Mw). How CAN WE MEASURE AN EARTHQUAKE? Earthquake can be measured using a Richter Scale and Mercalli Scale. Intensity - measure of the amount of earth shaking that happens at a given location. Magnitude - measures the size of the seismic waves or the amount of energy released at the source of the earthquake INTENSITY _| EFFECTS TO PEOPLE MAGNITUDE 1 not felt by many Instrumental 2 felt by few Feeble 3 felt by few indoors Slight 4 felt by many indoors ‘Moderate 5 felt by almost everyone Rather Strong 6 felt by all Strong 7 find damages to few buildings Very strong 8 slight damage to specially designed structures _| Destructive 9 destroys some well-built wooden structures Ruinous 10 destroys well-built wooden structures Disastrous 11 destroys bridges and railways Very disastrous 12 Total Damage Catastrophic Measured using a Mercalli Scale. SaFETY PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES What to do befere an Earthquake + Must prepare a fire extinguisher; + First aid kit; + Battery powered radio; + Emergency light/flashlights with extra battery; + Must learn to turn off gas, electicity and water; + Heavy ob jects must not be placed above the head level; and + Make a plan where to meet with your family. What te de during an Earthquake + Stay calm. + If you are outdoors, stay in an open area far away from power lines or anything that might fall. + If you are indoors, stay inside and observe the Drop- Cover-Hold protocol. + In case you are in a high rise building, do not use the elevators. What to de after an Earthquake « Be prepared for aftershocks. + Listen to the radio, or television, for information. * Check your home for any damages. + Wear protective clothing and sturdy shoes.JESSON 3 —-MOUNEAIN BEERS A volcano is a type of a mountain, but it has magma, crater. and lava. A mountain does not have these three things. Mountains are peaceful areas whereas volcanoes are very much dangerous and are not a good place to be at. Volcanoes can be a part of a mountain range. MOUNTAIN FORMATIONS A mountain is formed due to various geological processes like the movement and opposition of tectonic plates while a volcano is formed around a vent that allows magma to reach the surface of the earth. It all has to do with plate tectonic activities.JEsson 4 ~PUATE BOLINDABIES es © & Transform Convergent Olvergent ——— CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARY Two tectonic plates collide towards each other. one plate eventually slides beneath the other. this process is called subduction. Converging oceanic plates, will cause formation of trenches, and these trenches will become sources of earthquakes. The leading edge of the subducted plate will eventually reach the mantle causing it to melt and turn into magma. The molten material will rise to the surface creating a volcanic island arc parallel to the trench. Types of Convergent Plate Boundary | Oceanic-Continental, one plate is oceanic, there are large volcanoes found in lines that outline the subduction zone. Earthquakes also happen in these zones. 2, Ocean-ocean, one of the plates (oceanic crust and Lithospheric mantle) is pushed, or subducted, under the other that mixes with the overlying mantle, and the addition of water to the hot mantle lowers the crust's melting point that leads to the formation of magma. 3. Continental continental convergent plate are when two plates collide, they have a density lower than the mantle which prevent subduction (submersion of plates under each other) so they create mountains. DIVERGENT BOUNDARIES The region where crustal plates are moving away from each other and in opposite directions. This either happens at mid-ocean ridges (the so-called seafloor spreading) or at rifted continental margins.Most divergent plate boundaries are underwater and form submarine mountain ranges called oceanic spreading ridges. Divergent Plate Boundery - Continental Divergent Plate Boundary het — —= ECC ree are "TRANSFORM FAULT OR TRANSFORM BOUNDARY A fault along a plate boundary where the motion is predominantly horizontal, two plates are sliding past each other Natural or human-made structures that cross a transform boundary are offset — split into pieces and carried in opposite directions. ‘Types oF Transform Plate Boundaries Fermation |. Ridge-Ridge Boundaries - A mid-ocean ridge or mid-oceanic ridge is an underwater mountain range, formed by plate tectonics. This uplifting of the ocean floor occurs when convection currents rise in the mantle beneath the oceanic crust and create magma where two tectonic plates meet at a divergent boundary. 2. Trench-Trench Boundaries - trenches are formed by a subduction, a geophysical processes in which two or more of Earth's tectonic plates converge and the older, denser plate is pushed beneath the lighter plate and deep into the mantle, causing the seafloor and outermost crust (the lithosphere) to bend and form a steep, V- shaped depression. 3. Ridge-Trench Boundaries - trench is a deep elongated cavity bordering a continent or an island arc; it forms when one tectonic plate slides beneath another. Ridge is underwater mountain range that criss-crosses the oceans and is formed by rising magma in a zone where two plates are moving apart.od tanh |. Thermal convection - when heat from the Earth's interior causes oe the magma to flow, with hot magna rises while cooler magma sinks which initiate the crustal plates movement. 2. Ridge push - the sliding plate force which drives the plate motion in plate tectonics. It occurs at mid- ocean ridges as the result of the rigid lithosphere sliding down the hot raised asthenosphere below mid-ocean ridges. — sane 3. Slab pull - part of the motion of a tectonic plate caused by its = subduction. Plate motion is partly driven by the weight of cold, dense — plates sirking into the mantle at oceanic trenches. This force and slab —_ suction account for almost all of the force driving plate tectonics.JESSON 6 ELE TIC ELEGEROMAGNETIC Are produced by a charge that changes its direction or speed. Electrons are charged particles that can produce electric and magnetic fields. But in order to create the vibrating electric and magnetic fields that ore the characteristics of an electromagnetic wave, electrons must move. A charged particle, such as an electron, moves back and forth, or vibrate. A changing magnetic field produces an electric field and in the same manner, a changing electric field produces a magnetic field Travel in a vacuum at a speed of 3xI0*8 m/s and denoted as c, the speed of light. PROPERTIES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC \AJAVES |. They are produced by accelerated or oscillating charge. 2. They do not require any material or medium for propagation. 3. They travel in free space at the speed of 3xI0°8 m/s. ——GSLECTROMAGNETIC Wave THEORY Begins with ancient measures to understand atmospheric electricity, in particular, lightning. During thel9th century, it had become clear that electricity and magnetism were related, and their theories were unified: Whenever charges are in motion, electric current results, and magnetism is due to electric current. Electromagnetic waves are also produced by a disturbance caused by a vibrating charge. When the charge is moved, the electric field around it is changed. Prepenents on the Formulation of EM Wave Theery James Clerk Maxwell (1876) - an English scientist who developed a scientific theory to better explain electromagnetic waves. - When Maxwell used this field theory to assume that light was an electromagnetic wave, and then correctly deduced the finite velocity of light, it was a powerful logical argument for the existence of the electromagnetic force field - He noticed that electrical fields and magnetic fields can couple together to form electromagnetic waves. Maxwell discovered that a changing magnetic field will induce a changing electric field and vice versa. Michael Faraday (1791-1867) - probably best known for his discovery of electromagnetic induction. - His contributions to electrical engineering and electrochemistry or due to the fact that he was responsible for introducing the concept of field in physics to describe electromagnetic interaction are enough for him to be highly recognized. - But perhaps, it is not so well known that he had also made fundamental contributions to the electromagnetic theory of light.André-Marie Ampére - made the revolutionary discovery that a wire carryingmelectric current can attract or repel another wire next to it that's also carrying electricmcurrent. Hans Christian Oersted - a Danish physicist and chemist who discovered that the electric current in a wire can deflect a magnetized compass needle, a phenomenon the importance of which was rapidly recognized and which inspired the development of electromagnetic theory. The Basic Principles of EM Wave Theory |. Many natural phenomena exhibit wave-like behaviors. All of them - water waves, earthquake waves, and sound waves require a medium to propagate. These are examples of mechanical waves. 2. Light can also be described as a wave — a wave of changing electric and magnetic fields that propagate outward from their sources. These waves, however, do not require a medium to propagate. 4. Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves. In simpler terms, the changing electric and magnetic fields oscillate perpendicular to each other and to the direction of the propagating waves. 5. When the oscillating charge accelerates, the moving charge's electric fields change, too. “TEM Waves: Waves: FREQUENCIES AND \WaveLeneTHs EM waves are often arranged in the DIIANAAW AWM order of wavelength and frequency in what is known as the electromagnetic . “r atl ‘pian spectrum. “Rw cw Because all EM waves travel at the “ree” same speed, if the frequency of a wave changes, then the wavelength must change as well. Waves with the longest wavelengths have the lowest frequencies while the waves with the shortest wavelengths have the highest frequencies. The amount of energy carried by an electromagnetic wave increases with its frequency. Arranged according to increasing frequency, the EM spectrum displays the following waves: radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X- rays, and gamma rays at the high-frequency (short wavelength) end. Parts oF a wave wave REST Wave Crest - highest part of a wave. Wave Trough - lowest part of a wave. Wave Height - vertical distance between the wave trough and the wave crest. Wave Length - distance between two consecutive wave crests or between two consecutive wave troughs. Wave Frequency - number of waves passing a fixed point in a specified period of time. WAVE LENGTH AVE HEIGHT wave TROUGHWave Period - time it takes for two successive crests (one wavelength) to pass a specified point. The wave period is often referenced in seconds, e.g. one wave every 6 seconds. Fetch - ninterrupted area or distance over which the wind blows (in the same direction). The greater the fetch, the greater the wave height. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF &M Waves Waves in the EM spectrum include the following from the longest wavelength to the shortest wavelength |. Radio waves 4. Visible light 7. Gamma ray 2. Microwaves _ 5. Ultraviolet 3. Infrared 6. X-ray EM waves Applicatiens/Uses + Radio waves - Radio and television communication + Microwaves - Satellite communication, terrestrial communications, RADAR, microwave oven + Infrared - Remote control, infrared scanner, night-vision google, autofocus camera, thermogram + Visible light - Photosynthesis, artificial lighting, optical fibers in medical uses, screen of electronic devices + Ultraviolet Rays - Sterilization of water from drinking fountain, check signatures on a passbook, used 10 identify fake banknotes + X-rays - Medical use, engineering applications * Gamma rays - Medical treatment, radiotherapy, nuclear reactions The Effects of EM Radiations on Living Things and Envirenment Radiation exists all around us, from both natural and manmade sources, and is in two forms: ionizing and non-ionizing radiation. Non-lonizing Radiation is a type of low-energy radiation that does not have enough energy to remove an electron (negative particle) from an atom or molecule. Non-ionizing radiation includes visible, infrared, and ultraviolet light; microwaves; radio waves; and radiofrequency energy from cell phones. lonizing radiation is a form of energy that acts by removing electrons from atoms and molecules of materials that include air, water, and living tissue. lonizing radiation takes a few forms: Alpha, beta, and neutron particles, and gamma and X-rays. Risk Reduction is usually an automatic process for most potential hazards.JESSON 7 -MIBROR & LENSES- (maces FORMED By PLANE MirroRs———— Reflection is the turning back of light rays when it hits a shiny surface like a mirror. Plane mirrors exhibits regular reflection where the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. Normal line is an imaginary line that can be drawn perpendicular to the surface of the mirror and used as reference point in determining the angle of reflection and angle of incidence. Laws of reflection: + The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. The angle is measured between the normal line and the incident ray while the angle of reflection is measured between the normal line and the reflected ray. The arrowhead shows the direction of light. + The normal line, incident ray and reflected ray all lie in the same plane. What you see on the mirror is an image which appears to be at the back of the mirror. ‘maces Formen ev Curven Mirror A concave mirror is called converging mirror because the parallel incident rays converge or meet/intersect at a focal point (the point at which rays meet after reflection). at oie =e infinity + — * : Infinity is Fe = Concave Mirror ¥ A convex mirror is called diverging mirror because the parallel incident rays diverge after reflection. When extending the reflected rays behind the mirror as shown, the rays converge at the focus behind the mirror. Refraction - bending of light rays due to change in its speed as it travels from one medium to another. Lens - an optical device that disperses light beam by way of refraction. Transparent glass with curved sides for concentrating or dispersing light rays. A real image can only be seen in a concave mirror at a condition that the object will be placed ‘at a distance greater than the focal length from the surface of the mirror. The image formedwill be in an upright position and reduced in size. When light rays reflect off a concave mirror, the rays converge at a point called the focus. The focal length is measured from the reflective surface to the focus. The image produced by concave mirrors are reduced in size and it is a real image. The image produced by concave mirrors are reduced in size and it is a real image. Convex mirrors on the other hand create an image bigger than the object which is virtual. Hard surface Hard surface Reflective surface Reflective surface Concave mirror Convex mirror ‘In a concave mirror: PRINCIPAL FOCUS (F) PRINCIPAL AXIS + POLE (P) CENTER OF CURVATURE (c) Position oF the ebject Size oF the image Nature of the image Between P and F Enlarged Virtual and Errect ATE Highly enlorged Real and inverted Between C and F Enlarged Real and Inverted At Same Size Real and Inverted Beyond C Diminished Real and Inverted At infinity Highly diminished (point Real and Inverted sized)PRINCIPAL AXIS. PRINCIPAL AXIS: PRINCIPAL AXIS. PRINCIPAL AXIS, PRINCIPAL AXIS———RQav DIAGRAMS: A. Beyend C. at C or between C and F |. Light rays that travel parallel to the principal axis reflect off the mirror through the focus 2. Light rays that travel through the focus reflect off the mirror parallel to the principal axis Object Beyond C Size: Smaller Attitude: Inverted Location: Between C and F Type of Image: Real AC Size: Same size Attitude: Inverted Location: At C Type of Image: Real Ord Between C and F Size: Larger Attitude: Inverted Location: Beyond C Type of Image: Real lang yp 9) B. At F |. Light rays that travel parallel to the principal axis reflect off the mirror through the focus 2. Light rays that travel through the centre of curvature reflect back through the centre of curvature Size: No image is formed Attitude: No image is formed Location: No image is formed Type of Image: No image is formed Ray Diagram for Object Located at F (an imag. is pot formed)C. Between F and the Mirror Size: Larger Attitude: Upright Location: Behind mirror Type of Image: Virtual Ray Diagzam for Object Located in Front of F ——Mirror &Quartion VE =p +iiq Where: f - is the focal length or distance from the mirror and the focal point (F) p - Distance of the object from the mirror q - distance of the image from the mirror hi - height of the image h- height of the object The ‘sign Convention fer mirrors: + fis + if the mirror is concave +f is —if the lens is convex + qs + if the image is real and located on the object side of the mirror + q is — if the image is virtual and located behind the mirror +h’ is + if the image is upright + ht is — if the image is inverted Example: |. A 5.00 cm. tall light bulb is placed at a distance of 45.0 cm from a concave mirror having a focal length of 10.5 cm Determine the image distance and the image size. Given: h=5.00 cm Solution: d=45.0cm Vf =p +i/q f = 10.5 cm 110.5 em = 1/45.0 cm + I/q q=13.7 cm q hi The image height can be determined using the magnification equation. Since three of the four quantities in the equation are known, the fourth quantity can be calculated : h'/h= -q/p h/5.00 cm = -13.7/45.0 cm h’= (5.00 cm) (-18.7 cm)/45.0 cm -I,52 cm (A negative value for image height indicates an inverted image)JESSON 8 ——MAGNELSM— Magnetism - the natural force that causes magnets to function as they do Thales - Greek philosopher said to have been the first to observe this property. After his time, the lodestone was often mentioned in ancient writings. It was given the name "magnet" after Magnesia, a district in the Asia Minor where large magnetic deposits were found. TMCNET SOTTO substance that possesses magnetic properties ‘Types oF magnets: Ferromagnetic - strongly attracted to magnets, like iron and steel Paramagnetic - slightly attracted by strong magnets, such as wood, aluminum, platinum and oxygen Diamagnetic - slightly repelled by magnets, like table salt, mercury, zinc and gold —— SLecTRomacnets Discovered by Professor Hans Christian Oersted in Denmork His discovery made him conclude that a current- carrying wire produces a magnetic field. Electromagnet is a magnet that can be switched on and off. It is a solenoid with a core. The strength of an electromagnet can be made stronger by increasing the number of turns on the core. Uses of Electromagnets |. Electromagnets are used for hauling large pieces of iron and steel in a steel mill and for other lifting purposes. 2. These are also used when removing steel splinters and shrapnel from the delicate parts of the body such as the eyes and other internal organs. 3. To make the following devices work: + A galvanometer for measuring small electric current in a circuit, usually in amperes, is called an ammeter. If it measures electric current in volts, it is called a voltmeter. + Electric bell + Electric buzzer - is similar in construction to the electric bell. However, it has no hammer or gong. ———Maenetic Fico ano Gtectric CuRRENT In 1831, Michael Faraday, an English scientist, dscovered that a moving wire through a magnetic field could produce an electric current. Michael Faraday concluded that when a wire is moved through a magnetic field, a current is generated in the wire. Electromagnetic induction - process of generating current by the relative motion between a wire and magnetic fieldPROPERTIES OF GASES: |. Gases are compressible. 2. Gases fill any container that they occupy. 3. Different gases mix completely. 4. Gases expand in the presence of heat. 5. Gases do not settle in their container Gas molecules are in constant, rapid, random motion. They move in straight lines until they collide with other molecules, or with the walls of the container. A given pressure is the result of the number of such collisions in a unit of time, Gas pressure is increased by the following: |. Forcing more gas into the container, thereby increasing the number of collisions per unit time. 2. Decreasing the volume of gas, thus shortening the average distance between the molecules and eventually increasing the number of collisions per unit time. 3. Gas particles are in constant, rapid, and random mation. 4. Collisions of gas particles with each other or with the walls of the container are perfectly elastic. 5. The average kinetic energy of gas particles depends only on the temperature of the gas. Gases have higher kinetic energy at a higher temperature and lower kinetic energy at a lower temperature. 6. Gas particles exert a force on one another, in other words, the attractive forces between gas particles are so weak that the model assumes them to be zero. —ovre's law That the volume occupied by a gas is inversely proportional to the pressure if the temperature remains constant. At constant temperature, if there is an increase in pressure, volume will decrease. If there is an increase in volume, pressure will also decrease. Formule: P4Vy = P2V2 where; g Pl = initial pressure 3 Vi= initial volume rs P2 = final(resulting) pressure V2 = final(resulting)volum Example: A. What volume will 500 mL of gas initially at 25° C and 750 mm of Hg occupy when condition changes to 650 mm Hg at the same temperature? Solution: Consider first that the temperature is constant, therefore, we can use Boyle's law. Note also that Pi is 750 mm Hg, VI is 500 mL, and P2 is 650 mm Hg.PiV1 = P22 ———* P2V2 = PIV PN2 _ Pv BE Po Ve fe Substituting the given values for initial and final pressure and volume as reflected in the table above. 750 ware HG x 500 mL 650 petty V2 = 577 mL Cuartes's law The Kelvin temperature and the volume of a gas are directly related when there is no change in pressure or amount of gas. The ratio of volume V to temperature T is constant as long as pressure P and number of moles n do not change. Formula: V3/ T1= V2ITz Note: To convert Celsius (°C) to Kelvin (K), you add 273. Ex. 20°C to K 20°C + 273 = 293K Example: A nab gas at 760 mm Hg has a volume of |2.0 L and a temperature of 44°C. Find the new volume of the gas after the temperature has been increased to 85°C at 760 torr. Solution Step |: Since the temperatures ore given in degrees Celsius, you must first change them into Kelvin. T= 44°C + 273 = 317K T2 = 85°C + 273 = 358K Step 2: Placing the information for the gas in table gives the following: Initial Condition Final Condition Change Tis 3I7K T2 = 358K T increases V Vi = 12.0 v2=? must increase Step 3: According to the temperature-volume relationship Vil T1= V2/T2 Then, cross multiply: SS 358 Vile = Val) V2= 120LX— T= 13.55L ViTo ;o— Ts The final volume of 13.6 L is larger compared to the initial volume of 12.0 L as the temperature increases.———fvocanro's law This law states that equal volume of gases at the same temperature and pressure contains equal number of molecules. A mole is equal to 6.02 x 10423 particles. Consequently, the volume of a given gas must be proportional to the number of molecules present as shown in the equation V/n= k Where V = volume of the gas in liters n= amount os gas in moles k = proportionality constant which is expressed as Vj/ny = Vo/n2 or Vin2 = Vani Avegadre’s law is impertant in the Fellowing situations: |. Lungs expand as they fill with air. Exhaling decreases the volume of the lungs. 2. A balloon filled with helium gas weighs less than an identical balloon filled with air. Helium balloon is lighter. 3. The more molecules of air are filled in a basketball, the greater its volume. 4. A flat tire takes up less space because it contains less air. 5. Moist air goes upward because it contains more water molecules. Exomple: What will be the final volume of a 5.0L of He gas which contains 0.965 mole of a gas at 300 C and |.00 atmosphere if the amount of the gas is increased to |.8 moles, provided that the temperature and pressure remains unchanged? Given: Vi = 5.0L v2 =? ni = 0.965 mol n2_ = |.80 mol Formula V4/ny = V2/n2 or Vine = Vani Solution: Vim = Vom (5.0L) (1.80mol) = V2 (0.965 mol) 9 0.965 (V. 0.965 0.965 9.3L = Va Final Answer = 9.3LJESSON 10 Seteae Certain complex organic molecules which form the basis of life are part of the chemical composition of all living organisms. Required for their growth, maintenance and even for survival in extreme environment conditions. Macromolecules - large molecules composed of thousands of covalently connected atoms main classes : carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. There are six (6) most common elements that can be found in biomolecules. These are called CHNOPS or CHONSP elements; the letters stand for the chemical abbreviations of the names of these elements: Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorus, and Sulfur. There are six (6) most common elements that can be found in biomolecules. These are called CHNOPS or CHONSP elements; the letters stand for the chemical abbreviations of the names of these elements: Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorus, and Sulfur. Carbohydrates - carbon, hydrogen and oxygen Protein - carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur Lipids - carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, sulfur (lipids can also contain N. but for most cases, this is sufficient) (Nucleic Acid - carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, nitrogen and sulfur CARBOHYDRATES Components: C,H, O Monomers: Monosaccharides Bond: Glycosidic bond Simple Carbohydrates They are the main source of energy for the body. A. Monosaccharides + Simple sugars + Examples include: Glucose, Fructose, Galactose + Glucose is the main product of photosynthesis + C6HI206 * Oligosaccharides - a short chain of two to ten monosaccharides. B. Important disaccharides * Glucose + Glucose = Maltose + Glucose + Fructose = Sucrose (Table sugar) + Glucose + Galactose = Lactose (found in milk) Complex carbehydratesLong-term storage for energy Insoluble in water due to large molecular size A. Polysaccharides + Straight /branched chain of sugar monomers. + Polysaccharides don't taste sweet and does not crystallize. Types of Carbohydrates Starch - Normally contains 20-30% of amylose, and 70-80% of amylopectin Found in plants Glycogen - Stored glucose in animals Found in liver cells and skeletal muscles. It is more highly branched than starch Cellulose - Structural component of the cell walls of plant cells and some algae. It serves as dietary fiber in humans, to maintain regular elimination. Chitin - Found in exoskeleton of arthropods such as crabs, lobsters, insects and cell walls of fungi. It can be used as a strong and flexible surgical thread ‘PROTEINS Components: Mostly C, H, O and N (Some Sulfur) Monomers: Amino acids Bond: Peptide bond (link between two amino acids) They are the formed by formation of amino acids into polypeptides. They ore 20 different amino acids in which Il of these can be synthesized by our body, non- essential amino acids. The other 9 can be obtained from foods, essential amino acids. 20 amine acids + Complete Proteins- contains all 9 essential amino acids Examples: eggs. tofu, meats + Incomplete Proteins- does not contain all 9 essential amino acids Exmoples: grains, legumes, vegies Functions of pretein |. As a Support such as Keratin and Collagen. 2. Metabolism. They make up enzymes for helping chemical reactions 3. Defense. They make up antibodies in the immune system 4, Transport. Carriers and protein channels in plasma membrane. (e.g. Hemoglobin, a transport molecule in blood) 5. Regulation. Hormones, regulatory proteins such as glucagon, insulin, growth hormones, non-steroid hormones. 6. Motion. Muscle contractions due to actin and myosin (contractile proteins) Structure of preteins ' » LoL gun Polypeptide chan Complex protein molecule|. Primary Protein Structure - Sequence of a chain of amino acids 2. Secondary Protein Structure - Local folding of the polypeptide chain into helices or sheets 3. Tertiary Protein Structure - Three-dimensional folding pattern of a protein due to side chain interactions 4. Quaternary Protein Structure - Protein consisting of more than one amino acid chain + Proteins fold & twist into 3-D shape + Different shapes = different jobs + Globular proteins, rounded or irregular 3D tertiary shape. + Fibrous proteins adapt a rod-like structure. Enzymes + Speed up the rate of a chemical reaction (a catalyst) by lowering the energy needed to begin the reaction (Below) + Re-usable + Molecule specific - like a lock and key + Example: ONLY Lactase will break down lactose. It will NEVER break down proteins + Folded specific to its function...like a lock and key model! Lactase - breaks down lactose sugar Pepsin- breaks down proteins Amylase- breaks down amylose «Enzymes are affected by temperature and pH level. pws Components: C, H, 0 (some P and N) Monomers: Glycerol and Fatty acids Lipids are non polar in nature thus they do not interact with water. Lipids can also act as cushions for internal organs. Also insulate the body to help maintain normal body temperature. ‘Fatty Acids May Be Classified As: |. Saturated fatty acids No double bond between Carbon atom. Examples: Butter and animal fats 2. Unsaturated fatty acids Have double bond bet. Carbon atoms. Examples: Plant oils except palm and coconut oil 3. Polyunsaturated fatty acids Have more than one double bond between the carbon atoms. Examples: Corn oil, Olive oil, canola oil and fish oil 4. Trans fats Fatty acids that have been partially hydrogenated making it more saturated and solid. Main types of lipids: |. Triglycerides - Most common type of body fat in humans and other vertebrates. It is the body's primary long-term energy storage molecules. 2. Phospolipids - It js one of the most important molecules in the cells. Are amphiphatic molecules (Greek "feelings for both"), a molecule with split characteristic.Cell Membrane - It's semi-permeable, allowing only certain molecules to diffuse across the membrane to enter or exit the cell. 3. Steroids - These are lipids that possess unique C skeleton of 4 fused rings, they are also insoluble in water 4 fused rings, they are also insoluble in water. Steroid cholesterol, helps maintain the fluidity of plasma membrane. Aids in the flow of materials into and out of the cells. Also involved in formation of bile salts and vit. D. Sex hormones (testosterone and progesterone) Synthetic steroids, such as testosterone that increases muscle mass, is more harmful than beneficial to the body because it disrupts the normal hormonal balance. 4, Waxes - esters made of an alcohol chain and a fatty acid chain. Many plants have wox- covered leaves to prevent water loss. Cutin 5.Terpenes - unique type of lipids that do not contain fatty acids, but rather a unit of isoprene. Typically, they have distinct aroma in plants which may serve a natural function of attracting pollinators and protection against herbivores, insects, 6. Prostaglandins - group of 20 lipids that are modified fatty acids, with 2 nonpolar tails attached to a 5-carbon ring. Act as a local chemical messenger in vertebrate tissues. Nucteic Acio Monomers: Nucleotides Bond: Phosphodiester Bond Are polymers of nucleotides which composed of: a five-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and organic Nitrogen-containing bases. Nucleosides are responsible for encoding, transmitting and expressing genetic information in all living things. Purines are large, double-ring molecules found in both DNA and RNA. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) Material of Inheritance, which is found in nucleus of every cell for eukaryotic organism, and in cytoplasm for prokaryotic organisms. ‘A segment of a DNA is known as a gene, which codes for a protein that codes for a trait. The DNA structure was published by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953. RNA (Ribonucleic Acid) Used to translate the genetic information stored in DNA into protein structure. 3 classes of RNA: mRNA (messenger RNA) - used as template to make proteins. rRNA (ribosomal RNA) - makes up ribosomes. tRNA (transfer RNA) - matches amino acids to mRNA to help make proteins. macromotecue| Mements | onomer | Examples | Uses | T glucose, | casbon energy Carbohydrates hydrogen, monosaccharides storage: oxygen structurecarbon, ‘icaater hydrogen, — signals; | oxygen, amino acids ome ‘a ae sulfur omnes receptors energy carbon, hydrogen, Butter, ot, | ****8* oxygen, fatty acid cholesterol, | Protection phosphorus, beeswax | chemical sulfur messengers, repel water carbon, hydrogen, nucleic acids oxygen, sucleotides | DNA, RNA |, SeaetieJESSON 11 UEMIQAL REACTIONS ‘A process by which one or more substances, the reactants, are converted to one or more different substances, the products. Chemical reactions take place only in a proper conditions. In order for a reaction to occur to proceed into completion, according to the Collision Theory, there must be an effective collision between reacting particles. There are two conditions for effective collisions. These are: |. The orientation of the particles favors the creation or breaking of chemical bonds 2. The reacting molecules should possess the minimum energy called activation energy The general formula of a combination reaction is: a+s— as Reactants - materials in a chemical reaction that are found at the tail of an arrowhead Product- those at the head of the arrow Exothermic reaction - heat is evolved or given off. Endothermic reaction- a reaction wherein heat is absorbed. Barancine EQUATIONS |. Identify the products and reactants Remember, reactants are written on the left side of your equation while the products are on the right. 2. Write the number of atoms. Next, you need to determine how many atoms of each element are present on each side of the equation. You can do this by looking at the subscripts or the coefficients. 3. Add coefficients. A coefficient is a whole number multiplier and they are used to balance chemical equations They show how many atoms or molecules of a substance are involved in a reaction. To balance a chemical equation, write appropriate coefficients to make sure that the number of atoms on both sides of the arrow are the same. Use the simplest whole number ratio. Apply the Law of Conservation of Mass to get the same number of atoms of every element on each side of the equation. The equation is now balanced. They have the same number of atoms on both sides. Example: Fe+ 0: — FeO: [Reactant | Element | Product | Reactant |Element| Product side | side | side side [ [1 [Fr Ce a ee ee 2 3 2 ° 3 CeT 2 [90 3 6 ——KINDS OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS |. Synthesis In chemistry when two or mare|elements ar compaunis combine to make a mare complex substance, the process js called synthesis. A +B —» AB The reaction of hydrogen and oxygen to make water is a synthesis reaction. Example: 2NO + 02 —“2NOz. Decomposition In contrast to a synthesis reaction, a process called decomposition breaks down compounds into simpler products. AB—A+B The hydrogen peroxide decomposes into water and oxygen gas. Example: Li2CO3 — Li20 + Coz . Single Displacement When one element replaces another in a compound, process is called single displacement. Replacement happens due to difference in reactivity of elements. Metals — Metals, Non-metals — Non-metals A + BC —> AC +8 . Double Displacement When the anions and cations of two different compounds switch places, forming two entirely different compounds. This type of reaction can also be called a metathesis reaction. AB + CD —> AD + BC Combustion In order to burn something you need the 3 things in the “fire triangle": Fuel (hydrocarbon) Oxygen Something to ignite the reaction (spark) Hydrocarbon + 02 —> CO2 + H20 short: Synthesis - The get together Decomposition- The break up Single Replacement- The Cheater Double Replacement- The Swap Combustion- Oxygen Lover