UNIVERSITY OF NORTHEASTERN PHILIPPINES

School of Graduate Studies and Research

Iriga City, Camarines Sur, Philippines

EDUC 200

DR. IMELDA MORA ABAGAT TANGALIN

Professor

CLEMENTE, DENIELLE ANNE U.

MAEd Student
 UNIVERSITY OF NORTHEASTERN PHILIPPINES
School of Graduate Studies and Research
Iriga City, Camarines Sur, Philippines

CHAPTER 16
HOW TO WRITE CHAPTER 4

Answer the following question:

1. Explain the meaning of analysis and give examples.
Analysis is the process of breaking up the whole study into its constituent parts of categories
according to the specific questions under the statement of the problem.
Example:
 1.Educational qualifications of the science teachers.
 Methods and strategies used in the teaching of science.
 Facilities available for the teaching of science.

2. How are data classified and arranged? Explain.

Classification of data is grouping together data with similar characteristics. It tags data according to
its type, sensitivity, and value to the organization if altered, stolen, or destroyed while the
arrangement of data or classes of data are the same as those classification.

3. Explain how group-derived generalizations are made. Why are they important in analysis?
Group-derived generalizations are made when the data are collected by means of the use of the
survey, usually called the normative survey as a method of research.
 UNIVERSITY OF NORTHEASTERN PHILIPPINES
School of Graduate Studies and Research
Iriga City, Camarines Sur, Philippines

CHAPTER 2
THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

1. Define the following terms:

Problem- any significant, perplexing and challenging situation, real or artificial, the solution
of which requires reflective thinking.
Assumptions-
Hypotheses-

2. What are the elements of research problem?

1. Aim or purpose of the problem for investigation.
2. The subject matter or topic to be investigated.
3. The place or locale where the research is to be conducted.
4. The period or time of the study during which the data are to be gathered.
5. Population or universe from whom the data are to be collected.

3. What is the difference between operational form and null form of hypothesis?

Operational form Null form

 Stated in the affirmative  Stated in the negative

 States that there is a difference between  States that there is no difference

two phenomena. between two phenomena
 4. How is the title of research problem formulated?
Forming your research problem allows you to communicate the purpose of your study to yourself and
your intended readers. Concentrate your paper on providing pertinent data to address it. A problem
statement is a powerful and necessary tool for staying on track with research and evaluating it.

5. Why does hypotheses important in research?

1. They help the researcher in designing his study; what methods, research instruments,
sampling design, and statistical treatments to use, what data to gather, etc.
2. They serve as bases for determining assumptions.
3. They serve as bases for determining the relevance of data.
4. They serve as bases for the explanation or discussion about the data gathered.
5. They help or guide the researcher in consolidating his findings and in formulating his
conclusions. Generally, findings and conclusions are answers to the hypotheses or specific
questions raised at the start of the investigation.
 UNIVERSITY OF NORTHEASTERN PHILIPPINES
School of Graduate Studies and Research
Iriga City, Camarines Sur, Philippines

CHAPTER 7
COLLECTION OF DATA

1. How are data classified according to source? What are the advantages and disadvantages of
each class?
Data classification systems assist organizations in manipulating, tracking, and analyzing individual
pieces of data. When categorizing data, data professionals frequently have a specific goal in mind.
The approach they take and the classification levels they employ are influenced by the goal. Data
classification, which specifies which standard category or grouping a data object belongs in, is an
important part of data lifecycle management.

2. What categories of data are gathered from respondents?

 Facts
 Attitude and feelings
 Skills or performance level
 Results of tests
 Data gathered.

3. What are the characteristics of a good research instrument? Explain each characteristic.
1. Valid and Reliable
Valid if it collects data which are intended for it to collect and long enough to be able to collect
adequate information to complete the study or investigation.

2. Based upon the conceptual framework.

A conceptual framework is the researcher’s idea or expectation of what a situation should be but he is
not proving his idea or expectation to be true.

3. Relevant to the research topic.

To the study or topic should not be gathered by the instrument.

4. Data gathered test the hypotheses.

Testing a hypothesis is merely finding out whether it is true or not based upon the data gathered.

5. Bias Free
It should not suggest what should be the replies.

6. With unequivocal items/ questions

An equivocal question admits two or more interpretations while an unequivocal question admits only
one interpretation.

7. With clear and definite directions.

8. Mechanical device is latest.

It must be of the latest model so that it will gather accurate and reliable data.

9. With good cover

10. Letter
A letter of recommendation from a sponsor, one who has some influence over the respondents, may
be secured and made to accompany the instrument.
 UNIVERSITY OF NORTHEASTERN PHILIPPINES
School of Graduate Studies and Research
Iriga City, Camarines Sur, Philippines

CHAPTER 10
RECORDING THE RESULTS OF OBSERVATION

1. How do you define observation?

A primary research method is observation. Primary research entails personally collecting the data or
information under investigation.

2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of observation?

Advantages
 Observational studies can provide information on difficult-to-analyze topics at a low cost and
in a timely manner.
 They enable you to study subjects that cannot be randomized in a safe, efficient, or ethical
manner.
 They are frequently quite simple to carry out because you simply observe participant
behavior as it occurs or use preexisting data.
 They're frequently invaluable in informing larger-scale clinical trials or experimental designs
later on.

Disadvantages
 Observational studies struggle to be a reliable research method on their own. There is a high
possibility of observer bias and undetected confounding or omitted variables.
 They typically lack conclusive results, are not externally valid or generalizable, and can only
serve as a foundation for future research.
 They cannot make statements about the intervention's or treatment's safety or efficacy; they
can only observe reactions to it. As a result, they produce less satisfying results than other
methods.

3. What is the importance of recording the observations?

If it is the first time the child has done something; if it is a display of embedded knowledge - the
child learned something previously but is displaying this knowledge physically or verbally at a later
date; or if a child displays pride or self-esteem in something they created.
 4. How does recording an observation help in solving a problem?
Observing primarily refers to the process of analyzing and monitoring the behavior of people or
environments in the manner of an anthropologist without making any assumptions. You are
deploying the potential to spot opportunities, which can eventually lead to support for your solution
finding and problem solving.

5. Which is a good way to organize and record your results and observations?
In addition to your data, keep track of your observations as you conduct the experiment. Write down
any problems that arise, anything that differs from what was planned, ideas that come to mind, or
unusual occurrences. Keep an eye out for the unexpected. Your observations will be useful when
analyzing and drawing conclusions from your data.
 UNIVERSITY OF NORTHEASTERN PHILIPPINES
School of Graduate Studies and Research
Iriga City, Camarines Sur, Philippines

CHAPTER 4
HISTORICAL RESEARCH

1. What is meant by historical research?

Historical research or historical method of research and is a process of selecting the area or topic to
write the history about, collecting data about events that occurred in the area or about the topic,
collecting the data, sifting the authentic from non-authentic, and then making and interpretive
narrative about or critical inquiry into the whole truth of the events.

2. How is a problem or topic chosen from historical research?

In choosing his historical research problem, the researcher must consider his resources, availability of
data, time constraint, and his professional competence. The researcher must be able to finance his
research project if no outside funding is available. He must also be sure that adequate data are
accessible and must be able to finish the project within a reasonable period of time. He must also be
sure that he has enough competence and effort to carry the project into its completion.

3. From where are data for historical research gathered? What are the sources?
There are many sources from which historical data may be gathered.

A. Written sources
 Official and public documents.
 Books and master's theses and doctoral dissertations.
 Newspapers and periodicals with news items, news notices, articles, and advertisements,
chronicles and animals.
B. Orally transmitted materials, such as folklore, legends, ballads, myths, sagas, epics, tales,
anecdotes, and traditions.
C. Artistic production such as historical paintings, portraits, scenic or portrait sculpture, chiseled
stones, coin types, stamped coins, figures in ancient coins, woven tapestries, vases and
sculptures.
 D. Tape recordings, including radio and television, documentaries, movies, films, pictorials,
slides, microfilm, and transparencies.

E. Relics and remains

Physical: historic sites, roads, aqueducts, pyramids, fortifications, buildings ruined or whole,
furniture, pottery, implements and tools, weapons or arms, human remains, clothing, food,
dwellings, utensils, machinery, monuments, means of communication and transportation,
skeletons, fossils, etched stones, tablets, and walls, plans of buildings, or pictures of all sorts.
Non-physical: language, social instructions, products of the mind, business records, literature,
manners, customs and ceremonies.

D. How are data analyzed by external criticism? by internal criticism?

External Criticism - is used to determine the authenticity or genuineness of a historical document.

 Use of auxiliary sciences

 Epigraphy
 Diplomatics
 Paleography
 Philology
 Archeology, anthropology, and prehistory
 Chemistry

Internal Criticism - is the process of determining the true meaning and value of statements contained
in a document.

 Principles in internal criticism

 Do not read into earlier documents the conceptions of later times
 Do not judge an author ignorant of certain events, necessarily, because he fails to mention
them, or that they did not occur, for the same reason.
 Underestimating a source is no less an error than overestimating in the same degree, and
there is no more virtue in placing an event to late than in placing it too early by the same
number of years or centuries.

E. Why is it necessary to utilize external criticism? internal criticism?

Both internal and external criticisms are important in criticizing historical sources. Internal criticism
questions the credibility of the author and the primary source if it is genuine or fake while external
criticism deals with the problem of authenticity.
 UNIVERSITY OF NORTHEASTERN PHILIPPINES
School of Graduate Studies and Research
Iriga City, Camarines Sur, Philippines

CHAPTER 9
INTERVIEW
1. Describe the instruments used in interviews. in your own opinion, which is better?
 The Interview schedule
The interview schedule is the same as questionnaire. the procedures of preparing and validating
the interview schedule are the same as those of preparing and validating a questionnaire. Used
when the researcher knows all the items to be included in the interview about the hypotheses or
specific questions.
 The Interview Guide
Gathering data. The interview guide does not go into details but it only provides ideas and allows
the interviewer to freely pursue relevant topics in depth.

In my own opinion, way better to use the Interview Schedule, you will probably know a person based
on how they answer, gestures and the physical appearance on how a person can deal with the
interview.

2. What are to be avoided in interviews? Why should these things be avoided?

 Avoid exerting undue pressure upon a respondent to make him participate in an interview.
 Avoid disagreeing or arguing with or contradicting the respondent.
 Avoid unduly pressing the respondent to make a reply.
 Avoid using a language well over and above the ability of the respondent to understand.
 Avoid talking about irrelevant matters.
 Avoid placing the interviewee in embarrassing situations.
 Avoid appearing too high above the respondent in education, knowledge and social status.
 Avoid interviewing a respondent in an unholy hour.
 UNIVERSITY OF NORTHEASTERN PHILIPPINES
School of Graduate Studies and Research
Iriga City, Camarines Sur, Philippines

CHAPTER 13
HOW TO WRITE CHAPTER 1

1. What are the contents of Chapter 1 of the thesis? Discuss briefly.

Chapter 1 of a thesis should contain a discussion of each of the following topics:

 Introduction
The first paragraph that provides a detailed background of the topic it could also be referred to as the
formal presentation of the topic or subject.

 Statement of the Problem

These are already formulated at the beginning of the study and so they should only be copied in the
section.

 Assumptions and Hypotheses

Historical and descriptive investigations do not need explicit hypotheses and assumptions. Only
experimental studies need expressly written assumptions and hypotheses.

 Significance or Importance of the Study

The significance of the study is a written statement that explains why your research was needed. It’s
a justification of the importance of your work and impact it has on your research field, it’s
contribution to new knowledge and how others will benefit from it.

 Definition of Terms
Only terms, words, or phrases which have special or unique meanings in the study are defined.
  Scope and Delimitation of the Study
This is especially true in descriptive research where the variables involved are uncountable or
continuous variables such as adequacy, effectiveness, efficiency, extent, etc. The weaknesses spring
out of the inaccuracies of the perception of the respondents.

 Conceptual Framework
A representation of the relationship you expect to see between your variables, or the characteristics
or properties that you want to study.

2. Give the guidelines in writing the introduction.

Guidelines in writing the introduction. The introduction of a thesis should contain a discussion of any
or all the following:

 Presentation of the problem.

 The existence of an unsatisfactory condition, a felt problem that needs a solution.
 Rationale of the study.
 Historical background of the problem.
 A desire to have a deeper and clearer understanding of a situation, circumstance, or
phenomenon.
 A desire to find a better way of doing something or of improving a product.
 Geographical conditions of the study locale.
 A link between the introduction and the statement of the problem.

3. What is the meaning of conceptual framework? How is it constructed?

This scheme is a tentative explanation or theoretical explanation of the phenomenon or problem and
serves as the basis for the formulation of research hypotheses. Thus, the conceptual framework
consists of the investigator’s own position on a problem after his exposure to various theories that
have bearing on the problem. It is the researcher’s new model which has its roots on the previous
models which the researcher had studied.

The conceptual framework becomes the central theme, the focus, the main thrust of the study. It
serves as a guide in conducting the investigation.
 UNIVERSITY OF NORTHEASTERN PHILIPPINES
School of Graduate Studies and Research
Iriga City, Camarines Sur, Philippines

CHAPTER 12
SAMPLING

1. Define Sampling

Sampling may be defined as measuring of small portion of something and then making a general
statement about the whole thing.

2. Explain the principles of sampling.

 Appraisals that involve sampling are estimates and predictions only.
 Estimates based on sampling are least accurate when sample is a small proportion of the
whole and when the sample is not representative. Conversely, estimations based on the
proportionately large samples and on representative sample are most accurate.
 Sampling may be categorical or temporal Categorical- if sample taken proportionally from
the categories or groups Temporal- when sample is in terms or time.

3. What are the disadvantages of sampling?

 If sampling is biased , or not representative or too small, the conclusion may not be valid and
reliable.
 In research, the respondents to a study must have common characteristics which is the basis
of the study. If some of the sample do not have common characteristics, the conclusions
become faulty.
 If the population is very large and there are many sections and subsections, the sampling
procedure becomes very complicated.
  If the researcher does not possess the necessary skills and technical know-how in sampling
procedure, the sampling may become biased and unrepresentative.

4. Why do we need sampling?

Sampling produces significant research findings. However, sample errors can occur due to the
differences that can exist between a population and a sample. As a result, it is critical to employ the
most relevant and useful sampling method.

5. Give and explain the general types of sampling.

Probability Sampling is a sampling method in which each member of the population has the same
chance of being included in the sample.

Non-probability sampling is a method in which not every member of the population has an equal
chance of being chosen. Non-probability sampling is used when the researcher wants to choose
members selectively. Both sampling techniques are commonly used. However, depending on the
research needs, one works better than the others.
 UNIVERSITY OF NORTHEASTERN PHILIPPINES
School of Graduate Studies and Research
Iriga City, Camarines Sur, Philippines

CHAPTER 17
HOW TO WRITE CHAPTER 5

1. Give the guidelines in writing the summary of findings. Give examples.

 There should be a brief statement about the main purpose of the study, the population or
respondents, the period of the study, method of research used, the research instrument, and
the sampling design. There should be no explanations made.

 The findings may be lumped up all together but clarity demands that each specific question
under the statement of the problem must be written first to be followed by the findings that
would answer it. The specific questions should follow the order they are given under the
statement of the problem.

 The findings should be textual generalizations, that is, a summary of the important data
consisting of text and numbers. Every statement of fact should consist of words, numbers or
statistical measures woven into a meaningful statement.

 No deduction, nor inference nor interpretation should be made otherwise it will only be
duplicated in the conclusion.

 Only the important findings, the highlights of the data should be included in the summary,
especially those upon which the conclusions should be based.

 Findings are not explained nor elaborated anymore. They should be stated as concisely as
possible.

 No new data should be introduced in the summary of findings.

2. Give the guidelines in writing the conclusions. Give the rationale for each guideline and give
exapmles.
a) Conclusions are inferences, deductions, abstractions, implications, interpretations, general
statements, and/or generalizations based upon the findings. Conclusions are the logical and
valid outgrowths of the findings. They should not contain any numerals generally limit the
forceful effect or impact and scope of a generalization. No conclusion should be made that
are not based upon the findings.
 b) Conclusions should appropriately answer the specific questions raised at the beginning of the
investigation in the order they are given under the statement of the problem. The study
become almost meaningless if the questions raised are not properly answered by the
conclusions.

c) Conclusions should point out what were factually learned from the inquiry. However, no
conclusions should be drawn from the imlied or indirect effects of the findings.

d) Conclusions should be formulated concisely, that is brief and short, yet they convey all the
necessary information resulting from the study as required by the specific questions.

e) Without any strong evidence to the contarary, conclusions should be stated categorically.
They should be worded as if they are 100 percent trueand correct. They should not give any
hint that researcher has some doubts about their validity and reliability.

f) Conclusions should refer only to the population, area or subject of the study

g) Conclusions should not be repetitions of any statements anywhere in the thesis. They may be
recapitulations if necessary but they should be worded differently and they should convey the
same information as the statement recapitulated.

3. What are some dangers to avoid in drawing up conclusions based on quantitative data?
1. Bias
Business establishments, agencies or organizations usually present or manipulate figures to their
favor. We should be wary of the use of statistics in this case because of the obvious profit motive
behind.

2.Incorrect generalization
An incorrect generalization is made when there is a limited body of information or when the sample
is not representative of the population.

3. Incorrect deduction
This happen when a general rule is applied to a specific case.

4. Incorrect comparison
A basic error in statistical work is to compare two things that are not really comparable.

5. Abuse of correlation data

A correlation data study may show a high degree of association between two variables. In no case
does correlation show causal relationship.

6. Limited information furnished by any one ratio

A ratio shows only a partial picture in most analytical work.

7.Misleading impression concerning magnitude of base variable

Ratios can give erroneous impressions when they are used to express relationships between teo
variables of small magnitudes.

4. What are the guidelines in writing recommendations? What is the rationale for each
guideline? Give examples.
a) As mentioned above, recommendations should aim to solve or help solve problems
discovered in the investigation.

b) No recommendations should be made for a problem, or any thing for that matter, that has not
been discovered or discussed in the study. Recommendations for things not discussed in the
study are irrelevant.

c) There may also be recommendations for the continuance of a good practice or system, or
even recommendation for its improvement. This is to ensure a continuous benefit being
accorded to the universe involved.

d) Recommendations should aim for the ideal but they must be feasible, practical amd
attainable. It is useless to recommend the impossible.

e) Recommendations should be logical and valid.

f) Recommendations should be addressed to the persons, entities, agencies or offices who or
which are in position to implement them.

g) There should be a recommendation for further research on the same topic in other places to
verify, amplify or negate the findings of the study.

5. How do you evaluate a thesis or dissertation? What are the criteria for judging and
worthiness of a thesis or dissertation?
I. The subject and the Problems
II. The Design of the Study
III. The Data (Findings)
IV. Conclusions (Generalizations)
V. Recommendations
 UNIVERSITY OF NORTHEASTERN PHILIPPINES
School of Graduate Studies and Research
Iriga City, Camarines Sur, Philippines

CHAPTER 15
HOW TO WRITE CHAPTER 3
METHODS OF RESEARCH AND PROCEDURES

1. What topics are contained in Chapter 3?

 Methods of Research Used
 Method of Collecting Data and Development of the Research Instrument
 Sampling Design
 Statistical Treatment

2. How do you describe your method of research?

The method of research used whether historical, descriptive , or experimental should be explained
briefly. The procedural part of the method, its appropriateness to the study, and some of its
advantages should be given attention and should be well discussed.

3. How is the selection and preparation of the research instrument described?

4. How is the sampling design described?

The type or technique of sampling used whether pure random sampling, cluster sampling or a
combination of two or more techniques.

5. Give guidelines in the selection of a statistical procedure to be used.

I. Depending on what is desired to be known or computed, the data should be organized using
any or all of the following methods: talligram (tabulation table), ordered arrangements of
scores, score distribution, class (grouped) frequency distribution, or scattergram.
 II. When certain population proportions based on variables such as age, height, income, and so
on are desired, frequency counts with their frequency percents can be used. Cumulative
frequencies (up and down) with their respective cumulative frequency percents (up and
down) may also be used for further analysis.
III. When the typical, normal, or average value is desired, measures of central tendency such as
the median, mean, or mode can be computed and used.

IV. When the variables being studied are abstract or continuous, such as adequacy, efficiency,
excellence, extent, seriousness (of problems), and the like, the weighted mean may be
computed and used if the average is desired to be known.

V. When the population's variability is desired, measures of variability such as the range,
quartile deviation, average deviation, or standard deviation can be computed and used. The
group is more or less homogeneous when the measure of variability or dispersion is small,
but more or less heterogeneous when the measure of variability is large.

VI. Ranking, quartile, or percentile rank can be computed and used to determine the relative
placements of scores or positions. These measures show the relative positions of scores in an
ordered array of scores.

VII. When the significance of a group's reaction or opinion toward a particular issue, situation,
value, or thing is desired but there is a neutral position, the chi-square of equal probability,
single group is computed and interpreted.

VIII. The chi-square of equal probability, two-group is computed and used when the significance
of the difference between the reactions or opinions of two distinct groups in which there is a
neutral position is desired to be known.

IX. This is also used to determine the validity of a test by comparing it to a known valid test.
When the coefficient of correlation between the two tests is known and a prediction is to be
made about what score a student will get in a second test based on his score in the first,
regression is used.

X. If the significance of a difference in perceptions between two groups about a given situation
is to be investigated, the difference between means must be computed.
 UNIVERSITY OF NORTHEASTERN PHILIPPINES
School of Graduate Studies and Research
Iriga City, Camarines Sur, Philippines

CHAPTER 1
KINDS AND CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH

1. How do you define research?

The systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic or problem. Careful, critical,
disciplined inquiry, varying in technique and method according to the nature and conditions of the
problem identified, directed toward the clarification or resolution of a problem.

2. Why is research important to humankind?

It is critical in discovering new treatments and ensuring that existing treatments are used as
effectively as possible. Research can provide answers to previously unknown questions, filling
knowledge gaps and changing the way healthcare professionals work.

3. How do you characterize good research?

One of the characteristics of good research is that, it is systematic. It follows the scientific method of
research which includes the following sequential steps:

 Determining (recognizing) the problem;

 Forming a hypothesis;
 Doing the library search;
 Designing the study;
  Developing the instruments for collecting data;
 Collecting the data;
 Analyzing the data;
 Determining implications and conclusions from the findings; and
 Making recommendations for further research.
4. What are the purposes and goals of research?

5. How are research and problem-solving differentiated?

It is critical in discovering new treatments and ensuring that existing treatments are used as
effectively as possible. Research can provide answers to previously unknown questions, filling
knowledge gaps and changing the way healthcare professionals work.
 UNIVERSITY OF NORTHEASTERN PHILIPPINES
School of Graduate Studies and Research
Iriga City, Camarines Sur, Philippines

CHAPTER 5
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

(I. Descriptive research)

1. Explain the meaning of descriptive research.
According to Manuel and Mendel, Descriptive research what is it involves the description, recording,
analysis, and interpretation of the present nature, composition or process of phenomena.

2. Characterize descriptive research.

 Descriptive research ascertains prevailing conditions of facts in a group or case under study.
 It gives either a qualitative or quantitative, or both description of the general characteristics
of the group or case under study.
 What caused the prevailing condition is not emphasize.
 Study of conditions at different periods of time may be made and the change or progress that
took place between the periods may be noted r evaluated for any value it gives.
 Comparisons of the characteristics of two group or cases may be made to determine their
similarities and differences.

3. What are the values or advantages of descriptive research?

 Descriptive research contributes much to the formulation of principles and generalizations in
behavioral sciences.
 Descriptive research contribute much to the establishment of standard norms of conduct,
behavior or performance.
 Descriptive research reveals problem or abnormal condition so that remedial measures may
be instituted.
 Descriptive research make possible the prediction of the future on the basis of findings on
prevailing condition, correlations, and on the basis of reactions of people toward certain
issues.
 Descriptive research give a better abd deeper understanding of phenomenon on the basis of
an in-depth study of the phenomenon.

4. What are the techniques used in descriptive research?

I. Survey
II. Case study
 III. Content analysis
5. Differentiate between normative survey and case study?
SURVEY
THE GROUP SURVEY IS USUALLY LARGE.
THE NUMBER OF ASPECTS OR VARIABLES
IN THE LIFE OF THE GROUP SURVEYED IS
LIMITED.
CAUSE-EFFECT RELATIONSHIPS ARE NOT
GIVEN EMPHASIZES.
REPRESENTATIVENESS IS IMPORTANT AND
IS GIVEN EMPHASIZES.
CURIOSITY, INTEREST, OR JUST TO
DETERMINED NORM OR STATUS MAY
INITIATE A SURVEY.
CASE STUDY
Case study may involve and usually involve one
person, family, small group, or small community.
Usually all aspects or variables in the life cycle of the
case under study are included.
Finding the causes of certain phenomena is always
part of the case study.
Representativeness is not important.
Abnormalities or undesirable traits or condition usually
initiate a case study.

(II. Case study and case work)

1. Define case study, case method and clinical method.
Case Study - defined as extensive and intensive investigation of a unit represented, whether the unit
is an individual a family, social group, an institution or a community.
Case Method - It has been employed to describe a plan of organizing and presenting instructional
materials in law, medicine, social work, and even in education, psychology and sociology, where as a
rule, the case materials consideration of established policies and individual need.
Clinical Method - process by which we collect all available evidence- social, psychological,
educational, biographical, and medical that promises to help us understand an individual child.

2. What social skills are needed in a case study?

Social groups - taken as a unit, showing some kind of abnormalities or maladjustment maybe the
subject of case study.

3. Who should be subjected to case studies? Why?

Case studies can thus be an extremely effective classroom technique. Case studies have long been
used in business schools, law schools, medical schools, and social sciences, but they can be used in
any discipline when instructors want students to investigate how what they have learned applies to
real-world situations.

4. What are the kinds of information needed in case studies?

 Identifying Data
  Identification and statement of the problem
 Health and developmental history
 Family history
 Educational history
 Social History
 Economic History
 Psychological History

5. What instruments are used in gathering information about case studies?

 Interview
 Observation
 Questionnaire
 Psychological test
 Anecdotal record
 Autobiographies
 Other Devices are Checklist, Score Cards, and Rating Scales this interpreting the evidence
available.

(III. Content analysis)

1. Define content analysis. What it’s characteristic?
Content Analysis is a research technique deals with documentary materials that are already existing
and available.
Characteristics of Content Analysis
 It is objective.
 It is systematic.
 It is quantitative.

2. How to conduct content analysis?

 Recognizing the problems.
 Forming the hypotheses.
 Doing library search.
 Designing the study.
 Developing the instrument.
 Collecting the data.
 Analyzing the data.
 Making Conclusions.
 Making recommendations.
 Making recommendations.

3. What are the uses or applications of content analysis?

1.Analyzing to determine the educational, political, sociological, philosophical, psychological and
other ideas of great authors and thinkers based upon their books, essays, poems, diaries, novels,
plays, speeches, and other writings.

2. Analyzing the contents of textbooks and other instructional materials as a basis for the selection of
textbooks and other instructional materials for the different curricular years of the educational
ladder.

3. Analyzing the achievements of the students in the different subjects to determine the type of errors
they committed as a basis for making remedial teaching programs and for curriculum development.

4. Analyzing the different writings of students such as essays, compositions, poems, stories, letters,
etc. to determine their writing aptitudes, levels of their vocabulary and spelling skills, as basis for
designing programs for further development.

5. Analyzing school records such as class records, report cards, enrolment lists, grading sheets,
cumulative records etc.

6. Analyzing the objectives and practices of different schools and school systems with the end in
view of the adopting more valid and practical objectives and practices to attain the same cards.
 UNIVERSITY OF NORTHEASTERN PHILIPPINES
School of Graduate Studies and Research
Iriga City, Camarines Sur, Philippines

CHAPTER 11
TEST, REGISTRATION, AND MECHANICAL DEVICES

1. Define Test

Test may be defined as a specific type of measuring instrument whose general characteristic is that, it
forces responses from a pupil and the responses are considered to be indicative of the pupil’s skill,
knowledge, attitudes, etc. (Bradfield and Moredock, p. 44)

2. How do you classify tests according to standardization? According to function?

Standard Test- A standard or standardized test is one for which contents has been selected and
checked empirically, for which norms have been established, for which uniform methods of
administration and scoring have been developed, and which may be scored with high degree of
objectivity. (Good, p. 565)

According to Function

 Psychological Tests- A test that measures an individual’s ability or personality as developed

by general experience. (Good, p. 561). Psychological tests are standardized.
 Educational Test- This is an achievement test which aims to measures a person’s knowledge,
skill, ability, understanding, and other outcomes in subjects taught in school. (Ibid, pp. 556-
557). This test may be standardized or teacher-made.

3. What are the characters of tests? Explain each characteristic.

I. Validity- Refers to how accurate a test measures what it aims to measure. If a test aims to
measure knowledge and proficiency in geometry and it does measure knowledge and
proficiency in geometry, then it is valid.
 II. Reliability – a test is reliable if it gives the same measurement to the same individuals or
groups, that is, if the test given twice to the same individuals or groups after the lapse of a
certain period between the two administrators.
III. Usability - a test is usable if it is easy to administer, easy to score, economical (not
expensive), there are norms to compare the results with, and it is utile, that is, it is usable for
the purpose it is intended to perform.

4. In what area of research are standard tests most useful? Why?

 Intelligence tests, aptitude tests, personality tests and interests inventories.

5. Why is registration also an important source of data?

Registration is a process of listing down items of the same kind on some systematic manner for
record purposes. Registered matter may be classified alphabetically , chronologically, qualitatively,
quantitively, or otherwise.

6. Where can you secure the data you need? Enumerate the offices.
a) The Bureau of Census and Statistics, for almost all kinds of data about population, housing,
industry, trade etc.
b) The Land Transportation Commission , for all kinds of vehicles: cars, trucks, motorcycle,
jeeps, etc.
c) The Department of Education and its regional offices, and school, colleges, and universities
( public and private) where all enrolments and graduates are recorded.
d) The Supreme Court and all lower courts of justice where records of judicial cases are kept.
e) All police agencies and offices where all criminal cases are recorded.
f) The Bureau of Health, where all births, deaths, and pathological cases are registered.
g) The Securities and exchange commission where all trade, industrial, and commercial
establishments and other organizations, profit or non-profit, are registered.
h) All other departments, offices, and entices of the government, and private organizations,
entities, or offices where different kinds and classes of data and information re registered.
 7. In what areas of research are mechanical devices useful in gathering data?
 Social and Educational Research
 Biological and Medical Research
 Physical Science Research
 Chemical Science Research
 Astronomy, Space and Atmospheric Research

8. How advanced is the construction of sophisticated mechanical devices for research?

The advance of science and technology is such that not hundreds but thousands of sophisticated
mechanical tools and instruments have been invented to gather data for research purposes.
 UNIVERSITY OF NORTHEASTERN PHILIPPINES
School of Graduate Studies and Research
Iriga City, Camarines Sur, Philippines

CHAPTER 14
RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

1. What should be the characteristics of related literature and studies reviewed?

a) The materials should be as current as possible.
b) Materials that have been reviewed should be objective and unbiased.
c) The materials surveyed should be relevant to the study.
d) The materials being reviewed should be based on genuine original and true facts or data that
is valid and reliable.
e) There should not be too few or too many reviewed materials.

2. In what ways may citation be made?

I. Look for your author. The author will be on the outside of the book or on the title page. It's
ok if there is more than one author.
II. Find the publication date of your book. The publication date should be on the back of the title
page. Use the most recent date.
III. Choose how you will create your in-text citation. You have two basic ways that you can
make a citation. You can name your author at the beginning of the sentence like this, using
only the last name: “According to Smith (1995), leaves turn red in the fall.” Notice that in
this instance, the date is in parentheses while “Smith” is not.
IV. Cite multiple authors if your book was written by more than one person. If you have two
authors, you can separate the authors' last names with an ampersand (&). If you have more
than two authors, you separate them with commas and an ampersand.
V. Write the page number if you are using a direct quote. In some instances, you’ll also need the
page number to explain where you found the information. You must have the page number if
you are using a direct quote.
VI. Make sure to put the punctuation in the correct places. When making an in-text citation with
a direct quote, the end quotation mark will come before the citation, followed by a period.
Reference: 3 Ways to Format APA Citations. (n.d.). WikiHow. Retrieved January 20, 2023, from
https://www.wikihow.com/Format-APA-Citations

3. How is material quoted?

Quoting means taking the exact words from an original source. When you believe that the way the
original author expresses an idea is the most effective way to communicate the point you want to
make, you should quote it.

4. How do you justify your study?

The following criteria can be used to justify research: the gaps (epistemological, methodological,
policy, implementation, program design, etc.) in the research that require attention. Highlight the
study's potential contribution to improving knowledge and practice. Explain how the study will help
policy or decision-making.