nemo nay in ee Se es ae ae see tacos ics rt Sy ae ‘ee eo Me i ei bt, ri CHAPTER 1 Preliminary Considerations Nate th oie «has mt fe man 10 any sei erent Arong We lita ti tic semper fy burn sae on [the only one wh 0} lhe indy hn erin Hs naga, is eon i eotie wy ad eags Ince i you fr hi rtf acy ie vest a1 ange And thats of reno feet hed of olin - ol Bolg, Dal ental elton Le Url squeal ets monty teense, by thee iiaive, creative genius, ‘ube ove high deals and foresight, they have Toned somebing eiinal and of widespread of lineal fees inthe spective spheres of activity. = Jacob Broneshi They are the pthndes, the trail Blazers, the ede tat decovered new worlds and opened new rao fo mankind One of thm is ute Hoes who sore i “Ct nmr” cue is lg ‘ew hapena tobe ofa advanced to be understood sol tele he ge of gl devlopent of Philosophy and Tre Law “There is natural popigership between philosophy and the law, Philgsoghy’s itive nature intertvined with the Ie eA cole rs etal contin — = ng Rios Nay plat Ese a ‘ork rainy 2 Sige by ram ‘Throughout the years thee has teen an insatiable sluenpt to discover the a ature of aw sing eos borrowed from & véry inquisitive discipline, known to most es pilsophy, ‘Though ab fst glance, philosophy may more often than nok delve into the mysteries of knowledge and its acition and Splcton. 1 has al 0 many point out istry, hen 9 ander at the nate of aw concept is appiation and more Fmportanly— it compulsory power to make people eysep ap arsine tens yt Hs fee ange pecs no — where ways than We CON imaging, fm sa be atop aon. Phllosophical inquiry hy, saat aie 9 ee ace rt ab SOS nr philosophy has foun esha on sn Hh ee Nite Ri tales ee re yond be eesHene serenely has prose 14 f0 question stn eed Ts lowing us ode Tha regulate, serve, judge te fst a foe ant ter oe eon cnn are of sey Phish by ts very mtr is Ungulitive. It constaly -svksomoer togastns yet mow often than not, the question ‘moe import thin the anaer, Inguiy is the Fah that ower pat Ie the caengy in whieh we prod our humanity 1 “tet toca te nor o be more ghanourslyes. We text philnphy in one for us o Took. ther than hve ee tight and made tobcore Recon yt Lay rie i shold be bore in mind that he! ze 2 'n this respect should be exercised and owen, tim neath ® Mae we oat mean aforded Rt arent Soy he content pcan Are pean the end doesnot justify the mea We gD der we Sos {he ga andere of purpose nthe ln do ‘ota sy the employment by the court ayn incom which fing hav the coco ae one Trench of the goverment 10 lee the deen tonirves ally the preene ighine d nkm ofa rig ph peti, ea Slowing the ably of grviqens se tne cats 1 epend poh SERB SCRE oto statin cn the ker ofthe lw ison hing nd he apt ath tig ‘We, avn hs cn, the hte ofthe ws lve sek Ife hoyle simply veri say to m0 praia FRiposs upon theteundie mune of specatan! Sate Ye tary Ao sie me arp some te penta mdy l y ncaa wayyy esr Se tk meng ans eg ele ee bem of eo Until steers tent is ae er se ee eno aio ne Seinen me P aC Alanze terete Appellate Cour? 1 ead RE ies nts hte ne Fr” yao jams Goonies sis Ye knees ae Re fe ts earnest iy ME Siitenty ened same wih airs ie Soret rw aan ant a Fetus somrsonte ue on pat Ses gi Ae IF eon ne cm ug tn npn two mie he oP rcv Sa 26 831 * sea May. 187eo wae sense, At hey anemia rents i Seale eggs BB etn the sath te ore nfs I Wa he uh ctl bec ait Sacchi seed edguonethe 'e tie mtn of. sect ~ toh cot te Sm a ssh aba tot yn wed tnd Ut sen re ar th eee LSE Deel eke na cei fee ast nnd er bat TS Eo tonntened see os yee ey tae oe oe tg Sevres oie rah a mrp Thar ee Tamomateen cn ts “While cours may not read into the lave a pump * ad sree ea Sierra ee Seles aioe oe GE peace As judges Weer aDilMraAs We do not and prust a a a eaten inlaw se alain ster, wees have te ight er Ot ena Oe he" GH) auahy wy pent, ON ON mcckey te in be year amet wet the ase fois ean eet eh a te thelowmaer wi ig 0 defeat 6 “he vin a tte eet “The ter thane ike fw ste tras 6 ale te nt tin eset i ieee stm Stl ho hh it eto ‘Dhan heeft ste as oe ce ection emer iene He Dh oa ti, Gagne? theses em en eh ani hh SMS Be, 2 en Scrat cy aa oral a ae EE ay my male ces esa cc aera a eee nar ers Sartore “scm mmr as nt me EN ‘tty Snes se € gus Sc te igus Oo ee ams hur v Som Fre Pte Ovens asc so Foren 5s. toomve tit 362A ange en YSERA Cpt ten, at “ vs go ibvencnn Po se ‘canine ‘800 gona. One 2, 20 yr belo em yee Gwe ‘gaet ond eS Sd See * dau, ot Corson es nay, Peer ‘ae a Aono Scan 0 gt Aa Ne. 1, Oberon _ ay ‘aw esa ‘Rou bea ewe Soca fC Bowne o SRS en Ce enka ya 8 <8 Seats emer eres ee tenga pee We te whe, WD TS eh ee ‘ ORS 6 treat yout SE td etal ewe tt eBsense 10TH LOD ie leornynad ees See aS NS Eki 20S fw ue et one en et ome At a ante Ae proves. tht Ya I gitteoomone tr Naeger aa ELT 2 ge nt 2) Ce toy of RAS the Lower Hos Cpt ay 2001 Howse Joint iat dict sought Nee relent pret in ater cate BEE, onte & ESSELTE SG Ro te 3 manip wove, re SS an dee see Rm eee a ae Cecewnemase ‘ex amet Gongs whieh sve the seu rpms eadepang H Joint Resolution ASSO or Reaatea NO and ferwaeding tt Neeser Te Sea hee ain alle wo approve the fest recat Daring the erate sean held of Never ate Soe Aquino Pentel Je asset a pasng H Reston No I woul, int ffl, aoe 2 wbsisle evempton “fom the icone semmetisped arpa Aa No.2 he ‘Eeaspainn Forthisraon he sugested the ling Ey ‘elim of Reactive of india ils to pave ‘evar fer the mncpalitieso become ces and tet ‘orang tetothe Senate for proper action og the alse ste 15) mpi Alot though thr regctne pom le ‘ight Mik. Coan wa te mc Joven exempting He manatee Fp tonto inte apnea ‘sof ne 7,207; hth Hons Conga a approved (fg! viybond ae aa wh stenaly Sih a inthe COMI wn ry lap rr apoval Del apne nee ‘sheherthe vt spon ote crs, ‘As cer sae the iat pefton sek fo eda the eyed! lw rattle sain ff sec IR, An X af te Corton, wr alton ef the eal onscen eases The whee onrerson of telcpaiies to te, the jetione gusaret Senn il eth saree eign he Jeemal Revenue Alsen (RA, siamo es wi fae f Ue intel vee net te foe ll es der See 285 ofthe LOL SL" ‘hs mi pct on ter mt theca ote) S10. of tC and Pinto case ‘he High Court hel hat — lege ltr pr ond pre of the ae the cli eb [erp «mute In coing a atate he prge {our et sat ext an flow thet nt the {galas and fo ade tp seme tat ot hvmons ‘thie cont and promos he flit ma he Poiky and bec of the Teodor Tn tay eration at rae comer he pie me = ‘tasepue at eis, A empha te ea elapiiieaas © Se 28 oh WEE" LOC weve Alston Le Govern = ti et asa ‘ware of Gun (tf ang nb cng eee” Faercopee taco ELC Nuncpattes Ente ‘rocnns innovate if he must govem efenely fo sre the mses interests of the people. This is especial true in meso grat ses where the need fora leader wih visor mapton, capeciy for decison and couraious scion i ger to seve the unity of people to promate ther well and a ins thesafty an aby the Repubc™ Then tc oes mot approach constitutional questions with dogmatism or ‘pod certainty nor view them lnrn the shining cif of perfstion. This snotty though Bat testis with an mpi untroubled by the sch for jul eonseny 20 ‘onal coherence A talane has to be suck So ia realism requis. Once allowance made tha for lt cove and ‘cumspection his Court manned by human ings etered oy fait, nonetheless eamesty and sincerely siving 10 40 "ght the pubic acreptane of 8S wgoros purse te tak of suring thatthe Constitonbeobeyed ies to understand. "would be o dsngad the counsel of elem and a ey on the conjectural fon te above facts he would be dene ‘calption The test rani is ot what 2 man should tnder normal cecunstnces and with te for eel retleton resent Its ater how an indvual in such ite situation, ith he grim prospect of he los of if, would ssc The ve ‘wisely takes into carideraton the welbnigh ims feof the insine of elf preservatien. This Cour, om the previusly sed case of Une tts. Fals promulgated in 190, to Pape es. Bohs Calo, 1574 dcsion hasbeen seadiet and unwavering in ts adherence to such 3 tt of eatin, “There sno justifaton for departure om Such norm 1S Sie eras Gel Re Sone Coe ean Pgs 179 ‘tJ The aoe Seen SORA IT ‘Pepe Ate SORA 16 a5. 1761 ny at which the “a, ality which the ce tat TH Se putty The Fourie "ait arta ma or tract unis A, Band vg ont of spec Au, sr es by Te 86 pec on je ng hich oe difeoy, st gh a ae aio ‘the Pati of ann ie oe. Sta BY the decion, ‘volume of Suprem * oie wit ath roy (scRAal Chit Wai end ser decisis “which has gi ep en ry enw neon cnoverted case tha ons cy te Path of te La Jase une nd Ast prion ft he Sora tions bd on pes. The grersng rsa gee mre stabi he es nt me lw ps! pret ant ‘Sec ha ae ed. The os enforcing statutory lw and regulations ergot ans sein fo the lw in eee ‘Sage drat an Sonn 5s 25, 094 ting Tot austen Seto Decca Coste ts ScRA 8, Mah 25, 108 ~ in ao, sa SSS SPE ev vere suing Co, ne, 8 5 2 ‘eontrovered cases, wut the judges in adeersary litigations ‘ould fetes pene el ‘Such precedent and arisprudence of this Court form port of our legal system by fore ofthe provision of Article 8 of the ‘eve Civil Code that “ii decison ping © inerpreing he lees or the Constitution sal frm par of the eal steno the Philippines” and may not height tested. “wo centuries of American ease law will confirm Prof Consovoy’s observation although stare decisis developed it. own life in the United States. Teo strains of sare decisis have ‘been isolated by legal scholars. The st, known a vortcal stare ‘ees deals with the duty of loeer courts to apply the decisions fof the higher cours to cases involving the same facts. The second, know as horizontal sire devs requires thet igh ‘courts mus follow ts own precedents Prof, Cansovey correctly observes that vertical str decisis has been viewed 06 an ‘obligation, Wille horizontal ste dec, hat Been viewed es 3 poly inposing choice ut ot a command. Indeed, stare des ‘snot one ofthe prcepsstin stone in ur Constitation. Ie is aso instructive to tinguish the two kinds of horizontal sare desis — contitatona tre ds ane attr sare decs, Constitutional ale dese involves judicial interpretations ofthe Constttion while stattory sare ect invelves interpretations of satan, The distinction i important for courts enjoy mere fexbiity in rohusing to apply stare decisis in constitutional litigations. Justice Brandeis’ view on the binding elec of the docrne in constitutional Ligation stil holds sway today. In soothing prose, Brandeis stated: “Stare decisis nt .. a uniersl and incre comm, There oftare ‘decisis is not inflnie. Whether it shal be fled or departed frm, fea question emily within the discretion of the cout, which is gun ‘Lunn Sroarage Co, ev, Maine Bing Co. 86 SORA Ot Novenao 16878 ‘tanto ve Cammetonn Eker, 8 SORA 109, Oo 26,2008,4 once decided.” In the same ei ei tthe ae cg eal ini etd eg the aay rion of stare decisis on jug fost Pe tele AS Jace et a nf aE tu ety thi Conga raat tr ge” i eas cea ashe uel hg Nes it Mie ssn ee both ed ee UE Lg ccaueieemineeen ns, vic (1) egitimizes judicial institutions; (2) it promos pe teem rar ale ty cea comer) ts appiaton perpetuates legitimate any et a earn ser lg og sez ey Sieger 9 P = hm Faly— An examination of decisions on stare dessin nao eau il show that courts are agreed on the facts that shuld ke considered before overturning, prior ruiags ‘hos ae workable, intervening development int law and changes in fact. In ado, courts put in the bale ‘he following determinants: closeness of the voting, age oft Por decson and iis mes. The leading case in decidg ether» cout should follow the stare decisis ral ‘onsiatona ltgnions is Plned Parenthood xs. Cast ‘tase! a ¢pranged tet. The court should (1) detest oe Consonen estan 55 SA 10, Ottor 25. 08 “tama Corman on Goss ScRA to, Oem 2,208 water he rule proved to intel 2 oleae in indi fractal worablity 2 colder wher ee oge ee Nd f rls tat would ld «spec Reap comequcnes of overuing and ad reuiy to cat ‘spud @) determine wher red pins of hy have ofr developed op ohave te od ul ro teh rent ofan abandoned cine a (elon whee fais have change or comet be sen diferent so have rmbbed the od eo sgt ppcaton reson Bed Man Theory According, 10 USLegal — the Bad-man theory is 2 jsprudentl doce or bl, sccording to which o bad esas view ofthe bw epresent the bet et of what exaly the Law is because that person shall careflly and precsly ‘alate what theruls allow and pert up tothe rue lint “This theory ano known a preicton ory Ths theary was fist adopted by Olver Wendel! Holmes who mentored that + society Teal sytem is dein by predlctag how the le Mec 8 person, ns opposed to conedering the ei ce moras ‘anderying the law Ure this thon the preicon s done by ‘wing he aw in accordance with bad mas pint view ‘who i not bothered about morals Such» person unconcerned ‘wih ating monly sed, sucha person woud be concerned out the degree of punhnents ceva acts wil inca by the publ fre of av" ‘The fit thing fora businestie understanding of the ates fs to understand is imi and therfore 1 isk ‘aseble t once to pnt out and lapels conaion Bacon tory and law, which rometines res 10 the height of Conscious theory, and moe ofen ad indeel constant ‘raking trouble inde without reaching the point of “amscousness Yu cn see very plily Ua bad man ha 8 inva Goninon un, SSR W, Ose 2 08 eng itor cam any Adee ee et ae om ore you cat Set the prt ochre ea meta meee mse ser ecole none le secs believe inet ey secngem es a ee mmerereattal Sere en ole eT nt oe rh cy inorian 8 all mathematical distingigs Sete nea Sires endecee feces Sees teaser Steps esphaneeny near ning pei chon er ccretral mare ‘eat baka tas a Ban who cares only forthe metro, Sipertichaettochayomesiong pa seponseealprenitiemnaa ts Se recetn atau te Tetenda opr of cieae an Ht mown enor me sgh The oy feel non ea ay eg ‘aagugeconnaly invites us to pass from one domain tothe th wou preving swe suet do onan ocho, hk pri by conn a 62 eto ea maneee cre mae orm YT Peet Ln 10 Kana Lae “ (ieee. ‘been enforce in the Pan they ha sme ered Bai condemned yh ct ee tetime er whe many coacones no Ses, Seifert re oh han ee Ln 1 tar LonReee Teitmale, Nem. peat Tate ot aw he seers Steen omy at tates Eaves Sia, ae TEE ceceae omc «tues jy the pre om gas a insti have at seu ie cr he at ay ses in hi Ke Bs Ce teh he facts tae teen sone determine Our date! ns st roposions of ly ener erin rcmurity historically decides, g¢ vt en acl Ia is dependent act heal ta a eommunity, Including lepisaggs enn pel eats yak what makes th et eet ands ORO fi dec a tis good that they should be such ground, reac a oe in ite of the fa ht Te bye row fom pst oil decay a ae or that mre abstractly, legal ties oui, hy dy scl practices that they do. And he thin {uiienpiote demise by sich decisions and pacing So ang ree obi ih ment jsce. The merpreivist says that fale See ria tr oem wine felt raves wold yi a mare detailed acount of be Frcs way invite praties determine eel duties 4 ite Sine ecw rkistint carr te “aii ink” of se cans he ipl of he tte. do we i it Sue oe atti bls of eprom ano 36 fms les ewes lah tate may ely Bt Iced at at 4 may — tat ser no cone of leg pli ie! aR ain ot and ctr ee of et Seas tt Coal Bank Circular protecting the foreign éeost! Sus eg er toe ne ae eu Scents, "tv Tas ot aw re, sit ‘Sse tt a ay ay Sa ‘ihaag "hawaii pens ins nae ti of i? Ts siete ‘io eg one = Stone Conta ant the Pipa fay te wegitacis do eo Sead Reeeuane ok, wn i deine however he ese fr damage, wean Tow he coat ‘pon psi’ apteaton ad ling es tond acces Say aan. When eee Noi of Galthent on Chia Bank aga he ty {XGuunt of "he sewed deena tan awoke Secon 19 of Cet Bank Cree No Set econing any alice econ and th out pen apieat any gn crercy deport Tis vow eek ‘erkuate by sh Cental any tli hla ‘on potivacn postpone The Tones ‘courted i avrat te pa tthe curt gh he gn act of te secur oo? fe " ‘The High Courtine arma, eet te eo ig elt inerprettie Approsch Te Coun ola ike tein The Supe Cart pronsunee be fl ie ay Fe nh rd Bk Cher hs 20 th cps ie. ioe o eyo aoe i td. gare apn oa nse Toy mtr pe po, tre jute wold rad cpry Se ese Ge lt id ep ce de ec Cl Co ao et “ree of dat he intiion se pee ‘as rsa tthe ning ay eee ‘nt jute pve”: Respondents we ean fom NearescaT, gatorpy and 19 rae en eet ftttepe Saget aot ae teh 0 ahom How the Se ae Ogre Sid ede Sar Sa 20 um ara Se oad i wl 2 ae cae Ceres Sgn noes oso. mal yo tere sie show that the hp tie i tater anv snd a “dw se pes of Ifo WY ie rns of te quetct eer ed Tela fled att ey ng op HE 2 ey Bom ateoes Ithasdasbeon ald hat— “po at snd ntti mst go teat hae i eps of he ona me at ‘emp mv epi as ne discon ee ws dado mar Opies Sie ee cence, statins must ‘Seed la a ah a ines» We igh os ‘Steptoe th fied hon epee mt el en "Creu ce Prien, 278 SoRAaT Aug & sac goes seek Poros, are SORA 27. a Fepin tang aye tt omacy ea Sa K Pad Wer Simply sted, when the statue is lent oF ambiguous this sone of hose fundamental solutions hs would respond 19 the vehement urge ofonscience | “tt ity ote 9 i eect Se rr Oe res otiabaege Taree eve gongs etree tatenscm frat Sapietieagtaroen ted cecge cla ieicar trate ose aren se ee rca fa dot etree acter per eh es Sergei nes Sioa Prolene Acie “he coed ws cout mac porte in he ‘Amy f US i el aay bss ut wes ar om ‘Sarge te plce wath srangement I as ding (Siete tne hen he sce wan wo have made FALE sms how he war argos eth Est aed ‘tascaton ef Documents The sete ple gay oe ‘Sheol abet not guint asienson cscs The femal curt ral led opis hn and since Mn Siegert Te Conmaing Come ‘viewing sobenty dnspproved te ert upon he {Se pet tr 8 Set was not dy {he Sea witout print he tal bore» proper {shonal When he was brought fo Quezon Cy fr Prsssion Be acne st up the ps of dole [pained with thelef want orci. i then nemo ofthe Ue! Sn omy iin he marge Ue Sat ary Rate tnt pn 24 2.54.0. 188secon 3 =r he mest etn ve a Seed aad Berroa cnet sehen in Pe jul ees i, nme oor why at, wg ‘e sy al ar aould be td the Fhilpig te Aree ath United Sates ee ey comets Moser 8 EVEN uly 54 ncn en Cen The Philp, fate 0 coven over hese, rene st Sr divested ste completely Sf PE teen. Under te trl sin oe ates Government as prior or tte jrticin of such offenses Te sot nl juin igh tied sighs the United Sus Fae a oer rsns of own decline o mae io poten mpd om he fac of Pipi SS ter be were second from the expe ‘tes fe way The testy expressly stipulates tt Tre ncaed en yb bythe Proper Pipe Shh fry spel eer the United Stats wae i Jeon eth pee asc reais Berea ‘Thang atte provisions of the Bases Agent te cama of th contacting, parle alone. th hen ae wh bythe renty comes wi (Tait Sats ison shouldbe transferred tothe Philips thors stoa ter abot which te accused has 82 ‘easy ncter nod theghts granted othe United SO* Pe mee day 01859 ® ty the tray insre solely to that country and cannot be ened bythe olenden Pane Tory of Law ‘The des «Pure Theory of Lawe vas propounded by the foumidsble Austian fart” and philoopher Hans. Keen (0881197), Keoen began bis lang carer as legal theorist at the beginning. of the 20% century. The taiional egal DPhiosphies et the time, were. Keen claimed, hopelessly naminsted with plc Meslgy and oraizing onthe one apa, or with tempts fo seduce the Iv to natural or socal Siocon the ether hand He found both of hese eductonst fndonvers sarouiy Mate. Instead, Kelsen sugges a ue theory of lw which would avon eduction of any Kind. The jusapradence Kelsen propounded “characte lal ‘pre thar of law besa i a extinct i lo Sand Dis purty serves a te "ale metho pine" ‘Note tha this anteductonism Is both methodological and tubstanive. Keer Brnly believed that if the law isto be ‘onnidered at 2 unique nomative practic, methodological ‘educlonien showld be avoided ently But this approach is fot only a mate of med, Redon shou be avoided tse the law is a unique phenomenon, lle separate om sory and tre ot ‘The naoposist Hane Kelen™ proposed to seek only ‘he “eal ai psi Jase (empl and noe the “ida at ‘hc jie, which i to Be found only tn the politcal "Peg Ace Pal, 0 may 391858 ret,“ Pe Tery oa, Tw Sad Enoepae a Prep (Fat 200 Ea ved NZ), UAC = oe oosane etuctvestaneresanp eons Acnsed # Meto bi allowing he paths scot cal onennen es Seen hat — the 1b condi 4 oe ot a ate po = ae re ss en ermal spe th handy tne pring of words TRE are Stn, sceneries eto aia ey i eae yn se oN and ugh ae in the impossliy of Sloe en er aa Fk i es at he i Oot be reduced 10 thoxe natural can, fa py rae wt The gathering speaking and and ver nk the gl Nore saps ten ie ey coe mies: Fm tats uit of vw he nates that — from he tecienl 1wipal shoel, with Montesuiew a» ‘peu tty mat tea i ving hing. and hats Greig weed vith the scat environment Stuhim pom indading the mony, manners poe 2 ad eats ofthe people Joseph Kahle, Eup Jam ow tester etn Pagid Pasecon) 20S yt ts hn an on ed SP rst neta Pee ia ae ASST os hee tay tut, te Bart Ent SERS 2 toy vot Zoe ed) Us 2, Pettresamsnzinemnatenpiveays kel | = Nate Ct hen oo eh ye Re St regal Pasgecot) 2 “1A eye orca Bete FOS {ch and Ror Poe wee the adhe ol hn eho at they pow the theory law under the pecan feet law inadequate in the adjetment snd talaney Hf scea secity which ar “ir fs of tr lng ne Woy of saci s the highest gos, even hen they ne ra erp bythe government. Their cine vars comer Wall the sexi! inet. Adjusiert of ‘confating hams, ord fetes of indvsusle mist italy be atop ot ‘ompromne ible to inize or prevention of farther cnet, 4nd that talano ot compromaed intents oe techy he remain ino ate of cl equilib, and ue mene loti, and enduring compromise 0 pen he cenit “ited tothe proper autho for decnon and prot tht paneer sl et pre lo Bat hh ‘promotes ony ore ‘Recommended titulo Group Reading ad Reporting ‘The flowing legal aries, cae, SCRA annuttions, news itces taken trom various sores and nee sie may be ‘wed a a contextual bactop for we in tcl oF np ‘portal dncsons whenever appropriate ov applicable: 1. Gamez Paloma. 28 SCRA 2 [168 2 Muniyalty of Malbong oto, 27 SCRAS IO}, 3. The Phippme Amer Managemen Financing: Mavaroment & Superior, Asocitin ifthe Phipps hrs te Oa brea sa (Pega 2A IEAM Semen athe arte staan Pe Ma, Os meson Sn Pca Fog 28 i tao