Digital Guide to Public Speaking Success

The Engaged Speaker: Public Speaking in a Changing World

Written with Love by

Nichola D. Gutgold, Ph.D.

To All My Students: May You Always Speak Up and Speak Well!

Table of Contents

Introduction: Why Learn Public Speaking

Chapter 1: Personally, Professionally and Civic Reasons to Improve Your

Communication

Chapter 2: Analyzing Your Audience

Chapter 3: Listening

Chapter 4: Dealing with Communication Apprehension

Chapter 5: Narrative Speaking

Chapter 6: Organizing Your Speech

Chapter 7: Informative Speaking

Chapter 8: Persuasive Speaking

Chapter 9: Effective Delivery

Introduction

Why learn public speaking?

When I meet new people and tell them I teach public speaking I get one of two
very distinct reactions. People either loved the public speaking class they had in
college, or wished they never had taken the course at all. Those who loved the
course usually consider themselves to be good public speakers. Those who thought

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it was a waste of their college time and money...well - usually try to find any way
to wiggle out of a speech when faced with one.

Learning to speak effectively in public is not a fad. Since 776 BC when Greek
orators espoused the virtues of the first Olympic Games, people the world over
have recognized the value of effective public speech. There are many great
reasons why public speaking is a requirement at most colleges and universities
across the United States and around the world. What is new about public
speaking, and thus the subtitle of this book, “Public Speaking in a Changing
World”, is more than ever public speaking may be an electronic event. The
likelihood that your speech will be recorded and perhaps shared with the world, or
that you will be giving your speech online, is greater than ever. This book includes
specific suggestions for communicating effectively online, and can be considered
advice for speaking effectively both live and mediated.

Speaking effectively opens up opportunities for student leadership and better

academic performance, and in college, it creates career opportunities before you
even graduate. Being an effective communicator increases a lifetime of success in
any field you choose. In addition, effective public speaking will help you
contribute well to civic discourse in our democracy.

Think about the many professors you’ve had. The most intelligent professor is
only as good as how well he or she can communicate knowledge. What good will
all your education and training be, if you cannot communicate it effectively?

Ellen DeGeneres, Barack Obama, Tina Fey and Ryan Seacrest are all good public
speakers. Their careers have skyrocketed, at least in part, by their ability to think
well on their feet. You might be thinking: “That’s great for them, but I don’t think
I will become a national talk show host or President of the United States, therefore
practicing public speaking is not a priority for me.”

While taking this course won’t guarantee fame and fortune, there is no denying
that people admire those who can think on their feet and deliver a powerful
presentation. This knowledge and skill is so valuable that, even just a quick glance
at job openings on a Web site such as Monster.com, illustrates most positions
contain “effective communication” or some other phrase indicating the applicant
carries valuable communication skills. Whether your aim is to be an auto

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mechanic or a physician, communicating effectively will not only help you to find
a job, it will make you more successful once you are working. Regardless of your
future career path, you will need to call upon the skills you will learn in this class
to become more effective personally, professionally, and when engaging in civic
activities.

The good news is that you already possess many of the skills that it takes to be an
effective public speaker. Modern public speaking has become an extension of
conversational speaking in many ways. Just as you do when you are sharing news
with a friend, when you speak in public you aim to be organized, understood,
impactful, and responsive.

Here are two real life examples of former students who have benefitted from the
teachings in this book:

Alissa Harakal. As a personal fitness trainer, Alissa visits clients in their homes to
help them attain their fitness goals. She also produces custom fitness DVDs that
her clients can watch to complete their workouts when she isn’t there in person.
Alissa’s success hinges on her ability to communicate the principles of effective
fitness in a way that is not only clear, but also appealing, and unintimidating to her
clients.

Alissa says, “As a personal trainer and business owner, the skills I learned in
speech communication are used on a daily basis and are an integral part of my
profession. Every time I create a workout DVD, teach a class, or train a client, I am
presenting exercises. To be a successful personal trainer, it is not enough to be
knowledgeable about the subject matter; I have to communicate my knowledge in
a way that my clients can understand. Each time I meet with a client or teach a
class, it is expected that I can effectively communicate proper execution and
exercise technique to the clients to ensure safety and effectiveness of the workout.
If clients cannot understand the instructions they are given, they will become
discouraged and will discontinue my services.”

Chris Vivero. Chris Vivero doesn’t just watch YouTube videos. Known as
Muzical Eagle on YouTube, Chris has been producing YouTube videos since
early 2007. Instead of working at a fast food restaurant or a retail store like many
college students, Chris supplements his income with his informative product

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demonstration videos on the Google-owned Internet video service. Sometimes,
Chris’s pay comes in the form of a new camera, such as Nikon D3100, which
retails for about $500.

Other times, cool iPhone accessories will come to his doorstep. He has also
received free apps for his iPhone in exchange for his expertise and YouTube
product demonstrations. Chris’s passion for the products and the technology is
palpable. His eyes light up when he describes some of the latest gadgets,
especially those from Apple.

Chris began by making videos demonstrating how to cheat in the game Pokémon
and he put them up on YouTube. To his surprise, more and more people who
wanted to know the codes started watching his videos. The first two videos got
over 5,000 views. It made Chris think, “if people are willing to watch my
relatively poor quality videos, why not make them better quality and produce more
of them?” And that’s what he did. He now has two hundred and fifty videos on
YouTube. The original Pokémon videos now have over one million views each.

His interest in YouTube and experience in front of the camera has given him more
confidence as a speaker. He used to think of himself only as someone behind the
camera, but now, if he pictures a camera at the back of a room where he is
speaking, he believes his performance improves. He also thinks that his
interpersonal communication has improved because of his YouTube career. He is
at ease explaining details about products and converses freely with anyone who
asks him about his YouTube career.

After reading this chapter you will understand the personal, professional and public
reasons for becoming an effective public speaker.

Personal Reasons for Becoming an Effective Public Speaker

When Kaila Richards discovered that the most popular professor on campus would
not be teaching in the spring semester, she knew she had to do something.
Professor DeMarco wasn’t just popular; he was a genius to the hundreds of
students who took his history classes. His colorful lectures and distribution of
prizes to students, who answered his Jeopardy-style questions successfully, were
legendary.

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 Just complaining to her friends wasn’t going to change things, so Kaila prepared a
formal presentation and presented it to the college’s advisory board. She
persuasively described the reasons why Dr. DeMarco just had to be retained on the
faculty.

Kaila spoke and the college listened. The next semester Kaila was nothing short of
a heroine to students sitting in the beloved history class hearing Dr. DeMarco bring
to life Jacksonian democracy. For Kaila, advocating for Dr. Greene was personal.
She already took all the history classes she needed, but she didn’t want to see a
popular and talented professor ousted arbitrarily, so she spoke with passion.
Calling up the skills that she learned in her public speaking class was personally
rewarding.

Just imagine for a moment what you may be personally compelled to speak out
about. Maybe it will be for a program at your child’s school, a company moving in
to your neighborhood, or advocacy work for the homeless. You, too, will discover
when you have your “Dr. DeMarco” moment that being a skilled public speaker is
personally rewarding.

Professional Reasons For Becoming an Effective Public Speaker

When Christine started her new job as a salesperson for the In Touch Cellular
Phone Company, she thought her real estate background would not be useful.
Though she spent ten years as a successful real estate saleswoman, when the
housing market crumbled, she thought she could at least use her sales skills. But
when a management position opened, Christine read with interest how “knowledge
of real estate essential” was listed as part of the job description. The new position
required someone who could assess the viability of land to erect cellular phone
towers, and then make public presentations to municipal leaders to convince them
to rent the land to In Touch Cellular Phone Company. Though she possessed the
real estate know-how, she felt less confident about her public speaking skills.

Christine was great communicating one-on-one with clients, but could she make
effective formal presentations? The only experience she had been in a classroom
just like the one you are in now. Not much experience, but Christine called upon
the skills she learned in her introductory college speech class to make a sample
presentation as part of her job interview. She impressed the search committee and

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was hired for the management position. For Christine, developing herself as an
effective public speaker was professionally rewarding. Now she’s in management,
earning a better salary, and using her previous training as a real estate agent to
serve her new company and advance her career.

Consider how your professional opportunities may expand when you develop your
public speaking skills. You will have more career opportunities if you are able to
speak well on your feet. Do you want to teach, practice law, or work as a
community organizer? These are careers that require the ability to speak
effectively in public among many others. It isn’t enough to have good ideas. To
be successful professionally, you need to be able to share your ideas publicly and
efficaciously. So think of your time in this class as an investment in your
professional success.

Civic Reasons For Becoming An Effective Public Speaker

At a 2010 press conference led by New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg,
dozens of victims of gun violence spoke out. Diana Rodriguez, a Staten Island
mother who lost her daughter, Samantha, on mother's day five years ago, said, “No
one knows the pain that we feel, but we're here to let it be known. Something has
to be done.” Rodriguez noted that the person who killed her daughter has still
never been brought to justice. The mayor joined with those affected by gun
violence to organize support for background checks for gun purchases. One by one
the people affected by gun violence approached the City Hall podium and gave
their personal account of how guns touched their lives. They chose to speak out
publicly to help change legislation. For them, being skilled public speakers was
publicly rewarding.

You may not be able to imagine what you will speak about publicly now, but
history shows that laws have been made and the whole world has been changed
because people—just like you—have had the courage to speak out.

The right to freely exchange ideas is one of the founding principles of our
democracy. It is the right to speak freely that is at the heart of the First
Amendment to the United States Constitution. Although there may not be an
urgent desire on your part to speak out at this moment, you now know that it is a

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right and responsibility. This will encourage you to listen carefully to those who
do speak out and to forcefully speak out when you are passionate about an issue.

In Egypt, protests started in January 2011 when thousands of people began taking
to the streets to protest poverty, government corruption, rampant unemployment,
and the autocratic rule of President Hosni Mubarak. The government responded
by blocking the social media sites, such as Twitter and Facebook, which were
being used by organizers to coordinate protests. This caused the citizens to be
even more enraged, and thousands more descended to the streets to protest.
Though the Egyptian army was present, it also recognized the legitimate right to
“freedom of expression.”

It is not uncommon to turn on one of several twenty-four hour news stations, or

pull up a news story on StumbleUpon or Tumblr, and hear or read insults hurled
between people of opposing political views. Instead, we encourage you to
promote civility in your discourse. When President Barack Obama spoke in
Tucson, Arizona after the 2011 assassination attempt on Representative Gabrielle
Giffords that left six people dead, including a nine-year-old girl, he called for more
civil discourse. He said:

…at a time when our discourse has become so sharply

polarized - at a time when we are far too eager to lay the blame for all
that ails the world at the feet of those who think differently than we do
- it's important for us to pause for a moment and make sure that we are
talking with each other in a way that heals, not a way that wounds.”

To be a civil public speaker, it is important to focus your speech on the substance

of a controversy instead of the personalities of the people involved. Learning to
speak well in public will be publicly rewarding to you and your fellow citizens.

The Public Speaking Transaction

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 While it can be a relief for novice speakers to consider some of the similarities
between public speaking and conversation, there are also a few important
differences. The main differences involve:

 Planning
 Organization
 Delivery
 Audience

Unlike a conversation that may spontaneously happen, most public speeches are
planned in advance. Great speakers must assess the situation. To adapt to the
situation, good speakers ask themselves:

Why is there a speech?

What is the environment of the speech?

Some questions about the environment include:

Where will the speech be given?

Is there the availability and need of a microphone?

Will the speech be televised?

Will there be a stage and/or a podium?

Organization:

This is perhaps the most dramatic way that public speaking differs from
conversation. While informal conversation is often loosely organized, they are far
less organized than a public speech with its distinctive three parts: intro, body and
conclusion.

Delivery:

Every speaker must develop his or her own delivery style, and the only sure-fire
way to do this is through practice. Still, there are some universal attributes of
effective delivery that you will want to consider when you speak in public:

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Be natural and let your own style come through

Maintain natural eye contact with your entire audience

Let enthusiasm be evident in your facial expressions

Use gestures to accentuate your message

Audience:

It is important to keep in mind that the audience is even more important than the
speaker. Remember that the audience came to get something from you, essentially,
your message.

For this reason, effective public speakers carefully consider the needs of the
audience and fulfill those needs. Great speakers don’t speak to an audience, they
speak for an audience. To be sure that your speaking is audience-centered, you
want to learn as much as possible about your them.

Information you will want to know about your audience includes:

Average audience age

Interests

Reasons for their attendance

Knowledge of the topic

Keeping some of the differences between public speaking and conversation in

mind will help you as you consider the principles that reinforce some of the
similarities.

A transaction involves an exchange of verbal and nonverbal messages between two

or more people. A system is a collection of interdependent parts arranged so that a
change in one produces a corresponding change in the remaining parts.

Interdependence exists when things have a reciprocal influence on one another.

Subtle changes in the communication transaction can cause dramatic changes in
the way the audience receives the message. For example, a speaker who cannot be
seen well because the podium is too tall or an arrangement of seats in an audience

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that does not permit everyone to see the speaker can dramatically alter the
effectiveness of the presentation.

Good speaking involves the parts of the speech transaction working together to
achieve the same result, in this case, a memorable public speech. As you read this
book, you will begin to gain the skills necessary to take your personal
effectiveness, professional career and public life to the next level.

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 Chapter 1: Making Your Life Better Through Expression

When you are able to speak effectively in public, your whole life improves. It
gives you greater confidence, success, and a feeling of accomplishment. You will
gain personally when you speak well because you will be able to articulate your
story and feel as though you are being understood. You will gain professionally
because employers seek and promote employees who can communicate well. You
will benefit by being more engaged in your community by feeling confident about
engaging yourself in civic life. The three main benefits of learning to publically
speak are personal, professional, and civically.

PERSONALLY:

Think about how gratifying it is when you are able to tell a story about yourself in
a convincing and an articulate way. It feels good to tell people about yourself in a
way that uniquely describes who you are. It is great to be able to develop what I
call a “This is my story” speech – a compelling, personal narrative that expresses
who you are in a way no one else can tell.

PROFESSIONALLY:

I challenge you to look on an employment Web Site or in an employment section

of a newspaper and find jobs that DON’T ask for effective communication skills as
a requirement for the job. Employers seek employees who can present themselves
well, speak on their feet, and motivate students through their speech.

CIVICALLY:

You don’t know how you will speak out in your community. What if your child
needs learning initiatives not offered by your school district? With the skills you’ll
gain in this class you will feel confident about speaking about your needs –
perhaps helping those in your community—and your own child in the process.
Maybe you would like to speak to a civic group about your passion or your work
(or maybe if you are lucky, your passion is your work).

Effective speech will help you speak in the community with passion and
eloquence. When you stand up and speak for something, perhaps in a way you

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never imagined, or when you identify a need for utterance, you are encountering a
rhetorical situation. In history there have been many occasions for rhetorical
situations: President Reagan addressing the nation after the Challenger Disaster;
President Bush addressing the nation after 9/11; President Obama addressing the
nation after the school shootings in Newtown, Ct. But you don’t have to be the
president to speak in response to a rhetorical situation. After their 19-year-old
daughter Jeanne Clery was murdered on her college campus by a fellow student,
her parents, Howard and Constance Clery, mounted a campaign for campus safety.
The result is the Jeanne Clery Disclosure of Campus Security Policy and Campus
Crime Statistics Act. Mr. and Mrs. Clery did not expect to speak out about campus
security, but their tragedy caused them to respond rhetorically so that campuses
would be safer throughout the United States. 1

The Origins of the term the Rhetorical Situation

Communication scholar Lloyd F. Bitzer described the concept of the rhetorical

situation in his essay of the same name. 2 The concept relies on understanding a
moment called "exigence," in which something happens, or fails to happen, that
compels one to speak out. For example, if the local school board fires a popular
principal, a sympathetic parent might then be compelled to take the microphone at
the meeting and/or write a letter to the editor. Bitzer defined the rhetorical situation
as the "complex of persons, events, objects, and relations presenting an actual or
potential exigence, which can be completely or partially removed if discourse,
introduced into the situation, can so constrain human decision or action as to bring
about the significant modification of the exigence."

Some elements of the rhetorical situation include:

1. Exigence: What happens or fails to happen? Why is one compelled to speak

out?
2. Persons: Who is involved in the exigence and what roles do they play?
3. Relations: What are the relationships, especially the differences in power,
between the persons involved?
4. Location: Where is the site of discourse? e.g. a podium, newspaper, web
page, etc.
5. Speaker: Who is compelled to speak or write?
6. Audience: Who does the speaker address and why?
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 7. Method: How does the speaker choose to address the audience?
8. Institutions: What are the rules of the game surrounding/constraining
numbers 1 through 7.

Analyzing the rhetorical situation (at its most fundamental, means identifying the
elements above) can tell us much about speakers, their situations, and their
persuasive intentions.

The ancient Greeks gave special attention to timing--the "when" of the rhetorical
situation. They called this kairos, and it identifies the combination of the "right"
moment to speak and the "right" way (or proportion) to speak. Let's get back to the
school board example. After voting to fire the popular principal, the sympathetic
parent might grab the microphone and scream invectives at the board. This would
be bad kairos. Perhaps a better choice would be to recognize that a mild rebuke fits
the situation followed by a well-timed letter to the editor or column in the school
newsletter.

Public Speaking is Both Ancient and Modern

Public speaking is both a very old and a very new form of expression. The way we
think of contemporary public speaking—at least the Western tradition of public
speaking—is based on the works of the ancient Greeks and Romans who forged an
especially insightful system of rhetoric or public speaking. This tradition has been
enriched by the experiments, surveys, field studies, and historical studies that have
been done since then. Every day in colleges and universities around the world
scholars of speech communication and rhetoric are advancing the knowledge about
effective public speaking through new studies of speakers (known as rhetors) and
the circumstances that surround their speeches. All of this research extends the
groundwork of knowledge about rhetoric that was begun by ancient Greek
scholars.

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Aristotle’s Rhetoric, written some 2,300 years ago, was one of the earliest
systematic studies of public speaking. It was in this work that the three kinds of
proof—logos (or logical proof), pathos (emotional appeals), and ethos (appeals
based on the character of the speaker)—were introduced. This three-part division is
still followed today.

Roman rhetoricians added to the work of the Greeks. Quintilian, who taught in
Rome during the first century, built an entire educational system—from childhood
through adulthood—based on the development of the effective and responsible
orator. Throughout these 2,300 years, the study of public speaking has grown and
developed. Contemporary public speaking builds on this classical heritage and also
incorporates insights from the humanities, the social and behavioral sciences, and
now, computer science and technology. Likewise, perspectives from different
cultures are being integrated into our present study of public speaking.

A Greek term of interest here is agora – or the public forum. Once you develop
your public speaking skills, you will be eager to enter a public forum and share
them – whether that public forum is at the local Rotary meeting or on the World
Wide Web as a TED talk, building your public speaking skills helps you share your
message with the greater audience.

You may be thinking: all of this background about public speaking is interesting
and you can see the benefits of becoming a successful speaker, but how do you
actually improve your skills?

By reading this book, thinking about your feelings about public speaking, and by
practicing your skills every chance you get, your public speaking skills will
improve.

In her best-selling book: Quiet: The Power of Introverts In a World That Can’t
Stop Talking, Susan Cain makes an important distinction that introverts can be very
effective public speakers. Most people think that all good public speakers are
naturally outgoing extroverts. That isn’t true. Both introverts and extroverts can
be effective public speakers. The terms introversion and extroversion were first
popularized by Carl Jung. Extraversion tends to manifest itself in outgoing,
energetic, talkative behavior. Introversion is manifested in more reserved, quiet
and shy behavior.

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There are several factors that figure in to your success in developing your public
speaking skills:

Natural Talents

Education and Training

Practice

Natural Talents:

Consider how you ‘feel’ about public speaking. Are you eager to do it any time
the opportunity arises? Or, are you more like former Supreme Court Justice Sandra
Day O’Connor who,when I asked her if she likes public speaking, replied, “I don’t
mind it.”3 Or, would you like the title of a public speaking how-to book to say,
“I’d rather die than give a speech”4! Your answer to that question may be a good
idea where you think you fall on the ‘natural talents’ scale. Usually if people think
that they are naturally good public speakers, they very much enjoy it and are eager
to do it. But even if you would “rather die”, you can be an excellent speaker with
education and practice. So please, hang in there!

Education and Training:

There’s a lot of education and training to help you become a better public speaker.
You are taking a course and reading a book that are getting you some excellent
education and training right now. In addition to traditional college courses, you
could join a Toastmaster’s Group, or simply read all the material you can get your
hands on about effective speech. Watching speakers on YouTube, in person, and
on television is another great way to improve your understanding of what makes a
good (and not so good) speech.

Practice:

This might be the best predictor of your success in public speaking than natural
talent and education and training. If you are willing to put in the time to speak and
hone your skills, you will improve. It takes repetition and patience, but it is the
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surest path to success. I interviewed former Kansas senator and presidential
nominee Bob Dole and he told me he and his senate colleagues never practiced
their public speaking. “It is why we aren’t any good,” he said wryly. On the other
hand, he added, his wife, former North Carolina senator and presidential candidate
Elizabeth Dole, “practices a speech she’s going to give even if she’s given it
twenty-five times before.”5 That’s why throughout her career, Elizabeth Dole has
been lauded for her extraordinary public speaking skills. Practice makes you
better, and often makes you great.

Finally, as you think about your public speaking needs, consider the purpose of the
speeches you are about to give. In other words, why are you speaking? Speech
purposes include:

To inform

To persuade

To entertain

To celebrate

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 Chapter 2: Analyzing Your Audience

One of the most important aspects of effective speech is understanding the

needs of the people in the audience. If you know why your audience is there and
what it expects from you, you are likely to be much more successful in your efforts
as a speaker. Think about it. When you hear a speaker you often have an
expectation of what you want to ‘get’ from his or her speech. Being able to
determine what your audience wants from you may be the single most effective
thing a speaker can do before speaking.

But how do you know what the audience wants? There are two main
methods to analysis the needs of your audience. They are:

Demographic Analysis

Situational Analysis

Understanding your audience is one of the most crucial elements of effective

communication. Audience analysis offers valuable insight about your audience,
which can help you to choose and develop a relevant, meaningful topic. For a
message to resonate with an audience the message must be one that is in sync with
an audience’s attitudes, beliefs, values and opinions. It must also be presented in
language that an audience can understand and with a non-verbal message that
interests them.

There are two main areas to consider when analyzing your audience: demographics
and the situation of the topic. For each of these areas, there are a set of questions to
answer which will help stimulate your thinking about your audience. In addition to
the questions below, you should consider how each of these factors (age, socio-
economic status, etc.) shapes your audience’s attitudes, expectations, and opinions
about you and your topic.

Demographic Analysis

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Is my audience homogeneous or heterogeneous? If homogeneous, how are the
readers alike? What do they have in common? If heterogeneous, how are the
readers different from one another? What do readers have in common despite their
differences?

What is the average age of my readers? What range of ages is represented?

In terms of socio-economic status, how would I describe my reading audience?

Where do they fit in society's social and economic status?

What occupations are represented in my reading audience?

What are my readers' political and religious affiliations?

What ethic, racial and cultural groups are represented in my reading audience?

What is my role in relationship to my reading audience? Are we status equals are

we of mixed status?

Situational Analysis

How much does my audience already know about my topic?

What can I inform my readers about that they do not already know? What new
information would my readers benefit from? How could they use this new
information?

What time of day will I be speaking?

Where will I be speaking?

Is the room comfortable for the audience?

Are audience members required to attend or did they choose to come?

What do they expect to get from my speech?

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You may be wondering how you can learn about your audience before you make
your speech. In a classroom setting, you are likely to have familiarity with your
audience before you make one of the major presentations in the class simply
because you’ve been in class with them. But if you are speaking to an audience
outside of class, the best way to find out about your audience is to ask the person
who has invited you to speak. Ask questions about their ages, gender, knowledge
about your topic, and the reason that they are sitting in front of you in first place.
Do they expect to learn something from you or are you more of an entertaining
speaker. Is it OK if your speech takes on a persuasive tact or will that turn off your
audience? These are questions that you need to ask your audience.

Once you have a clearer picture of your audience, you need to get down to the
organization of your speech. A good format for setting up the organization of your
speech is to ask:

1. What is the general purpose of my speech (inform, persuade, entertain,

celebrate)
2. What is the specific purpose of my speech (what am I informing,
persuading, entertaining or celebrating).

Audiences like to feel as though they have gotten their “money’s worth” so to
speak. When you write your specific purpose, offer your audience a benefit. Your
specific purpose may be written like this:

After listening to my speech today, you will be well informed about the history of
Cape May, New Jersey.

Another example:

After my speech today, you will be convinced that you will adopt a vegetarian
lifestyle.

3. What is the central idea or the thesis of my speech? In other words, what do
I think of this topic?

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 For example, you may have as your specific purpose to persuade your
audience to adopt a vegetarian lifestyle. Your central idea or thesis is that by
adopting a vegetarian lifestyle, your audience will be happier and healthier.

Although we cannot look into the minds of our audience to determine

exactly what they want from us as speakers, there are ways to learn about your
audience. They include:

Asking the person who invited you to speak

Surveying the audience in advance

Checking out your speech venue in advance

Research!

Finally, a speaker must choose message strategies that meet an audience’s

beliefs, attitudes, opinions, and understanding about a topic as well as their more
general needs such as their values, motives, language abilities and even
psychological make up. When you invest in understanding your audience, it pays
off in how the audience perceives you and makes sense of your message.

Audience Analysis Exercise:

Imagine you are giving a speech on the benefits of physical fitness.

You may choose from different types of audiences:

Preschool

Middle School

High School

College Age

Senior Citizens

Choose one audience and write an introduction geared to what you think are the
audience’s needs.

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Share it with the class!

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 Chapter 3: Listening Effectively

Most of us don’t listen as well as we should, but if we were asked whether or not
we think we are listening well, we’d say “of course!” I think it is fair to say that
although there seems to be a high value placed on effective listening, very few of
us know much about listening effectively because we’ve never been taught to
listen very effectively. We’ve been told throughout our lives that we should listen
but that is about it. Remember being a very young child and being told to “listen”
or “be quiet”? Many of us associate those things as the same thing, when in fact,
effective listening is a very active process that requires work.

A study of over 8,000 people employed in businesses, hospitals, universities, the

military and government agencies found that virtually all of the respondents
believed that they communicate as effectively or more effectively than their co-
workers6.

(Could everyone be above average?) However, research shows that the

average person listens at only about 25% efficiency
While most people agree that listening effectively is a very important skill,
most people don't feel a strong need to improve their own skill level.

Why Effective Listening Matters to Public Speaking

It may sound difficult to comprehend, but effective listening is a secret to effective

public speaking. Effective listening is a way to understand the needs of your
audience and to prepare a speech that will meet those needs. Before we can ever
stand up and speak, we have to take the time to assess the needs of those who will
hear us. In addition to the concept of listening well to speak well, listening is also
a critical interpersonal skill in the workforce.

Effective listening is a way of showing concern for colleagues and that fosters
cohesive bonds, commitment, and trust. Effective listening tends to reduce the

22
frequency of interpersonal conflict and increases the likelihood that when conflicts
emerge they will be resolved in a way that will please everyone. If you listen to
the people you work with, you will help motivate them by offering solutions that
will mean the difference between dissatisfaction and satisfaction on the job. You
can encourage them when they need encouragement, and you will know what
kinds of things they value as rewards for a job well done .

Once you have listened well to improve the workplace, when you stand up to
speak, you will be able to speak to them in a meaningful and specific way. Though
there were cultural differences, I couldn’t help but think that she was creating more
than a little distance between herself and the audience every time she got the name
of the school wrong. Good listening prevents that!

But we’re only humans, and very busy ones at that. I’m not too embarrassed to
admit to you that as I was writing this chapter, I jumped up from my chair a
number of times to perform other tasks that sprung into my head! I fixed a
crooked curtain, hung a photo of my daughter….do you get where I’m going with
this? If we were to begin a nice list of excuses for the reasons we don’t’ listen very
effectively, we’d have to list:

1. Multi-tasking: OK – how many of you have recently checked your

Facebook account as you were reading this?
2. Boredom: not EVERY chapter in EVERY school book we have holds
our complete attention, does it?! Some of the chapters of books I think I
really want to read – like books that my wonderful book club members
choose simply do not interest me after a while, so I stop paying attention.
3. Poor Speaking skills: have you ever tuned out because someone wasn’t
speaking very well?
4. Haven’t I heard this before? Some speakers are redundant and it leads
to poor listening.
5. Too noisy! Maybe the room you are in simply doesn’t allow for
comfortable conversation. Recently I attended a party and once the live
band started playing just about all conversation stopped. It was just too
loud for any of us to hear each other without shouting. It turned the party
into more of a concert.

23
 6. Feeling unwell (a sore throat, sleepiness, a fever, a sore back) Any
physical ailment can get you off the track of listening effectively.
7. Feeling upset (a disagreement with a loved one, the feeling that you left
an appliance on at home or lost your cell phone) ….these are
psychological issues that can detract from your ability to listen well.

There are three main categories of “noise” or reasons why we tune out
when some speakers are speaking:

a. Physical noise
b. Psychological noise
c. Physiological noise

Make sure that your environment, your head, and your physical environment are
all adding to your listening effectiveness.

What is Effective Listening?

Effective listening is actively processing the information given to you by a speaker.

When you do this, you show that you are listening and interested, and you provide
feedback to the speaker so that he or she knows that the message was received.

Listening is necessary to becoming a competent speaker and audience member.

Some important aspects of listening include:

Hearing and listening are not the same.

Hearing happens if we have ears that work well.

In contrast, listening is the process of receiving, attending to, and assigning

meaning to aural as well as visual and tactile stimuli.

24
When we practice active listening we respond to the speaker nonverbally and even
verbally throughout his or her presentation.

There are common myths about listening, mostly stemming from the idea that if
we are smart people we must be able to listen well naturally. That simply isn’t
true!

It is important to keep in mind:

Although listening may look easy; it is not.

Bring bright doesn’t guarantee effective listening; it does not.

There is no need to plan ahead; planning is essential.

Reading skills correlate with listening skills. Such is not the case.

Remember some of the obstacles to effective listening and consider how they may
have kept (or keep) you from listening well:

environment

cultural differences

psychological problems

bias

connotative meanings

anxiety

Listening can have one of four goals:

understanding

appreciation

critical listening

25
empathic listening

Techniques you can use to increase your overall listening skill include:

setting goals

blocking out distracting stimuli

suspending judgment

focusing on main points

recognizing highlights and signposts

taking effective notes

being sensitive to metacommunication

paraphrasing

questioning

Not All Listening is Created Equal

Different communication situations call upon difference responses as listeners.

Here are several techniques that can help improve our listening:

Reflecting can take other forms than paraphrasing back to someone what was just
said. For instance, a listener can summarize what he or she heard and also take the
conversation a step further by asking a question for clarification or elaboration.

One of the things we often notice when we reflect during a conversation is that the
meaning we have ascribed to what we've heard has missed the speaker's intended
meaning. When speakers hear us reflect, they get a chance to correct any
26
misunderstanding that we have. That proves that this technique does truly clarify
communication.

For most of us, it takes a lot of practice before we become natural and effective at
reflecting or paraphrasing back to the speaker. At first we may sound unnatural
and even stupid for paraphrasing so much. If we persist, however, we will begin to
get more out of our conversations and create clarity with speakers after public
speaking events. It is important to ask speakers to clarify any potential
misunderstandings.

Probing In addition to reflecting, the most skilled communicators' responses

involve a lot of probing. Probing means asking for additional information. Not all
questions you might ask will be effective. Avoid questions that challenge what has
been said because that will put the speaker on the defensive. In addition, a
question that changes the subject before the current subject is resolved isn't
effective communication. Effective probing is objective and builds off of what a
person just said. Effective probing questions ask for elaboration, clarification, and
repetition. For example, if a person is confiding in you that she “just doesn’t think
I can be successful in my current major” a good probe might be, “so you are telling
me that you are feeling unsuccessful?” This may draw out more information from
the speaker that will help you identify ways that the speaker came to that
conclusion about her academic career.

Listening Exercise:

Pretend you are a newscaster! Read the following opening to your classmate.

When you are finished, as them to recount specific details. How accurately did
they listen?

FOOD BANK EMBEZZLE

DAYS AFTER THE FORMER EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR OF THE

HUNTINGTON AREA FOOD BANK IS ARRESTED FOR
EMBEZZLEMENT ... THE CURRENT ADMINISTRATION IS SPEAKING
OUT EXCLUSIVELY TO EYEWITNESS NEWS..

27
LEIGH ANN ZAPPIN WAS ARRESTED FRIDAY NIGHT.

SHE HAD RESIGNED AS DIRECTOR OF THE FOOD BANK LAST

SEPTEMBER.

ACCORDING TO THE INDICTMENT... SHE TOOK ABOIUT 24 THOUSAND

DOLLARS FROM THE ORGANIZATION.

BOARD MEMBERS KNEW OF TWO PRIOR EMBEZZLEMENT ARRESTS,

BUT SAY THEY STAND BY THEIR DECISION TO HIRE HER.

"The board and the staff are working every day to improve our policies and
procedures because ultimately the goal here is to fulfill our mission which is to
feed hungry people."

"We are doing good things. We're doing the right things. We just want to get that
credibility back."

THEY SAY THEY DO HAVE LIABILITY INSURANCE TO RECOUP THE

LOST MONEY... AND HAVE A COMPREHENSIVE PLAN FOR
ACCOUNTING POLICIES AND PROCEDURES BEING PUT IN PLACE.

Listening Questions:

Was the director of the foodbank a man or a woman?

Was the director arrested?

How much did the accused director allegedly steal?

Who is working to improve the policies of the food bank?

Is there insurance to cover the loss?

28
 Chapter 4: Dealing with Communication Apprehension

I’m reluctant to spend too much time sharing how people get nervous about public
speaking. Sometimes I think students of public speaking get nervous just thinking
about how speaking in public can make them nervous. And yet, for many speakers,
even seasoned, polished speakers, the fear is real.

Remember that you have an important message for your audience! Just knowing
that you have material and information that they may not get anywhere else should
be plenty of motivation to push back the fears and share your message with gusto.

Even with this positive mantra, however, many of us get butterflies –often
depending on what audience we are speaking to—when we need to speak in
public.

A word of advice about public speaking ---relax. No one expects you to step up to
the microphone or podium or wherever you are speaking and be the best orator of
all time. Most audiences expect you to be a little nervous. Let yourself be a little
nervous. In fact, those nerves will work for you. They are facilitative because
they facilitate your good performance. The kind of nerves that can stop you in
your tracks are debilitative. They prevent you from doing a good job.

First and foremost, put your presentation in perspective. When a speaker is

nervous I often ask: Why are you nervous about this? What is the worst thing that
can happen?

Some tips to reduce your nervousness:

Prepare well

Practice

Bust a move – yes, exercise! I know it seems like odd advice, but simply
moving around physically may help you release much tension that could creep into
your public speaking. If you are toward the end of a group of speakers speaking on
one day, be sure to get up and move around a few minutes before you speak if you

29
can. Sometimes just sitting there “stewing” about your upcoming speech can make
you even more nervous.

The surest way to relive your nerves about public speaking is to speak.
Speak often, any time you can because the more you simply get up in front of
others, the better you will be and the less nervous you will be for the next time. To
give yourself every advantage, practice. Use your phone as a mini public speaking
recording studio. Look for ways to practice your public speaking – Thanksgiving
dinner! An engagement party (see below) and at your local housing community’s
“information night.” Even reading religious readings at your place of worship is a
way to make public speaking more natural. Keep a positive attitude about it and
have fun!

Recently our beloved daughter Emi got engaged to a wonderful man, Max!

Here are some words my husband and I shared at an engagement party we

had for them. Just the act of getting up and “sharing a few words” made the
evening feel more special:

Father of the Bride:

Thank you everyone for coming to this engagement party to celebrate
the engagement of our daughter Emi and Max!

Emi, You are one of the greatest blessings of our life. We are so very
proud of you and we wanted to have this party to meet some of your
friends we have not met, Max’s wonderful Grandfather George and his
wife Doran and to spend time with George and Heidi, Max’s parents,

30
who we already consider friends. We feel so happy and blessed you all
can be here tonight.
Mother of the Bride:
Emi – I wanted a daughter SO BADLY that when I was expecting you, I
could not even TALK about how much I wanted a girl and I did NOT
want to know ahead of time. We both feel the same thrill of being your
parents today as we did the day you were born. We are SO proud of
you….from HS class president….to study abroad and college graduation
in 3.5 years….coming to NYC and building a life – I know that you are
just getting started…..
Max, we joke that finding the perfect husband for our only daughter
would be a TALL order and well, you --- truly deliver there….!
Seriously, though, Max we think you are perfect for Emi because -– you
are kind and thoughtful (and handsome) and we are so happy to
officially welcome to you to our family. You are truly special and the
perfect partner to walk with Emi on the adventure of life!
Let’s raise a glass TO MAX AND EMI!
May you continue to bring out the best in each other.
May you always remember the fierce love that brought you together and
may you always seek to care for each other in every way.

Happy Engagement! We look forward to your wedding!

CHEERS!

31
32
 Chapter 5: Narrative Speaking

Narrative Speaking: Oral Tradition

One of the most empowering activities for anyone is to tell the world, or even a
close friend, what makes you, YOU. It may be why NPR’s “StoryCorps” has
become immensely popular. People get their moment to express who they are and
how they relate to the world. StoryCorps is an independent nonprofit organization
whose mission is to provide Americans of all backgrounds and beliefs with the
opportunity to record, share, and preserve the stories of our lives.7

A powerful biographical speaking exercise is to express yourself in a “This is who

I am” kind of format. But you need to go beyond the obvious: where you grew
up, what school you attended, and who your parents are or were. You are trying to
tell an engaging story about yourself—something that sums up your essence.

Think about it. When someone inevitably asks: “What about YOU? What do
you do?” How do you introduce yourself? What do you say? Or, like many
people, do you cast your eyes down and mumble, “I’m so-in-so” in as quiet a tone
as possible? If so, you would benefit from thinking about and learning to speak
about who you are in an authentic, engaging way.

In this chapter you will learn techniques that will help you develop an “elevator”
speech or a way of briefly speaking about yourself that grabs the attention of your
audience and makes a lasting impression.

Free writing about you, your life, and what makes you, you.

The development of a cogent, engaging story.

Practice delivering your story with impact!

Theme Focus: Focus is study and practice of oral history and storytelling as a
communication art and as an historical record of our past and present. Course
research enables the students to better understand our heritage, while the process of
writing, compilation, and presentation of their own narratives help the students to

33
appreciate how our stories of the present will some day serve as part of the region’s
history.

Narrative Writing/Speaking Assignment:

Who are you? Write a one page narrative that describes an incident in your young
life that represents the kind of person you are.
Did you like to play with blocks?

Did you like to entertain people?

Have you always been the one to smooth things over in a family dispute?

What qualities from your young life do you bring to your life as an adult?

Share your narrative with the class.

34
 Chapter 6: Organizing Your Speech

A good speech doesn’t just ‘happen’. Even stand up comedians, who seem so
naturally funny put a lot of time and effort into their performances. Like public
speakers, their carefully crafted presentations are the combination of:

Good Ideas

Known Facts

Research

Note Preparation

Practice

You already know how to begin assessing your audience by focusing on the
general idea (purpose of your speech) and the specific idea and the central idea or
thesis statement. Now it is time to consider the structure of your speech.

Speeches have three distinct parts:

Introduction

Body

Conclusion

35
Outlining

Organizing the Speaking Outline

I. Startle the Audience

II. Reveal The Topic
III. Establish Credibility
IV. Preview the Body of the Speech

A. Look at the research and try to find a way to organize your main points

(chronological, spatial, topical, problem-solution, cause-effect).

B. You should have at least two and no more than four main points.

C. Try to keep the wording as similar as possible in all the main points, and

state them in full sentences (not in fragments). Also, devote an appropriate

amount of time to each one.

II. Next, Make Components of the Main Points with Sub-points

A. Look at the research that fits under each main point and come up with key
ideas that belong to these main points. These will be your sub points. You
need at least two sub points for each main point.

B. Sub-points can be in complete sentences or fragments.

III. Support Your Sub-points with Sub-Sub-points (your facts and examples)

A. You must have at least four sources, that will be cited on your Reference section
at the end of your outline. These sources will help provide you with your

sub-subpoints.

B. Make sure in the body of your speech you tell us where your information came
from,and/or who said it, in other words, CITE YOUR SOURCES IN YOUR
SPEECH.

36
C. Sources could be books, book chapters, magazine/newspaper articles, interviews

with expert or knowledgeable individuals, www sites, or any other viable Internet

sources or electronic media.

D. Examples you use for supporting your main points--can be personal

experiences.

IV. Use Connectives Throughout Your Speech (refer to the connectives handout)

A. Know what transitions, internal previews, internal summaries, and signposts

are, and

when to use them (see your Connectives Handout on the reverse side)!

B. Label and include all connectives in your preparation outline.

******************************************************************
*******************************************************

SPECIFIC GUIDELINES FOR AN INFORMATIVE SPEECH PREPARATION

OUTLINE:

MAKE CERTAIN THAT YOU LABEL EVERYTHING! (All labels are in

parentheses--include all labels)

Title/Topic

Specific Purpose: This is what your main points must support or prove. Tell me in
one

sentence what the purpose of your speech is.

Central Idea/Thesis Statement: Summarize your speech/outline in one sentence.

Should

clearly sum up all of your main points.

INTRODUCTION

I. (Attention Getter) This could be a story or anything you know will GRAB your

37
audience's attention.

II. (Credibility Statement) Answer the question "Why should we listen to YOU?"

Give some type of factual information or some reference that will show that you

know what you are talking about. This could be the fact that you had a class on

the topic, or that you have done a lot of research, or that you have first hand

experience with your topic, or you are an expert, etc.

III. (Relevancy Statement) Tell your audience how your topic is relevant to them.

IV. (Preview) Briefly reveal your topic and state what your main points will be.

Be sure to use connectives (see your Connectives Handout)!!

TRANSITION: Transitions are used to go smoothly from one part/point of the

speech to another.

(Include in your transitional statement the exact wording you will use in your
speech)

BODY

I. (MAIN POINT 1) Your first main point goes here-it MUST be one complete

sentence.

INTERNAL PREVIEW: of Subpoints (A, B, AND C) Go HERE (Include the

exact wording of your

internal preview)

A. (SUBPOINT) You should have at least two subpoints under each

main point. This could be one complete sentence. You cannot

have an A without a B.

1. (SUB-SUBPOINT) This is where the specific examples

from your research are included to support your main

38
points. You can use quotes, examples, stories. Be sure

to cite all sources. If you have a ‘1.’ you must have a ‘2..’

a. (Sub-sub-subpoint) Further examples and

information to support your subpoint.

b. If you have an ‘a.’ you need a ‘b.’

2. SUB-SUBPOINT More of the above.

B. SUBPOINT

1. SUB-SUBPOINT

2. SUB-SUBPOINT

C. SUBPOINT (optional)

1. SUB-SUBPOINT

2. SUB-SUBPOINT

INTERNAL SUMMARY OF SUBPOINTS A, B, AND C GOES HERE (Include

the exact wording of

your internal summary)

TRANSITION: A transition is used to go smoothly from the 1st Main Point to the
2nd Main Point.

(Include the exact wording of your transition)

II. Your second MAIN POINT goes here. Follow the same format that you used
for the

first main point.

III. Your third MAIN POINT goes here. (The total number of main points is
optional,

however, three main points seems to be the number easiest to manage as a

39
speaker, and the easiest to remember for your audience.)

TRANSITION: A Transition is used to transition smoothly from the body of your

speech into

the conclusion. (Include in your transitional statement your exact wording)

CONCLUSION

I. (Summary Statement) Summarize your main points. Be specific and concise.

II. (Memorable Closing Statement) Leave your audience with something to think
about.

A memorable close that refers back to the attention getter creates psychological

unity for your audience.

REFERENCES

Your sources. Include in your outline complete citations (using APA or MLA
format) of the sources you used. Include interviews and EVERY SOURCE of
information you used to prepare your speech.

40
 Chapter 7 : Informative Speaking

Many students are concerned about designing a purely informative speech for

their audience. Speakers wanting to be successful with this type of presentation

must avoid unwittingly creating a persuasive speech. This guide sheet

will give you a better understanding of the characteristics of an informative

speech.

Informative speaking can be loosely defined as sharing knowledge and reducing

audience ignorance. Speeches of this type likely describe an activity,

event, object person, or place, demonstrate an event or activity, or explain

abstract or complicated subjects or issues.

Here are some general tips to help speakers write informative speeches:

1. Imagine you are an anchor on National Public Radio news, or a trainer for your

job. It is the job of these individuals to inform listeners of new topics. Another

analogy is when a friend comes to a movie late and you have to tell them what

has already happened. This is an example of an informative speech; you (the

speaker) have no bias and no reason to persuade your friend (the audience)

one way or another. This is your task for an informative presentation—you are

informing them without inserting your own opinion.

2. Avoid imparting your personal bias on your audience. While this is difficult, if

your speech topic is controversial, it is still possible to present an impartial

presentation of the ideas.

3. Choose a topic that you are not too passionate about. For example, if you

spent the last four years of your life being an ardent supporter of the death
41
penalty then it may be too difficult to present the opposing perspective in an

unbiased manner. The issue of abortion is also a very controversial topic. A person

who volunteered their time to a pro-choice campaign—although knowledgeable

on the subject—may be unable to equally and fairly represent the

pro-life side of the debate.

4. Focus on quality, non-opinionated research for all sides of the issue. If a

speaker cites highly credible information for one side of an issue and then

cites questionable or unreliable evidence for another, listeners will perceive

the speaker’s bias toward the topic. Speakers should be constantly cognizant

of the quality of evidence to which they refer. This is especially important

when the desire is to fairly represent all sides of an issue.

While informative speeches are designed to describe, demonstrate, or explain

issues, persuasive speeches are designed to move listeners to act or

adopt a perspective. Concerned informative speakers will evaluate their

presentations for these signs of persuasive speaking. For example, a

speech that informs listeners about the debate on gay marriage will explain

the status quo and possibly alternative views of the issue. A persuasive

speech on the other hand will attempt to change listeners’ mind.

A speaker has done her or his job well if, at the end of the speech, listeners

are able to form their own opinion on the topic, while at the same time not

necessarily knowing what position the speaker holds.

42
 Chapter 8: Persuasive Speaking

We are persuading and persuading very day. We may even be persuaded almost

every moment of every day, depending on what we do. Think about your day.

Here is a little snapshot of mine:

When I wake up and get ready for my day I often turn on the TV to see the

weather and catch up on news. When I do that, I see commercials. Sometimes I

act on them. Then, I log onto my computer and I check my Facebook page.

Ahhh---there they are again: messages, ads. suggestions on stuff to buy!

Sometimes I act on them. Then, I get in my car and I turn on my radio – even if it

is NPR there are program sponsors –messages—that try to convince me to think

about organizations in different ways. And, even when I don’t see ads, I am

persuaded by information I see and hear. A favorite actress looks particularly great

in a blue dress. I find myself wanting a blue dress. A person I admire tells me

about a new restaurant, a new book, or a new smart phone app and I want them all.

Information and persuasion. They are clearly on a continuum.

Persuasive speaking can be contrasted with informative speaking.

Informative ---------------------- Persuasive

43
There are several points of contrast:

1. Persuasive speaking urges us to choose from among options: informative

speaking reveals and clarifies options.

2. Persuasive speaking asks the audience for more commitment than does
informative speaking.

3. The ethical obligations for persuasive speakers are even greater than for
informative speakers.

4. The Persuasive speaker is an opinion leader; the informative speaker is a

teacher.

5. Persuasive speaking more often involves emotional appeals that are out of place
in speeches to inform.

Focuses of Persuasion

Question of fact:

This refers to something that we can know to be either true or false, but right now
we can argue about it. Examples include historical controversy, predictions, or
questions of existence. Examples: “To persuade my audience that vegetarians live
longer than meat eaters.” “To persuade my audience that global warming is
happening in America.” “To persuade my audience that Apple stock prices will
continue to rise.”

Question of value:

Here is where we argue something is right or wrong, moral or immoral, or better or

worse than another thing. Examples include: “To persuade my audience that it is
wrong to use social networking at work.” “To persuade my audience that hybrid
cars are better than gasoline based vehicles.” “To persuade my audience that it is
better to take out loans and earn a college degree than have no degree at all.”

44
Question of policy:

Here is where we argue that some action should or should not be taken.

The form is always: "To persuade my audience that X should do Y."

“To persuade my audience that Lance Armstrong should be stripped of all his
titles.” “To persuade my audience that Congress should make a law that requires
gender parity in elections.” “To persuade my audience that people should stop
buying sugary soft drinks.”

There are four common goals of persuasion:

 To reinforce the beliefs and attitudes that already exist

 To change attitudes
 To guard or inoculate against counter-persuasion
 To cause the audience to take action

Greek philosophers identified several persuasive measures: Ethos, Pathos, Logos

Ethos is an appeal to the authority or honesty of the presenter. It is how well the
presenter convinces the audience that he or she is qualified to present (speak) on
the particular subject. It can be done in many ways:

By being a notable figure in the field in question, such as a medical doctor

reporting on medical breakthroughs, for example Dr. Sanjay Gupta of CNN.

When he speaks about the harmfulness of not getting a flu shot his credibility as a
doctor (or ethos) comes into play.

As a persuasive speaker you must ask yourself:

“What am I a credible spokesperson for?” What do I know about and will people
believe me to be knowledgable about? It is why cyclist Lance Armstrong has lost
his credibility in a lot of people’s eyes. He lied about using performance
enhancement drugs so many people no longer believe anything he says is true.

45
Pathos is an appeal to the audience’s emotions. It can be in the form of metaphor,
simile, a passionate delivery, or even a simple claim that a matter is unjust. Pathos
can be particularly powerful if used well, but most speeches do not solely rely on
pathos. Pathos is most effective when the author or speaker demonstrates
agreement with an underlying value of the reader or listener.

In addition, the speaker may use pathos to appeal to fear, in order to sway the
audience. Pathos may also include appeals to audience imagination and hopes;
done when the speaker paints a scenario of positive future results of following the
course of action proposed.

Logos is logical appeal or the simulation of it, and the term logic is derived from it.
It is normally used to describe facts and figures that support the speaker's topic.
Having a logos appeal also enhances ethos because information makes the speaker
look knowledgeable and prepared to his or her audience. However, the data can be
confusing and thus confuse the audience. Logos can also be misleading or
inaccurate, however meaningful it may seem to the subject at hand. In some cases,
inaccurate, falsified, or miscontextualized data can even be used to enact a pathos
effect.

Source credibility (ethos) is composed of competence and character. The

elaboration likelihood model reflects two potential paths an audience can take in
response to a persuasive message:

 Central route processing involves elaborated and critical thinking.

 Peripheral route processing relies on cues, such as emotional appeals.

Evidence can greatly enhance a persuasive presentation. Three types of evidence

are:

 first-order data: personal experience

 second-order data: expert testimony
 third-order data: facts and statistics

46
Two-sided messages are generally more effective than one-sided speeches:

 Two-sided messages confer greater credibility.

 Two-sided messages help inoculate an audience against counter-persuasion.

Peripheral cues include emotions such as fear and primitive beliefs about:

 reciprocity
 liking
 authority
 social support
 scarcity

Use of support material constitutes offering "good reasons" to accept a claim.

Three Types of Support Material

Examples

Statistics

Testimony

All three types of support material require that you:

make accurate use

evaluate and identify the source (beware bias)

consider the currency of the material (is it too old to be accurate?)

consider strength

Tips for effective use of examples:

1. Do not use them alone to support an important claim.

47
2. Examples are useful in clarifying, reinforcing, or personalizing ideas.

3 Ethical use demands that you consider the source, age, and representativeness of
the example.

Tips for effective use of statistics:

1. Combine statistics with examples.

2. Don't use too many at a time.

3. Identify the source of the statistics.

4. Translate your statistics.

5. Round off your statistics.

6. Use visual aids.

Tips for effective use of testimony:

1. Quote accurately.

2. Paraphrase fairly.

3. Use qualified sources.

4. Use reluctant testimony.

5. Always identify the source and the source's credentials.

Methods of Persuasion: Reasoning

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The two main forms of reasoning are deduction and induction.

A. Deduction refers to arguments that run from general to specific; they are
characterized by necessity.

B. Induction refers to arguments that run from specific to general; they are
characterized by an inductive leap.

Classic form of Deduction: the syllogism

The U.S. Constitution guarantees citizens the right to vote.

Women are citizens.

**The U.S. Constitution guarantees women the right to vote.

Senator Grassley has recently argued:

What is good for Farmers is good for Iowa.

The chapter 12 bankruptcy provision is good for farmers.

Therefore, the chapter q2 bankruptcy provision is good for Iowa

Popular form of Deduction: The Enthymeme:

George Bush is not a wimp; he's a military hero.

She's a girl; she can't throw the ball.

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He's a man, of course he wouldn't stop to ask directions.

Our text associates deductive reasoning with the class of arguments called
arguments from principle.

In the Chewing Tobacco Speech:

To be effective a law must be enforced and have adequate penalties.

Adopting my plan will make Wisconsin's laws on chewing tobacco be enforced

and will create adequate penalties.

My plan will be effective at curbing chewing tobacco use.

Beware the false principle.

The police say he committed the crime, so he committed the crime.

stereotypes

starting from principles that only those who already agree with you would
maintain.

The major form of Inductive reasoning our text calls argument from specific
instances.

[Otherwise known as generalization arguments.]

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In the chewing tobacco speech:

“Chewing tobacco use is widespread.”

Proof

The American Cancer Society says one in twelve Americans is a regular user.

The average age of first use is 10.

40% of high school boys say they have tried it.

21% of kindergartners (boys?) have tried it.

Surveys, studies, and even elections are often grounded in reasoning from specific
instances.

conducting a poll

“Four out of five dentists surveyed”

Nielsen ratings

Beware the Hasty Generalization

my friends and I watched violent cartoons and never committed a crime, so . . . .

the two people I sat next to in lecture got Bs on their speeches, so everybody but
me got a B on the speech.

“but Mom, everybody else is going to the party!”

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Arguments from Analogy

Literal and Figurative; both are grounded in the concept of similarity

Literal Analogies

Socialized medicine works in Canada, so socialized medicine will work in the U.S.

The U.S. got rid of the half-penny in 1857 without causing harms, so today we can
get rid of the penny without causing harms.

Higher penalties for selling chewing tobacco to minors in California has reduced
chewing tobacco use by minors by 60%. Therefore, higher penalties in Wisconsin
will also work.

The Kansas City Royals have switched from chewing tobacco to bubble gum, so
other teams would switch if people appealed to them.

Weak Analogies

Having a funeral without the body is like having a wedding without the bride.

The university shouldn't be able to tell me what classes I have to take; after all, the
store manager doesn't tell me what groceries to buy.

A ban on all alcohol use in the dorms will work at ISU because such a ban worked
at Simpson College.

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Figurative Analogies

useful for framing an argument

As the tiger needs its claws to provide for its internal needs, so does America need
its defense in order to meet domestic concerns.

Malcolm X: An integrated civil rights movement is like strong black coffee diluted
with cream; its strength is lost.

Causal Arguments

The most challenging of the types of reasoning. We can't see causal relationships,
we can only infer them. Hume saw that in order to conclude a causal relationship
we must see constant conjunctions as well as a relationship in time. Furthermore,
the causal link must make "sense" according to our sense of how the world works.

How do we reach the conclusion that cigarettes cause lung cancer?

Problems of Causal Arguments

“post hoc ergo propter hoc” = “after this therefore because of this”

It happens when we leap from a simple relationship in time to a belief in a causal

link with insufficient support. Superstitions are classic cases of the post hoc
fallacy. It is also seen in “just look what happened after we . . . . “ arguments.

Multiple Causation

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The problem arises when we fail to acknowledge that causal relationships are often
quite complicated. To baldly assert: "rain forest destruction is the cause of global
warming," is to invite an audience to argue with you mentally as they list the other
causes they have heard discussed. Again, to claim: "T.V. is responsible for school
gun violence" will require much discussion and evidence and will be better
handled if you acknowledge that there are multiple factors that contribute. Then
you can focus on the one source of the problem and the solutions to it.

correlation vs. causation

Did you know that every year as the amount of ice cream being eaten in this
country increases, so do the number of drownings?

Tips for success in causal reasoning.

use causal chains to help the audience see the causal relationship.

use testimony of experts to support conclusions

PERSUASIVE ORGANIZATIONAL PATTERNS

For your persuasive speeches, you may select from the following organizational
patterns below. In any case, choose the pattern that best fits your audience and
your topic.

I. Statement of Reasons Method

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 If your audience has no opinion on the subject, are not interested, or only mildly
in favor or against your proposition. This speech is most effective in speeches to
stimulate.

With this particular pattern each reason is presented as a complete statement

arguing for your proposition. You mainly concentrate on the advantages of your
proposition. For example, if you were giving a speech persuading us to vote, your
main points might look like this:

1. Voting will allow you to contribute to the democratic process.

2. Voting will allow you to voice your views on many important issues.

3. Voting will increase your social and political awareness.

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II. Problem –Solution

This pattern provides you with a strategy of clarifying the nature of the problem,
offering your proposal, and illustrating why your proposal is the best one. If you
use this pattern you must address all four areas.

1. Problem Is there a significant problem with ¼

What are the signs of the problem?

What is the specific harm?

How widespread is the harm?

2. Blame Is the current system of solving the problem

incapable or to blame for the problem?

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 What causes the problem?

Is the present system at fault?

Should the present system be changed?

3. Solution Will the proposed policy solve or

significantly reduce the problem?

What are the possible solutions?

Which solution best solves the problem?

4. Cost Will the benefits of solving the problem outweigh the costs of
implementing the solution?

What good outcomes will result?

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 What bad outcomes will result?

III. Monroe’s Motivated Sequence

1. Attention – Wow Us!

2. Need – you need to make the audience concerned with your problem.

Support with evidence.

3. Satisfaction – Provide a solution to satisfy the need.

4. Visualization – the audience needs to visualize the benefits of the plan. Be

specific and apply it to your audience.

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 5. Action – Call to action – tell the audience what you want them to do and how
they can do it. Be specific!

IF YOUR ADUIENCE IS OPPOSED TO OR HOSTILE TO YOUR

PROPOSITION USE

IV. Criteria Satisfaction Method

This pattern focuses on developing a yes-response from your audience before you
introduce your proposition and reasons. Having established a criteria in you first
point, you argue in your second point that your proposition satisfies that criteria.
This pattern is most effective in speeches to convince and actuate. For example, if
you wanted your audience to vote for a hike in school taxes, your main points
might look like this:

59
1. We all want good schools.

a. Good schools have programs that prepare our youth to function effectively in
society.

b. Good schools are those with the best teachers available.

2. Passing the proposed school tax will guarantee good schools.

a. Passing the tax will increase the quality of vital programs.

b. Passing the tax will enable us to hire and keep the best teachers.

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V. Negative Method

With this method you focus on the shortcomings of all the potential solutions to a
problem except the one offered by you. After you have dealt with the other
potential solutions you offer your proposition. This speech is most effective in
speeches to actuate. For example, if you wanted to persuade your audience that the
Serbian war crimes must be stopped, you argument might look like this:

1. The UN will not solve this problem.

2. Negotiations between Croatia, Serbia and Bosnia will not solve the problem.

3. Direct negotiations by the US will not solve the problem.

4. The only way to solve the problem effectively is to send troops into the former
Yugoslavia.

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 Chapter 9: Effective Delivery

There are several methods of delivery in public speaking. You may choose from:

Manuscript – a speech that is written out word for word and read to the audience.

Memorization – A speech that is committed to memory.

Impromptu – A speech delivered with little or no immediate preparation.

Extemporaneous – A carefully prepared and rehearsed speech that is presented

from a brief set of notes.

In some occasions, you may be asked to render a speech for a specific audience.
Even though you are not really comfortable about the thought of speaking to an
audience, you are left without a choice but to deliver one, anyway.

When saying No is not an option for you, think of being able to speak in public as
a great privilege as well as an opportunity to be heard.

So, how comfortable or uncomfortable are you with speaking in front of an

audience? How should you deliver your speech in front of a crowd who will
inevitably pass some judgment over your performance? Below are the four
methods of delivery in public speaking:

1. Reading Your Speech. Unless you are having problems with your eyesight or
you are not the one preparing your own speech, this is the easiest and the most
convenient method in delivering a speech because you don't have to worry about
mental blocks and unorganized speech. If you have problems with your eyesight,
then you are at the risk of not being able to read your speech properly. It is also
easy to get lost in your speech especially if you had asked someone else to write it
for you. There are times when reading your piece is acceptable. For example, if
you are tasked to do an invocation or a short opening prayer, you may want to

62
prepare it ahead and read it in front of people who may not be able to notice you
reading from a copy because they are bowing down their heads. It is also
acceptable for an official, for example, to read from a copy especially if there are a
lot points in the speech that require the accuracy in the delivery.

2. Relying On Your Memory. Committing and delivering your speech from

memory will make or unmake you as a speaker. When done right and in a not so
obvious manner, you can give your audience the impression that you are really
well versed on the subject of your speech or presentation. However, if you rely on
your memory and it failed, you are likely to can become the subject of ridicule, fun
and embarrassment to your audience.

3. Rendering An Impromptu. This is a popular method of speech delivery wherein

the speaker is usually asked to make an unrehearsed speech. If you are the
spontaneous type of person and especially if you are asked to speak on a subject
that you definitely have personal knowledge and experience about, you will
usually not have a hard time rendering an impromptu.

4. Rendering An Extemporaneous Speech. This is more or less related to

impromptu speech because the speaker has little or no time to rehearse or prepare
for a speech. Oftentimes, an extemporaneous speech is held as a form of
competition among students in order to encourage them to formulate their
thoughts, ideas and opinion about a common topic of interest and concern.

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 Chapter 10: Putting It All Together Electronically or Face to Face

If you close this book with a greater appreciation of the role of public speaking in
your life personally, professionally and in the community, I believe that your life
will be enhanced. Furthermore if you recognize that the modern public forum may
not happen on your street corner (although it might) instead it is likely to occur
clear across the globe and you will still be part of it through the power of
technology.

You know that no one is born a terrific public speaker. It takes passion and
practice to develop those skills.

Having a compelling personal narrative also gives you an edge. It makes you think
about yourself in new ways. It helps you to consider how you can get your
message out.

Whether you are speaking informally to a few friends or co-workers or in a grand

ballroom to 1000 or more people, you are essentially doing the same thing: you
are making a point and trying to do it in an eloquent and memorable way.

SEEK OUT SPEAKING MOMENTS

Your personal life will be enhanced by your willingness to speak up and speak
well at moments in life that matter. Think of the most beautiful toast you have
ever heard at a wedding. Remember an award presentation that made the event
more special? What about the editorial you wrote for the local paper that drew
comments and raised the profile of an issue that you think doesn’t get enough
attention in our society?

Be the person on the job that steps up to make a thoughtful statement. Be known
for your succinct, yet thorough oral reports at meetings. Every time you “speak up
and speak well” you are marking yourself as the go-to person in your organization
for excellent oral expression.

ARE YOU SPEAKING FACE TO FACE or ELECTRONICALLY?

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Surprisingly, speech preparation is quite similar whether you are speaking face to
face or over Skype, Google Hang-outs or on Face Time. Let’s re-cap the steps you
need to take with some special attention to on-camera considerations:

1. Consider the Audience, Speaker and Occasion

--find your general purpose (inform, persuade, entertain)

2. Choose and narrow your topic

--state your central idea or your thesis

3. Gather your materials

4. Analyze your audience

--declare your specific purpose as a benefit for your audience

5. Write a main idea outline

6. Prepare speaking notes

--will you use notecards or paper?

7. Practice!

YOU HAVE EVERYTHING YOU NEED:

All speakers have some natural talents that contribute to their success. But
even if you think you have few natural abilities as a speaker you can still grow to
be an effective speaker. This book aimed to teach you how to make the most of
your natural talents and build upon them. A key to building upon your skills is
knowing what constitutes effective speech.

This book has created a framework for the education and training that will
serve you for your entire life. Keep this as a reference to build upon as you speak
out personally, professionally and within your community.

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 Finally, there is simply no substitution for practice. Taking the time to run
through your speech before you deliver it to an audience and seeking out
opportunities to practice will both improve your skills simply because you will be
using them.

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1
Jeanne Clery Disclosure of Campus Security Policy and Campus Crime Statistics Act,
www.people.com/people/archive/article/0,,20116872,00.html (accessed January 20,
2013).
2
Bitzer, Lloyd F. 1968. "The Rhetorical Situation." Rhetoric: Concepts, Definitions,
and Boundaries. William A. Covino ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon: 1995.
3
Interview with Sandra Day O’Connor, Washington, DC. (DATE)
4
Klepper, Michael M. and Robert Gunther. I’d Rather Die Than Give a Speech! Burr
Ridge, Illinois: Irwin Publishing, 1994.
5
Interview with Nichola D. Gutgold and Molly Wertheimer, Washington, DC (DATE)
6
Spitzberg, B. H. (1994). The dark side of (in)competence. In W.R. Cupach & B. H. Spitzberg (Eds.), The dark side of
interpersonal communication. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum
7
http://www.npr.org/series/4516989/storycorps

Updated November 2022