Week 5

GE 11 – GENDER AND SOCIETY

Ave Maria College

COLLEGE DEPARTMENT
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 HEI Unique Institutional Identifier: 09077
___________________________________________________________________________________________
GE 11: Gender and Society
To my students:

You are now on the 5th week of this course. Before you start working on the lessons for this week
make sure that you have submitted your weekly outputs.

For this week you will learn Lesson 5. Read and watch the learning materials below then
answer the Weekly Exam 5 and Activity No. 5

At the end of this week, you should be able to:

a. answer correctly at least 85% of the questions in the weekly exam; and
b. make a critical analysis using the gender issues in the Philippines.

LESSON 5: GENDER IN THE PHILIPPINE SOCIETY

A. An Overview of the Gender Situation in the Philippines

The gender situation in the Philippines is characterized by sharp contradictions. It graphically

showcases samples of women’s advancement in politics, academic and professional excellence, and
even legislation. But this is contrasted by images of prostituted women, battered wives, economically
disadvantaged women and exploited migrant workers.

The socio-cultural traditions are clashing with the MTV and cyberspace generation. The long history
of colonialism has embedded a patriarchal culture among Filipinos. The conception of women as full-
time homemakers, as subordinated to men, violence against them is private, as reserve labor force, and
as sexual objects is now being eroded by modern women asserting themselves in many aspects of life.
But on the other hand, some are either marginalized, discriminated, or even exploited by the harsh
realities of global economy and consumerism.

Both the changes and the inertia of traditions are the backdrop of a very active and dynamic
women’s movement. The Philippines is a main player in the international women’s arena and this is
anchored on a very vibrant local women’s movement. Numerous organizations and NGOs exist for the
cause of gender equality and other related women issues.

This puts the gender equality issues at the forefront of national discourse and precludes further
downslide of women status in the modern Philippine society. Indeed, there are many handles for the
changes to happen. These legal and policy gains resulted from the strong voice of women that started
even during the anti-dictatorship struggle that culminated with the ascension of Corazon Aquino as the
first woman president of the country.

The 1987 Constitution states two prominent provisions. The first in the Declaration of Principles
Article II Section 14 which asserted that "The State recognizes the role of women in nation-building and
shall ensure the fundamental equality before the law of women and men." Additionally, the Article XIII-
Labor: Section 14 provided that "The state shall protect working women by providing safe and healthful

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working conditions taking into account their maternal functions, and such facilities and opportunities
that will enhance their welfare and enable them to realize their full potential in the service of the nation".

Following from constitutional provisions and the subsequent efforts to broaden the its principles,
numerous legislation were enacted that relates to the various aspects of women and gender concerns,
The list include:

 Gender and Development Law (5% of government agencies' budget is for gender concerns)
 Party-List Law (women as a particular sector for representation in the legislature through party-
list elections)
 Anti-Sexual Harassment Law (defining SH and providing mechanisms)
 Anti-Rape Law (elevation of rape as crime against person)
 Barangay Day Care Center Law (day care center for every village)
 Women in Nation-Building Law (allocation of budget for women from development funds from
foreign governments and multilateral institutions)
 Anti Mail-Order-Bride Law (making the practice unlawful)
 Repatriation Law (repatriation of Filipinas who lost citizenship by marriage in case of need)
 Non-Discrimination Law in Labor Code (women protection in hiring and pay)
 Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law (equal rights for women to be recipients of land)
 Military Training equality (women can enter the military and police schools and providing
facilities for them)

While the legal framework is there, the actual situation mirrors the deep gender divide. In the aspect
of women in politics, the notable success of several women is overshadowed by the actual ground level
statistics. The lady Vice-President is up to now a shoo-in in the next presidential elections in 2004. But
the big picture shows that of all the elective positions occupied through the 1998 elections, only 15% are
women.

In the two-chamber Congress, the Senate (Upper House) has 17.4% women membership (4 out of 23
seats) which the House of Representatives (Lower House) has 12.4% (27 out of 217 seats). The first
party-list elections in 1998--wherein sectoral groups like women competed to get a maximum of 3 seats
per party in the House of Representatives--resulted in the winning of one (1) seat for a single women's
party. Five (5) other women's party did not make the minimum votes required.

At the local government level, women Provincial Governors constitute 17% while Vice Governors
are at 11.5% level. Among the City and Town Mayors, 14.5% of them are women while the ranks of the
Vice-Mayors are at low of 10.8%.

The labor force statistics show also a mixed picture. Since there was a notable feminization of the
workforce in the past years, July 2000 figures showed that there are 1.942 million unemployed women
while there are 2.631 million unemployed men. However, more women are taken in for labor flexibility
arrangements especially in the big services sector like in retail trade. This leaves them exposed to
employment insecurity and unfair compensation schemes.

Women still accounts for 53% of the unpaid family workers while they constitute only 37.7% of the
wage and salary earners. Though this shows that the regular income possibilities for women are still
limited, the average household annual income of female-headed families is higher. The situation also
pushes them to seek employment overseas. Increasing numbers of domestic helpers and entertainers are
also being deployed both legally and illegally.
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 Within organizations, the gender balance is under overhaul. Trade union leadership is still male-
dominated but women committees and affirmative actions have changed the complexion of decision-
making. The public sector unions have made great inroads as four (4) of the major federations are under
the strong leadership of women.

However, the social fabric remains tainted by arrogance of male power. Police statistics remains
indicative of the traditional ways of how women are seen in the social and family context. In 1998,
6,518 cases of violence against women were reported with rape accounting for 1,054 cases and physical
injuries at a high of 2,633 cases. Last year, the former was pegged at 13.79% and the latter reached
35.17% of the cases reported.

In response to problems that continue to face the Filipina, numerous civil society groups were
organized and pioneering projects were initiated. The vocal women’s movement was instrumental in the
enactment of the laws that seek to protect women and broaden their role in the society.

Sub-sectoral groupings of women guaranteed the articulation of specific interests and agendas
while issue-based networks and coalitions advocated and lobbied to policy-makers and legislators. The
campaign for the sexual harassment and the anti-rape laws saw the synergy of the different
organizational forms within the women’s movement. Their current engagement deals with the law that
deals with domestic violence, abortion and divorce.

Such advocacy work is also complemented with concrete projects at the ground level.
Community-based groups tackle violence against women, rural and urban women establish economic
undertakings that help them increase their income, wives and families of migrant workers establish their
own savings and insurance network, and crisis centers are organized in some parts of the country. Even
prostituted women have found both protection and solidarity within their organizations.

These activities have seen successes and failures but they constitute as challenges to the socio-
cultural bondage and blinders that up to this age of Internet and globalization has victimize the Filipina.
The gender situation in the Philippines can be described in sum as:

1. The legal framework has provided basic frameworks and processes for women empowerment
and gender fairness but the dynamics of political and social institutions reinforced by the cultural
standpoints continue to provide a push-pull effect on gender equality.

2. Women have made significant advances in politics. Though there may be several factors that
tends to lessen its importance --like belonging to a political dynasty, the role of women in
national and local decision-making can no longer be ignored and their competence, in some
cases, suits up or even exceeds that of male politicians.

3. The women's voice in the society is very strong due the the vibrant women's movement.
Recognized for their work in the international and national levels, the movement has been
instrumental in pushing for many changesin the various facets of the Philippine society.
Additionally, the various organizations have worked on --with pioneering educational
approaches and service-specific projects-- the "culture shift" of both men and women.

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 4. The statistics on women remain indicative of the deep-rooted and widespread problems they
encounter in their daily lives. The labor market has stereotyped women, disadvantaged them in
jobs and incomes, and even forced them into prostitutions and slave-like work. The social image
of a Filipina is still that of a weak person, poster girl of domestic help, expert in double burden,
and a sexual object.While the mainframe of gender politics is changing, the struggle of women to
escape from the traditional mold everyday life continues.

B. Gender Profiles of the Philippines

1. Current Situation of Women in the Philippines

The current situation of women in the Philippines is best described as having sharp
contradictions. The Filipino women may be considered as one of the most advanced vis-à-vis the women
in other countries, in the areas of academic, professional, politics and legislation. However, they also
suffer from domestic violence, economic disadvantages, discrimination at the workplace, exploitation as
migrant workers, and as prostituted women and displacement brought about by the intermittent wars in
conflict affected areas.
The Philippines is the only country in Asia to have closed the gender gap on both education and health
and is one of only six (6) in the world to have done so. Moreover, the Philippines’ scores on political
empowerment continues to improve as its economic indicators such as estimated income, labor force
participation and income equality for similar work.

The Philippines is the only country in the world where women have parity to men in senior
management roles. However, despite the remarkable achievements above, thousands of Filipino women
suffer from sex and other gender related abuses while Filipino women suffer the same domestic
violence, and economic disadvantages all over the country, women in some parts of Mindanao and other
conflict affected areas in the Philippines suffer more. As in most countries affected by displacement
brought about by armed conflict, women and children make up the great majority of the displaced
population in the Philippines, and experience additional vulnerabilities. The intermittent wars affect
women’s livelihood, health, education and family life, among other things.

In the area of legislative reforms, the Philippines have ensured the protection of women against
economic, social and political forms of discrimination. The country has passed important laws like the
Rape Victim Assistance and
Protection Act of 1998, the Anti Sexual Harassment Act of 1995 and the Anti-Violence Against Women
and Their Children Act of 2004. The Philippines also has a vibrant women’s movement which is
recognized for its work in the international and national levels.

Government Policy on Gender

The Philippine government adopted the Philippine Plan for Gender Responsive Development
(PPGD) 1995-2025, a 30 year strategic plan that translated the Beijing Platform for Action into policies,
strategies, programs and projects for Filipino women. To operationalize the PPGD, the Philippine
government, with its partners in the non-government organizations, and the academe formulated the
Framework Plan for Women (FPW) in 2001.

The FPW has the following three (3) priority areas: (i) promotion of women’s economic
empowerment, (ii) protection and advancement of women’s rights, and (iii) promotion of gender
responsive governance.

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 The Philippines is one of the few countries in the world that has adopted a GAD Policy Budget
that requires all government agencies (including local government units) to utilize at least five percent of
their respective total budgets for programs, activities and projects that address the needs and uphold
rights of women.

National Machinery

The National Commission on the Role of Filipino Women (NCRFW) was established on 7
January 1975 and it serves as an advisory body to the President. Among its mandate is to review,
evaluate and recommend measures, including priorities to ensure the full integration of women for
economic, social and cultural development at national, regional and international levels. It is also
mandated to ensure further equality between men and women.
The NCRFW has a Board of Commissioners which is headed by a Chairperson. The Board sets policies,
programs, thrusts and rules toward the achievement of the vision and mission of the Commission. The
Chairperson is
responsible for ensuring the overall implementation of the policies and programs of the Commission.
The Commission’s Executive Director, on the other hand, oversees the planning and implementation of
the Commission’s operations. The Executive Director is assisted by two Deputy Executive Directors and
five Division chiefs which handle the following divisions: (i) Policy Advocacy and Analysis, (ii)
Technical Services, (iii) Monitoring and Evaluation, (iv) Information Resources Management, and, (v)
Administration and Finance

1. Situation of Women/Gender in Education

Female students in the Philippines fare very well in the area of education. Relative to male
students, females have a higher participation rate in the elementary and secondary levels. Moreover,
female students have a better cohort survival rate in elementary and secondary levels. This is because
the drop out rate for males is higher than that of the female students. The female students’ completion
rate is also higher than that of the male students’ in both levels. Poor families tend to make boys work
because they are considered to be more physically able than girls. Since boys generally perform poorer
in school, it seems easier for parents to make them quit and get a job. Moreover, girls value education
more than boys do because they no longer see themselves merely staying at home when they grow up,
they expect to have careers. Boys tend to assume they would be able to work even without finishing
school.

The results of recent National Board Examinations show that female examinees scored better
than male examinees in most of the engineering courses. On the other hand, male examinees fared better
than female examinees in medicine, midwifery, nursing, nutrition-diabetics and social work. Female
students can excel on areas where men traditionally excel on and vice versa. At the post graduate level,
more females than males are enrolled in graduate courses.

Overall, in terms of basic and functional literacy, females have higher rates than males, except
in the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao.

2. Situation of Women/Gender in Health

Across the regions in the Philippines, women have varying levels of access to health facilities
during delivery. While 69.5% of live births occurred in health facilities in the National Capital Region,
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only 10.7% occurred in the same facilities in CARAGA. Consequently, the number of deliveries assisted
by trained health professionals vary according to the region. CARAGA has the least number of
deliveries assisted by health professionals while the NCR has the most number.

The Philippines has a number of women in especially difficult circumstances. These include (i) women
in armed conflict, (ii) women victims of domestic violence, (iii) women in prostitution, (iv) women in
prison, and (v) single women. In general, women are put in disadvantaged position due to the
differences in gender roles. This limits their access to resources and their ability to provide and protect
their health. Another health related issue affecting women is the violence committed against them and
their children. Violence against women and their children (VAWC) is an act or a series of act committed
by any person against his wife, former wife, a woman with whom he has or had a sexual dating
relationship, or with whom he has a child, or against the woman’s child. This act may have been
committed within or outside the family residence resulting to (i) physical violence (bodily or physical
harm), (ii) sexual violence, (iii) psychological violence, and (iv) economic abuse

The Department of Health has identified the following factors that lead to poor health among
Filipino women: (i) low social status of women, (ii) reproductive risks, (iii) inadequate gender-
responsive services and facilities for women, (iv) environmental hazards and contaminants, and (v)
increased participation of women in the workforce (reproductive health risk at work especially during
pregnancy and lactation)

3. Situation of Women/Gender in Agriculture, Forestry, Fisheries

The percent distribution of female hired workers in agriculture is lower than that of the males.
On the other hand, there are more unpaid female family workers than male family workers.
Despite the important role played by women in Philippine agriculture, most of the land titles of land
owning households are in the name of their husbands. This may be explained by the patriarchial system
in the Philippines, where men are traditionally believed to be the main breadwinners while women are
responsible for childbearing. In the Philippines, women are still strongly tied to their traditional roles as
mother, wife, and housekeeper.

There are more men than women employed in forest based industries as well as in the fisheries
sector. Women are engaged in almost all areas of rice production. Besides the actual rice production,
women are also primarily tasked to prepare food to be brought to the field during meal time. Women’s
scope of influence extends beyond household maintenance, it also includes decisions relating to budget
allocation for farm input expenses and productive activities. Most of the women are directly involved in
capital procurement.

Among the individuals of farming households who out migrated, a higher proportion of females
than males migrated. Although rural to urban migration occurs, domestic to international migration is
more prevalent. Female migrants mainly worked as domestic helpers and entertainers within the
Philippines and in the Middle East, Italy, Singapore, and Hong Kong. Others worked as factory workers
in Taiwan, Japan and Korea.

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 4. Situation of Women/Gender in Economic Activities

While women’s labor force participation rate is close to 50%, their rate is still lower than that of
men. Filipino women are prevented from entering the labor force because of the gender role
stereotyping, particularly in relation to reproductive responsibilities. Women have slightly higher
unemployment rate than men, except in 2005 and 2006. Compared with its neighbors in the region, the
Philippines has the highest percentage of female professionals and technical workers. The Philippines is
the only country where women have parity to men in senior management roles.

The lack of employment in the country has led millions of women to leave and work abroad as
overseas Filipino workers (OFWs). From 1998-2006, women outnumbered men in terms of newly hired
OFWs. Women OFWs outnumber men as
professionals, clerks, service and sales workers, laborers and unskilled workers. Working overseas has
brought a lot of difference in the lives of Filipino women. For instance, those working as domestic
workers are now getting remuneration for domestic work which they have been doing in their own
homes but were not credited for any economic value. The women’s ability to contribute financially to
their families has not only empowered them but also gave them a greater sense of self-worth.

5. Situation of Women/Gender in Political and Public Life

As early as 1937, Filipino women were already allowed to vote and stand for election. Further,
as early as 1941, a woman has already been elected into Parliament (the first in the region). The
Philippines takes pride in having numerous Filipino women who played significant roles in the United
Nations to advance women’s global agenda. As early as 1964, Filipino women already occupied high
position in the U.N. Commission on the Status of Women. They have also sat as Commission on the
Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) Committee Chair and Experts.

There are more female employees than males in the Philippine government bureaucracy.
Filipino men dominate as decision makers and managers while women are predominant professional in
government. The Philippines has produced two women Presidents. While the incumbent President is a
women, the percentage of elective positions occupied by women is less then a fifth of the total number
of positions. According to the World Economic Forum’s Global Gender Gap Report of 2007, the
Philippines ranked 14th out of 128 countries, in terms of political empowerment. In the judiciary branch
of government most of the judges are males.

6. Situation of Women in Mindanao

According to the Mindanao Commission on Women, urgent attention should be given to

Mindanao Women in the areas of economic opportunities, reproductive health, political participation,
education and even basic services such as water and power. The Moro and Lumad women are the
poorest and most disadvantaged
among the Mindanao population. They are not only victims of the long running conflict in Mindanao but
resilient survivors as well. Moro and Lumad women are considered as minorities within minorities.

According to the Mindanao Commission on Women, bride abduction, forced marriage and
payment of bride price still persist as part of the culturally sanctioned practices in Mindanao. Further,
other forms of sexual violence like incest rape, sexual harassment, wife battering and abuse in intimate

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relationships are still common in the everyday lives of many women in Mindanao, especially those in
the remote areas.

As in the whole Philippines, females attained higher basic and functional literacy rates compared
to that of men in all regions in Mindanao, with the exception of the women in Mindanao. With regard to
health services, women in Mindanao had the least number of deliveries which occurred in a health
facility. Consequently, they had the least number of deliveries assisted by a trained health professional.
It may be noted that on the average, Mindanao has the least number of government health practitioners
serving the population.

C. Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment in the Philippines

1. A Crucial Development Issue

A Crucial Development Issue Gender equality is well advanced in the Philippines. The country scores
well on international gender equality measures and indices, but more is needed to sustain the
achievements and to overcome remaining challenges.

Despite a favorable policy environment – the Philippines is signatory to international human rights
instruments and has successfully enacted policies and laws for the protection and promotion of women’s
rights - the implementation of policies appears uneven and slow.

More than ten million Filipino women still live today in poverty, with rural and indigenous women
being the most vulnerable. Maternal mortality and access to reproductive health care services are among
the most pressing concerns in the country. Eleven women die every day due to pregnancy and child
birth-related causes. Women’s representation in politics, though improving, continues to be low: less
than 20% of the seats in Congress and 13% in the Senate are occupied by women. According to the
2004-2010 Report on the Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women
(CEDAW), 1 in 5 Filipino women or 4.6 million have experienced physical violence since age 15. The
International Labor Organization (ILO) reports that less than half (45.9%) of working age women are
able to access decent and productive employment, compared to 3 in every 4 male (72.6%) of working
age. In the agricultural sector, men receive 20% higher wages than women. According to the HIV/AIDS
Registry of the Department of Health, 24% of the reported 5,233 cases as of June 2010 are women.
Gender disparities in education favor girls, with higher enrolment and completion rates than boys, which
compromise the development of gender-equal education opportunities.
The gaps in gender equality hinder the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals by 2015 in
the Philippines. The Goals for which progress is reported as slow are the ones where the needs and
status of women and girls are given low priority. Targets on maternal health and access to reproductive
health are among the least likely to be met

2. Strategies to make Difference

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) is committed to making gender equality a reality.
Gender equality is firmly recognized as a basic human right and support is provided to Government and
other stakeholders to include gender and human rights in policies and programs towards the achievement
of sustainable human development. To this end, UNDP focuses on three main areas:

a. Policy Advocacy

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Thru the years, UNDP has provided key support to the Philippine Commission on Women (PCW) in the
implementation of gender mainstreaming initiatives and advocacy efforts for key national legislation.

Since 2007, UNDP participates in the “UN Joint Programme on CEDAW Concluding Comments” to
support national efforts to strengthen the national machinery for the advancement of women’s rights.

The Magna Carta of Women, translating the CEDAW into national policy, was signed into law in 2009
with support from the UN. It is a historic step forward in upholding women’s rights, promoting gender
equality and ensuring the elimination of discrimination against women. The law grants women,
especially those in the marginalized sectors, the full enjoyment of their rights.
In July 2010, PCW, in partnership with UNDP, launched the Implementing Rules and Regulations for
the Magna Carta of Women together with the UNDP 2010 AsiaPacific Human Development Report on
“Equal Rights, Equal Opportunities: Progress for all”. This potent implementation mechanism leads the
way for the advancement and economic empowerment of women, and calls among other for gender
balance in Government positions within the next five years.

UNDP has supported the Office of the Presidential Adviser on the Peace Process (OPAPP) and
partnered with women and peace advocates in the development of the Philippine National Action Plan
on Women, Peace and Security to implement the UN Security Council Resolutions 1325 and 1820, the
first of its kind in Asia. The creation of a National Steering Committee, co-chaired by OPAPP and the
PCW, will intensify the efforts to respect and protect the fundamental freedoms of women, including the
right to protection and security in armed conflict and the right to participate in policy and decision
making in peace processes.

UNDP is the UN’s global development network, advocating for change and connecting countries to
knowledge, experience and resources to help people build a better life. In the Philippines, UNDP fosters
human development for peace and prosperity. Working with central and local Governments as well as
civil society, and building on global best practices, UNDP strengthens capacities of women, men and
institutions to empower them to achieve the Millennium Development Goals and the objectives of the
Philippine Mid-term Development Plan.

b. En-gendering Programmes

The UN System in the Philippines has a strong and active UN Gender Mainstreaming Committee that
offers technical support to UN programmes and ensures that gender equality and women’s
empowerment are at the centre of the UN agenda. UNDP promotes gender mainstreaming in all of its
projects and activities and subjected itself to a comprehensive Participatory Gender Audit of both
programme and operations in 2009 that sets the basis for a stronger gender strategy.
According to the 2009 Report on the Classification of Official Development Assistance (ODA) projects
according to Gender Responsiveness prepared by the National Economic and Development Authority
(NEDA), 86% of UNDP’s projects are gender responsive or sensitive.

UNDP works with its local partners to set up models of gender-responsive practices in the delivery of
basic services like potable water, health, and other social services, especially those related to the MDGs.

From 2007 to 2009 UNDP has provided support to NEDA through the project “Poverty Monitoring and
Mapping” to track MDG progress by generating and consolidating sexdisaggregated data. This
information allows genderresponsive planning and programming in the MDG localization.

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In partnership with the Supreme Court of the Philippines and Civil Society groups, UNDP has supported
humanrights based capacity development for the key agencies of the justice sector to strengthen their
investigative mandates and the enforcement of new laws against gender violence.

UNDP is working closely with national and local governments to improve the country’s preparedness
and capacity to address the negative effects of Climate Change. Women and girls are among the most
vulnerable groups to natural disasters. UNDP has contributed to the creation of Microfinance Funds to
provide rural women with financial access to solar lanterns and cooking stoves. Community-based
programmes on renewable energy sources provide women with both clean energy services and new
opportunities for livelihood and employment.

c. Empowering through Capacity Development

The empowerment of women is central to human development. Since 2009, UNDP has been
implementing the programme, “Promoting Leadership and Mitigating the Negative Impacts of HIV and
AIDS on Human Development” to strengthen capacities of government institutions, civil society
organizations and people living with HIV to halt and reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS. With support
from the UNDP Asia Pacific Regional Center and in partnership with the NGO “Babae Plus”, leadership
programmes for women and girls living with HIV have empowered 40 positive women from across the
country to eliminate social barriers, stigma and discrimination. Similar efforts exist in most UNDP
projects.

Keep in Mind:

The current situation of women in the Philippines is best described as having sharp
contradictions. The Filipino women may be considered as one of the most advanced vis-à-vis the
women in other countries, in the areas of academic, professional, politics and legislation.
However, they also suffer from domestic violence, economic disadvantages, discrimination at the
workplace, exploitation as migrant workers, and as prostituted women and displacement brought
about by the intermittent wars in conflict affected areas.

Suggested Readings:

 Pagkababae at Pagkalalake (Femininity and Masculinity): Developing a Filipino

Gender Trait Inventory and predicting selfesteem and sexism esteem and sexism
Pagkababae at Pagkalalake (Femininity and Masculinity)_ Developin.pdf

 Sex and Gender in the Philippines: A Discussion of Issues in Relations to Women and
Men. Sex and Gender in the Philippine Society.pdf

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 REFERENCES
PDF Files:
Anonuevo, C. (2000).An Overview of the Gender Situation in the Philippines. Retrieved on: May
18, 2020 https://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/philippinen/50069.pdf

United Nations Development Programme Fast Fact (2013) Gender Equality And Women’s
Empowerment In The Philippines. Retrieved on: May 18, 2020.
https://www.ph.undp.org/content/philippines/en/home/library/democratic_governance/fast-facts--
gender-equality-and-women-s-empowerment-in-the-phili.html

Gender Profile of the Philippines. Retrived on: May 18, 2020.

https://www.jica.go.jp/activities/issues/gender/reports/ku57pq00002hdv3w-att/
phi_2008_summary_en.pdf

Lukey ,V. (2012). Pagkababae at Pagkalalake (Femininity and Masculinity): Developing a Filipino
Gender Trait Inventory and predicting selfesteem and sexism esteem and sexism. Retrieved on:
May 18,2020. https://surface.syr.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1065&context=cfs_etd

Eviota, E. (1994). Sex and Gender in the Philippines: A Discussion of Issues in Relations to
Women and Men. Retrieved on: October 28,2020. https://library.pcw.gov.ph/sites/default/files/Sex
%20and%20gender%20in%20the%20Philippine%20Society%20a%20discussion%20of%20issues
%20.pdf

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