Q:1What are Logical Connectives?

Describe some of the basic Logical

Connectives with examples and Truth tables

Truth Tables of Five Common Logical

Connectives or Operators
In this lesson, we are going to construct the five (5) common logical
connectives or operators. They are considered common logical
connectives because they are very popular, useful and always taught
together.

Before we begin, I suggest that you review my other lesson in which

the link is shown below.

This introductory lesson about truth tables contains prerequisite

knowledge or information that will help you better understand the
content of this lesson.

The Five (5) Common Logical Connectives

or Operators
1. Logical Negation
2. Logical Conjunction (AND)
3. Logical Disjunction (Inclusive OR)
4. Logical Implication (Conditional)
5. Logical Biconditional (Double Implication)
I. Truth Table of Logical Negation
The negation of a statement is also a statement with a truth value that
is exactly opposite that of the original statement. For instance, the
negation of the statement is written symbolically as

~\large{P}P or \large{\neg P}¬P.

~{P}P or {\neg P}¬P is read as “not PP.”

The negation operator denoted by the symbol ~ or \neg¬ takes the

truth value of the original statement then output the exact opposite of
its truth value. In other words, negation simply reverses the truth value
of a given statement. Thus, if statement PP is true then the truth value
of its negation is false. In the same manner if PP is false the truth
value of its negation is true.
II. Truth Table of Logical Conjunction
A conjunction is a type of compound statement that is comprised of
two propositions (also known as simple statements) joined by the AND
operator.

The symbol that is used to represent the AND or logical conjunction

operator is \color{red}\Large{\wedge} ∧. It looks like an inverted
letter V.

If we have two simple statements PP and QQ, and we want to form a

compound statement joined by the AND operator, we can write it as:

P∧Q.
P∧Q is read as “PP and QQ.”
Notice in the truth table below that when PP is true and QQ is
true, P \wedge QP∧Q is true. However, the other three combinations
of propositions PP and QQ are false.
III. Truth Table of Logical Disjunction
A disjunction is a kind of compound statement that is composed of
two simple statements formed by joining the statements with the OR
operator.

In a disjunction statement, the use of OR is inclusive. That means

“one or the other” or both.

The symbol that is used to represent the OR or logical disjunction

operator is \color{red}\Large{ \vee }∨. It resembles the letter V of
the alphabet.

Two propositions PP and QQ joined by OR operator to form a

compound statement is written as:

\large{P \vee Q}P∨Q.

{P \vee Q}P∨Q is read as “PP or QQ.”

IV. Truth Table of Logical Implication
An implication (also known as a conditional statement) is a type of compound statement that is
formed by joining two simple statements with the logical implication connective or operator.
AD

The symbol that is used to represent the logical implication operator is an arrow pointing to the
right, thus a rightward arrow.

When two simple statements PP and QQ are joined by the implication operator, we have:

\Large{P \to Q}P→Q.

 where PP is known as the hypothesis

 where QQ is known as the conclusion
There are many ways how to read the conditional {P \to Q}P→Q. Below are some of the few
common ones.

AD

{P \to Q}P→Q is read as “PP implies QQ“.

{P \to Q}P→Q is read as “If PP then QQ“.

{P \to Q}P→Q is read as “PP only if QQ“.

{P \to Q}P→Q is read as “If PP is sufficient for QQ“.

{P \to Q}P→Q is read as “QQ is necessary for PP“.

{P \to Q}P→Q is read as “QQ follows from PP“.

{P \to Q}P→Q is read as “QQ if PP“.

Remember: The truth value of the compound statement P \to QP→Q is true when both the
simple statements PP and QQ are true. Moreso, P \to QP→Q is always true if PP is false.
The only scenario that P \to QP→Q is false happens when PP is true, and QQ is false.
V. Truth Table of Logical Biconditional or
Double Implication
A double implication (also known as a biconditional statement) is a type of compound
statement that is formed by joining two simple statements with the biconditional operator. A
biconditional statement is really a combination of a conditional statement and its converse.

The biconditional operator is denoted by a double-headed arrow.

When you join two simple statements (also known as molecular statements) with the
biconditional operator, we get:

AD

\Large{P \leftrightarrow Q}P↔Q

{P \leftrightarrow Q}P↔Q is read as “PP if and only if QQ.”

  where PP is known as the antecedent
 where QQ is known as the consequent
Remember: The truth value of the biconditional statement P \leftrightarrow QP↔Q is true
when both simple statements PP and QQ are both true or both false. Otherwise, P \
leftrightarrow QP↔Q is false.
AD
IV. Truth Table of Logical Implication
An implication (also known as a conditional statement) is a type of
compound statement that is formed by joining two simple statements
with the logical implication connective or operator.

The symbol that is used to represent the logical implication operator is

an arrow pointing to the right, thus a rightward arrow.
When two simple statements PP and QQ are joined by the implication
operator, we have:

\Large{P \to Q}P→Q.

 where PP is known as the hypothesis

 where QQ is known as the conclusion

There are many ways how to read the conditional {P \to Q}P→Q.
Below are some of the few common ones.

P→Q is read as “PP implies QQ“.

P→Q is read as “If PP then QQ“.

{P \to Q}P→Q is read as “PP only if QQ“.

{P \to Q}P→Q is read as “If PP is sufficient for QQ“.

{P \to Q}P→Q is read as “QQ is necessary for PP“.

{P \to Q}P→Q is read as “QQ follows from PP“.

{P \to Q}P→Q is read as “QQ if PP“.

V. Truth Table of Logical Biconditional or
Double Implication
A double implication (also known as a biconditional statement) is
a type of compound statement that is formed by joining two simple
statements with the biconditional operator. A biconditional statement is
really a combination of a conditional statement and its converse.

The biconditional operator is denoted by a double-headed arrow.

When you join two simple statements (also known as molecular

statements) with the biconditional operator, we get:

P↔Q
{P \leftrightarrow Q}P↔Q is read as “PP if and only if QQ.”

 where PP is known as the antecedent

 where QQ is known as the consequent
Q2:What is a Truth Table? Describe with the use of examples.

Mathematicians normally use a two-valued logic: Every statement is

either True or False. This is called the Law of the Excluded Middle.

A statement in sentential logic is built from simple statements using the logical
connectives , , , , and . The truth or falsity of a statement built with
these connective depends on the truth or falsity of its components.
For example, the compound statement is built using the logical
connectives , , and . The truth or falsity of depends on the truth
or falsity of P, Q, and R.

A truth table shows how the truth or falsity of a compound statement depends on the
truth or falsity of the simple statements from which it's constructed. So we'll start by
looking at truth tables for the five logical connectives.

Here's the table for negation:

This table is easy to understand. If P is true, its negation is false. If P is false,

then is true.

should be true when both P and Q are true, and false otherwise:

is true if either P is true or Q is true (or both --- remember that we're using "or"
in the inclusive sense). It's only false if both P and Q are false.

Here's the table for logical implication:

To understand why this table is the way it is, consider the following example:

"If you get an A, then I'll give you a dollar."

The statement will be true if I keep my promise and false if I don't.

Suppose it's true that you get an A and it's true that I give you a dollar. Since I kept
my promise, the implication is true. This corresponds to the first line in the table.

Suppose it's true that you get an A but it's false that I give you a dollar. Since
I didn't keep my promise, the implication is false. This corresponds to the second line
in the table.

What if it's false that you get an A? Whether or not I give you a dollar, I haven't
broken my promise. Thus, the implication can't be false, so (since this is a two-valued
logic) it must be true. This explains the last two lines of the table.

means that P and Q are equivalent. So the double implication is true if P and
Q are both true or if P and Q are both false; otherwise, the double implication is false.

You should remember --- or be able to construct --- the truth tables for the logical
connectives. You'll use these tables to construct tables for more complicated
sentences. It's easier to demonstrate what to do than to describe it in words, so you'll
see the procedure worked out in the examples.

propositions.
Sentences considered in propositional logic are not arbitrary sentences but are the
ones that are either true or false, but not both. This kind of sentences are
called propositions.
If a proposition is true, then we say it has a truth value of "true"; if a proposition is
false, its truth value is "false".

For example, "Grass is green", and "2 + 5 = 5" are propositions.

The first proposition has the truth value of "true" and the second "false".

But "Close the door", and "Is it hot outside ?"are not propositions.

Also "x is greater than 2", where x is a variable representing a number, is not a
proposition,
because unless a specific value is given to x we can not say whether it is true or false,
nor do we know what x represents.

Similarly "x = x" is not a proposition because we don't know what "x" represents
hence what "=" means. For example, while we understand what "3 = 3" means, what
does "Air is equal to air" or "Water is equal to water" mean ? Does it mean a mass of
air is equal to another mass or the concept of air is equal to the concept of air ? We
don't quite know what "x = x" mean. Thus we can not say whether it is true or not.
Hence it is not a proposition.