Cement and Concrete Composites 89 (2018) 251e259

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Cement and Concrete Composites

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cemconcomp

Durability of recycled aggregate concrete e A review

Hui Guo a, Caijun Shi b, *, Xuemao Guan a, Jianping Zhu a, Yahong Ding c, Tung-Chai Ling b,
Haibo Zhang a, Yuli Wang a
a
School of Materials Science and Engineering, Henan Polytechnic University, Jiaozuo, 454003, China
b
Key Laboratory for Green & Advanced Civil Engineering Materials and Application Technology of Hunan Province, College of Civil Engineering, Hunan
University, Changsha, 410082, Hunan, China
c
School of Civil Engineering, Henan Polytechnic University, Jiaozuo, 454003, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Recycling of waste concrete has become an important issue worldwide due to the continued increase of
Received 2 December 2017 construction wastes. Also, the growing global construction activities urge to find sustainable resources to
Received in revised form replace natural materials for the production of concrete. In the past few decades, many researches have
23 February 2018
been carried out on the use of recycled aggregate (RA) derived from construction and demolition wastes
Accepted 14 March 2018
to produce concrete products. This paper reviews the previous findings on the effects of use of RA on
Available online 15 March 2018
durability of concrete. In general, the amount of adhered mortar and the quality of the original concrete
have a significant effect on the properties of resulting concrete. The increase of RA content and w/c ratio
Keywords:
Recycled aggregate concrete
results in poorer durability of concrete. In comparison, the negative effect of recycled fine aggregate is
Impermeability more obvious than that of recycled coarse aggregate. The use of pozzolanic materials either for surface
Chloride penetration resistance coating of RA or intermixed within the concrete are effective and feasible to improve the overall dura-
Carbonation resistance bility of concrete. Recent researches on CO2 treatment indicate that it can enhance the properties of RA
Frost resistance and durability of concrete significantly.
© 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Compared with nature aggregate concrete (NAC), the durability of

Recycled aggregate (RA) derived from construction and demo-
lition waste is suitable for partial or entire replacement for virgin
aggregate when making new concrete. Using waste concrete as RA
could save about 60% of limestone resources and reduce CO2
emissions by about 15%e20% [1]. Therefore, the utilization of RA
has great significance in saving resources, protecting the environ-
ment and realizing the sustainable development of the construc-
tion industry. Although the researches on recycled aggregate
concrete (RAC) has been going on for nearly 70 years [2], the use of
RA in concrete structures is still limited due to its long-term
durability concerns. With the decrease of natural aggregate re-
sources and the increase of waste concrete generation, RAC has
become a hot research topic around the world.
Durability of concrete is the ability of concrete to resist various
types of damage, maintaining its strength and appearance integrity
for its service period of exposure to its surrounding environment.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: cshi@hnu.edu.cn (C. Shi).
RAC is usually weaker than NAC due to the adhered mortar on the
RA. For this reason, the performance of RAC can be improved by
enhancing the properties of RA and/or adding mineral admixtures.
Shi [3e5] demonstrated that CO2 treatment of RA can increase its
density, reduce its water absorption and crushing value. Moreover,
it can significantly reduce the drying shrinkage and chloride ion
diffusion coefficient of the mortars prepared with CO2-treated RA.
With the presence of RA in new concrete, the interface becomes
more complicated. CO2 treatment of RA not only enhances the old
interfacial transition zone (ITZ) between adhered paste and
aggregate, but also improves the newly formed ITZ between the old
and new cement matrix [3e5]. Recently, a review paper was pub-
lished to summarize the advantages and disadvantages of different
techniques used to remove the adhered old mortar or to enhance
the weak surface layer of RA, and suggested that CO2 treatment is a
very efficient and promising method to improve the overall prop-
erties of RA, and the durability of resulting RAC [6,7].
In this paper, the durability of RAC including the impermeability,
chloride penetration resistance, carbonation resistance, frost
resistance and alkali aggregate reaction is critically reviewed. Un-
derstanding the durability of concrete with RA can provide a basis

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2018.03.008
0958-9465/© 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
252 H. Guo et al. / Cement and Concrete Composites 89 (2018) 251e259
for future researches and increase its applications in civil engi-
neering. The existing problems and research needs of major dura-
bility concerns for the use of RA in concrete are also highlighted.
2. Impermeability
The impermeability of RAC is governed mainly by the RA con-
tent, w/c ratio, original strength of the waste concrete, curing age
and presence of mineral admixtures, and is usually weaker than
that of NAC.
According to the published results [8e10], the impermeability of
RAC decreased with an increase of the replacement ratio of RA.
Fig. 1 presents the effect of coarse RA content on the relative water
absorption of concrete by immersion and capillarity (sorptivity). It
can be seen that they increase with the increase of coarse RA
content regardless of the quality of RA. Fig. 1 also includes a 95%
confidence interval (UCL-upper confidence limit, LCL-lower confi-
dence limit). As indicated, there is a 95% probability that the RAC
specimens containing 100% coarse RA could have about 2.47 times
(by immersion) and 1.70 times (by capillarity) higher water ab-
sorption values than that of corresponding NAC specimen. How-
ever, some opposite trend was also observed in a few cases. As
expected, the higher water absorption is due to the attached mortar
and cracks present in the concrete which could create a path for
Fig. 1. Influence of coarse RA content on (a) relative water absorption by immersion
and (b) relative water absorption by capillarity [10e22].
water to flow into the RAC. Lage et al. [23] pointed out that the
penetration depth of RAC under pressure is lower when the RA
replacement ratio is higher, because the RA used is not fully soaked
and can absorb more water. In comparison, fine RA affects the
impermeability of RAC more than coarse RA does due to its more
capillary channels in the concrete system [11,23e25]. For example,
the water absorption by immersion and capillarity of RAC made
with 100% fine RA were recorded as 46% and 70.3% higher than
those of the reference NAC, respectively [26]. Similarly, higher ox-
ygen permeability of RAC was also noticed with an increased RA
replacement for a given w/c ratio and age [27].
At a constant RA ratio, the penetration depth, oxygen perme-
ability and water absorption of RAC increase with the increase of w/
c ratio. The permeability of RAC with fine RA was similar to that of
NAC when the w/c ratio was relatively low [27e31].
The impermeability of RAC was also related to the particle size of
RA. The larger size of the coarse aggregate results in a smaller
surface area and adhered mortar content, thus reduces the amount
of water requirement and enhances the strength of concrete.
However, it increases the defects within RA particles. Basheer et al.
[32] found that the gas permeability of RAC increased with the
increase of the size of RA, as shown in Fig. 2. There are two possible
reasons: the tortuosity of the flow path decreases with the increase
of the size of coarse aggregate; and the possibility of the bleeding
decreasing with the size of RA used. Also, the effective w/c ratio and
air permeability of the RAC decreases with an increase of the fine
aggregateecoarse aggregate ratio.
The source and crushing process of RA also affect the imper-
meability of RAC. For instance, the water absorption of concrete
prepared by 100% RA derived from Ambilei (a waste recycling plant
in Portugal) increased by 22.8%, whereas the same specimens
prepared with RA sourced from Valnor (another recycling plant in
Portugal) increased water absorption by 52.9% associated to the
present of high clay content [11]. The water absorption of speci-
mens containing fine RA1 (produced simultaneously with coarse
RA production) was more than the specimens containing fine RA2
(produced by the same crushing process until required particle
size) due to RA1 with higher content of cement paste [24]. This
suggests that the production process can significantly affect the
physical properties of RA and the performance (e.g. permeability)
of the resulting concrete.
With increased curing age, the density of RAC is increased, while
its gas permeability, water permeability and capillary water ab-
sorption gradually decreased [33e36]. The effect of curing age on
Fig. 2. Effect of average RA size on the air permeability index of concrete [32].
 H. Guo et al. / Cement and Concrete Composites 89 (2018) 251e259
oxygen permeability is more obvious than the effect of w/c ratio.
When the w/c ratio was fixed at 0.4, the oxygen permeability at 28
days and 365 days was about 2  10 17 m2 and 2  10 18 m2
regardless of RA replacement ratio. A similar trend was also ob-
tained for the specimens with higher w/c ratio [27]. Also, the high
porosity of RA can store some water and provide internal curing to
RAC during its microstructure development, thus enhances con-
crete impermeability [4].
To further improve the impermeability of RAC, mineral admix-
tures have been to fill the pores and to produce pozzolanic effect at
the meso level. In an alkaline environment, mineral admixtures
could promote pozzolanic reaction to generate secondary C-S-H gel
and refine pore structures [37]. Therefore, the addition of a certain
amount of mineral admixture is an effective method to improve the
interface structure and the performances of RAC. When a certain
amount of fly ash was used to replace cement, RAC exhibited lower
water permeability compared with the reference concrete after 28
days [38e40]. This suggests that higher amount of RA could be
incorporated with the use of mineral admixture. The improvement
effect of mineral admixtures followed the order: slag > fly
ash > steel slag [41]. In addition, the use of ultra-fine materials such
as silica fume and metakaolin also significantly improve the
impermeability of concrete containing RA [42,43]. The fine mineral
admixtures play a microcrystalline nucleation effect on the hy-
dration of cement, which accelerates the hydration of cement and
growth of hydration products.
The treatment of RA can also affect the impermeability of RAC.
The water absorption of concrete with microbial carbonate treated
RA decreased by about 38% in comparison with the concrete
without RA treatment, and the impermeability even slightly better
than that of NAC [44]. This is because precipitated CaCO3 covers the
surface and/or filled the inner pores of the RA. When the RA surface
was coated with 100 g/m2 and 200 g/m2 of silane paste, the capil-
lary water absorption coefficient of RAC was decreased by 95% and
96%, respectively compared with RAC prepared with un-treated RA
[45]. This reflects that silane can penetrate into a porous structure
of RA and thus reduce the water ingression [45]. Similarly, the
incorporation of the carbonated RA also (cured under CO2 pressure)
reduced its permeability [46], probably due to the precipitation of
CaCO3. The influence of different parameters on the impermeability
of RAC is summarized in Table 1.
3. Chloride penetration resistance
Reinforcement corrosion induced by chloride is one of the main
factors influencing the durability of concrete structures. In general,
the chloride penetration resistance of RAC is lower than that of NAC
[47]. However, it was found that when RA was prepared at a low w/
c ratio, it exhibits better performance than NAC in a chloride
environment, probably due to the presence of higher C-S-H gels in
RAC, which assists in chloride binding [48].
Table 1
Influence of different parameters on impermeability of RAC.
Parameter Change Effects
RA content [ Strong negative
w/c ratio [ Strong negative
Size of RA Y Mild negative
Adhered mortar [ Strong negative
Strength of original concrete [ Positive
Curing age [ Strong positive
Pozzolanic materials Positive
Pre-treatment RA Strong positive
Remarks: [- increase, Y- decrease.
253
The passed charge of RAC using ASTM C 1202 testing method
increases with the increase of RA replacement ratio [11,34,38]. Fig. 3
shows the influence of coarse RA content on the relative total
passed charge in coulombs, and it can be seen that it increases with
the increase of coarse RA content regardless of the quality of RA.
This is consistent with its effect on impermeability. It also suggests
that there is a 95% probability that the total passed charge of RAC
with 100% coarse RA content is about 2.07 times greater than that of
NAC. The effect of fine RA on chloride penetration is more obvious
than that of coarse RA due to the higher amount of adhered mortar
and clay content [11,26]. For example, the variation relative to the
NAC of chloride ion diffusion coefficient at 28 and 91 days of con-
crete samples prepared with 100% fine RA derived from Vimajas
and Europontal were 130%, 92% and 128%, 120.6%, and were 24.2%,
45.5% and 36.1%, 52.4% of the samples with 100% coarse RA [11].
Similar to ordinary concrete, the chloride penetration resistance
of RAC decreases with the increase of w/c ratio [47,56], and in-
creases with curing age [11,40,57]. When a compressive load is
applied, the chloride diffusion coefficient of RAC firstly decreased
and then increased with the increase of the compression load [58].
The maximum reduction in chloride diffusion coefficient of RAC
was about 40%, which is found to be more sensitive to the
compressive loading compared with NAC due to the higher porosity
of RA.
RAC prepared with RA derived from a higher original strength of
concrete demonstrated a lower chloride penetration than the
concrete prepared with lower strength RA due to its lower water
absorption of RA [49]. Duan et al. [59] studied the influence of the
amount of adhered mortar on the chloride penetration resistance of
RAC by adopting three types of RAs, namely RA1, RA2, RA3 (RA3 had
the highest adhered mortar content, followed by RA2 and RA1). The
results in Fig. 4 showed that the chloride penetration resistance of
RAC with different grades increased with a decrease of the adhered
mortar content. The chloride penetration resistance of RAC made
with RA1 was similar to that of NAC at both 28 days and 90 days.
This suggests that the amount of adhered mortar of RA plays an
important role on the chloride penetration resistance of RAC.
Researchers have explored the possibility of using mineral ad-
mixtures to improve the chloride penetration resistance of RAC
[34,53,60]. It is found that binary or ternary mineral admixtures
have better effects than a single mineral admixture does. Mineral
admixture can refine the pore size and increase the amount of C-S-
H, which can absorb more chloride ions. The chloride penetration
Fig. 3. Influence of coarse RA content on the relative total charge passed in coulomb
[13,16,34,49e55].
254 H. Guo et al. / Cement and Concrete Composites 89 (2018) 251e259

Fig. 4. Effect of different aggregates on chloride penetration of concrete mixes with

strength grades of C30 (30 MPa), C45 (45 MPa), C60 (60 MPa) and C80 (80 MPa) [59].

resistance of RAC can also be enhanced by treating RA or applying a

surface treatment on the outer layer of the RAC. The surface of RAC
or RA coated with silane or pozzolanic slurry, or impregnated with
PVA solutions can enhance the microstructure and ion transport
resistance of RAC [45,55,61]. Other approaches, such as CO2 curing,
steam curing, addition of superplasticizers and double-mixing or
triple mixing methods can also improve the penetration resistance
of RAC [16,62e64]. CO2 treatment of RA is a very effective and
feasible method to improve the chloride permeability resistance of
RAC. It not only improves the mechanical property, but also reduces
the porosity and water absorption of RA. Compared to un-
carbonated RA, the ITZ between carbonated RA and matrix in
RAC has a lower local w/c ratio and less porous microstructure
[4,46,65,66].

4. Carbonation resistance

Carbonation and ingress of chloride ion are responsible for

reinforcement corrosion in reinforced concrete. The carbonation of
concrete is a physicochemical process in which a series of chemical
reactions occur under the presence of CO2, and promotes the
reduction of pH in concrete. CO2 penetrates into concrete mainly
through diffusion slowly from the surface to inner part of the
concrete. The rate of carbonation depends on the permeability and
moisture content of the concrete.
Similar to other properties, the carbonation depth of RAC in-
creases with the increase of RA replacement ratio. However, Lei
et al. [67] found that when the RA (whose content of adhered
mortar was about 40%) replacement ratio was greater than 70%, the
carbonation depth decreased. This may be attributed to the higher
adhered mortar of RA, which increases the total cement content
and slow down the carbonation rate. Silva et al. [68] studied the
effect of RA content on the relative carbonation depth of RAC
compared to NAC, as shown in Fig. 5. LCL and UCL in the figure
mean the lower and upper confidence levels. They suggested that
there had a 95% probability of the relative carbonation depth of RAC
with 100% coarse RA was 2.5 times higher than that of NAC. For the
concrete with the same incorporation of fine RA, it was 8.7 times,
probably due to the higher water absorption capability of fine RA.
When the replacement ratio of coarse RA increased, the RAC can
achieve similar strength and carbonation depth as NAC by lowering
the w/c ratio of RAC [68].
Geng et al. [69] suggested that water was still an important
Fig. 5. Relative carbonation depth versus replacement level [68].
factor for carbonation of RAC, and a reasonable w/c ratio should be
considered, particularly for fine RA replacement rate exceeding
40%. This attributed to the fact that the increased water leads to
higher porosity of concrete thus CO2 easier entry into concrete. A
similar effect of w/c ratio on the carbonation of normal concrete
was also noticed in RAC, which indicated an increase with the in-
crease of w/c ratio [67]. However, the carbonation rate of RAC was
observed to be slightly faster than that in NAC due to the presence
of higher porosity of RA in the concrete system [47].
Pedro et al. [70] found that the carbonation depth of RAC pre-
pared with RA obtained by an impact mill-hammer mill two-stage
crushing process was lower than the conventional crushing
method. The reason may be due to the lower adhered mortar
content remaining after the two-stage crushing process. Lei et al.
[67] pointed out that the carbonation depth of RAC reduced with an
increase of the original concrete strength. But according to Ryu [71],
at a 0.55 w/c ratio, concrete specimens prepared with 100% RA with
different strength grades exhibited a similar carbonation depth.
This was confirmed by another study [72], which indicated that the
carbonation resistance of RAC is mainly affected by the w/c ratio
rather than the original strength of RA.
Amorim et al. [73] investigated the effect of four different curing
 H. Guo et al. / Cement and Concrete Composites 89 (2018) 251e259
conditions on the carbonation depth of RAC, as shown in Fig. 6. The
carbonation depth of RAC cured in laboratory environment at 20  C
and 60% RH was higher than those cured in other environments
regardless of the replacement ratio of RA. Moreover, Kou et al. [51]
pointed out that the development of carbonation depth of RAC
increased gradually with the exposure time. After 1 year, the coarse
RA replacement ratio had an insignificant effect on the depth of
carbonation and further progressed by a linear rate of
0.80e0.90 mm/year.
Sun et al. [41] found that the carbonation depth was remarkably
reduced with the incorporation of slag. This was explained by less
pores and denser microstructure. Interestingly, Singh et al. [43]
pointed out that the carbonation depths of self-consolidating
concrete (SCC) prepared with RA increased with the fly ash con-
tent. Kou et al. [51] also found that the use of fly ash to replace
cement could increase the carbonation depth of RAC. For a case of
samples exposed for 10 years, the RAC with incorporation of 55% fly
ash exhibited about 1.68 times and 1.89 times higher carbonation
coefficient compared to NAC and RAC without being mixed with fly
ash. This phenomenon is largely attributed to the lower calcium
hydroxide content in high volume fly ash concrete. Furthermore,
the incorporation of metakaolin was able to compensate the loss in
the carbonation resistance [43]. This is because the high fineness
particles of metakaolin is beneficial to improve the microstructure
(less pores and denser) and consequently against the ingression of
CO2.
Besides, Matias et al. [16] found that the carbonation depth at
early ages could be significantly reduced by the presence of
superplasticizer (even lower than for NAC), but the efficiency
decreased with time. This is attributed to the fact that the intro-
duction of superplasticizer hinders the growth of mixed crystals,
and makes the crystal become denser on the surface of cement
particles, thereby enhancing the carbonation resistance.
Adopting the double mixing method (mixing fine and coarse
aggregates for 30 s, followed by 1/2 water for 30 s, cement for 60s
and the reaming 1/2 water for another 120s) under a high w/c ratio
also has a significant effect on the carbonation resistance, probably
due to the lower water-binder ratio mortar coated on RA and the
water near the aggregate being lesser in amount which can limit
crystal growth, thereby enhancing the ITZ [47]. Moreover, the
carbonation resistance of RAC can be improved by coating oil-type
or silane repellent on the surface of RA [45,74]. Based on the liter-
ature and discussions, the influence of different parameters on the
Fig. 6. Carbonated depth of concrete at 90 days cured in different environments [73].
255
carbonation resistance of RAC is summarized in Table 2.
5. Frost resistance
Freezing and thawing are often used as another evaluation index
of concrete durability. The frost resistance of concrete can be re-
flected by measuring the dynamic elastic modulus, weight loss rate,
and strength loss rate after exposure to freeze-thaw cycles.
Generally, this property is mainly affected by porosity, water con-
tent, environmental conditions and aggregate types.
RAC with RA particles may reduce the frost resistance because
the absorbed water can drain into cement paste during freezing and
thawing cycles. Therefore, RAC usually has weak frost resistance
and is not recommended for use in a harsh environment. However,
Salem et al. [75] showed that RAC with a w/c ratio below 0.5 and
incorporating 5% air content can still be used in unsaturated and
moderate cold climates.
Similar to NAC, the compressive strength, splitting tensile
strength and flexural strength of RAC decreases with an increase of
freezing and thawing cycles [76,77], the mass loss increased and the
relative dynamic elastic modulus decreased when concrete sam-
ples are subjected to freezing and thawing cycles [78e80]. Wu et al.
[81] studied the uniaxial compressive stress-strain relationship of
coarse RA concrete after freezing and thawing cycles (see
Figs. 7e9). The results showed that both the cubic compressive
strength and relative dynamic modulus of RAC decreased linearly
with the increase of freezing and thawing cycles, and its cubic
compressive strength was lower than that of NAC under the same
freezing and thawing cycles. Compared with NAC-12 and NAC-13,
in 25 freezing and thawing cycles, the mass of RAC-6, RAC-7 and
RAC-8 increased rapidly with the increase of freezing and thawing
cycles. However, after 75 to 100 cycles, it increased slowly or ceased
to increase. This was caused by two aspects: firstly, internal cracks
and pressure when water within the concrete is being frozen result
in the spalling of mortar and mass loss, further extending the
cracks. Secondly, the enclosed pores in concrete are connected by
the freezing action of water, which makes the water penetrate into
concrete and cause the mass of concrete to increase. These two
aspects interact with each other, the final mass is depending on the
total amount of water absorbed and mass loss associated to con-
crete spalling. The reason is that the higher the porosity and water
absorption of RAC, the higher the water absorption ability. Thus, a
higher water absorption and saturation degree of water in RA leads
to the lower frost resistance of RAC [82]. However, when the water
saturation degree is less than 91.7%, the concrete may not be sub-
jected to freezing and thawing damage. So, the frost resistance of
RAC can be improved by reducing the amount of mixing water or
reducing the water saturation of the samples.
As expected, the frost resistance of RAC is greatly influenced by
the percentage of the incorporated RA. The weight change of RAC
increases with the increase of coarse RA replacement ratio, and is
Table 2
Influence of different parameters on the carbonation resistance of RAC.
Parameter Change Effect
RA content [ Strong negative
w/c ratio [ Strong negative
Size of RA Y Mild negative
Adhered mortar [ Strong negative
Exposure time [ Negative
Pozzolanic materials [ Negative
Superplasticizers Positive
Pre-treatment RA Mild positive
Mixing method Mild positive
Remark: [- increase, Y- decrease.
256 H. Guo et al. / Cement and Concrete Composites 89 (2018) 251e259
Fig. 7. Comparison of relative cubic compressive strength between RAC and NAC [81].
Fig. 8. Comparison of mass losses between RAC and NAC [81].
linearly correlated with its water absorption capacity [56]. As
compared to coarse RA, the influence of fine RA may be more
remarkable. The relative dynamic elastic modulus of RAC decreases
obviously with an increase of the replacement ratio and fineness of
the fine RA, and an obvious decrease of frost resistance of RAC was
noticed when the minimum size of fine RA was less than 0.16 mm
and the replacement ratio was higher than 40% [83]. This is prob-
ably because the cracks continue to occur inside the concrete, and
the water gradually penetrates with an increase of freezing and
thawing cycles. Interestingly, Bogas et al. [84] found that the
incorporation of pre-soaked fine RA was not detrimental to the
freeze-thaw resistance of RAC. Similar conclusion is also made by
another study [78].
Similar to natural aggregate concrete, the frost resistance of RAC
decreases with the increase of w/c ratio [78,84,85]. This attributed
to the number of capillary pores, average aperture and porosity of
RAC. Besides, Bogas et al. [84] indicated that the mass losses in
high-strength RAC were much lower than those observed in normal
strength RAC regardless of the fine RA content, which indicated that
the freeze-thaw resistance of concrete depended more on the w/c
ratio (or the designed strength) than on the type of aggregates
used.
Fig. 9. Relative dynamic elastic modulus of RAC and NAC [81].
The frost resistance of RAC prepared with high-performance
concrete RA is similar or better than that of NAC [86]. When RA
originates from high-strength concrete or air-entraining concrete,
RAC with excellent frost resistance can be obtained and performs
similarly to that of ordinary air-entraining concrete [75,87]. The
frost resistance of RAC prepared with RA originating from non-air-
entrained concrete was found to be relatively weak even when
incorporated with an air-entraining agent in the new concrete [88].
This can be explained by the fact that the average aperture and the
coefficient of pore spacing in the adhered mortar of RA are smaller.
Also, the distribution of pores or aperture gradation was more
reasonable when the RA originated from an air-entrained concrete,
thereby lowering the expansion pressure. It is demonstrated that
the frost resistance of RAC is also inter-related to the properties of
original concrete of RA.
The frost resistance of RAC can be effectively improved with the
incorporation of a proper amount of fly ash or metakaolin
[83,89,90]. This is because the mineral admixtures can react with
Ca(OH)2 to form additional C-S-H gel for the densification of con-
crete microstructure and strength enhancement [91].
The addition of air entraining agent also effectively improves the
frost resistance of RAC [75,92], due to a large number of mutually
independent and closed tiny air bubbles are produced to prevent
forming destructive pressure and alleviate the damage during the
freezing process.
Using pre-saturated RA was better for the frost resistance of RAC
[78,84]. This is attributed to the internal curing effect, in which the
water contained in the porous RA is gradually released for further
cement hydration [78,93,94]. Moreover, adding a proper amount of
rubber particles also plays active roles in the frost resistance of RAC
[95]. It can be explained by the fact that the elastic rubber particles
in concrete provide space for the volume expansion of water frozen,
the rubber particles produce elastic recovery when the ice melts
into water, which limits the concentration stress, producing prop-
agation and extension of tiny cracks. Then the repeatedly com-
pressed and produce elastic recovery of rubber particles greatly
reduce the stress caused by expansion. The influence of different
parameters on frost resistance of RAC is summarized in Table 3.
6. Alkali-silica reaction
The alkali-silica reaction (ASR) is a chemical reaction between
‘‘unstable” silica mineral and the alkali hydroxides in concrete,
 H. Guo et al. / Cement and Concrete Composites 89 (2018) 251e259
Table 3
Influence of different parameters on frost resistance of RAC.
Parameter Change Effect
RA content [ Strong negative
w/c ratio [ Strong negative
adhered mortar [ Strong negative
strength of original concrete [ Mild positive
air entraining agent Mild positive
pozzolanic materials Mild positive
Pre-soaking RA Mild positive
Remark: [- increase, Y- decrease.
resulting in expansion and cracking which eventually affect the
dimension stability and durability of concrete. It is expected that
the incorporation of RA containing original reactive aggregate
could pose a potential ASR in a new concrete.
Li et al. [96] and Shehata et al. [97] indicated that RA originating
from ASR-affected concrete had similar expansion compared to the
original aggregate. Therefore, similar expansion hazards as its
original concrete were produced when reactive RA was applied into
a new RAC [97,98]. McCarthy et al. [99] pointed out that the
expansion of fine RA was slightly greater than the coarse RA when
mixed with reactivity aggregate in a new concrete under a high
alkaline environment. Moreover, the effect of water absorption of
RA on ASR should be taken into account because it can change the
effective w/c ratio and thus affect the reaction process [100].
Etxeberria et al. [101] found that the expansion of adhered mortar
of RA changed from 0.1% to 0.37% when cured for 14 days and 56
days, which demonstrated that the sand (or fine particles) in the
adhered mortar sometimes can be very reactive.
The crushing method was found to have a significant influence
on RA expansion, smaller coarse RA size resulting in greater
expansion [102]. It was found that the use of supplementary
cementitious materials have the ability to reduce the alkalinity of
pore solution, and the amount of supplementary cementitious
materials needed of RAC with ASR-affected RA was higher than that
of concrete prepared with the virgin reactive aggregate [97].
Approximately 25% fly ash was needed to control ASR effectively,
and the pH value of the RAC could be controlled within the pre-
sumed ASR threshold range (between 13.28 and 13.32) with
maximum expansion below 0.1% at 28 days [96]. Moreover, the
addition of lithium nitrate was also found to be effective in reducing
the expansion of RAC caused by ASR [97].
Since the microstructure and interface characteristics of RAC are
more complex than those of NAC, it is becoming more difficult to
quantify and understand the ASR mechanism clearly in the RAC
system. Therefore, more attention should be paid to this particular
topic. For the incorporation of reactive or potentially reactive RA,
prevention of ASR should be undertaken by: (1) using low alkali
cement; (2) incorporating mineral admixtures; (3) strictly con-
trolling the water absorption capacity of RA; and (4) maintaining
low alkali content of concrete.
7. Conclusions
(1) The durability of RAC is mainly determined and affected by
the adhered mortar of RA, the higher the amount of adhered
mortar of RA, the higher the porosity and water absorption,
leading to pooper durability performance of RAC.
(2) Higher RA content and w/c ratio can result in poor durability
of RAC, and the negative effect is more obvious for fine RA
than for coarse RA. Incorporation of a mineral admixture or
using RA originating from higher-strength concrete can
minimize the durability problem in RAC.
257
(3) Improvement of RA with a fly ash or slag coating not only can
improve the pore structure of RA, but also can react with
existing Ca(OH)2 to produce additional secondary CSH
products to strengthen the ITZ layer. Modified RA with CO2
can also react with hydration products to produce CaCO3 for
micro-pore structure strengthening. Therefore, in order to
produce a more durable RAC it is suggested to use pozzolanic
materials and CO2 treatment prior to use in concrete.
As the properties of RA and the microstructure of concrete are
responsible for the durability performance of RAC, future research,
particularly on the efficiency of different enhancement methods for
RA, and their influence on the microstructure performance of RAC
at new and old interfacial transition zones should be systematically
researched and explored.
Acknowledgment
Financial supports from National Natural Science Foundation of
China (Contract Nos.51678220, 51502080, U1605242) are greatly
appreciated.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data related to this article can be found at
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2018.03.008.
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