Engineering Failure Analysis 110 (2020) 104440

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Engineering Failure Analysis

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/engfailanal

Corrosion fatigue failure analysis and service life prediction of high

T
strength steel wire
⁎
Songling Xue, Ruili Shen , Wei Chen, Rusong Miao
School of Civil Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu 610031, China

A R T IC LE I N F O ABS TRA CT

Keywords: In this paper, corrosion fatigue failure of high-strength steel wire was studied based on the actual
Corrosion fatigue cable or sling in the bridge, and the service life prediction formula considering the corrosion
Failure mode effect was put forward, which provides a force basis for future research. Firstly, six groups of steel
Fatigue test wires with different corrosion degrees were analyzed by a 3D scanner, and the corrosion char-
Service life
acteristics of different specimens were given. Secondly, S-N curves of different corrosion degrees
Prediction model
and S-N-φ surface were given by fatigue tests of six groups of steel wires with different corrosion
degrees. The results show that the S-N curve becomes steeper with the increase of steel wire
corrosion. Fatigue life considering the corrosion is much lower than that without considering
corrosion. Finally, a fatigue life prediction model considering the corrosion fatigue coupling
effect was proposed. The calculation results show that the fatigue life prediction model con-
sidering the corrosion fatigue coupling effect can reflect the effect of the corrosion fatigue cou-
pling effect to some extent.

1. Introduction

A bridge is an important hub of transportation engineering, which is subjected to various destructive loads during the service [1].
In the past decades, the long-span bridge represented by cable-stayed bridges and suspension bridges has developed rapidly [2].
Cables and slings are important transmission components of these two bridges [3]. The design life of suspension cables is usually
30 years. However, in less than 10 years, many of the cables on the bridge have been replaced [4]. As the transmission component of
the suspension bridge, suspension cables are subjected to live loads such as vehicles and wind. So, the sling is prone to fatigue
damage. As the basic component of the sling, the fatigue characteristics of high strength steel wire provide a basis for studying the
failure mode of the sling. The failure modes of steel wires have been studied extensively. The results show that the failure stress of
steel wires is much lower than the ultimate strength due to the influence of alternating loads [5]. However, although the sling is
composed of steel wire, its failure mode is different from that of steel wire. At present, many studies regard the sling as a whole,
which is obviously unreasonable. In recent years, the fatigue analysis method of wire rope sling was proposed by some scholars [6,7].
In view of the damage dynamics, the main characteristic of this theory is to calculate fatigue by considering a slip of steel wires [8].
In the actual bridge, the safety factor of the suspension cable is considered adequately in the design, and it is not easy to cause
static strength damage [9–11]. The action of the corrosive medium and the stress will lead to corrosion fatigue of slings. Corrosion is a
very complex problem, which is affected by many factors. In order to ensure that the steel wire in the sling is not corroded, many anti-
corrosion measures have been applied to practical projects [12]. In the past decades, a large number of scholars have studied the

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: rlshen@swjtu.edu.cn (R. Shen).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2020.104440
Received 18 August 2019; Received in revised form 7 February 2020; Accepted 7 February 2020
Available online 08 February 2020
1350-6307/ © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Xue, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 110 (2020) 104440

corrosion effects of the steel bar and the steel plate [13–15]. However, corrosion fatigue of high strength steel wire in the bridge is
quite different from that of steel plate [16]. Especially in the marine environment, the corrosion effect of the sling is greater. In
addition, processing technology and surface condition of high strength steel wire will also affect its performance. Many scholars have
studied the tensile properties of corroded steel wires [17]. Due to corrosion, the ultimate strength of steel wire is reduced, but the
elastic modulus is less affected. The effect of corrosion fatigue coupling on a steel wire is seldom studied at present. Fatigue speed of
steel wire is accelerated by the corrosion, and the corrosion degree of steel wire is aggravated by the fatigue. The purpose of the above
research is to ensure that the sling is not destroyed within its design life. Therefore, the prediction of its residual life is one of the key
tasks in the follow-up. At present, pairs formula is widely used. The software ANSYS, Abaqus and Frac3d can be used to calculate
crack growth [18]. However, there is no quantitative calculation theory considering the interaction of corrosion fatigue, which has
become an urgent problem to be solved.
The logical structure of this paper is as follows: In the first section, the corrosion fatigue failure background of the sling was briefly
introduced. In the subsequent section, six groups of specimens with different corrosion degrees were selected and the shape of
corrosion pits on the steel wire surface was analyzed by using 3D equipment. The fatigue testing machine was used to load steel wires
with different corrosiveness, and the loading time of steel wire fracture was obtained. The fracture morphology of steel wire was
analyzed by electron microscopy. In the third part, based on pairs formula, a crack growth formula considering the coupling effect of
corrosion and fatigue was proposed. The residual life of the specimens selected in the test was analyzed.

2. Experimental analysis

2.1. Experimental preparation

The test specimens were provided by Jiangsu Fasten Cable Co. (Jiangsu, China). The diameter of the steel wire is 7 mm, the
quality of the galvanized layer is 360 g/m2, and the depth is 50 μm. The length of the specimen is 500 mm, as shown in Fig. 1. The
two ends are anchored with fixtures respectively, and the length of corrosion area is 300 mm.
The specimens used are the same as the steel wires in the actual bridge sling. To analyze the properties of high strength steel wire,
its chemical composition must be known. The chemical composition of high strength steel wire is given in Table 1.
Before carrying out the corrosion fatigue test, the performance of steel wires must be tested to obtain material parameters, which
provide a basis for theoretical analysis in the following chapter. The universal testing machine was used to test the specimens. The
test results are shown in Table 2.
It can be seen from Table 2 that the yield stress and the ultimate stress of the high-strength steel wire are relatively close, and the
plasticity stage is not obvious. In the actual working environment, the brittle fracture of steel wire is more obvious because of
corrosion. Therefore, corrosion fatigue test is necessary. The corrosion test was carried out through the salt spray corrosion chamber
shown in Fig. 2. A total of 30 specimens were tested with 6 grades of corrosion. The details are described later. Before corrosion, the
specimen was weighed and its diameter was measured in order to calculate its corrosion degree.

2.2. Corrosion test

The actual bridge steel wire may be corroded after several years of use. In order to speed up the experiment, the accelerated
corrosion experiment was adopted for this paper. Based on ISO standard 9227:1990 “Corrosion tests in artificial atmospheres-Salt
spray tests”, the corresponding modification was made according to the actual situation of this study to provide preparation for
subsequent fatigue test. The solution consists of 50 g/L of NaCl and HCl with a pH of 2.9. It was injected into the salt spray chamber
with the over-compressed liquid to simulate the atmosphere. The humidity of salt spray test chamber was 98%, and the temperature
was55 ± 5 °C. The specimens were rotated at intervals to obtain uniform corrosion. The specimens were placed in salt spray

Fig. 1. Corrosion steel wire area map.

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S. Xue, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 110 (2020) 104440

Table 1
Chemical composition of high strength steel wire (%).
C Si Mn S Cu Cr

0.8–0.85 0.13–0.31 0.62–0.89 < 0.0022 < 0.09 0.12–0.22

Table 2
Mechanical properties of high strength steel wire specimens.
Sample number E (GPa) σy (MPa) σu (MPa) δ (%)

1 201.3 1675 1843 5.7

2 200.8 1656 1851 5.5
3 198.9 1657 1846 5.8
4 199.5 1668 1845 5.6
5 202.4 1671 1863 5.4

Mean 200.58 1665.4 1849.6 5.6

E : Elastic modulus; σy : Yield strength; σu : Ultimate strength; δ : Elongation after fracture.

Fig. 2. Salt fog corrosion chamber.

corrosion chamber for different time to simulate different corrosion degrees. The storage time was 15 days, 30 days, 45 days, 60 days,
75 days and 90 days, respectively. The corrosion of specimens for 30, 60 and 90 days is shown in Fig. 3.
After the experiment, the specimens were placed in the room to remove the surface corrosive substances, which provided the basis
for the follow-up work. The corrosion degree of steel wire can be expressed by the loss of quality. Corrosion degree of steel wire is
defined as φ. The computational expression is presented in Eq. (1).

1 5
Δm m1 − m2 − 5
∑i = 1 [mc1 (i) − mc 2 (i)]
φ= = l1
m m1 × l2 (1)

where m1: quality of corroded specimens; m2 : quality of specimens after removing rust by chemical method; l1: length of corrosion
zone of specimen; l2 : length of the specimen. In practice, chemical methods were used to remove rust while other components of the
specimen were unavoidably removed. In order to consider the influence of this factor on the evaluation of corrosion degree, five

Fig. 3. (a) Specimens after 30 days of corrosion; (b) Specimens after 60 days of corrosion; (c) Specimens after 90 days of corrosion.

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S. Xue, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 110 (2020) 104440

Fig. 4. Non-contact 3D scanner.

groups of non-corroded specimens were selected. The quality mc1 (i) of the specimen before treatment by a chemical method and the
quality mc2 (i) of the specimen after treatment by a chemical method were measured. The average corrosion depth is defined as du ,
and its expression can be obtained by changing the quality of specimens before and after corrosion. The concrete expression is shown
in Eq. (2).
1 5
Δm m1 − m2 − 5
∑i = 1 [mc1 (i) − mc 2 (i)] m1 η
du = = =
πρl1 D0 πρl1 D0 πρl1 D0 (2)

where ρ is the mass density of steel wire and D0 is the diameter of non-corroded specimens. The average corrosion depth can be
correlated with the corrosion degree by Eq. (2), which provides the basis for the following analysis. In order to obtain the surface
morphology of corrosion specimens, the non-contact 3D scanner was used to scan the corrosion specimens. In the past few years,
some scholars have used this equipment to study the shape of the steel plate and steel bar [19,20]. The equipment used in this paper is
shown in Fig. 4.

2.3. Fatigue test

The fatigue test machine shown in Fig. 2 is used to load the specimens in the laboratory. In the actual test, the fatigue test results
may be affected by the load frequency. Some researchers have studied the influence of the load frequency on the test [21,22]. In order
to fully understand the effect of the loading frequency on the fatigue test, fatigue tests of different specimens and frequencies were
used to study this problem. The results show that for large size components, there is a problem of heating caused by vibration. The
larger the specimen sizes, the higher the loading frequency, the more obvious this phenomenon, the more unreliable the test results
are. The influence of loading frequency of steel wire specimens studied in this paper on test results can be neglected. The loading
frequency used in this experiment is 60Hz . The stress of steel wire can be calculated by Eq. (3).

F F
σ= =
A0 (π /4) D0 2 (3)

Among them, F is the axial load of steel wire, and A0 is the cross-section area of non-corroded steel wire. The cross-sectional area
can be calculated by diameter. R is defined as stress ratio and S is defined as stress amplitude. They are represented by the following
expressions.

R = σmin/ σmax (4)

S = σmax − σmin = (1 − R) σmax (5)

The stress ratio R and stress amplitude S are determined by the stress time history of the slings of the bridge in service. The
principle of determination is to calculate the parameters of the sling stress time history load by rain flow counting method [23].
Where, R = 0.4, S = 270–520 MPa. The effects of different stress amplitudes on fatigue were studied, with 2 million times as a
reference value. If the steel wire has not been broken after 2 million loads, the stress amplitude will be increased. During the test, the
steel wire may break at the anchorage, which will affect the accuracy of the test. Therefore, the steel wire at the anchorage position
was sandblasted.

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S. Xue, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 110 (2020) 104440

Table 3
Corrosion fatigue test results.
Corrosion time (d) Sample number φ (%) Lfrac (cm) S (MPa) Experimental Number of Cycles

15 1-1 4.72 21.2 520 164,567

1-2 4.83 22.4 450 224,653
1-3 4.76 13.4 360 478,456
1-4 4.52 20.2 270 + 360 2,000,000 + 456,345
1-5 4.96 12.4 300 + 360 2,000,000 + 367,876

30 2-1 8.23 29.2 520 131,345

2-2 8.45 28.4 450 179,876
2-3 7.79 27.6 360 367,987
2-4 8.32 30.1 270 + 360 2,000,000 + 324,567
2-5 8.34 30.4 300 + 360 2,000,000 + 223,459

45 3-1 11.12 30.5 520 74,123

3-2 11.23 21.2 450 126,387
3-3 11.38 30.1 400 224,278
3-4 11.56 25.6 360 287,089
3-5 12.12 27.2 270 1,092,876

60 4-1 14.37 29.7 520 59,346

4-2 15.12 31.2 450 102,583
4-3 15.23 18.2 400 132,967
4-4 14.98 20.3 360 173,261
4-5 14.99 22.4 270 598,698

75 5-1 18.12 23.4 520 57,896

5-2 17.97 22.6 450 87,289
5-3 17.86 24.5 400 103,471
5-4 18.56 27.8 360 159,826
5-5 18.02 27.8 270 509,916

90 6-1 19.34 29.2 520 47,647

6-2 20.12 24.6 450 68,912
6-3 20.34 25.3 400 98,759
6-4 20.36 31.1 360 128,798
6-5 20.37 19.9 270 308,791

Lfrac : The distance between the fracture position and the upper part of the steel wire.

2.4. Corrosion fatigue analysis

Fatigue of high strength steel wire will inevitably be affected by corrosion, so the corrosion results must be analyzed. Based on the
corrosion test, a corrosion rate model of steel wire in the marine environment was proposed. The corrosion rate model of steel wire in
the marine environment was validated. The corrosion fatigue test results of steel wire were shown in Table 3. Firstly, the corrosion
degree was analyzed by mathematical statistics. The relationship between average corrosion depth and time was shown in Fig. 5. The
average corrosion depth is more than 50 μm, indicating that the galvanized layer has been corroded.
By fitting and analyzing the experimental data, it is shown that the corrosion depth becomes deeper with the increase of time. The

350

300

250
du( m)

200

150

100

50
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Time(d)
Fig. 5. The relationship between average corrosion depth and time.

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S. Xue, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 110 (2020) 104440

Fig. 6. Surface corrosion morphology of steel wire.

average corrosion degree was calculated, and the relationship between average corrosion depth and time was fitted.

m1 η t 0.77
du = = 1.01 ⎛ ⎞
πρl1 D0 ⎝ 24 ⎠ (6)

The coefficient of Eq. (6) is 0.77, which is close to the condition of marine corrosive environment. Detailed information can be
found in Ref. [24]. The surface of steel wire was scanned by a 3D scanner, and the corrosion morphology of steel wire was further
analyzed. The typical results of steel wire scanning were shown in Fig. 6.
As showed in Fig. 6, the corrosion depth of the whole steel wire can be obtained by rotating the specimens at different angles. The
corrosion depth of steel wire is greater than the thickness of the galvanized layer. Although the distribution of corrosion pits on the
steel wire surface is not uniform, but macroscopically speaking, the corrosion of steel wire is relatively uniform.
Fatigue analysis is the focus of this paper. The fatigue test results under different corrosion conditions are shown in Table 3.
Without considering corrosion, the fatigue life curve of steel wire is a two-dimensional curve. Considering the corrosion effect, the
fatigue life curve of steel wire must be a three-dimensional surface. In order to draw the fatigue life curve, at least 5 points can draw
the curve more accurately, but the drawn curve is also fitted. There must be some error with the actual fatigue life curve. Based on the
traditional theory, the S-N curves and S-N-φ surface of steel wires with different corrosion degrees were given in this paper, which
provides a basis for future research. The fracture position of the steel wire is between the upper and lower anchorage ends, ranging
from 10 cm to 40 cm. It shows that the steel wire has been broken and damaged in the corrosive area. The fatigue test results of steel
wire are effective. According to the existing theory, the fatigue life N (cycle number) of steel wire is a function of stress amplitude S of
steel wire. The relationship between them can be found in Eq. (7).
lgN = a − mlgS (7)

where a and m are coefficients obtained from materials.

The average corrosion degree of the specimens under different corrosion time in Table 3 is taken as the corrosion degree of the
specimens. The experimental results are shown in Figs. 7 and 8. With the increase of corrosion degree, the slope of the S-N curve
becomes steeper, and the fatigue life decreases faster in the lower stress range. With the increase of stress amplitude, the fatigue life is
still declining rapidly, and brittle failure is more obvious. In bridge design, the influence of environmental corrosion must be taken
into account in calculating the fatigue of slings. Under the condition of low stress amplitude, the effect of corrosion on fatigue is far
greater than that under the condition of high stress amplitude. When the stress amplitude is 520 MPa, the effect of corrosion on
fatigue is very small. However, when the stress amplitude is 270 MPa, the effect of corrosion on fatigue is very large. The corrosion
degree increases only 5 times, and the fatigue life of steel wire decreases to 1/50 of the original. With the increase of corrosion
degree, the S-N curve is no longer flat, and the boundary point is about 10%. The typical corrosion fatigue fracture morphology is

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S. Xue, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 110 (2020) 104440

550
=4.758%
=8.226%
500
=11.482%
=14.938%
450
=18.106%
=21.106%
400

S
350

300

250
0.0 5.0x105 1.0x106 1.5x106 2.0x106 2.5x106
N
Fig. 7. S-N curve under different corrosion degrees.

Fig. 8. S-N-φ surface.

shown in Fig. 9.
According to Fig. 9, corrosion fatigue fracture of high strength steel wire can be divided into crack initiation zone, crack pro-
pagation zone and crack fracture zone. Crack initiation zone was formed by processing defects and corrosion during material pro-
cessing, and its surface is uneven. The crack propagation zone was caused by the interaction of corrosion and fatigue of high strength
steel wire, and its surface is smooth and flat. The fracture zone is divided into two parts: the first is ductile fracture zone and the
second is brittle fracture zone. The rim of the fracture surface for Type A and Type B wire was slightly affected by the corrosion pits,
and it is obvious that the pitting scale of Type B was bigger than that of Type A. But for Type C and Type D wires, the rim of the
fracture surface was severely changed by corrosion pits, and the pitting boundary was hard to define. With the increase of corrosion
degree, the ductile fracture zone is gradually changed into the brittle fracture zone, which leads to the increase of dangerous degree
of steel wire.

3. Residual life predictions

The purpose of the corrosion fatigue test of the sling is to predict its residual life and ensure that no fatigue damage occurs during
service life. Many researchers have used linear elastic fracture mechanics to predict crack growth life [25]. Pairs formula was
commonly used in much fatigue analysis software and literature [26]. The expression is as follows:
da
= C (ΔK )m = C·(Y ·Δσ πa )m
dN (8)

where a: the crack width, m and C: the material crack propagation parameter. Y: the shape factor.
For stress intensity factor (SIF), there have been a lot of literatures in the past [27]. The steel wire studied in this paper can be
regarded as a one-dimensional problem, and the expression of Y can be referred to the references. The specific expressions are as
follows [28]:

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S. Xue, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 110 (2020) 104440

Fig. 9. Corrosion fatigue fracture patterns: (a) Type A; (b) Type B; (c) Type C; (d) Type D.

2 3 4
a a a a a
Y ⎛ ⎞ = 0.782 − 2.1425 ⎛ ⎞ + 18.082 ⎛ ⎞ − 49.385 ⎛ ⎞ + 66.114 ⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟

⎝ D0 ⎠ ⎝ D0 ⎠ ⎝ D0 ⎠ ⎝ D0 ⎠ ⎝ D0 ⎠ (9)

Among them, D0 is the diameter of steel wire, 7 mm. The crack propagation life can be calculated by Eq. (10):

1 ac
Np =
C Δσ m
∫a
0
(Y πa )−mda
(10)

ac , a0 : the critical crack width and the initial crack width.

However, there is a drawback in the above theory. The effect of the corrosion factors is not considered in Pairs formula. If this
theory is applied, the result may be unsafe. Corrosion fatigue is an interactive process. On the one hand, the fatigue of steel wire was
accelerated by corrosion; on the other hand, the corrosion rate was also increased by the fatigue of steel wire. How to consider the
above effects has become an urgent problem to be solved. In this paper, the influence factor of corrosion was added to Pairs formula,
and a crack growth formula considering corrosion was proposed. The concrete expression can be found in Eq. (11).

da
= C (1 + φ (En, σt , t ) k )(ΔK )m = C (1 + φ (En, σ , t ) k )·(Y ·Δσ πa )m
dN (11)

where φ (En, σ , t ) is the corrosion influence function, which is related to environment E, time t and stress historyσt . The coefficient K
is determined by the actual situation. When φ (En, σ , t ) = 0 , Eq. (11) degenerates to Eq. (8). φ (En, σ , t ) is a very complex function.
The results in Table 3 were directly used and the specific expressions are not discussed in this paper. Specific expressions will be
reflected in future research work. The coefficient k can be obtained by fitting the data in Table 3. Eq. (12) can be obtained by
integrating Eq. (11).

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S. Xue, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 110 (2020) 104440

Table 4
Fatigue life comparison results.
Corrosion time (d) Sample number Experimental Number of Cycles Calculated Number of Cycles Error (%)

15 1-1 164,567 134,345 18.36

1-2 224,653 194,124 13.59
1-3 478,456 398,122 16.79
1-4 2,456,345 2,153,312 12.34
1-5 2,367,876 2,162,825 8.66

30 2-1 131,345 117,321 10.68

2-2 179,876 169,124 5.98
2-3 367,987 327,214 11.08
2-4 2,324,567 2,123,534 8.65
2-5 2,223,459 2,119,523 4.67

45 3-1 72,345 61,123 15.51

3-2 126,387 104,753 17.12
3-3 224,278 201,875 9.99
3-4 287,089 265,983 7.35
3-5 1,092,876 1,050,087 3.92

60 4-1 59,346 51,673 12.93

4-2 100,125 102,583 2.45
4-3 132,967 109,998 17.27
4-4 173,261 148,654 14.20
4-5 598,698 512,345 14.42

75 5-1 57,896 52,768 8.86

5-2 87,289 79,897 8.47
5-3 103,471 91,434 11.63
5-4 159,826 134,589 15.79
5-5 509,916 480,987 5.67

90 6-1 47,647 39,234 17.66

6-2 68,912 60,003 12.93
6-3 98,759 87,965 10.93
6-4 128,798 107,768 16.33
6-5 308,791 291,246 5.68

D0 1
Np = ∫d
u C (1 + φ (En, σt , t ) k )Δσ m
(Y πa )−mda
(12)
Matlab software was used to compile a program for calculating the specimen in Table 3. The results of comparison between
calculation and test are shown in Table 4.
Table 4 shows that the maximum error of fatigue life predicted by the theoretical model is close to 20%, and the average error is
more than 10%. The fatigue life predicted by the theoretical model is lower than that of the test results. The phenomenon is mainly
caused by the following reasons:

(1) The prediction model is different from the actual situation.

(2) The coupling effect of corrosion and fatigue was considered in the prediction model, but the coupling effect of fatigue corrosion
was not considered in the experiment in this paper.

Although the error between the prediction model and the test is large, the calculation results are conservative and can be
considered reliable. In practice, the results of corrosion fatigue are quite discrete. Prediction model is simple and practical.

4. Conclusions

Considering the coupling effect of corrosion and fatigue on the sling in practical engineering, the basic high strength steel wires
were selected as the test specimens. The fatigue tests were carried out on the specimens after different degrees of corrosion. The S-N
curves of different degrees of corrosion were given and the steel wire life model considering the effect of corrosion was proposed.
There are several conclusions and prospects as follows.

(1) The effect of the corrosion on fatigue of high strength steel wire cannot be neglected. The larger the corrosion degree, the steeper
the S-N curve, and a sudden change may occur when the stress amplitude is large.
(2) The influence of corrosion was considered in the prediction model proposed in this paper, which can reflect the law of the
coupling effect of corrosion and fatigue to a certain extent.
(3) This article studies the fatigue test under different corrosion conditions. How to design the test considering the corrosion fatigue
coupling effect at the same time needs to be further studied.

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Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgements

This paper was financially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 51178396/ E080505).

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