Unveiling the Veiled: Unmasking Hidden Agendas in the Bush Administration

Wasif Iqbal
11th Grade US History PBA
6/5/2023 | F Band
PBA Presentation: June 16, 8:00-8:55
 I’m a uniter not a divider. This phrase, uttered by presidential candidate George W. Bush, was a

recurring slogan that he utilized throughout the campaign to convey his commitment to bringing people

together. In the 2000 presidential election, after navigating a contested and controversial recount in Florida,

president Bush was inaugurated in 2001. Yet, even with this victory, the advent of the September 11 attacks

halted all policy-making. Instead, Bush became laser-focused on providing an adequate response. Bush declared

“the war on terror”, beginning his campaign in Afghanistan; by 2003 he recognized the threat of WMDs and

Saddam Hussien and sought to remove them in Iraq. In March 2003, he invaded Iraq, and throughout a year of

warfare, reports were issued confirming the absence of WMDs in Iraq. Politicians and historians began to

question Bush’s decision to invade Iraq based on the presence of WMDs and the extent to which the Bush

administration influenced the invasion. In reality, the influence of the Bush Administration heavily controlled

the president’s decision-making, ultimately key figures such as Dick Cheney, Donald Rumsfeld and Colin

Powell sought ulterior motives hidden under the public eye

Before the Invasion during the twenty-first century, there existed Saddam Hussein, a controversial and

influential political figure in the Middle East, serving as the president of Iraq from 1979 to his eventual

expulsion in 2003. His regime was defined by his government’s strong centralization of power, authoritarian

rule and human right violations. Saddam Hussien pursued Iraqi dominance, which led to conflict between

various nations. One conflict known as the Iraq-Iran war was a dispute between the neighboring countries of

Iraq and Iran. The conflict was dissected into numerous complex factors lasting from 1980-1988, a brutal eight

years, resulting in an immense loss of life. One thing that remained key was Saddam’s zeal for regional

superiority.. Despite harrowing socio-economical losses, Saddam Hussien remained determined to assert his

authority.

The “Butcher of Baghdad'', continued his subjugation with the invasion of Kuwait. After the events of

Iran-Iraq War, Iraq was burdened with heavy debts and sought to control the oil resources in Kuwait. Moreover,

Saddam also justified his invasion by claiming that Kuwait had always been an integral part of Iraq and only

became an independent nation due to the interference of the British government1. Armed with an objective on

1 R. Stephen Humphreys, Between Memory and Desire: The Middle East in a Troubled Age, University of California
Press, 1999, p. 105.
“August 1990 at 2:00 am”2 Iraqi tanks and helicopters would invade Kuwait, toppling the capital Kuwait City

and forcing officials into exile. The Iraqi invasion and occupation of Kuwait was unanimously condemned by

all major world powers. Even countries considered to be close Iraqi allies, such as India and france ,called for

immediate withdrawal of all Iraqi forces from Kuwait3. The United Nations passed Resolution 660, Demanding

“that Iraq withdraw immediately and unconditionally all its forces to the positions in which they were located

on 1 August 1990”4. Following hegemonic unity, the United States decided to offer a ultimatum to “Iraq to

withdraw its forces from Kuwait by 15 January 1991 or face war”5. As negotiations fell through between major

world powers and Iraq, the United States-led coalition forces advanced their plan and stationed their forces

throughout Kuwait. Fighting continued, but by “late February”, the U.S. forces were able to overwhelm Iraqi

forces and “liberate Kuwait”6 forcing a ceasefire.

The aftermath of the Gulf War reinstated the threat imposed by Saddam Hussien to the world.

Especially, during “the mid 1980s, Iraq’s chemical program became increasingly self-sufficient. This dynamic

enabled Iraq to increase production of chemical agents”7. The possibility of Iraq possessing these biological

warfare threatened regional stability but also global security. The fear of these weapons of mass destruction

initiated mass scrutiny and through inspections under a program known as UNSCOM. The United Nations

Special Commission was created to supervise the elimination of biological, chemical and nuclear weapons8.

Closely maintaining an eye on Iraq from 1991 to its eventual abolishment in 19999.

2 "The Iraqi Invasion; In Two Arab Capitals, Gunfire and Fear, Victory and Cheers". The New York Times (Kuwait). 3
August 1990. https://www.nytimes.com/1990/08/03/world/the-iraqi-invasion-in-two-arab-capitals-gunfire-and-fear-victory-
and-cheers.htl.
3 "World Acts Against Iraqi Invasion of Kuwait." . GlobalSecurity.org.
http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/library/news/iraq/1990/900816-151051.htm
4 UN. Security Council (45th year : 1990), Resolution 660 (1990) / adopted by the Security Council at its 2932nd meeting,
on 2 August 1990, [New York] : UN, 2 Aug. 1990,
5 Friedman, Thomas L. (17 December 1990). "Standoff in the Gulf; A Partial Pullout By Iraq is Feared as Deadline 'Ploy'".
The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/1990/12/18/world/standoff-in-the-gulf-a-partial-pullout-by-iraq-is-feared-
as-deadline-ploy.html.
6 25 February 1991: Iraq withdraws from Kuwait . Sify Retrieved on 12 June 2011 http://sify.com/news/feb-25-1991-iraq-
withdraws-from-kuwait-news-international-jegmKUdfebd.html
7 Ali, Javed. “Chemical Weapons and the Iran‐Iraq War: A Case Study in Noncompliance.” The Nonproliferation Review
8, no. 1 (2001): 43–58. https://doi.org/10.1080/10736700108436837.
8 Zilinskas, Raymond A. “UNSCOM and the UNSCOM Experience in Iraq.” Politics and the Life Sciences 14, no. 2
(1995): 230–35. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4236145.
9 Tripp, Charles, A History of Iraq, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 269
 Following the 9/11 attacks, the widespread discontent created by the tragedy posed an opportunity to

build patriotic animosity, against a common enemy, terrorism. Under a tense and inflamed public atmosphere,

Bush exalted in his speech “Our war on terror begins with al Qaeda, but it does not end there. It will not end

until every terrorist group of global reach has been found, stopped and defeated”10. Bush incited Congress’s

help, passing the Authorization for Use of Military Force of 2001 a joined resolution meaning that “the

President is authorized to use all necessary and appropriate force against those nations, organizations, or

persons he determines planned, authorized, committed, or aided the terrorist attacks that occurred on September

11, 2001”11. Consequently, during a debate five days later in Camp David, “none of the president’s top advisors

recommended attacking Iraq as a first step in the terrorism war”12. After a heavily favored discussion, Bush tells

Condoleezza Rice, the current U.S. national advisor, “the first target of the war on terrorism was going to be

Afghanistan”13. The Bush Administration had three clear goals in mind: one to remove Al Qaeda and undermine

the Taliban regime14, two to stabilize Afghanistan as by the time of the invasion there was a humanitarian crisis

with the country on the brink of collapse15. The third major goal is to target and promote counter-terroism to

prevent future attacks such as the September 11th attacks from happening again. On October 7th, 2001 Bush

officially ordered the invasion of Afghanistan. According to Historian Carter Malkanasian, the chair of the

defense analysis department at the Naval Postgraduate school, states that the campaign was a “striking military

success”16. Since the United States only committed “110 cia officers, 350 special operators, and 5000 Rangers

and Marines”17. Even polls were in favor of the military intervention in Afghanistan as when the invasion

began, polls indicated that about 88% of Americans military action18. Even though there existed international

10 “Address to a Joint Session of Congress and the American People ,” National Archives and Records Administration,
September 20, 2001, https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010920-8.html.
11 Bob Woodward, Plan of Attack (New York City, New York : Simon & Schuster, 2004), 24.
12 Bob Woodward, Plan of Attack 25.
13 1. “Public Law 107–40 107th Congress Joint Resolution,” Joint Resolution, September 18, 2001,
https://www.congress.gov/107/plaws/publ40/PLAW-107publ40.pdf.
14 Wright, Donald P.; Bird, James; Clay, Steven; et al. (2010). A Different Kind of War: The United States Army in Operation
Enduring Freedom (OEF) October 2001-September 2005. Fort Leavenworth, Kansas: Combat Studies Institute Press.
15 Bearak, Barry (September 12, 2001a). "Condemning Attacks, Taliban Says bin Laden Not Involved". The New York Times.
16 Malkasian, Carter (2021). The American War in Afghanistan: A History. Oxford University Press.
17 Malkasian, Carter, p.78
18 AEI (July 24, 2008). "America and the War on Terror". AEI Public Opinion Study.
criticism, many view that invasion as a populist success, however the decisions and actions pertaining to the

Invasion of Iraq wouldn’t be viewed as favorly.

Seeking to transition from Afghanistan, Bush shifts his militarization effort towards the destabilization

of Saddam’s government and elimination of WMDs in Iraq. In the midst of September 11th attacks Bush’s poll

numbers jumped to an astounding 90% approval rate. Gradually, his approval decreased but in 2002 it still

hovered around 60-70% which is stupendous even after a major conflict19. Utilizing his substantial political

credibility, In early 2002, George W. Bush established the Bush Doctrine. In the State of Union Address, Bush

outlined his future actions “Iraq continues to flaunt its hostility toward America and to support terror. The Iraqi

regime has plotted to develop anthrax, and nerve gas, and nuclear weapons for over a decade”. Claiming his “

regime that has already used poison gas to murder thousands of its own citizens -- leaving the bodies of mothers

huddled over their dead children”. As well as “a regime that agreed to international inspections -- then kicked

out the inspectors. This is a regime that has something to hide from the civilized world”20. In October 2002,

Congress had approved another joint resolution. It was known as the Iraq Resolution which permitted the use of

force against Iraq21. With the momentum of the Bush administration pointing towards military action, Bush sat

down with Colin Powell, Bush’s current Secretary of State and discussed their peril. Powell explains that they

should “explore other possible solutions before we make the choice of war. Every political and diplomatic effort

should be made to avoid war while achieving your objective”22. Bush acknowledged his sentiment and asked for

his recommendation. Powell believes the best course of action is to pass the problem to the United Nations.

Since, “Iraq is in violation of multiple UN resolutions” and there could be a “diplomatic solution to the WMD

issue”23. However, before issues could be resolved the threat of Saddam Hussien remained. The president, the

national security staff and neoconservatives such as Dick Cheney and Donald Rumsfeld agreed that his

elimination was worth the war. Through eight weeks of debating and negotiations, the United Nation Security

19 Gallup. “Presidential Approval Ratings -- George W. Bush.” Gallup.com, May 30, 2023.
https://news.gallup.com/poll/116500/presidential-approval-ratings-george-bush.aspx.
20 “President Delivers State of the Union Address,” National Archives and Records Administration, January 29, 2002,
https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2002/01/20020129-11.html.
21 Smith, Jean Edward (2016). Bush. Simon & Schuster.
22 Cozy Powell and Tony Koltz, It Worked for Me in Life and Leadership (New York City, New York: Copyright © 2012 by
Colin Powell. Published by arrangement with Harper, an imprint of HarperCollins Publishers, 2012), 279.
23 Cozy Powell and Tony Koltz, It Worked for Me in Life and Leadership, 279.
Council passed the UN Resolution 1441. This piece recognized that “the threat Iraq’s non-compliance with

Council resolutions and proliferation of weapons of mass destruction and long-range missiles poses to

international peace and security” and “that the Government of Iraq has failed to comply with its commitments

pursuant to resolution 687 (1991) with regard to terrorism, pursuant to resolution 688 (1991) to end repression

of its civilian population and to provide access by international humanitarian organizations to all those in need

of assistance in Iraq”24.

As opposed to accepting up-to-date information, George W. Bush is convinced of the significance of the

invasion of Iraq continuing the invasion. Valerie Wilson, a CIA officer in charge of finding the WMDs in Iraq

explains that all her “sources that continued to essentially say the same thing: Iraq had no WMDs and no active

WMD programs''25. With Bush lacking hard evidence proving the existence of WMDs in Iraq he faced

international opposition from countries such as Germany, China, France and Russia26. Bush enforced that there

were weapons in Iraq, in his March 17 public address he stated “The people of the United States and our friends

and allies will not live at the mercy of an outlaw regime that threatens the peace with weapons of mass

murder”27. Three days later, on March 20, 2003 Bush began the invasion of Iraq. Lasting from March to April

the U.S. coalition was able to topple the regime of Saddam Hussien and occupy Iraq. On April 9, 2003,

Baghdad, the capital of Iraq had fallen. The focus of the military had shifted to post-invasion stabilization and

jurisdiction. After the invasion had occurred there was a formal search done by ISG (Iraq Survey Group) led by

David Kay and Charles Duelfer. One of the American Weapon Experts, David Kay expresses that “we were

almost all wrong" about Iraq having stockpiles of weapons of mass destruction”28 and in another interview he

states that “a lot of the former Iraqi government's weapons of mass destruction program had been moved to

Syria shortly before the 2003 invasion, albeit not including large stockpiles of weapons”29. Charles Duelfer

24 “United Nations S Security Council - ‫األمم المتحدة‬,” United Nations, November 8, 2002,
https://www.un.org/Depts/unmovic/documents/1441.pdf.
25 Michael Isikoff and David Corn, Hubris the inside Story of Spin, Scandal, and the Selling of the Iraq War (New York
City, New York: Three Rivers Press, 2007), 166.
26 Smith (2016), pp. 338-340
27 “March 17, 2003: Address to the Nation on Iraq,” Miller Center, March 7, 2023,
https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/presidential-speeches/march-17-2003-address-nation-iraq.
28 Transcript: David Kay at Senate Hearing". CNN. 28 January 2004. Archived from the original on 20 August 2006.
Retrieved 8 September 2006.
29 Haldenby, Andrew (January 25, 2004). "Saddam's WMD hidden in Syria, says Iraq survey chief". London:
Telegraph.co.uk. Archived from the original on April 14, 2008. Retrieved May 22, 2010
eventually took over the ISG in 2004 and created a comprehensive report detailing his findings. In this report he

finds that “Iraq's weapons of mass destruction capability ... was essentially destroyed in 1991" and that Saddam

Hussein subsequently focused on ending the sanctions and "preserving the capability to reconstitute his

weapons of mass destruction (WMD) when sanctions were lifted"30.

After the absence of WMDs in Iraq, president Bush and cabinet was criticized for their unclear motive in

the invasion of Iraq. Mainly receiving biting criticism, was vice-president Dick Cheney. Cheney was an

experienced political figure, joining the U.S. house of representatives (1979-1989) becoming the secretary of

defense (1989-1993)31. Many Americans found him fit for the role of vice-president due to his experience and

competence. Unfortunately, his influence over the Bush administration, his neoconservatism and oil

connections were critical in Bush’s decision to invade Iraq. During his tenure as vice-president of America he

worked to stretch out executive power expanding his “domain and influence”. His excellent connection with the

president and his access to numerous resources provided him with substantial power32. His neo-conservative

values flourished under these parameters. He spearheaded and promoted that preemptive action in Iraq was

necessary to prevent future threats and establish democracy. Although Bush wasn’t a described neo-

conservative his actions were influenced by these beliefs many due to the strong neocon voice in his

administration. Other than political gain Dick Cheney also pursued monetary benefits. Prior to serving as vice-

president, Cheney was the CEO of Halliburton from 1995-200033. Halliburton Co. is one of the leaders of Oil

and Gas companies, ranked 24th in the world by Market Value at 18.2 Billion34. Likewise, Iraq possessed vast

oil reserves that could have been controlled through the occupation of Iraq and contributed to the economic

value of these Big Oil companies. Historian Farzana Noshab establishes the connection when “Halliburton had

more than doubled its political contributions to the Republican candidates to the tune of 1.2 million, when

30 “Comprehensive Report of the Special Advisor to the DCI on Iraq’s WMD, with Addendums ,” GovInfo, September 2004,
https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/GPO-DUELFERREPORT.
31 “Vice President Dick Cheney,” National Archives and Records Administration, accessed June 4, 2023,
https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/vicepresident/.
32 “USA: Dick Cheney’s Oil Connections,” CorpWatch, July 25, 2000, https://www.corpwatch.org/article/usa-dick-
cheneys-oil-connections.
33 “Richard B. Cheney,” > Historical Office > Article View, accessed June 5, 2023,
https://history.defense.gov/Multimedia/Biographies/Article-View/Article/571284/richard-b-cheney/.
34 Noshab, Farzana. “CONTROL OF OIL: THE REAL OBJECTIVE OF US INVASION OF IRAQ?” Strategic Studies 23,
no. 2 (2003): 85–101. http://www.jstor.org/stable/45242468.
Mr.Cheney was president of that company”35. Additionally, internal emails resurfaced that “Douglas Feith, the

undersecretary of defense for policy and an avid promoter of the war, had approved a contract with

Halliburton”36. “The email says that Mr Feith received authorisation for the Rio (Restore Iraqi Oil) contract

from the deputy defense secretary, Paul Wolfowitz” and that Cheney “received $178,437 in deferred

compensation from the company”37.

Moreover, other Bush advisors such as Donald Rumsfeld, Paul Wolfowoitz, and Condoleezza Rice also

kept and pursued hidden motives under the public eye. Donald Rumsfeld, the Secretary of Defense and Paul

Wolfowoitz the Deputy Secretary of Defense were staunch neo-conservatives.38Both believed in the geopolitical

influence of America being able to reshape the Middle East and advance American interests. In advancing these

interests, Rumsfeld worked with fellow neocon Dick Cheney. They developed a strategy, as long as “they

agreed on the correct course. Cheney and Rumsfeld could frame decisions for Bush, interpret those decisions

for the rest of the executive branch, and control what Bush learned about those results”39. Likewise, Paul

Wolfowotiz tried arguing for the invasion of Iraq. Going back to the meeting in Camp David, Wolflowotiz

asserted “there was a 10-50% chance Saddam had been part of 9/11 plot, and he suggested Bush consider

attacking Iraq right away”40. Another key figure is the U.S. national security advisor, she operated under the

same belief of many of Bush advisors. Although not necessarily, neo-conservative she has been championing

democracy and anti-Hussein rhetoric. When interviewed during the 10th anniversary of the Iraq War Rice

proclaimed “that Hussein was a “cancer in the Middle East” that needed to be removed from the region,

despite the lack of discovered WMDs and the deaths that resulted from the conflict 41. All these advisors all

contained different beliefs, values, vices and stories but when they came together they all believed that the

35 “Email Shows Cheney ‘link’ to Oil Contract,” The Guardian, June 1, 2004,
https://www.theguardian.com/business/2004/jun/01/iraq.oilandpetrol.
36 Ibid.
37 GOLDSTEIN, JOEL K. “The Contemporary Presidency: Cheney, Vice Presidential Power, and the War on Terror.”
Presidential Studies Quarterly 40, no. 1 (2010): 102–39. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23044898.
38 “Daniel Lieberfeld – e-International Relations,” E, accessed June 4, 2023, https://www.e-ir.info/author/daniel-
lieberfeld/.
39 Lieberfeld, Daniel. “THEORIES OF CONFLICT AND THE IRAQ WAR.” International Journal of Peace Studies 10, no.
2 (2005): 1–21. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41852927.
40 Lieberfeld, Daniel. “THEORIES OF CONFLICT AND THE IRAQ WAR.”, 14.
41 Hans Binnendijk and David C. Gompert, “Towards Nuclear Stewardship with China,” Survival 65, no. 1 (2023): 7–20,
https://doi.org/10.1080/00396338.2023.2172846.
War in Iraq was the only option. Even if there existed conflicted information their motives outweighed the

evidence of the WMDs.

The invasion of Iraq was such a broad and expansive topic, many historians have offered differing

opinions on what had influenced Bush to invade Iraq in 2003. But one historian Daniel Liberfield, a Associate

Professor of Conflict Resolution and Peace Studies at Duquesne University’s Center for Social and Public

Policy in Pittsburgh42, argues in one of his many viewpoints that Bush’s Ideological and non-rational character

mainly influenced the war in Iraq. Liberfield writes that “Bush invoked the Munich analogy, which labels as

‘appeasement’ policies other than military confrontation”. He further explains that “Bush likened Hussien to

hitler and drew analogies to the 1938 Munich conference, asserting, for example,The harsh experiences of 1938

showed when great democracies fail to confront danger, greater dangers follow”43. Liberfield dives into the

interpersonal conflict between Saddam Hussien and the Bush family. Introducing how “in 1993 Hussien had

tried to assassinate Bush’s father in a plot, had it succeeded, might have also killed his wife, Laura. Possibly

illustrative of a vendetta type-motive was to keep Hussien’s confiscated pistol in his office and show it off to

visitors after the Iraqi dictator’s capture”44.

Another group of Historians David C. Gompert, a distinguished fellow at the Atlantic Council. He

previously served as senior director for defense policy at the US National Security Council, Hans Binnendijk, a

distinguished visiting professor at the US Naval Academy, previously serving as the acting director of national

intelligence, special assistant to the US president45, Bonny Lin, a political scientist as Rand argue that the War

in Iraq was caused to create a “new model of democracy in the Middle East”46. Stating that “democracy was on

the rise globally” flourishing in “Eastern Europe and Latin America” if America could take hold of Iraq it could

serve as a model for the Arab World47.

42 Gompert, David C., Hans Binnendijk, and Bonny Lin. “The U.S. Invasion of Iraq, 2003.” In Blinders, Blunders, and
Wars: What America and China Can Learn, 161–74. RAND Corporation, 2014.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7249/j.ctt1287m9t.21.
43 Ibid.
44 Jacob Weisberg, The Bush Tragedy (London, UK: Bloomsbury Paperbacks, 2013), 169.
45 Jacob Weisberg, The Bush Tragedy, 172.
46 Michael Isikoff and David Corn, Hubris the inside Story of Spin, Scandal, and the Selling of the Iraq War, 80.
47 Joshua Fetcher , “Former Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice Reaffirms Iraq War Support on Eve of 10th
Anniversary,” The Daily Texan, March 19, 2013, https://thedailytexan.com/2013/03/19/former-secretary-of-state-
condoleezza-rice-reaffirms-iraq-war-support-on-eve-of-10th/#:~:text=As%20National%20Security%20Advisor%20to,need
%20for%20war%20with%20Iraq.
 Ultimately, Bush’s decision to invade Iraq in 2003 will always remain complex and nuanced. Always

breaking into an argument on which side was right or wrong. But, as young historians we can always try to

answer. Various historians have cited Bush’s emotions and the American “model of democracy” caused the war

in Iraq. However, the influence of the Bush administration remained fundamental in transforming Bush’s

agenda. Key figures such as Dick Cheney, Donald Rumsfeld and Paul Wolfwotiz were able incorporate their

neo-conservative values into Bush’s presidency gradually shifting his view on the War on Iraq and

interventionism. Others such as Powell who genuinely believed the existence of WMDs in Iraq but still

contributed to the invasion of Iraq. Even after two decades worth of media, journals and data the answer still

remains ambiguous. But, one thing remains clear, it wasn’t WMDs!

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