© Shell-and-tube heat exchangers are the most common {ype of heat-transfer equipment in the chemical process industries (CP1). Their mechanical design is governed by ‘Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Assn. (1), American Soc. of Mechanical Engineers (10] and American Petro- leum Institute /11] standards. These usually comple- ment one another. TEMA standards are widely accepted worldwide for the thermal and mechanical integrity of shell-and-tube exchangers. ‘TEMA standards have a convenient system for desig- nating shell-and-tube exchangers. For example: a fixed- tubesheet exchanger with removable channel and cover, bonnet-type rear head, two-pass shell, 38-1/8 in. LD., with tubes 8 ft long, will be designated as: Size 38-96 Type AFM Here, the number 33 is the nominal inside diameter in inches, rounded off to the nearest integer, and the number 96 is the nominal length of the tubes in iniches. For straight tubes, the tube length is the actual overall length, and for U-tubes, the tube length is the length from the end of the tube to the bend tangent. The three letters, AFM, represent the front end (stationary head type), the shell type, and the rear end (head type), mple, A represents a channel and remov- ents a two-pass shell with Iongitudi- ents a fixed-tubesheet rear end. ‘covered in the TEMA standards ‘well established as a means between users, engineering contrac- rs of the equipment. Davinder K. Mehra, Brown & Root, Inc Shell-and-tube heat exchangers Many factors affect the design of this equipment. Here are the { construction details, and guidelines for placing streams on the 4 shellside or tubeside, based on their particular physical properties. ‘ tion to maintenance, performance and economy (2,3,4] 4 There are two types of removable bundles: one made with U-tubes, and the other of straight tubes, in several variations, for handling the floating head. U-tube exchangers Uctube exchangers provide the simplest construction for removable bundles (Fig. 1a) and, hence, are the most economical. The exchanger consists of straight tubes bent in the form of a U, and attached to the tubesheet. “The U-bend section of the bundle is free to expand in the shell, and the need for an expansion joint, when thermal relief is required, is eliminated. : Advantages 1. Gan be used in services requiring extremely high pressures on one side. 2 Inlet nozzle on shell can be located beyond: U- bends. This eliminates the need for an impingement plate that would otherwise be necessary. 3. Least expensive of all types of shell-and-tube . exchangers. Disadvantages 1. Suitable for clean services only, because U-bends are difficult to clean by mechanical methods. 4 2. Individual tubes are generally difficult to replace except for those in the outer rows. ~ 3. Tube passes are restricted to even numbers only. (This is not a serious disadvantage because most ex- changers have an even number of passes.) +Floating-head exchangers Floating-head exchangers are the most sophisticated type of shell-and-tube heat exchangers used in those CPI plants where regular maintenance is done. These ex- changers have straight tubes, secured at both ends tub One tubesheet is free to move, provid eeeBayles o Placa de Soporte os partition, Longitudinal baffle Baffles or support plates Shell cover Support saddles ‘1 “Tie rods and spacers Stationary-head i a channel ca pas Type: CFU a, Ustube bundle Pass partition Tie rods and spacers \ , Baffles or support plates Packing box, “Support saddles Stationary tubesheet i 5 Type: AEP oe b, Floating-head, outside packed stuffing box 4k te det pletocar Stationary-head channel freroa Chops Battles or support plates, «Tie rods an spacers Packing box, PING eoating Packing /_tubesheet Lshells, \ Stationary tubesheet Type AW ¢, Floating head, outside-packed lantern ring ee eure cd SaetatTube bundles may be re ; ment, and external sense lie Se tubeside headers, channel covers. parker oe Likewise, sible for maintenance and replacement seg ane See be deaned internally. The two basic pee shi mY method of sealing the shellside and tubeside fluc method relies on an outside-packed stuffing hear other, on an outside-packed lantern ring, SS ‘Me Outside-packed stuffing bax—The shellsde fluid in this exchanger (Fig. 1b) is sealed by rings of packing con pressed within a stuffing box bya packing follewes can The packing allows the floating tubesheet to move bate and forth. Since the stuffing box contacts only the shell side fluid, there is no mixing of shellsde and taberele fluids if leakage occurs through the packing. Thy a rangement is limited to (a) shellside services up to 600 psig and 600°F, and (b) nonhazardous and nomonie services—because leakage of shellsde fluid to the enve ronment is possible Outsid-packed lantern ring—The shellsce and tubeside fluids are each sealed by separate rings of packing, or O- ings, (Fig. lo) and separated by a lantern ring provided with weep holes. Hence, leakage through either packing will be to the outside. The width of the tubesheet must be sufficient to accommodate the length of the two packings and the lantern ring, plus whatever length i needed for differential thermal expansion between the exchanger’s shell and tube bundle Sometimes, a small skirt is attached to the floating tubesheet to provide a bearing surface for the packings and lantern ring. This design is limited to (a) 150 psig and 500°F and (b) one or two tube passes. Itis not appl- cable in services where leakage of either tubeside or shellside fluid is unacceptable, or where possible mixing of tubeside and shellside fluids cannot be tolerate. Pull-through bundle ‘A separate bundle is bolted directly to the floating tubesheet, as shown in Fig. 2a. Both the assembled tubesheet and head are small enough to slide through the shell. The tube bundle can be removed without breaking any joints at the floating end. Clearance re- quirements (the largest for any type of shell-and-tube exchanger) between the outermost tubes and the inside of the shell must provide for the gasket bolting at the floating tubesheet. For an odd number of passes, a nozzle must extend from the floating-head cover through the shell cover. Provision for both differential thermal expansion and tube-bundle removal requires, for example, packed ‘This design is very expensive, and its application u ‘services where failure of the internal gasket z o and its head) is accept- ide and tubeside fluids ~ * ? ea cover must be removed for the tube bundle to slide through the shell. Clearances between the outermost tubes and the side of the shell (about the same as those for outside- packed stuffing boxes) approach the inside diameter of the gasket at the floating tubesheet. This type of con- struction is ideal for high shellside pressures and tem- peratures where service conditions require removable tube bundles. For an odd number of tube passes, a nozzle must extend from the floating-head cover through the shell cover. With the exception of special designs, this is the most expensive type of shell-and-tube heat exchanger. Nonremovable tube bundles ‘The most popular heat exchanger in the CPI is the fixed-tubesheet unit (Fig, 3). This design has straight tubes secured at both ends to tubesheets welded to the shell. The exchanger can be designed with removable channel covers (TEMA Type AEL), bonnet-type chan- nels (TEMA Type BEM), or integral tubesheets (TEMA ‘Type NEN), ‘Advantages 1. Maximum protection against leakage of shellside fluid to the environment. 2, Minimum shell diameter of all shell-and-tube heat exchangers for a given heat-transfer surface, with the same diameter, length and number of tubes, and tube passes. 3. Relatively inexpensive, Disadvantages 1. Shellside not accessible for mechanical cleaning, hence, application limited to clean service on shellside. 2. Expansion joint required in shell to relieve stresses due to differential thermal expansion. Shell designs Various shell designs are available for heat-transfer applications. These can be broadly classified as: single- ‘ass, two-pass, split-flow and divided-flow shells. Single pass (TEMA Type E) is the most common de- sign. However, use is restricted to service conditions where there is no temperature cross. Two-pass (TEMA Type F) is used for services where temperature cross is unavoidable due to process consid ‘erations, and where space limitations exclude the use of two, or more, shells in series. This shell is available with, removable and nonremovable longitudinal baffles. ‘A major problem with removable baffles is fluid leak- age through the clearance between the longitudinal baffle and shell. In extreme situations, this clearance can ‘make the unit ineffective in its intended service. The usual practice for this type of unit is to provide longitudi- nl seal strips (bars) to prevent fluid leakage, or weld the bafile to the shell. ‘Spilit-flow and divided-flow (TEMA Types G, H, J and X), are used in services where shellside heat transfer is not controlling, and low shellside pressure drop is desired.ee | 0 Tie rods and spacers Pass — partition |>-~support saddle Stationary-head channel Type: AKT Pass partition a. Pullthrough bundle y Stationary tubesheet Shell Floating-head / cover Support__- saddle Baffles or support plates Floating tubesheet Baffles or support plates ~ Support saddles ~ Stationary-head channel Type:AES b. Inside split-backing ring Removable tube bundles of special design have floating-head covers Stationary tubesheety aaa Bonnet joint \ (stationary head) | Tie rods and spacers Baffles or support plates” ‘Type: BEM A es GHMICAT ENGINEERING JULY a {Tie rods and spacers Floating-head Stationary, Bonnet tubesheet (stationary head) BeHeat Exchange Institute (HE) (19 ae area mechanical sandards are applicable 1o angers having: inside diameters The intent of these parameters isto limit shell thickens ‘o approximately 2 in., and stud diameters to xima approxi- mately 3 in. The criteria contained in the standarts ove also be applied to units constructed with lana diameters . The TEMA Standards defi ine three classes (R, C and B) of heat exchangers for processsing applications in the PI. Each class is specified in terms of design, fabrication and materials of construction for unfired shell-and-tube heat exchangers, based on severity of service. In brief: TEMA Class R Standards satisfy the requirement of petroleum-processing and related applications, TEMA Class C Standards satisfy the moderate require- ments of commercial and general process applications TEMA Class B Standards satisfy the requirements for chemical process services. Rubin [5] presents a table showing the differences among the three classes of exchangers. Materials of construction for shell-and-tube heat ex- changers are selected on the basis of compatibility with process fluids, anticorrosion properties, economics, and dient preference. Tubeside materials are 3/4, 1,1 1/2, and 2 in. Tubewall thicknesses range from 18 to 10 Birmingham Wire Gage (BWG). Preferred tube lengths are 8, 10, 12, 16 and 20 ft. Other lengths may be used if delivery and handling are not a major factor. In such ‘cases, even tube lengths are preferred. ‘The minimum preferred tube pitch is 1.25 times the outside diameter of the tube. However, for tubes in a square pattern, a minimum lane of 1/4 in. is required for mechanical cleaning. if Tubesheets—These elements perform the important function of separating the shellside and tubeside fluids, and provide the anchor point for tube ends. Tubesheets are usually machined from material similar to that speci- fied for tubes. However, for stainless steels and other alloys for the tubes, the tubesheet may be fabricated from carbon steel, and cladded with the alloy material. Chanel and lating head covers and channels The met allurgy of these components must be compatible wit the tubeside fluid. Cladding, lining, or weld-overlay on “base metal may be used to reduce costs for stainless Baffles and support plates—The purposes of baffles are to: (I) deflect the shellside fluid over the tubes in its Passage through the exchanger, and (2) act as tube Supports to maintain tube pitch, prevent sagging of tubes, and prevent flow-induced vibrations. Materials of construction for baffles are usually the same as for the shell. Table I lists some of the common baffle types. Other shellside components Tie rods and spacers are used to retain all transverse baffles and tube-support plates securely in_ position. Their materials of construction are similar to those for baffles. The TEMA Standards for Class R, C and B set, out the tie-rod diameter and minimum number to be used. Sealing strip and dummy tubes are used to prevent exces- sive bypassing of the fluid around or through the tube bundle. This ensures that the shellside fluid passes effectively over the tube bundles in crossflow. Sealing strips are not usually required in fixed-tubesheet ex: changers, or where bundle-to-shell clearance is less than 1 in, Materials of construction are similar to those for baffles. Impingement plates are located in the shellside inlet-flow area to prevent suspended solids or two-phase mixtures from impinging on the tubes to cause damage by ero- Porras Petr etiresc iris Arc Type Horizontal cut Flow pattern prevents stratification liquid disengagement) Same as single, segmental, but for lower pressure-drop requirement, ww Horizontal ext bk » same as sng, seamen, but for ye lower pressure. drop requirement. Vertical ext \Vaporization. Condensation wit Inerts where crossflow from inlet to exit nozzle is required, | Vaporization. Condensation. Def es 'No phase change. Heating and cooling. and settling of any suspended material. \Vaporizing. Condensing (allows vapor-sion. Guidelines are detailed in the relevant section of the TEMA Standards [1]. * Thermal design and rating ‘The thermal design of shell-and-tube heat exchangers is a complex function of various parameters that some- times work against each other. These parameters can be broadly classified as related to physical properties of the Process streams undergoing heat transfer, and to the geometry of the exchanger. Fora given set of conditions, there are many alternatives for selecting heat-transfer equipment for a specified service. The following discus- sion covers the several parameters and their influence upon the design and rating of a shell-and-tube ex- changer for a specified service. Process data Process data for the thermal design and rating of shell- and-tube heat exchangers must be listed on a specifica- tion sheet, such as that in the TEMA Standards 1). All data on the fluid streams must be given, because incom- plete data lead to delays in designing the heat exchanger, and to assumptions by a designer that may be totally off the mark. Heating and cooling curves are critical in the design of condensers and reboilers. More exchangers have been known to fail due to errors in computing an effective temperature difference because of incomplete data than due to errors in com- puting heat-transfer film coefficients, For multiple duties, in an exchanger, a separate data sheet must be prepared for each service, so that the unit can be checked for all known operating conditions. Density, viscosity, specific heat and thermal conductiv- ity of the process streams undergoing heat transfer have the most profound effect on the size and type of heat ex- changer, because such data enter directly into the calcu- lations for heat-transfer film coefficients and pressure drop. Hence, it is imperative that physical-property data be as accurate as possible. Najjar and others (6) give an excellent treatise on the impact of physical-property data on heat-transfer film coefficients and, hence, on the de- sign of heat-transfer equipment. Tubeside diameter—Thermal efficiency and economic considerations require as small a diameter as possible. However, the practical limit is the requirement for me- ‘chanical cleaning of tubes, which necessitates a mini- mum diameter of 3/4 in. for straight tubes, and 1 in. for Ustubes. .. ‘For clean streams, or if chemical cleaning is feasible tubeside pressure drop is not critical, smaller-diame- ‘may be used—with the potential of significant in heat-transfer 7 ‘a giveli surface, because a smaller number ,) etre the size of tubesheets and flanges, reduced. (The maximum tube length that can be has, dled by most manufacturers is about 40 ft.) Howeve, this does not imply that the longest possible tube alway. produces an optimum, exchanger, as other length- pendent factors will influence the efficiency of the over. all design. 4 ‘Tube lengths of 20 ft are often considered a maximum where tubeside mechanical cleaning is required. This limit is imposed by the practical length of cleaning drills. On the other hand, short tube length will be inherently expensive, and may result in an unnecessarily large number of tube passes, small baffle spacings, and high maintenance-labor costs. a Tube arrangement—Tubes are arranged in triangular, square or rotated-square pitch. Triangular tube-layouts result in better shellside coefficients and provide more surface area in a given shell diameter, whereas square pitch or rotated-square-pitch layouts are used when mechanical cleaning of the outside of the tubes is re- quired. Sometimes, widely spaced triangular patterns facilitate cleaning. Both types of square pitches offer lower pressure drops, but lower coefficients, than trian gular pitch. Geometry effects: shellside ‘The shellside heat-transfer coefficient and pressure drop depend on the flow pattern of the process stream (ie., laminar, transition, turbulent) and on the flow distribution across the tube bundle. ‘The tolerances and clearances necessary for the me- chanical design of the exchanger—such as tube-to-batfle hole, baffle-to-shell, bundle-to-shell, and the orientation of pass partititions—lead to fluid bypassing the tube bundle. In extreme cases, excessive tolerances and clear- ances can render the unit ineffective. To achieve good shellside heat transfer, bypassing of the fluid on the shellside must be reduced or eliminated by using: proper baffle cutouts and baffle spacing, seal- ing strips, and proper arrangement of pass-partition lanes along with dummy tubes. In many cases, and especially for shellside laminar flow, it may be necessary to specify the tightest mechani cal tolerances in order to minimize fluid bypassing, which tends to be large in the laminar-flow regime. In turbulent flows, large momentum-change effects cause less leakage and bypassing relative to crossflow, and better mixing reduces the harmful effect of such streams ‘on the mean temperature difference—allowing some: what looser tolerances. For condensing vapors, the ef- fects of fluid bypassing are relatively unimportant, Baffles establish the flow path of the shellside fluid, which depends on the type and arrangement of the baf- baffle spacing recom- fles (Table 1). The minimum mended by TEMA [1] is 0.2 of the shell diameter, or 2 in., whichever is greater. The maximum “ such that the unsuy enSealing strips prevent bypass around ab "SEES tty of the shell. Common ch Bie rodsnd spaccry bax bon that can be located on the it bypassing, 1 Longitudinal sealin Ti 1 Tie roads with “winged” 5 pacers. extended longitudinal strips that are s. Dummy tubes are tubes that do not }ot pass through th tubesheet. Generally, closed at one end, they are used to prevent bypassing through lanes parallel to the direction of fluid flow inside the bundle, Strips or te ods and pe also be used to prevent bypassing through a Tube-pass arrangement represents the number and orien- tation of pass-partition channels that directly affect the heat-transfer efficiency and pressure drop on the shell- side. Pass-partitions parallel to the flowpath produce channels for short-circuiting flow between baffle tips— resulting in inefficient heat transfer. Therefore, the number of pass-partitions parallel to the flow must be a hold the baffles in place but Periphery of the baffle to i strips extending from baffle to The wings are attached 10 the Fluid allocation Many factors must be taken into consideration in order to determine which fluid should be on the shell- side and which on the tubeside of an exchanger. These are: 1. Viscosity—Higher heat-transfer rates are usually ‘obtained by placing a viscous fluid on the shellside. 2. Toxic and lethal fluids—Generally, the toxic fluid should be placed on the tubeside, using a double tube- sheet to minimize the possibility of leakage. The ASME Code requirements [10] for lethal service must be followed. 3. Flowrate—Placing the fluid having the lower flow- rate on the shellside usually results in a more economical design. Turbulence exists on the shellside at much lower Reynolds numbers than on the tubeside, 4, Corrosion—Fewer costly alloy or clad components are needed if the corrosive fluid is placed inside the tubes. 5. Fouling—Placing the fouling fluid inside the tubes minimizes fouling by permitting better fluid-velocity control. Increased velocities tend to reduce fouling. ‘Straight tubes can be physically cleaned without remov- peal eatas can usually be fluid having a low allowable pressure drop should be placed there as well. Flow arrangement In an exchanger having one shell pass and one tube pass, the two fluids transfer heat in either cocurrent OF countercurrent flow. This affects the value of the log mean temperature difference (LMTD). There is a distinct thermal advantage to counterflow, except when one fluid is isothermal In cocurrent flow, the hot fluid cannot be cooled below the cold-fluid outlet temperature. Thus, the ability of cocurrent flow to recover heat is limited. Neverthe- less, there are instances when cocurrent flow works better than counterflow, such as when cooling viscous fluids, because a higher heat-transfer coefficient may be ‘obtained. Cocurrent flow may also be preferred when the temperature of the warmer fluid may reach its freez- ing point. Fouling Fouling is the deposition of undesirable materials on the heat-exchanger surface, which increases resistance to heat transmission. Fouling is a complex phenomenon and may be due to sedimentation, crystallization, chemi- ‘al reaction, polymerization, coking, growth of organic material such as algae, and corrosion. These fouling ‘mechanisms may operate independently of each other or in parallel. The rate of fouling is controlled by physical and chemical relationships that, in turn, are affected by the operating conditions. The operating variables that have important effects on fouling processes are: 1. Flow velocity—Very strong to moderate effect on a majority of fouling processes. 2. Surface temperature—Affects most fouling proc- esses, and in particular crystallization and chemical reaction. 3. Bulk-fluid temperature—Affects rate of reaction and crystallization, 4. Materials of construction—Possible catalytic action and corrosion. 5, Surface—Roughness, size and density of cavities will affect crystalline nucleation, sedimentation, and the adherence tendency of deposits. ‘The materials of construction and the surface nature have the greatest effectin initiating fouling rather than in continuing and sustaining it. ‘As already noted, deposits on the heat-transfer surface ‘due to fouling increase the overall thermal resistance; in addition, they lower the overall heat-transfer coefficient of the exchanger. For heat exchangers to maintain satis- factory performance in normal operation, and a reason- able service time between cleanings, it is important ‘during design to provide a sufficient surface viaa fouling allowance appropriate to the expected operating and ‘maintenance conditions. \ “Appropriate values for fouling resistances involve physical and economic considerations, which vary from User to user—even for identical services. The user - éear exentanaens ____ % Flow-induced vibration Shellside flow may produce forces that result in de- structive tube vibrations. In most exchangers, the inten- sity of vibration becomes a problem when it © Causes some part of an exchanger to fail = Upsets the process conditions. Creates a condition that endangers those who must ‘work nearby Vibration becomes evident in an exchanger when there is: (a) mechanical failure due to metal fatigue, colli- sion, baffle damage, and/or tube-joint failure at the tube- sheet; (b) excessive noise exceeding safety limits; and (c) excessive shellside pressure-drop. Several methods have been proposed for predicting tube vibration. These are based on techniques involving vortex shedding, turbulent buffeting, and fluid whirling, However, existing correlations are inadequate to ensure that any given design of exchanger will be free of vibra- tion problems. All that is known is that vulnerability of an exchanger to flow-induced vibration depends on the flowrate, tube and baffle materials, unsupported tube spans, tube-field layout, shell-diameter and inlevoutlet configurations. A number of changes can be tried at the design stage to reduce or alleviate vibration problems: (a) reduce velocity of shellside fluid entering the bundle as well as the velocity inside the bundle, (b) change tube-field layout and baffle spacing, (c) change baffle type and/or add detuning baffles, and (d) use special designs such as rodibaffle heat exchangers. Condensers: shellside Condensation takes place in many CPI applications— often being the condensation of overhead vapors in distillation columns. While practically all types of heat exchangers have been used for condensation, the discus- sion here will be limited to shell-and-tube condensers. Basically, these can be classified as shellside and tubeside condensers, depending upon the allocation of the pro- cess vapors to be condensed. Shellside condensers are the most common type in the PI. Shell orientation may be horizontal or vertical: Horizontal ion is used when the coolant flows ‘on the tubeside for reasons of high pressure or foulin; and when design may be limited by pressure drop, in ONS atte | ieee pass) shell is the common configura- construction and low cost. ide velocities and absence of appropriate vent no, sates, ‘can lead to poor performance. 3, Not ideal for condensate subcooling, Vertical configuration is preferred whenever the coolan, is a boiling fluid. Here, the process-vapor Hy is usually downward for better drainage. This conf a of single-pass, upflow,tubeside boiting against downflow Shellside condensation eliminates many problems inher. ent in handling a boiling coolant in other configurations, Advantages Higher heat-transfer coefficients compared with vertical tubeside condensation, because shellside baffles interrupt buildup of condensate film. 2. Subcooling is more easily accomplished. k 3. Ideal arrangement wherein a wide range of capacity can be obtained by controlled flooding of the tube surface. Disadvantages 1. Mechanical cleaning is awkward and may be impos- sible for long tubes. 2. Support structure may be more expensive than horizontal orientation. : Condensers: tubeside Tubeside condensers are applicable when condensa- tion of the process vapors requires special metallurgy. ‘The difficult problem of shellside cleaning of cooling- water deposits is tolerated to eliminate the need for special metallurgy of the shell. Orientation of the unit may be horizontal or vertical. ‘Horizontal configuration for tubeside condensation is probably the least effective arrangement in terms of thermal performance. Usually, a single tubepass, or two-pass U-tube, design is preferred. In multitube-pass arrangements, there is always the uncertainty of liquid dropping out in the pass turnarounds. This may not affect the heatransfer coefficient, but it ean have a disastrous effect on the mean temperature difference for wide-condensing-range mixtures. ‘Advantages 1. Higher heat-transfer coefficients can be expected than with vertical orientation (tubeside condenses) 2, Easier maintenance. Disadvantages 1. Condenser operation may be unstable, due to the Dlanketing effect of condensate accumulation in the tu Vertical configuration for tubeside condensation is the best in relation to heat transfer and flow dynamics, The rocess-vapor flow is usually down the tubes—ocasio ly, vapor flow may be up the tubes (e knockback condensers), a" In the downflow arrangement and the condensate plus9. Inert accumulation is not a accurately predicted. easily handled and 4. True counte ature cross Disadvantages 1, Support structures may be exper “ol SUPOM structures may be expensive, and maine: Reflux-type condensers are used because this ar ment minimizes piping and support structure. In distil. tion columns, the condenser can sit directly on top of the column. Hence, both piping and structural commoners are minimized, and reflux pumps eliminated Meera this arrangement gives poor heat transfer, and entrain, ment can be a serious problem. . :Reboilers Boiling-heat-transfer services occu occur in evaporatio and distillation process, Here, the discussion il deal only with reboilers that are: (1) pool-boiling units such as kettle and internal reboilers, and (2) high-velocity recir- culation units such as thermosiphon and pump-through reboilers current flow enables use with a tem- Thermal performance and fouling tendencies, as well as construction characteristics and unit costs, vary widely for different types. Therefore, careful selection of the type most consistent with process requirements is impor- tant (7,8,9]. The operation of each reboiler type depends on the design for the external piping, which must be carefully reviewed. )Kettle and internal reboilers The kettle reboiler is a pool-boiling unit, and has a tube bundle that is usually two-pass tubes and/or U- tubes. The tube bundle is inserted into an enlarged shell that serves as a reservoir for column bottoms, and as a disengaging space for vapor (Fig. 4a). An overflow weit maintains the liquid level above the top of the tubes. Advantages 1. Reboiler operation is insensitive to large changes in process operating conditions, because there is no two- phase fluid recirculating back to the column. 2. High heat fluxes, up to 20,000 Bru/(h)(ft?) are possible. Disadvantages 1, Fouls more readily than other types, as heavy resid- ‘ual materials accumulate continuously in the vaporiza- tion section. 2. Expensive design. ‘The internal reboiler has a tube bundle that is inserted ~ directly into the distillation column. Operating charac- "teristics are almost the same as for kettle reboilers 1. Since the unit requires neither a shell nor process ping, it is the least expensive reboiler type—allowing ‘for the expensive flange required to support the of the bundle. \ ‘Lower tendency to foul than kettle reboilers. Tength limited by column diameter, which a high diameter-to-length ratio. This pro- a lower maximumallowable heat fTux. 2. Kettle reboiler ». Vertical thermosiphon ¢, Horizontal thermosiphon 4d, Forced circulation poiler circuits for pool-boiling “GEREN ENGINEERING FOB,_____ tar excuanoms ___ 2. Maintenance is a problem because the column has to be shut down and drained. Thermosiphon and forced-flow reboilers The operation of thermosiphon reboilers depends on a balance between two-phase friction and accel losses in the reboiler flow loops, and the net static head developed by the liquid in the distillation column. Va- Por-to-liquid ratio is critical to the operation of the Teboiler (usually 5 to 35% vapor). Therefore, the unit is sensitive to changes in process operating parameters such as composition or tempera- ture. These changes can lead to violent oscillations in the flow loop, and contribute to poor overall column control and low heat-transfer efficiency. Operating characteris- tics and relative merits of two types (vertical and horizon- tal) of thermosiphon reboilers Vertical thermosiphons are single-pass shell-and-tube units with standard 8-, 10- or 16-ft tube length, with vaporization occurring in the tubes. A typical circuit is shown in Fig. 4b. The tube length depends on the amount of recirculation and the available static head. Shorter tubes are used when the available static head is too small to maintain sufficient vapor-liquid circulation for satisfactory operation. Longer tubes are desirable to keep exchanger cost low, but the hydrodynamics of the flow circuit must be carefully checked for mist flow. ‘Tube diameters of 3/4 to 2 in. are typical—3 tubes are preferred in moderate-pressure systems and clean service to keep exchanger cost low. Larger-diame- ter tubes are usually necessary for vacuum services and/ or fluids having high viscosity. Advantages 1. Less expensive than any other type of reboiler, except internal ones. 2, Less fouling tendency. - Disadvantages 1. Unsuitable for highly viscous materials, and wide boiling-range mixtures. 2 Unsuitable for large turndown requirements (greater than 2 : 1). 5 Ries 3. Maintenance difficult due to vertical orientation. 4, Size of the unit limited because constructional con- siderations are a factor. Horizontal iphons are characterized by process flow on the shellside. Multiple piping inlets and outlets, and split horizontal baffles, are often used in order to provide good distribution and higher velocities (Fig. 4c). Less-sensitive operation than vertical type. ‘More area can be placed in a single shell than with unit. jing must be carefully laid out to equalize pres- sure in all parallel branches. ay More expensive than vertical type because fixed- ‘ubesheet construction can rarely be used since most is on the shellside, and because of the compli- ‘nature of the piping and supporting structure. ee special id has reboiler is a special case, ani ‘mostly in highly viscous and/or highly foul- ing services. These units require careful economic analy tis because a balance must be made between initial pur, ‘pital and operating costs, and the cost of the exchang ‘er and its maintenance. (See Fig. 4d for a typical circuit ocie designed for extremely high heat fluxes Operation is insensitive to changes in process conditi Disadvantages 1. Vapor fraction has to be kept very low (less than 5%) and, sometimes, even eliminated by placing a backpressure valve in the exit piping. Therefore, circuls tion rates are usually very high: ns. Special designs Included in the category of special designs are falling film evaporators, gas chillers, bayonet-type exchangers scraped-surface exchangers, and proprietary designs in special materials such as graphite, glass, ceramics and olytetrafluoroethylene. robe tinderiying principles for the thermal rating of such exchangers are the same as those for shell-and-tube heat exchangers. Due to their special features, however the mechanical design may not be covered by the prevail- ing standards. Most of these designs are proprietary, and have been developed for specific applications in the CPt. Steven Danator, Edin References 1 Supands of Tubular Exchanger Manufacturer Asa” 6, Tubular nchangers Manulacurer Auth, Tarrytown, N.Y 1978 2 ord Re C, Minn FE and Sas, RP, Design of Heat Exchangers Chom Bg Jam 98: 1570 pp. 98-118 5. Lowd, RC, Mion PE and Shier, RP Guide to Trouble Fre Hes changers: Chem. jane 170 p. S100. 4. Kem, D-Q, “Proce Heat Transfer.” McGraw-Hill, New York, 1950, 5. Ruin, FL, Whats the Difeence Between TEMA Exchanger Caste caro Pree June 1880 p98 6 Najar MG. Bell KJ and Madox, RN. In laeneof Improved Psa! ‘Proper Dsa on Cataated Heat Taal Cet Hr Taner En ‘Val, No and 4 jansjume 14 erformance of Seam Heated Exchangers, Chem, Eng Sep 3 101-106. a — 4 Orel WH, Physeal Considerations in Design Rebs, Chom Page Sepe 17 1573 pp. 1 4. Sib, 6.C, Trouble Shong Reber Sytems, Chom. ng. Pro. Jb 1398: p 8 10, ‘ASME Boer and Presure Vee! Code” Seton VII, Div. 1, Amern See f Mechateal Engicers New Yor, i560 11. "Hea changes or Geteral Refinery Service” API Standard 60, Ames can Feoleu state: Washing, DC 12, "Sadards for Stam Susface Condensers Heat Exchange fst, Cleve tc Oho, a 1S, Devore, A Vago, G. J, and Paes, GJ. Specifying and sleing bes ‘exchanges Chem: Engl’ Oxt 6 1980, pp iSSe1a8 F. Vertical Thermoriphoe The author Dink Mam hn Serco ne okra” BEAMS ho tn ish indon (ky Hele mobs ot ‘AICHE. epresentative to i ne fa ron aa ete penio cies fae ‘GHEMICAL ENGINEERING JULY #5 003