Remote Rural Electrification of Innovative Systems Based On Renewable Energy Sources: Case of Somalia

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Remote Rural Electrification of Innovative Systems Based on Renewable

Energy Sources: Case of Somalia
Conference Paper · December 2020
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Mühendislik Bilimleri
Bildiriler Kitabı 1
6. ULUSLARARASI ÖĞRENCİLİK SEMPOZYUMU
BİLDİRİLER KİTABI BİRİNCİ KİTAP
MÜHENDİSLİK BİLİMLERİ
Editör
Abdul Raheem Akbari
Tashih
Muhammet Musab Tan
Tasarım ve Uygulama
Mohamed Issa
Kapak Tasarımı
Mohamed Issa
ISBN: 978-605-70435-8-0
Yayım Yılı: 2021
Yayınevi Bilgileri
ULUSLARARASI ÖĞRENCİ DERNEKLERİ FEDERASYONU (UDEF)
Defterdar Mahallesi Fethi Çelebi Caddesi Fethi Çelebi Çıkmazı
No:1, 34050 Eyüpsultan/İstanbul
Telefon: +90 (212) 255 88 66 • Fax: +90 (212) 255 88 62
E-Posta: info@udef.org.tr
Düzenleyen Kurumlar
Uluslararası Öğrenci Dernekleri Federasyonu (UDEF) | Sakarya Üniversitesi
Yedirenk Uluslararası Öğrenci Derneği
Destekleyen Kurumlar
Sakarya Büyükşehir Belediyesi | Sakarya Valiliği
Düzenleme Kurulu
Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Osman Akgül İstanbul Üniversitesi (Başkan) | Ahmet Köroğlu İstanbul
Üniversitesi | Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Mikail Sakarya Üniversitesi Uğuş | Muhammed Malik Taylan
UDEF | Yunus Tatlı UDEF | Emre Eryılmaz UDEF | Mohamed Issa UDEF | Dr.Rahmat
Ullah UDEF | Azamat Arpachiev UDEF | Dashdamır Mahmandarov UDEF | Abdul Raheem
Akbari UDEF | Musab Tan UDEF | Bünyamin Göl Yedirenk UÖD | Hasan Durmuş
Yedirenk UÖD | Abdullah Talha Gen Yedirenk UÖD
Bilim Kurulu
Prof. Dr. Joseph Kaminski International Univesity of Sarajevo | Prof. Dr. Mesut Idriz
University of Sharjah | Prof. Dr. Murat Çemrek Necmettin Erbakan Üniversitesi | Prof. Dr.
Adem Kalça Karadeniz Teknik Üniversitesi | Prof. Dr. Musa Alcı Ege Üniversitesi | Prof.
Dr. Hawa Kasule Markerere University | Prof. Dr. Ramazan Yelken Ankara Yıldırım
Beyazıt Üniversitesi | Prof. Dr. Ozodbek Karamatov Kastamonu Üniversitesi | Prof. Dr.
Hakkı Yazıcı Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi | Prof. Dr. Ahmet Alibašić International
University of Sarajevo | Doç. Dr. Zafer Çelik Ankara Yıldırım Beyazıt Üniversitesi | Prof.
Dr. Mehmet Çevik İzmir Katip Çelebi Üniversitesi | Doç. Dr. Erhan Tecim Necmettin
Erbakan Üniversitesi | Doç. Dr. Mehmet Ali Aydemir Selçuk Üniversitesi | Doç. Dr.
Muhammet Nurullah Cicioğlu Batman Üniversitesi | Prof. Dr. Faruk Taşçı İstanbul
Üniversitesi | Doç. Dr. Yavuz Selim Güçlü İstanbul Medeniyet Üniversitesi | Dr. Öğr. Ü.
Sultan Mahmud Rana Rajshahi University | Dr. Öğr. Ü. Saidbek Bolbaev Karabük
Üniversitesi | Dr. Öğr. Ü. Abdüsselam Sağın Kırklareli Üniversitesi Dr. Öğr. Ü. Ahmet
Ayhan Koyuncu Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi | Dr. Öğr. Ü. Ömer Akgül Sağlık Bilimler
Üniversitesi | Dr. Öğr. Ü. Selman Duran Medipol Üniversitesi | Dr. Öğr. Ü. Kamran
Abdullayev Karadeniz Teknik Üniversitesi | Dr. Öğr. Ü. Mikail Uğuş Sakarya Üniversitesi
| Dr. Öğr. Ü. Taha Eğri Kırklareli Üniversitesi | Dr. Öğr. Ü. Ali Osman Karaoğlu Yalova
Üniversitesi | Doç. Dr. Safiullah Omary National Institute of Applied Sciences (INSA) |
Doç. Dr. Mohammad Rafi Rafi Kabul Polytechnic University | Doç. Dr. Mohammad Naser
Amin Kabul Polytechnic University | Doç. Dr. Sifatullah Bahij Kabul Polytechnic
University | Dr. Öğr. Ü. Hafiz Bek Uşak Üniversitesi | Dr. Öğr. Ü. Masoud
Derakhshandeh İstanbul Gelişim Üniversitesi | Doç. Dr. Hayri Baytan Özmen Uşak
Üniversitesi | Doç. Dr. Cahit Gürer Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi | Dr. Öğr. Ü. Murat Kilit
Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi | Assoc. Prof. Dr. Md. Nazmul Islam Rajshahi University |
Prof. Dr. Md. Shariful Islam Rajshahi University | Assist. Prof. Dr. Md. Aliur Rahman
Green University | Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nurul Huda Sakib Jahangirnagar University
|4
İÇİNDEKİLER
Future Aspects of Jute Fiber in Terms of Eco-Friendly and Sustainable World: A
Review - Md Safuan Islam ..........................................................................................7
Comparison of Analysis and design of G+5 commercial Building using ETABS and
Manual - Abdelaziz Yousuf Mohamed , Asfaw Mekonnen. Lakew ............................18
Remote Rural Electrification of Innovative Systems Based on Renewable Energy
Sources: Case of Somalia - Abdiaziz Hussein Abdi...................................................28
Mermer Atığının Geopolimer Üretiminde Kullanilabilirliğinin Araştırılması
Aigul Kabirova, Mucteba Uysal, Orhan Canpolat ....................................................36
Proposal Of A Repaır Mortar Based On Lıme, Marble Sand And Brıck Fınes From
Demolıtıon Waste - Amina Benbertal, Dr. Zineb Damen, Dr.Azzedine Chettih .......48
Buckling Analysis of Axially loaded Column in ANSYS.
Benish Khan, Omair Inderyas ...................................................................................57
Study Fractally-Spherical Concentric Model Colloidal Submicroparticles Sio2 On the
Example Amorphous-Siliceous Opoks The Purpose of Thermosynthesis Foam Glass
Composite Heat Insulation and Protective-Decorative Application.
Bibol Zhakipbayev, Elmira Akhmetova .....................................................................67
Biyodizel Üretimi için Yenilenebilir Kaynaklardan Katalizörlerin Elde Edilmesi
Elnura Artykbaeva .....................................................................................................73
Effects of Manufacturing Method on Mechanical Properties of Glass/Epoxy
Composite - Esmael Adem Esleman, Gürol Önal .....................................................84
Behavior of Concrete-Filled Steel Tube Columns under Axial Load
Farhan Abdi Abdilahi, Omair Inderyas ....................................................................94
The Analysing of Total Harmonic Distortion due to Variation of Carrier Signal
Frequency in PWM H-bridge Inverter - Galdi Hysa ...............................................102
Characterization of Heavy Metals in Waste Stabilization Ponds: A Case study of Waste
Stabilization Ponds at Chokera, Faisalabad.- Hafiz Qasim Ali, Dr. Amir Farooq ........110
Düşük Maliyetli Bir Robot Kolunun Dijital İkizinin Elde Edilmesi.
Harun Suljagıc , Numan Çelebi...............................................................................118
Analysis of Various Agricultural Properties to Predict Major Crops Production in
Bangladesh Applying Machine Learning Algorithms -
Harun-Ur-Rashid, Yann Emmanuel Miassi, Nasrin Sultana ..................................127
Effects of Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) Techniques on a Mini Grid PV
System in Asmara - Huruy Gebremarıam ...............................................................138
Issues Mining – Environment - Imene Rogai ..........................................................151
5|
Analysis of G+15 Storeyed RCC Building in Seismic Zone-IV with and without Shear
Wall System - Jay Prakash, Shifat Kayser ..............................................................157
Taş Mastik Asfalt Özellikleri ve Uygulaması - Khalil Ahmad Sultanıi ..................170
Solution Chemistry of Lead Removal by Triple Superphosphate- Mahamane Chapiou
Souley Garba, Erol Kaya, Fatih Turan, Mertol Gökelma, Gabriella Tranell ........182
Power Loss Optimization With TCSC Using Particle Swarm Optimization Method In
Distribution Network - Maımaıjıang Aishan, Dr. Öğr. Fatih Mehmet Nuroğlu .....197
Efficient MoWO3/VO2/MoS2/Si UV Schottky Photodetectors; MoS2 Optimization
and Monoclinic VO2 Surface Coupling - Mohamed A. Basyooni , Shrouk E. Zaki,
Mohamed Shaban, Yasin Ramazan Eker,Mücahit Yılmaz.......................................209
Temperature Effect on Flexible Pavement Performance: A Case Study of Afghanistan
Mohammad Razeq Shakhan, Ali Topal, Burak Şengöz ...........................................245
Cost and Benefit of Transportation vehicles - Obaidullah Khpalwak, Hakan Aslan ...255
A Review of Ultrasonic Testing Techniques for Inspection and Monitoring of
Concrete Structures - Omair Inderyas, Ninel Alver ................................................261
VR Technology as an Architectural Representation Tool for Better Spatial
Understanding: Evaluation of Best Practices - Rana Tanbour ................................271
Betonarme Kare En-Kesitli Kolonların Şekil Değiştirme Esaslı Hasar Sınırlarının
Araştırılması - Rohullah Jamal, S. Bahadır Yüksel .................................................286
Boşluklu Perdelerde Bağ Kirişlerin Test edilen Sonuçlarının Kapasite Tasarımı
Sonuçları ile Karşılaştırması - Rohullah Jamal, S. Bahadır Yüksel ........................301
Kare En-Kesitli Betonarme Kolonlarda Enine Donatı Aralıklarının ve Eksenel Yük
Değişiminin Moment-Eğrilik İlişkisine Etkisi - Rohullah Jamal, S. Bahadır Yüksel ...320
Sabit Çekme Donatı Oranı ρl ve Farklı Basınç Donatısı Oranına sahip Betonarme
Kirişlerin Moment - Eğrilik İlişkisinin Araştırılması
Rohullah Jamal, S. Bahadır Yüksel .........................................................................336
FSI And Thermal Analysis of a Single Piezofan in Longitudinal Channel.
Salim lbrahim Hasan, Serhan Küçüka, Mehmet Akif Ezan .....................................368
Thermal Analysis By Comsol Of a Hotspot Cooling in Longitudinal Channel Using
Single Piezofan - Salim lbrahim Hasan , Serhan Küçüka .......................................380
Comparative Assessment of PID and Fuzzy Logic Controller for Speed Control of
Variable Load DC Motor - Umair Younas, Ahmet Afşin Kulaksız ..........................393
***
7 | 6. Uluslararası Öğrenci Sempozyumu Bildiriler Kitabı -1- Mühendislik Bilimleri
Future Aspects of Jute Fiber in Terms of Eco-Friendly

and Sustainable World: A Review
Md Safuan Islam*
Abstract
In the time of globalization and industrialization, the major concern is not only
development but also environmental pollution which is also being taken into
consideration. Global warming and ecological changes inspire researchers to
improve new materials and techniques considering sustainable development.
The growing imbalance and environmental concern have moved the
researchers for developing new ecofriendly materials. Now a days, natural
fiber like jute has earned a great deal of attention because of gaining
popularity for its various industrial applications. As being considered the
“fiber of the future” it is becoming more desirable due to its properties such
as biodegradability, renewability and environment friendly. Cellulosic fibers
in micro and nano scale are attractive to replace man-made fibers to make
environment friendly green products like jute bags instead of plastic bags.
Today major applications are in the field of Geotextiles, Dry filtration,
Automotive applications, Household goods, Agriculture and Horticulture,
Acoustic and Thermal insulation as well as house hold furniture, housing,
fencing, decking, flooring, and Transportation (automobiles, railway coaches,
aerospace, light weight car components or sports equipment’s) Building and
Construction industries (ceiling paneling, partition boards), packaging,
consumer products which are the new avenue for manufacturing innovative
technical textiles. As jute made products are getting popular worldwide, steps
need to be taken to comply with the demand of customers and
environmentalists.
Keywords: Jute Fiber, Sustainability, Biodegradability, Eco-Friendly,
Future Products
*
Department of Textile Engineering, Süleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey. e-mail:
te.safuan@gmail.com
6. Uluslararası Öğrenci Sempozyumu Bildiriler Kitabı -1- Mühendislik Bilimleri |8
Introduction
Mankind faces global challenges from the starting of 21st century in attempt
to maintain the economic growth and social welfare which has been achieved
in the last few decades. The industrial revolution brought unimaginable
benefits to humanity in terms of optimization of material uses and energetic
products productions and processes together by developing our living
standards but has also compromised with our environmental equilibrium of
the last 1000 years. The concern for the environment is increasing day by day
that make the people more interested in environment-friendly and sustainable
products. Sustainability, industrial ecology, eco-efficiency and green
chemistry are guiding the development of the next generation materials,
products and processes. Biodegradable plastics and bio-based polymer
products based on annually renewable agricultural and biomass feedstock can
form the basis for a portfolio of sustainable, eco-efficient products that can
compete and capture markets currently dominated by products based
exclusively on petroleum feedstock (La Mantia & Morreale, 2011; Mohanty,
Misra, & Drzal, 2002). Sustainable product design and development is
relatively a new concept originating from a set of methodologies including
green (eco) design, environmentally conscious manufacturing and design for
disassembly and recycling [1].
Jute is one of the natural fibers that have been proposed widely to use for its
eco-friendly features [2]. In terms of usage, global consumption, production,
and availability, it is the second most important vegetable fiber after cotton.
It is one of the cheapest and the strongest of all natural fibers (Kundu et al.,
1959). Properties of jute fiber depend mainly on the nature of the plant, the
locality in which it is grown, the age and the extraction methods used. Social
and environmental consciousness is increasing day by day [3] resulting
mandatory refurbishment of industries with sustainable approaches; this may
create high demand for producing fancy products in industrial scale to support
fashion business and retail. Moreover denim, shirting, suiting and home
textiles are successfully manufactured from jute-blends so far [4]. It has
already been proposed to use jute in concrete mixture for betterment of
strength and other properties which could result in extend end use of this
material over other harmful polymer of same feature in concrete [5]. Other
than, Jute Geo-textiles (JGT) are products of jute which have proved to be
highly functional in soil erosion control, vegetation consolidation, agro-
mulching, reinforcement, and protection of riverbanks & embankments, land
reclamation and in road pavement construction, land-slide control, shallow
land recovery, railway slope protection etc. [6]. Recently, a Bangladeshi
scientist has invented a biodegradable bag using jute cellulose that can be a
substitute of conventional poly bag named as “Sonali Bag”. This kind of
technological advancement would lead to reincarnation of jute in near future.

Invasive population and their growing awareness to safe-guard environment
and tendency to avoid health risks are expected to franchise large markets for
evolution of other natural cellulosic bast-fibers to replace cotton which is now
in extensive use. The products that are made from jute fiber provides better
environment considering the biodegradable qualities than the products made
from synthetic fibers. Apart from the environmental issue, jute can play
important role in the economy considering the increased demand for the
natural fiber products in the world (Islam and Ahmed, 2012, p.24). This article
aims to find out the uses and environmental benefits of jute across the globe.
Present Condition
Global warming is one of the threatening issues now-a-days. With the use of
synthetic fibers, the markets of the natural fibers faced substantial fall. But
with the concern for the environment, the natural fibers should be treated well
in different sectors (Islam and Ahmed, 2012, p.24). The urge is rising to shift
to the bio-based economy by using renewable resources i.e. animal or plant
based that substitutes petrochemical based materials produced from fossil and
mineral resources (FAO, 2009, p. 3).
Aimin Liu (2000) has studied on “World Production and Potential Utilization
of Jute, Kenaf, and Allied Fibers”. Jute, Kenaf, and other allied fibers (JAF)
are the second most important natural fibers next to cotton. With the
increasing environmental awareness, eco-friendly and bio-degradable
products are gaining popularity both in developed and developing countries
for retardation of ecological balances and degradation due to greenhouse
effects. Jute and jute products not only retard ecological degradation but
conserve environment and atmosphere as a whole. At present many
technologies and process are available for commercialization of jute
diversified products (JDPs). Adoption of newly developed and improved
technologies and processes for production of high value jute diversified
products and alternative use of jute (Annon, 2009). The chemical composition
of the jute fiber has been reported by many researchers [7]. Among different
natural fibers, jute fibers are easily obtainable in fiber and fabric forms with
good thermal and mechanical properties [8]. The inborn properties of jute
fiber such as low density, high tensile modulus and low elongation at break
and its specific stiffness and strength comparable to those of glass fiber draws
the attention of the world [9]. Over hundreds of years it has been used in the
applications of ropes, beds, bags etc. High quality and new uses of this fiber
can create more job opportunity in the rural sector [10]. Jute has also got
applications in the automobile industry and packing materials. Unlike cotton
and most of the food crops, jute does not require any pesticides and fertilizer
and hence is a pure green agro-product. In order to obtain the favored material
properties for a particular application, it is important to know how the material

performance changes with the different factors:
Raw Jute: Jute is a long, soft and shiny fiber obtained from the bark of jute
plant and commercially known as reed. Depending upon the grade, the length
of the reed varies from 1-4.5 m. The reed diameter is usually 6-20 microns.
Raw jute can be processed to different forms like yarn or mats. Raw jute is
principally used in the manufacturing of hessian, sacking cloths, cords, ropes,
bags, handicrafts and miscellaneous fabrics [11].
Short Jute Fiber: Composites made from short fiber are used widely in non-
load bearing applications to obtain complex geometry in aerospace and
automobile industry [12]. They have also got applications in general purpose
and specialty products ranging from hoses, diaphragms, belts and seals to
tyres [13]. The utilization of short jute fiber as reinforcement in polymer
composites has already been reported by many researchers.
Woven Jute Fiber Mat: Woven mat reinforced composites are attaining
popularity due to its balanced properties in mat plane as well as their ease of
handling during fabrication. The woven configuration of the mat leads to a
synergetic effect on the improvement of the wear resistance of the composites
[14]. The laminated composite obtained from the woven mat has good
properties in mutually orthogonal directions as well as better out of plane
impact resistance than the multidirectional laminate [15]. Woven mat
composites have found wide range of applications in aerospace, automobile
and defense industries [16]. A great deal of work has been done on the woven
jute fiber reinforced polymer composites by many researchers [17]. Use of
needle-punched nonwoven mats is beneficial as these materials improve the
toughness and strength with light weight [18]. Additionally, these nonwoven
have an important quality that offers excellent z-directional properties that
minimizes the delamination problem [19]. The entanglement or interlocking
of fibers in needle punched nonwoven mats results in a three dimensional fiber
reinforcing structure. Nonwoven mat is widely used as geotextile, filtration,
medical goods, aerospace and military applications [20]. These materials have
been discovered for various industrial and technical applications including
abrasive composite materials [19]. In search of diversified use of jute fiber,
successful efforts have been made to use this natural and eco-friendly
technical fiber in the field of geotextile, floor covering and filtration [21]. The
research on the different needle-punched nonwoven fiber based polymer
composites has already been done by few researchers [22]. However, the
potential utilization of needle-punched nonwoven jute fiber as reinforcement
in polymer composites is hardly been reported.
The Future Uses of Jute Fiber
Application Areas
1. Agrotech: Agriculture, horticulture, forestry and fishing.
2. Buildtech: Building and construction.
3. Clothtech: Functional components of shoes and clothing.
4. Geotech: Geotextiles and civil engineering.
5. Hometech: Products used in the home; components of furniture and
floor coverings.
6. Indutech: Filtration and other products used in industry.
7. Medtech: Hygiene and medical.
8. Mobiltech: Transportation construction, equipment and furnishing.
9. Oekotech: Environmental protection.
10. Packtech: Packaging and storage.
11. Protech: Personal and property protection.
12. Sporttech: Sports and leisure technical components [23].
Jutton: Jute-Cotton Blended Fabrics for Apparels
Brands and retailers are all turning their focus to sustainable fiber and
circular economy. For example, by 2030, H&M’s will drop cashmere
and 95% of their cotton is recycled or sustainable. Manufacturing jute
blended yarns, Jute-Viscose, Jute-Acrylic, and Jute-Cotton, jute content
differs from 60 to 70 percent in weight for making shawls, blankets,
thick materials and pullovers. Manufacturing of fine blended yarns
utilizing Jute-Silk, Jute-Wool, Jute-Cotton etc. for garment utilization
jute content is nearly 30 to 40 percent [24].
‘Jute Staple Fiber’ used in producing high end fashion denim, home textile
and suiting and knitting. clothes, like shirts and pants, made from this type of
jute fiber will be more comfortable, now selling diversified jute products like
light count jute yarn, special jute fabric, home textile fabric, jute braids for
espadrille footwear, shopping bags, ladies fashion bags, shoe bags, cushion
covers, curtains, mats and other items around the world.
Although jute products include different types of jute bags, file folders, photo
frames, handbags, tote bags, laptop bags, office bags, shopping bags, pouches,
ornament boxes, cosmetics boxes, pencil boxes, backpacks and jute pillows.
About 235 types of jute products had been developed in recent years. There
are three types of diversified products, including fiber-based, yarn-based and
fabric-based items.
‘Sonali bag’, a polybag made of jute, looks just like a polythene bag. Actually,
it is made of jute cellulose. It is biodegradable and environment-friendly. It
decomposes in soil within a month. Its tensile strength is one and a half times
higher than that of a polythene bag. It could be used as packaging material for
readymade garments and also for food packaging. After burning, it turns into
ash [25].
Applications of Jute Fiber Composites
In 1996 jute was being utilized in the door panels of the Mercedes Benz E-
class vehicles. For the Eco-1 racing car the brake pads are made from jute.
Numerous researchers have exploited the Reinforcement potential of jute for
developing thermoplastic and thermoset composites using several different
techniques, these composite materials have been successful in the semi
structural as well as structural applications.
Jute fiber composite for fabrication of structural components such as rails,
sills, tracks, stops and non-structural members such as grid, cove, bead etc.
for residential & commercial architecture. The process of fabricating a low
density insulating board made from jute fibers. The jute fibers are opened up
into single fibers which are then wetted with a natural (starch, protein etc.) or
synthetic thermoset resin and further compressed by rollers & cured in oven
into desired shape with a density of 30-100 Kg/m3.
The method for fabricating wet-laid non-woven webs using jute fiber as
reinforcement. Composites of the pulped fiber webs with cellulosic and spun
bonded sheets find applications as thermoformed trim products for vehicle
interiors. The Mead Corporation Dayton, Ohio, USA described the use of jute
mesh as the intermediate reinforcing material for a corrugated container such
as bulk storage bins. The reinforcing material may be placed in between the
outer & inner lines of two-faced corrugated board construction.
In the application of double-wall reinforced & insulating building panel with
a combination of glass & jute composites. The panels comprise of an inner
skin of woven jute layers saturated in polyester resin and an outer skin of
woven jute with an exterior coating of chopped glass fiber both impregnated
with polyester resin.
CGCRI-Calcutta has worked on jute-glass hybrid components for cost
reduction without sacrificing the mechanical properties. An excellent example
for commercial exploitation of jute composites has been the fabrication of
automobile interiors (door panels) by Birla Jute Industries Ltd. CBRI's
research activities provided new insight into the contribution of the interface
to the properties of the composites. A very thin layer of jute fibers
impregnated with phenolic resin is used as the face veneer for improved
aesthetics and to give a wood like finish. The orientation & uniformity of jute
fiber improve with carding and this also helps in better penetration of resin
into the fiber.
The products made of jute-glass composites can be used as a replacement of
high-cost sheet molding compound & low-strength dough molding compound
based glass-fiber composites. The technology for the fabrication of hybrid
composites incorporating jute felt and glass fiber using polyester resin as a
matrix has been developed successfully by CGCRI [26] – [28].
Other Applications
These include machine tool frames, lighting poles, water and oil tanks and
concrete repairs, shingles, roof tiles, prefabricated shapes, panels, shotcrete,
curtain walls, slabs on grade, precast elements, composite decks, vaults, safes,
impact resisting structures and offshore structures, structures in seismic
regions, thin and thick repairs, crash barriers, and footings. Jute fiber is used
to improve the engineering properties of the subgrade so that required
pavement thickness may be reduced for particular traffic intensity. Jute fibers
of different diameters and lengths were mixed in the subgrade in different
percentage and the improvements in the subgrade [29].
The surface modifications of jute fiber mat have been found to be very
effective in improving the fiber-matrix adhesion. This good environmental
friendly feature makes the materials very popular in engineering markets such
as the automotive and construction industry [30]. There are several reports
about the use of jute as reinforcing fibers for thermosets and thermoplastics
[31].
Jute has considerable potential to tolerate metal-contaminated soil and
accumulate a large amount of metals in its body parts. Jutes has been used for
the phytoremediation of different toxic pollutants such as copper (Cu),
cadmium (Cd), zinc (Zn), mercury (Hg) and lead (Pb). The utilization of jute
as a culinary and medicinal herb also needs to be studied [32]. Jute cellulose
nano-fibrils/hydroxypropylmethylcellulose nanocomposite are expected to be
highly promising in the area of packaging and transdermal drug delivery
system [33].
Conclusion:
Jute can be considered as an eco-friendly natural fiber with hundreds of
application prospects. With versatility, jute deserves to be considered as the
best fiber for the future because-
a) Jute is a natural plant fiber extracted from the Corchorus plant family.
b) Jute has been used for textile production since the 3rd millennium BC,
in the Indus Valley civilization, as several historical documents confirm.
c) A number of different industries worldwide use jute to make several

products for different uses.
We turned to synthetics in the mid-20th century but natural plant fibers like
jute are making their resurgence. Jute is a great alternative compare to harmful
synthetics and plastics. We have an awareness that our landfills are filling up,
our resources are being used up, our planet is being polluted that non-
renewable resources will not last forever and we need more environmentally
friendly materials. The future of our planet is in their hands. Switching back
to natural plant fibers like jute will help to heal our planet as well as save us
from pollutions.
References
[1] S. Roy, "Application of Natural Fibre (Jute) Products," in Renewable

Feedstock for Bio-fuel and Bio-based Products, Austin, USA, 2010.
[2] "The Indian textile journal," [Online]. Available:

file:///E:/Turkish%20Courses/Research%201/Selected/2nd/Manufacturi
ng%20&%20applications%20of%20jute%20fibre%20composites%20_
%20Nonwovens%20&%20Technical%20Textiles%20_%20Features%
20_%20The%20ITJ.html. [Accessed 12 8 2020].
[3] A. Asrat, "EFFECT OF JUTE FIBER ON THE STRENGTH OF C-30

CONCRETE," ADDIS ABABA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
UNIVERSITY , ADDIS ABABA , 2017.
[4] "Our common future," Oxford University, Oxford, U.K , 11987.
[5] "Policy options and possible actions to expedite implementation: energy

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***
Comparison of Analysis and design of G+5 commercial

Building using ETABS and Manual
Abdelaziz Yousuf Mohamed, Asfaw Mekonnen. Lakew *
Abstract
In this paper, a G+5 building is analyzed and designed using an ETABS
(2013) structural analysis and design software. The software results were
cross-checked with the manual outputs. In the study, a framed reinforced
concrete structure was designed according to the BS8110-1:1997 building
standard. The structure was a commercial building fulfilling all the necessary
utilities required for the commercial houses in compliance with the national
code of the United Kingdom. Also, the limit state design methodology was
hired during both the manual and software implementation process.
According to the investigation no significant difference was observed between
the manual and software outputs.
Keywords: Design, Analysis, Structure, ETABS, Concrete
Introduction
General
This project contains the analysis and design outcomes of the G+5 commercial
building structure. To maintain the standard of the project national building
regulation was implemented. Applying standards help to guarantee and
improve the safety with alertness equilibrium between structural members like
(slabs, beams, columns, and footings.
Practical Points to Be Considered
1) Building components should be robust and able to resist the
consequence of natural disasters
2) When planning any building it is necessary to make a building that
should not compromise the permanence, comfort, expediency, and most
importantly strength.
*
Yildiz Technical University, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering
Subdivision, Davutpasa Campus, Istanbul, Turkey. Corresponding author:
cabdicasiisruush@gmail.com
Height should agree for standard and since it is a commercial building it

should have wide openings.
Considerations for Planning
AutoCAD was initially used for drawing the plan similarly the final detailing
was drawn in the same software. The area of the building is 25.5mX14.7m.
The building possesses 5 stories in addition to the ground floor. Each floor
has a height of 3m. the staircase is a dog-legged type.
Literature Review
The analysis and design of the residential building was performed by K. Naga
and N. Lingeshwaran [1]. In the study, structural members such as beam,
slab, column, and foundation were designed and analyzed using BS (Part I
and II) 1987. They concluded that the structural and architectural
configuration should be carefully assessed to ensure the safety of the building.
At the same time, it should be ensured the eminence of the structural analysis,
design, and reinforcement detailing of the structural frame to attain stability
of elements and its ductile performance.
Rohit Kumar. B.R. et.al [2] performed analysis and design of G+2 building
using ETABS. They analyzed the effect of wind and earthquake loads. Also,
they foretell fire spread chances and the importance of using fireproof objects
up to the premier prospect standards of performance in addition to reliability.
In their study the extensive possibilities of ETABS which is very novel and
simpler for multi-story buildings was shown.
Yashaswin et.al B.S. [3] presented analysis and design of high-rise buildings
using ETABS considering conditions of both static and dynamic loads. The
effect of earthquake loads on the 13-story residential building were performed
by linear static and linear dynamic analyses. It was carried out in the case of
non-linear analysis assuming harsh seismic zones and a soil condition of type
II was taken into consideration. Finally, they plotted graphs of base shear and
displacement.
Fig 1. Plan for building
Modeling and Analysis of 3D building using ETABS
Fig 2. A model of building from ETABS

Fig -3: Analyses of all members
Fig 4. Moment 3-3 or max moment diagram

Fig 5. The max stress diagrams
Fig 6. Bending moment diagram and shear force

Designing and Detailing of Structural Members: Slabs, Beams, Columns,
And Footings
Slab Design
Overall dept (H) = 170mm
Cover= 25mm
Dia of bar (Ø) = 12
Concrete grade (Fcu) = M25
Characteristic of reinforcing steel (fy)=460
Edge condition: corner panel
ly/lx=5.5/5=1.1<2, ∴it's two-way slab
Fig 7. Section of the slab and detailing

Beam Design
Sectional area: 250mm x 450mm
Concrete grade: M30
Steel used: Fe460
Fig 8. Section and detailing of Beam

Column Design
Dimensions: 300mm x 400mm
fy=460(N/mm) ^2
fcu=40(N/mm) ^2
Cover=25mm
∅=24mm
Fig 9. Section and detailing of Column
Footing Design
Axial service load P = 2820.22KN
Safe bearing capacity of soil = 150 N/mm2
fck= 20 N/mm2 and
fy = 415N/mm2
𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 = 300𝑚𝑚𝑥400𝑚𝑚
𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 = 50𝑚𝑚
𝑓𝑐𝑢 = 30𝑁/𝑚𝑚!
Ø=20mm
Fig 10. The plan of Footing
Fig 11. Section and detailing of Footing
Staircase Design
Staircase Type= Dog Legged
Tread = 300mm
Riser = 150mm
Waist height = 160mm
Cover = 25mm
fy = 460N/""!
fcu = 30N/""!
Fig 12. section and detailing of Staircase

Conclusions
1. Design of all structural members (slabs, beams, columns, footing, and
staircase) is carried out using the limit state method because of safety.
2. ETABS was used for the design of this structure and BS codes were
the reference code. Manual and software design results are matched. Area
required for the structural members were similar to the required ones.
3. The structure is safe from torsion because columns and beams were
designed by ductility so the lateral forces at joints of members will affect less.
References
[1] Structural use of concrete - Part 1: “Code of practice for design and
construction”
(Incorporating Amendments Nos. 1, 3 and 4), BS 8110-1: 1997.
[2] " Loading for Buildings. Code of Practice For Dead And Imposed Loads
– BSI British Standards" BS 6399-1:1996.
[3] " Code of practice for the design of industrial type stairs”, bs-8110-part3-
1985. BS 8110, PART-3, 1985.
[4] K. Naga Sai Gopal and N. Lingeshwaran. Analysis and design of G+5
residential building by using E-Tabs. International Journal of Civil
Engineering and Technology, 8(4). PP.2098-2103.

[5] Rohit Kumar.B.R.1, Sachin.P. Dyavappanavar2, Sushmitha. N.J,
3Sunitha.V4, Vinayak.Yadwad5 (2017). Analysis and design of Multi-story
Structure Using ETABS. International Research Journal of Engineering and
Technology (IRJET), 04(5), pp-ISSN: 2395-0072.
[6] B. S. Yashaswin, B. and A. B. S. Dadapeer, A. (2017). Comparative Study
on Static and Dynamic Analysis of Multistoried Building Using
ETABS. IJSRST, 3(6), pp.PP.2395-6011.
***
Remote Rural Electrification of Innovative Systems

Based on Renewable Energy Sources: Case of Somalia
Abdiaziz Hussein Abdi*
Abstract
Somalia has a large number of remote small villages that lack electricity due
to financial and technical constraints and the likelihood of connecting with the
high voltage gridlines in the near future is hardly unexpected. Currently, the
main electrical load in these villages is domestic feed from poor diesel-
generated systems. This work aims to develop sustainable and economically
viable solutions based on innovative systems of renewable energy. The use of
solar energy is the only sustainable alternative to electrify these small villages
since solar is an abundant source of energy in Somalia. Therefore, description
and analysis of the constituent components of an autonomous photovoltaic
system, sizing methodology, and presentation of the various solutions are
developed like wind energy. The paper argues that this can bring a lot of
benefits to the country and a much higher quality of life experienced so far
and it recommends actions for mitigation for a significant improvement of
energy infrastructure in remote areas.
Keywords: Rural Electrification, Renewable Energy, İnnovative Systems,
Photovoltaic System, Remote Villages
Introduction
Access to electricity is still a challenge in many parts of sub-Saharan Africa.
The 2014 African Energy Outlook estimates that fewer than a quarter of
Somalis have access to electricity. For those with access, electricity tariffs are
among the highest in the world, varying from $0.80 to $1.50 per kilowatt-
hour, while their neighbors living in Ethiopia and Kenya pay less than $0.20.
Renewable energy sources are a viable and immediate way to increase
affordable energy for Somalis. Investments in renewable energy are
multiplying in Africa as the costs of renewable technologies decrease.
According to the Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century,
investments in renewable energy in 2012 and 2013 were greater than the
*
Erciyes University Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences, Depart, Electrical and
Electronic Engineering, abziizhs@gmail.com
previous eight years combined for Africa and the Middle East. Somalia has
one of the highest potentials for onshore wind power in Africa and one of the
highest rates of daily total solar radiation in the world. The cost of renewable
energy options are decreasing and are now often less expensive than diesel
options [1].
There are high expectations that rural electrification using renewable energy
can contribute to their sustainable development. The population in rural areas
is generally composed of a high percentage of poor households. These areas
usually have a low population density. Because of this, there are not attractive
economic benefits for private investors or electricity supply utilities to offer
electricity services to these villages. In addition, because the transmission and
distribution systems have not reached all the populated areas in the country,
it is more economical to electrify gradually from the urban centers out than to
extend the grid to reach all the remote villages in rural areas. This leaves the
part of the population in Somalia without electricity access. There exist low
expectations of grid infrastructure expansion to rural villages anytime soon
[1]. The deployment of renewable energy technologies does not come without
recurring obstacles. These can be categorized as financial and profitability
barriers, awareness and behavioral barriers, regulatory and institutional
barriers, technological barriers, and company resources barriers. Among
them, when talking about rural populations, the most influential barrier is the
high initial investment that the renewable energy generation plants require,
including solar PV systems. Which usually makes them require governmental
support. One shall not wait for the supply of electricity to the rural population
until the technology becomes cheaper, therefore different operational
approaches that do not focus only on technology type and investment costs
are needed. The diffusion of social innovations can have effects on energy
transition through a multilevel perspective. Social learning can aid in the
promotion of renewable energy for domestic use and can serve to show how
societal perspective helps in the assimilation of renewable energy
technologies among the remote population[2].
In this context, some formulas related to the requirements of solar panels and
battery backup, are discussed to make the reader capable of installing and
calculating the solar panel for its desired load. As there are many renewable
energy resources namely, solar and wind, etc. But for local loads, the DC
microgrids running at solar and wind power, are the best option to fulfill the
local load requirements, as they are abundant in nature and available free of
cost, so a small microgrid is also discussed in the last, based on wind and solar
power projects. Electricity Home System (EHS) includes small power
projects, containing a Photovoltaic panel system, small wind power, and small
hydro plant, which are the solution to power-up these isolated rural areas. In
this Electricity Home System, there are no expenses of transportation, as

power is being generated near the loads. Additionally, to keep costs moderate,
DC components can be used to avoid any changes in power.
Availability of Renewable Energy Sources in Rural Areas
Somalia has one of the highest potentials for onshore wind power in Africa
and one of the highest rates of daily total solar radiation in the world[3].
The Photovoltaic System
The Photovoltaic System is the environment friendly. A P.V System can be
characterized as an off-grid with one or a few photovoltaic panels and
different elements. They are nominated by power measurement as follows:
The DC Solar System
Figure-1 shows the basic DC solar system. Typically, a single cell of
photovoltaic panel can produce an output of 0.5 to 0.6 volt. PV cells can be
arranged in series in the form of arrays to create a panel, nominally of 12v.
Cells produced voltage constantly as long as the radiation of light falls upon
them.
There are radiations of about 1000w/m2 at the equator during summer days,
and normally the efficiency of silicon cell is about 21% but 31% efficiency
can be achieved by using a costlier technology. The solar cell has a life cycle
of 25 years and thus using a battery of better life cycle is the best solution to
fulfil the need of the house.
One cell of silicon has the size of 4 by 4 inch, and a complete panel of 70W
have the size of 0.32m2.
Figure 1-Basic DC Solar system

Array size and Total Panel Requirements Calculation:

Array load
total daily load(kW/day)
= 1
battery efficiency × charge regulator efficiency
Note: All calculations are taken randomly
500
Array load = = 700𝐾𝑊/𝑑𝑎𝑦
0.8 × 0.9
Array size
array load(kWh)
= 2
No. of peak hours × mismatch factor
700
Array size = = 200kW/day
4.2 × 0.85
The array which can deliver 200kWp/day will be required.
No. of series modules

no. minal system voltage (V)
= 3
no. minal module voltage(V)
220
No. of series modules = = 18
12
No. of parallel modules

daily load demand(WH)
= 4
module daily output(WH)
No. of series modules

daily load(Ah)
= 5
battery charging efficiency × module × derating
500000/220(Ah)
No. of series modules = = 200
0.8 × 0.85 × 17.43
Total number of series and parallel panels = 18 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 × 200𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙

= 3600
Sizing Of Battery
The bank of batteries is selected based upon the connected load and the
availability of batteries in the market
Battery capacity
daily load(Ah) × reserve days
= 6
max allowable depth of discharge(DOD) × temperature derate × rate factor
No. of Series Batteries

𝑁𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
= 7
Nominal battery voltage
No. of parallel Batteries
𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
= 8
𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
Wind Energy System

Wind turbine output have the direct relation with the cube of the wind speed
and its o/p is given by:
#
𝑃 = ! (𝐶(𝜆, 𝛽)𝜌𝐴𝑉𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑3) 9
Where:
𝐶 = 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑘𝑔
𝜌 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑖𝑛
𝑚3
2
A= Swept area of turbine in m
𝜆 = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑝 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑

𝛽 = 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠
The output shaft of the wind turbine drives the rotor of the permanent magnet
synchronous generator, the reason that we are using this generator is cheap,
modest structure, high efficiency and power density.
DC Microgrid Station for Remote Rural Areas:
DC Microgrid has a significant impact in rural areas, it can combine two or
more renewable energy resources and can meetup the power requirement. It
is less costly than AC grids station which includes those expensive
Transformers and reactors. Battery management, load sharing and voltage
regulation are the aspects which have to consider in these DC microgrids.
By comparing DC grids with the AC grids, DC have many benefits over AC
ones, just with the one condition that load must not be far away from the grid
station.
1. DC system have nothing to do with the synchronization so it is easy
to integrate more renewable energy resources.
2. They have high productivity and high reliability.
3. Less expensive than AC grids
4. Safe and easy to control.
Generally, utilities like to use solar and wind power, in renewable energy case,
as they are abundant in nature and also, they are environment friendly, no
consumption of fuel and are less expensive[4].
Figure 2-DC microgrid for Local loads

Design Analysis
Figure 2 shows a small grid for local loads, containing wind-turbine, solar
panels and batteries. As voltages produced by wind turbine are AC voltages,
so these voltages have to be rectified and connected to the DC bus bar using
Single way buck-boost converter to maintain constant voltage, solar panel is
also connected to DC bus bar through buck-boost converter. The battery bank
should be connected with double way buck-boost converter, as the batteries
have to communicate in bi-direction i-e charging and discharging. A dc load
can directly connect with these bus bars but if ones want to drive an AC load,
by using single phase inverter he can acquire AC voltages[5].
Results and Conclusions
Rural areas having deficiency of electricity from national grids, but be
powered up through renewable energy resources to boost up the economy and
as well as to make their lives easier. These local loads must be meet up by
using DC supply from the Solar power and Wind power, which are the two
basic and competent energy resources available in abundant and free of cost.
Reference
[1] Ministry of Energy and Minerals, “Somali Electricity Access Project
- Environmental and Social Management Framework,” no. September, 2018,
[Online]. Available:
http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/937981538043069115/pdf/ESM
F-for-Somali-Electricity-Access-Project-Somaliland.pdf.
[2] African Development Bank, “Somalia Energy Sector Needs
Assessment and Investment Programme,” African Dev. Bank, 2015, [Online].
Available:
https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Generic-
Documents/Final_Somalia_Energy_Sector_Needs_Assessment_FGS__AfD
B_November_2015.pdf.
[3] DFID, “Somaliland electricity sector regulation: A case study on pro
bono assistance DFID Legal Assistance for Economic Reform Programme,”
no. May, 2016, [Online]. Available:
https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/591d707de5274a5e4e000044/
somaliland-pro-bono-case-study-final.pdf.
[4] D. R. Thomas and J. Urpelainen, “Early electrification and the quality
of service: Evidence from rural India,” Energy Sustain. Dev., vol. 44, pp. 11–
20, 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.esd.2018.02.004.
[5] A. Vernet, J. N. O. Khayesi, V. George, G. George, and A. S. Bahaj,

“How does energy matter? Rural electrification, entrepreneurship, and
community development in Kenya,” Energy Policy, vol. 126, no. October
2018, pp. 88–98, 2019, doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2018.11.012.
***
Mermer Atığının Geopolimer Üretiminde

Kullanilabilirliğinin Araştırılması
Aigul Kabirova*
Mucteba Uysal**
Orhan Canpolat***
Özet
Günümüzde, Türkiye’deki mermer ürünler üreten fabrikalarda mermer
atıklarının değerlendirilmediği ve dolayısıyla çevresel açıdan sorunlar
yarattığı tespit edilmiştir. Bu nedenle çalışmada, üretiminde atık
malzemelerin değerlendirildiği yeni nesil bir malzeme olan geopolimerin
üretiminde mermer atığının kullanılabilirliği araştırılmıştır. Böylece, mermer
atığının hammadde olarak yapı malzemeleri endüstrisinde kullanabilirliğini
sağlayarak mevcut çevresel sorunların giderilmesi amaçlanmıştır.
Dünyada ve Türkiye’de mermere olan talep sürekli olarak artmakta ve
mermer sektörü giderek daha cazip bir sektör haline gelmektedir. Mermerin
kullanımında artışı sağlayan nedenlerin arasında kendinden desenli doğal
malzeme olması, moda yaratması, çevreyle uyumlu, estetik, sağlıklı, zamana
dayanıklı ve geri dönüşümlü bir ürün olması, farklı mekanlarda kullanıma
uygun olması ve değişik beğenilere hitap eden çeşitlerin bulunması sayılabilir.
Artıklarının çeşitli alanlarda kullanıldığı mermere olan talebin dolayısıyla
mermer üretiminin önümüzdeki yıllarda da giderek artması beklenmektedir.
Bununla birlikte, mermer fabrikalarında meydana gelen şlamın
değerlendirilmesi konusu daha sıkça gündeme gelecektir.
Bu çalışmada, Türkiye’nin İstanbul şehrinde faaliyet gösteren Üntaş Mermer
Sanayi ve Ticaret Ltd Şirketi’nde mermerin işlenmesi sürecinde oluşan
mermer atığının geopolimer harç üretiminde dolgu malzemesi olarak
kullanabilirliği incelenmiştir. Bunun için, çökeltme havuzundaki mermer
çamuru laboratuar koşullarında 105oC’deki etüvde kurutulmuş, daha sonra
kırılmış ve öğütülmüştür. Ardından agrega olarak kullanılan dere kumu, %25
ve %50 oranlarında eleme sonucu elde edilen mermer tozuyla ikame
edilmiştir. Araştırma sonucunda üretilen geopolimer harçların üç günlük
*
Karadeniz Teknik Üniversitesi İnşaat Mühendisliği Böl., Trabzon, zarakebir16@gmail.com
**
Yıldız Teknik Üniversitesiİnşaat Mühendisliği Böl., İstanbul
***
Yıldız Teknik Üniversitesiİnşaat Mühendisliği Böl., İstanbul
basınç dayanım değerleri tespit edilmiştir.

Anahtar Kelimeler: Geopolimer, Geopolimer Harç, Mermer Atığı,
MermerTozu, Çevre Dostu Malzeme, Yeşil Malzeme
Giriş
Günümüzde Türkiye’de üretim sırasında meydana gelen mermer atığı halen
değerlendirilmeden çöp olarak atılmaktadır. Mermer ürünler üreten
fabrikalardan atık olarak ortaya çıkan çamurların toz haline getirilerek
kullanılması hem fabrika işletmecilerine ve ülke ekonomisine kaynak ve
kazanç olabilir hem de çevresel açıdan bir sorun giderilebilir. Bu nedenle,
üretiminde atık malzemelerin değerlendirildiği yeni nesil bir malzeme olan
geopolimerin üretiminde mermer atığının kullanılabilirliği konusunun önemli
olacağı düşünülmektedir.
Bu çalışmada, konu ile ilgili bilimsel kaynaklar incelenmiştir. Mermer
atıklarının değerlendirilmesi konusunda bugüne kadar yapılan çalışmalar
yeterli olmayıp uygulamada kullanımı mevcut değildir. Çalışmada elde
edildiği bulgular ise bu konuda bir adım ileriye götürebilir.
Çalışmada, konu ile ilgili mevcut çalışmaların belgesel analizi yapılmıştır.
Genel olarak geopolimer malzemeler, dünyada mermer ve mermer üretimi,
kullanım alanları, atıklarının oluşumu ve değerlendirilmesi hakkında bilgiler
verildikten sonra mermer atığının geopolimerin üretiminde kullanılabilme
imkanı araştırılmıştır.
Geopolimer Malzemeler
Geopolimerin Tanımı ve Kullanım Alanları
Geopolimer, ilk kez Joseph Davidovits tarafından 1978’de duyurulmuştur.
Geopolimer, yüksek fırın cürufu, uçucu kül, alüminyum üretiminden oluşan
kırmızı çamur gibi atıklar, kaolin, zeolit veya bentonitin kalsine edilmesi ile
elde edilen sırasıyla metakaolin, metazeolit veya metabentonitin su camı
(Na2O(SiO2)n veya K2O(SiO2)n), sodyum hidroksit (NaOH) veya potasyum
hidroksit (KOH) gibi aktivatörlerle tepkimesi sonucu elde edilmektedir.
Günümüze kadar yapılmış olan araştırmalarda, geopolimerlerin kısa sürede
dayanım kazanmaları, üretimi için gerekli olan malzemelerin kolayca
bulunabilmesi, adhezyonunun herhangi bir yüzeyde iyi bir şekilde
gerçekleşmesi, yüksek sıcaklığa ve korozyona dayanıklı olması öne çıkan
özelliklerdir.
Geopolimer, göstermiş olduğu fiziksel ve kimyasal özelliklerle, beton
içerisinde çimentonun yerine bir bağlayıcı olarak veya doğrudan beton yerine
prekast yapı endüstrisinde taşıyıcı ve taşıyıcı olmayan yapı elemanlarının
üretiminde, yol ve saha kaplamasında, heykelcilik ve dekorasyon
malzemeleri, tarihi eser restorasyonu, zemin güçlendirilmesi, ağır iklim

şartlarına ve yangına dayanıklı duvar kaplaması malzemeleri üretiminde
kullanılabilmektedir.
Geopolimer, 1970’li yıllarda Fransa’da özellikle ahşap ve çelik binalarda
yangın nedeniyle yeni bir tür kaplama malzemesi gerektiğinden dolayı
tasarlanmış olmasına rağmen, günümüzde yaygın olarak uygulayan ülke
Avustralya’dır. Dünyada döşeme sistemi elemanlarının üretiminde beton
yerine geopolimer kullanılan ilk bina ise Queensland’s Global Change
Institute binasıdır (Şekil 1a). Şekil 1b’de gösterilen döşeme sistemi
elemanlarının betonunda Portland çimentosu yerine uçucu kül tabanlı
geopolimer kullanılmıştır. Geopolimer prekast elemanların üretiminde,
geleneksel prekast elemanlara göre daha az CO2 oluştuğu da görülmüştür [1].
Günümüzde geopolimerin havalimanının inşasında kullanımı uygulamada
gerçekleşmiş olmaktadır (Şekil 1c). Avustralya’nın Brisbane West Wellcamp
Havalimanının saha kaplaması için yaklaşık 40000 m3 (100000 ton)
çimentosuz geopolimer beton kullanılmıştır. Böylece Wellcamp Havalimanı,
dünyanın en “yeşil” havalimanı olmuştur.Geopolimerin kullanılmasıyla 8640
ton civarındaki CO2 gazının doğaya salınımı da engellenmiştir [2].
(a) (b) (c)

Şekil 1. a) Queensland’s Global Change Institute binası
b) geopolimer beton döşeme elemanının montajı
c) Brisbane West Wellcamp Havalimanının geopolimer beton kaplaması
Ayrıca geopolimer, lahit mezarlar üretiminde kullanılmakta [3] ve tamir harcı
olarak başarılı bir şekilde değerlendirilmektedir [4]-[5]. Yonar (2014)
çalışmasında, geopolimer harcı Portland çimentosu ile birlikte kullanarak
düşük üretim maliyetli daha iyi özellik (4 saat sonra yaklaşık 20 MPa basınç
dayanımı) gösteren malzeme üretilebileceğini belirtmiştir [6]. Topçu (2008),
Arıöz (2009) ve Zeybek (2009), uçucu kül tabanlı geopolimeri tuğla
üretiminde kullanmışlardır [7]-[9].
Mevcut çalışmalara göre, geopolimerin inşaat sektöründe tanınmış ve
monolitik betonarme veya prekast beton eleman üretiminde Portland
çimentosu yerine kullanılabilecek alternatif bir malzeme olduğu görülmüştür.
Metakaolin Esaslı Geopolimerler

Mevcut çalışmalara göre, geopolimer kaynağı olarak kullanılan silika ve
alümina içerikli malzemelerin alkali çözeltilerle tepkimesinden en iyi
sonuçlar metakaolin esaslı geopolimerlerde görülmektedir.
Metakaolin, puzolan amacıyla çimento harcında ilk olarak 1962’de
Brezilya’daki Jupia Barajı betonunda kullanılmıştır. Malzemenin
durabilitesini olumlu yönde etkilemesinden dolayı, 1990’lı yıllardan itibaren,
betonda metakaolin kullanımı yaygınlaşmıştır [10].
Saflaştırılmış kaolin kilinin kalsine edilmesiyle üretilen metakaolin, amorf
yapılı bir alümina silikattır. Kil mineralleri 100-200ºC civarında absorbe
(bağlı) suyunu kaybederler. Kaolin kilinin dehidrolize olarak suyunu
kaybettiği sıcaklık ise 500-800ºC aralığındadır. Bu sıcaklıkta kaolin bağlı
suyunun yaklaşık %10-14’ünü kaybeder ve metakaoline dönüşür. Dönüşüm
sonucunda, alümina ve silika tabakaları, kristal yapılarındaki düzeni
kaybeder. Böylece kaolin, amorf ve kimyasal olarak reaktif bir yapı kazanır.
Isıl işlem sonucunda yüksek oranda puzolanik özelliğe sahip amorf fazlı
metakaolin elde edilir [6].
Kimyasal olarak metakaolin mineralinin temel bileşenleri silika (SiO2) ve
alüminyum oksitleridir (Al2O3). Bununla birlikte yapısında az miktarlarda
demir (III) oksidi (Fe2O3), titanyum dioksidi (TiO2), sodyum oksidi (Na2O) ve
potasyum oksidi (K2O) bileşenleri de bulunabilir. Metakaolin mineralinin
mineral katkı olarak çimento ve beton içerisinde kullanılmasıyla çimento ve
betona sağlayacağı faydalar daha çok SiO2 ve Al2O3 içeriğine bağlıdır. Ticari
amaçla kullanılan metakaolin Al2O3.2SiO2 (metakaolinit) ve amorf veya az
kristalli formdaki SiO2 gibi aktif bileşikler içermektedir. Ancak, kaolin ve
kaolinit killerinin suyunu tamamen kaybetmiş halleri tartışma konusu
olmuştur. Daha önceleri, metakaolin mineralinin SiO2 ve Al2O3 karışımından
meydana geldiği belirtilmiştir. Daha sonraları ise metakaolin mineralinin,
kaolinitin bazı bünyesel özelliklerini açığa vurduğu kanıtlanmıştır.
Araştırmacıların çoğunluğu, metakaolin mineralinin amorf ve az kristalli
formdaki metakaolinitten oluştuğu göstermektedir [10].
Cheng ve Chiu (2003) tarafından yapılan çalışmada metakaolin esaslı
geopolimer üretilmiştir. Reaktif madde olarak, potasyum hidroksit (KOH) ve
sodyum sülfit (Na2SiO3) kullanılmıştır. Üretilen geopolimerin en yüksek
basınç dayanımı 79 MPa olarak bulunmuştur. Ayrıca, farklı oranlarda KOH
kullanımının yangın dayanımım etkilemiştir. Geopolimerde potasyum oksidi
içeriği de mekanik özeliklerde etkili olmuştur. Potasyum oksidi (K2O)
oranının artmasıyla priz süresinin, basınç ve yangına karşı dayanıklılığının
arttığı gözlenmiştir [6].
Yaoa ve diğerleri (2009) yaptığı bilimsel araştırmada metakaolin esaslı
geopolimerin geopolimerizasyonunu incelenmiştir. Geopolimerizasyonun

derecesi reaktif madde içinde bulunan silikat anyonlarının varlığına
bakmaksızın alkali içeriğinin artmasıyla artmıştır [6].
Bernal (2015), reaktif madde dozajının metakaolin esaslı geopolimer
üzerindeki etkisini incelediği çalışmasında, taze ve henüz sertleşmemiş
numunelerin ısıl, dayanım ve hızlandırılmış karbonatlaşma etkilerini
incelemiştir. Reaktif madde konsantrasyonun artmasıyla basınç dayanımı,
metakaolin çözünme hızı ve geçirimlilik özelliklerini iyileştirdiği
gözlenmiştir [11].
Maden Tetkik ve Arama Genel Müdürlüğü verilerine göre, Türkiye yaklaşık
90 milyon ton kaolin (%15-37 Al2O3) rezervine sahiptir [12]. Dolayısıyla
ülkede bulunabilmesi de, metakaolin katarak beton, metakaolin esaslı
alkaliyle aktive edilen malzemeler ve geopolimer üretimine ilişkin bilimsel
çalışmalar yaygınlaşmıştır.
Örnek olarak Girgin (2016), Uysal ve diğerlerin (2018) çalışmaları
getirilebilir. Girgin (2016), çalışmasında uçucu kül esaslı ve farklı oranda
metakaolin katkılı alkaliyle aktive edilen harçların malzeme özelliklerini
araştırmıştır [10]. Uysal ve diğerleri (2018), metakaolin esaslı geopolimer
harçlarının performansı üzerinde kısmi değiştirme olarak kolemanit atığı ve
silika dumanı kullanmanın etkisi incelenmiştir [13].
Dünyada Mermercilik
Dünyada mermer rezervleri incelendiğinde; kristalize kireçtaşı, Alp Kuşağı,
Ege Adaları, Türkiye, İran, Pakistan, Hindistan’dan Çin’e kadar uzanan ve
jeolojik olarak hemen hemen aynı yapıya sahip bir alanda mevcuttur. Ayrıca,
metamorfik masifler içinde zuhur eden mermerler ve magmatik orijinli
kayaçlar; Kanada, İsveç, Türkiye, Urallar-Sibirya, Güney Afrika, Güney
Amerika ve Avustralya’da görülmektedir [14].
Dünyada mermer üretimi ve tüketimi, 1970’li yıllardan bu yana nakliye
imkanlannın gelişmesi ve teknolojik gelişimler sonucu artmaktadır. Mermer
tüketimi, ülkelerin milli gelir ve refah düzeyi ile doğru orantılıdır. Ayrıca,
inşaat sektöründe yatırımların artmasıyla mermerin tüketimi, yapılarda
döşeme ve kaplama gibi amaçla kullanılmasından arttığı gözlenmiştir.
Dünyada başlıca mermer ihrac eden ülkeler Tablo 1’de verilmiştir [15].
Tablo 1. Dünya mermer ve traverten ham blok ihracatında 2016 yılındaki ilk
on ülke
Ülke Değer, $ Miktar, kg Pay, %
1. Türkiye 731 018135 3 708535117 62.77
2. İtalya 161049846 485 020 161 13.83
3. İspanya 71769725 173 045589 6.16
4. Hindistan 29138163 164 532 480 2.50
5. Pakistan 27734559 204056000 2.38
6. Portekiz 17192630 90 799 280 1.48
7. Makedonya 16523252 66 918956 1.42
8. Yunanistan 13731444 60 086 903 1.18
9. Tunus 9763124 85649593 0.84
10. Mısır 9651925 33419226 0.83
Diğer 77045552 339 045 158 6.62
Toplam 1 164 618355 5 411108463 100.00
Dünyada üretilen mermerin hemen hemen tamamına yakını tüketilmekte olup
önemli bir stok yapılmamaktadır. Bu nedenle dünya bazında, mermer üretim
ve tüketim miktarınıeşit kabul etmek yanlış olmayacaktır [14].
Dünyada 1990’lı yıllarda ve günümüzde mermerin en çok tüketildiği kullanım
alanları Tablo 2’de verilmiştir [14].
Tablo 2. Dünyada mermerin en çok tüketildiği kullanım alanları
Tüketim Alanı 1991’de, % 2020’de, %
Yer Döşemesi 34.4 35.0
Dış Cephe Kaplaması 20.3 8.0
Mezar Taşı Yapımı / Heykelcilik-Mezar Taşı Yapımı 15.6 18.0
Yapı Elemanları 9.4 7.0
Merdivenler / Basamak-Rıht 6.3 3.0
İç Cephe Kaplaması 4.7 9.0
Çeşitli Eşya, Özel İmalatlar ve Diğer Kullanımlar 9.3 20.0

Dünyada mermerin ocaktan çıkarılmasından piyasaya işlenmiş ürün olarak

sunulmasına kadar çeşitli aşamalarda değişik boyutta atıklar meydana
gelmektedir. Atık miktarı ve boyutu, mermerin fabrikalarda değişik kullanım
amaçlarına yönelik olarak işlenmesine göre değişmektedir. Mermerin en çok
tüketildiği kullanım alanlarında atık oranı %40 civarındayken, bu oran bazı
özel kullanım alanlarında %60’lara kadar çıkabilmektedir [14]. Bu oran, hem
toz hem de parça şeklindeki mermer atıklarını içermektedir.
Mermer Atıklarının Oluşumu ve Değerlendirilmesi
Mermerin ocaktan blok olarak çıkarılması ve fabrikalarda işlenmesi esnasında
çeşitli boyutlardaki toz ve parça atık oluşumu meydana gelmektedir.
Patlayıcı maddelerle delme, kamalama gibi ilkel üretim yöntemlerinin
uygulandığı mermer ocaklarında parça atıklar oluşmaktadır. Ayrıca
ocaklarda, yapıdaki süreksizlikler nedeniyle blok vermeyen iri boyutlu
mermer kütlelerinin piyasa değeri olmadığı için, genellikle
değerlendirilmeden bırakıldığı bilinmektedir. Mermer fabrikalarında ise,
katrak ve ST’lerde kesim, silme-cilalama işlemi sürecinde, toz atık olarak
nitelendirilen ve boyutları 2 mm’nin altında olan atıklar oluşmaktadır.
Bununla birlikte; köprü kesme, mantolama, ST kesimi sonrası alt ve yan
kısımlarda, baş kesme ve levha ebatlama makinelerinde parça olarak
netelendirilen ve kullanılabilecek nitelikte olan atıklar oluşmaktadır [14].
Toz atıklar, üretim aşamasında kullanılan suyla birlikte şlam olarak bir
havuzda toplanırlar. Bu çalışmada, çökeltme havuzundaki mermer atığının
değerlendirilmesi söz konusudur (Şekil 5).
Şekil 5. Çökeltme havuzu

Malzemeler ve Yöntemler
Malzemeler
Metakaolin
Metakaolin esaslı geopolimer harç üretimi için öğütülmüş (< 45 μ)

metakaolin, Kaolin İstanbul şehrinde bulunan Endüstriyel Mineraller San. ve
Tic. A.Ş. firmasından temin edilmiştir. Metakaolinin Puzolanik indeksi 1359
MgCa(OH)2/g ve özgül ağırlığı 2.52 gr/cm3’tür. Metakaolin (MK)’in
kimyasal bileşimi Tablo 3’te verilmiştir.
Öğütülmüş Granüle Yüksek Fırın Cürufu
Öğütülmüş granüle yüksek fırın cürufu (ÖGYFC), Bolu Çimento Sanayii A.Ş.
firmasından temin edilmiştir. Cürufun özgül ağırlığı 2.91 gr/cm3 ve 45
mikronluk elek üzerinde kalan miktarı %1.4’tür. ÖGYFC’un kimyasal
bileşimi Tablo 3’te verilmiştir.
Tablo 3. MK’in ve ÖGYFC’un kimyasal bileşimleri (XRF – X-Işını
Floresans)
Kimyasal bileşim MK, % ÖGYFC, %
A.Z. (LoI) 1.10 0.03
SiO2 56.10 40.55
Al2O3 40.23 12.83
Fe2O3 0.85 1.10
TiO2 0.55 0.75
CaO 0.19 35.58
MgO 0.16 5.87
Na2O 0.24 0.79
K2O 0.51 0.68
Aktivatör
Çalışmada geopolimer harç, metakaolin (MK) ve öğütülmüş granüle yüksek
fırın cürufu (ÖGYFC) sodyum silikat (Na2O(SiO2)) ve sodyum hidroksit
(NaOH) çözeltileriyle tepkimesi sonucu elde edilmiştir. Merck firmasından
tedarik edilen Na2O(SiO2) çözeltisi, 3.29’a eşit SiO2/ Na2O molar oranına
sahiptir (%27 SiO2ve %8.2 Na2O). Sodyum hidroksit (NaOH) çözeltisi, saf su
içinde NaOH parçacıklarının çözülmesiyle 12M’lik konsantrasyonla
hazırlanmıştır.
Dere Kumu
Bu çalışmada agrega olarak, TS 706 EN 12620’ye uygun, 0.25 mm’den daha
küçük tane büyüklüğündeki dere kumu kullanılmıştır.
Mermer Tozu
Çalışmada Türkiye’nin İstanbul şehrinde faaliyet gösteren Üntaş Mermer
Sanayi ve Ticaret Ltd Şirketi’nde mermerin işlenmesi sürecinde meydana
gelen mermer çamuru laboratuar koşullarında 105oC’deki etüvde kurutulmuş,
kırılmış ve öğütülmüştür (Dmax = 0.063 mm).
Deneysel Çalışmalar
Bu çalışmada mermer atığının geopolimer üretiminde kullanılabilirliği,
metakaolin esaslı geopolimer harç üzerinde araştırılmıştır. Agrega olarak
kullanılan dere kumu, %25 ve %50 oranlarında eleme sonucu elde edilen
mermer tozuyla ikame edilmiştir. Bunun için referans harç REF, %25 ve %50
oranlarında mermer tozu içeren harç MT-25 ve MT-50 serileri tasarlanmıştır.
Geopolimer harçların bileşenleri Tablo 4’te verilmiştir.
Tablo 4. Geopolimer harçların bileşenleri (gr)
Mermer
Seri Metakaolin Cüruf NaOH Na2SO4 Kum
tozu
REF 100 13.3 36.6 73.4 225.0 -
MT-25 100 13.3 36.6 73.4 168.7 56.3
MT-50 100 13.3 36.6 73.4 112.5 112.5
Daha sonra 50 mm boyutlu küp olarak üretilen harç numunelerin, 60oC’deki

etüvde 72 saatlik kür uygulandıktan sonra, üç günlük merkezi basınç
dayanımları belirlenmiştir. Üretilen harç numunelerin basınç dayanımı
değerleri Şekil 6’da gösterilmiştir.
60
55 59.10
50
51.60
Basınç dayanımı, MPa
45
40 44.32
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
REF MT-25 MT-50
Geopolimer harcı serileri
Şekil 6. Geopolimer harç numunelerin basınç dayanımı
değerleri
Sonuç
Bu çalışma sonucunda, mermer atığıyla üretilen geopolimer harçların daha
ileri araştırmalarda kullanabilirliği uygun bulunmuştur. En yüksek basınç
dayanımı, %25 oranında mermer tozu içeren harç serisinde (MT-25’te) elde
edilmiştir. Ayrıca, %50 oranında mermer tozu içeren harç serisinde (MT-
50’de) basınç dayanımının düştüğü görülmüştür.
Bu çalışma, Yıldız Teknik Üniversitesi Bilimsel Araştırma Projeleri
Koordinatörlüğü’nün FBA-2019-3558 numaralı projesiyle desteklenmiştir.
Kaynakça
[1] G. Chua, “UQ’s Global Change Institute First to Use Cement-Free

Concrete for Structural Purposes”, Architecture Design, 2013.
[Online]. Available:
https://www.architectureanddesign.com.au/news/uq-s-global-
change-institute-is-first-to-use-cemen#. [Accessed Oct. 10, 2019].
[2] T. Glasby, “EFC Geopolymer Concrete Aircraft Pavements at

Brisbane West”, Geopolymer Institute,2015. [Online]. Available:
https://www.geopolymer.org/fichiers_pdf/GP-AIRPORT.pdf.
[Accessed Oct. 10, 2019].
[3] Geopolymer Institute, ““World first” Production Run: 2.500 tonnes

of Geopolymer,”Geopolymer Institute,2012. [Online]. Available:
https://www.geopolymer.org/news/world-first-production-run-
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Geopolymer Composite”, Materials and Design, No: 30, pp. 3229-
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construction and substitution”. Institute of Rock Structure and
Mechanics of The Czech Academy of Sciences, 2013. [Online].
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10.pdf.
[Accessed Oct. 10, 2019].
[6] Y. Yonar, “Geopolimer Çimentolu ve Polivinil Alkol Fiberli

Betonların Yüksek
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2014.
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Tuğla Üretilmesi,” presented at 4. Ulusal Yapı Malzemesi Kongresi
ve Sergisi, İstanbul, 2008.
[8] Ö. Arıöz, “Uçucu Kül Esaslı Geopolimer Tuğla Üretimi”,

TÜBİTAK’s Project, University of Anadolu, Eskisehir, 2009.
[9] O. Zeybek, “Uçucu Kül Esaslı Geopolimer Tuğla Üretimi”, M. D.

thesis, University of Anadolu, Eskisehir, 2009.
[10] S. Girgin, “NaOH ile Aktifleştirilmiş Metakaolin Katkılı Geopolimer

Malzeme Özelliklerinin Araştırılması”, TÜBİTAK Projesi ve
Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi, Afyonkarahisar,
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[11] M. Kaya, “Farklı Tür Uçucu Küller Kullanılarak Üretilen Alkali

Aktive Edilmiş Harçların Mekanik ve Durabilete Özelliklerinin
İncelenmesi”, Doktora Tezi, Sakarya Üniversitesi, Sakarya, 2016.
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Müdürlüğü, 2013. [Online]. Available:
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as Partial Replacement on the Performance of Metakaolin-Based
Geopolymer Mortars”, Construction and Building Materials, No:
176, pp. 271-282, 2018.
[14] H. Ceylan, “Mermer Fabrikalarlndaki Mermer Toz Atıklarının

Ekonomik Olarak Degerlendirilmesi”, Yüksek Lisans Tezi,
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[15] Madencilik Özel İhtisas Komisyonu, Endüstriyel Hammaddeler

AltKomisyonu Çalışma Grubu Raporu: 11. Kalkınma Planı (2019-
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***
Proposal Of A Repair Mortar Based On Lime, Marble

Sand And Brick Fines From Demolition Waste
Amina Benbertal, Dr. Zineb Damen, Dr.Azzedine Chettih*
Abstract
Algeria has a heritage portfolio rich in historical monuments from the
Ottoman era; nevertheless, the importance of this wealth is not yet translated
into studies and research that are concerned with the typologies and
characteristics of historical, architectural and aesthetic of these monuments.
The objective of this work is to propose a strategy for the development of a
Fahs palace called "Palace of the Blind" in El Biar at the capital city Algiers.
This palace was built during the Ottoman era. Following the diagnostic report
carried out, the idea of exploiting the waste for a new repair technique is
proposed. It is based on the study of a repair mortar made from waste marble
and brick. Laboratory tests will be carried out to study the properties of this
material, which is proposed for repairing pathologies at this site. The use of
marble and brick waste (construction materials for the site to be studied)
makes it possible to eliminate waste by recycling and use, hence protecting
the environment, and helps to solve certain problems linked to the lack of
aggregates. The addition of brick fines is an alternative to improve the
performance of the new elaborate material which derives from an earlier
study.
Keywords: Ottoman Architecture, Fahs, Blind Palace, Sustainable
Rehabilitation, Improved Mortar
Introduction
Like any living body renewing its cells, monuments are today like yesterday,
deeply involved in contemporary history, the evolution of which they reflect,
so care must be taken to maintain life there. It is in this context that this
following reflection is carried out, our goal is to propose a restoration strategy
in order to improve any state of degradation or dilapidation. This study affects
the technical side of the building, we have worked on the development of a
repair mortar as a binder. Admittedly, mortars have always existed, in pre-
Roman times they were often of inferior quality, in Gothic times the cohesion
of mortars remained satisfactory as long as they were sheltered from the
elements. [1] Time attacks them little by little, and they quickly disintegrate
*
Mimar Sinan Üniversitesi
with contact with water, and this is one of the causes of aging of the mortars,
which we have tried to improve with a new recipe for mortar composed of:
marble sand, lime and fine bricks. The study will attach great importance to
the aspect of valuation in the context of sustainable development and respect
for the environment combined with the term of heritage conservation. The use
of waste marble and by-products for the manufacture of mortar is an
alternative that meets these criteria. The use of marble and brick waste
(construction materials from the site to be studied) allows waste to be
eliminated by recycling and use, hence protecting the environment, and helps
to solve certain problems linked to the lack of aggregates. The addition of
brick fines is an alternative to improve the performance of the new material
developed which derives from a previous study. [2]
Identification of the materials
Marble sand
The chemical analysis carried out by X-ray fluorescence Table 1 given in
oxides reveals a fairly high level of calcium (almost 40% in oxide), associated
with magnesia and silica in low levels.
Table 1: Chemical composition of marble Powder.
Elements CaO SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MgO SO3
% 39,431 1,245 0,382 0,174 2,554 0,184
Elements P2O5 Na2O ZnO SrO ZrO2
% 0,005 0,096 0, 021 0,020 0,005
The particle size characteristics are measured using the CILAS 1180 laser
particle size distribution and shown in figure 1. The marble powder has a
Blaine specific surface area of 12,000 cm 2 / g. The essential point which
emerges from the granulometric results is summed up by great finesse. [2]
Figure 3: Particle size distribution of the marble powder.

The marble powder used is marble waste. Observed on the diffractogram

figure 1, it consists mainly of calcite (CaCO3).
Lime
The lime used is made from a CaCO3 limestone containing less than 5%
magnesium oxide MgO. [3]
Figure 4: X difractogram of marble sand.
Mineral Fine
The fines (mineral powder) fill the inter-granular voids of the dune sand, thus
improving its natural compactness and increasing the performance of concrete
of sand considered. The mineral fines used in our work are obtained by
grinding waste brick and glass to the Los Angeles apparatus equipped with 11
metal balls (from weight 420g and diameter 47mm) at a rate of 30 to 33 rpm.
This operation is followed by manual dry sieving using a sieve with a mesh
diameter of 100 μ𝑚. Particle size analysis Figure 3 shows that 50% of brick
fines have a diameter less than 12 μ𝑚 (D50 <12 μ𝑚). [2]
Figure 5 : Brick fines grain size curve

Formulation of the Mortar to be Studied

The formulation of the chosen mortar is carried out on the basis of a
composition of L / S = 2/3 ratio and an optimized W / L ratio according to the
desired consistency. We therefore have a base preparation with marble sand
and lime as a binder (MT), plus another preparation with marble sand which
has been substituted with brick fines plus lime (MFB).
The mixing was carried out according to the N.F.P. 18 standard, once the
mixture is homogeneous, the molds with 3 cells (4x4x16) are filled. After
hardening, these are stored in the humid chamber:
HR = 95 ± 5, a T ° = 20c ° ± 5 until the day of the test.
Figure 6 : The test pieces obtained
Tests Carried out and Discussion of Results

Mechanical Tests
Tensile test: (Standard EN196-1)
Performing the bending tensile test (3 points) figure 5, by subjecting the
samples (4x4x16) MT (control mortar) and MFB (mortar with brick fines) on
a device, under the trays of a machine (CONTROLS), allowing a load of up
to 100KN to be applied with a loading speed of 50 N / s.

Figure 7: Drawing of the tensile test
We calculate the bending tensile strength by reading the load Ft (KN) on the
device screen, the tensile stress on the underside of the specimen is:
Rt = 1.5.Ft.L/b3
Table 2: Tensile strength of MT and MFB
Type of specimen Moyenne de la résistance à la

traction à 28 jours
Control (sand + lime) MT 0.6396
Traité (sable+chaux 2.0514

+fines de brique) MFB
Flexural tensile strength tests were performed on three samples of each MT

and MFB composition at 28 days of age.
The results showed a low resistance for the MT control mortar, but for the
MFB, we notice a marked improvement in tensile strength (68%), this is due
to the substitution of fine bricks in the marble sand.
Compression Test
The six pieces of test specimens obtained after failure in bending are then
subjected to a uni-axial compression on the compression frame of the same
press with a loading speed of 2400 N / s, the compressive stress will be:
RC = Fc/b2
Table 3: Compressive strength of MT and MFB
Type of specimen 28-day average compressive

strength
Control (sand + lime) MT 1.6775

Treated (sand + lime 4.12125
+ brick fines) MFB
The results obtained are shown in the table above, it is quite remarkable that
the compressive strength increased in favor of the MFB material compared to
the MT material by a rate of 60%. This improvement is due the effect of the
brick fines.
Capillary Absorption Test (Sorptivity)
This test measures the absorption rate of water by capillary suction of
unsaturated specimens, brought into contact with water without hydraulic
pressure. Before taking the Sorptivity measurements, the samples will be
conditioned in the oven at around 105C ° to a constant mass. The capillarity
test determines the rate or speed of absorption by capillary rise of a 4x4x16
cm3 specimen placed on a support in a tank containing water according to the
diagram shown in figure 6. [4]
Figure 8: Diagram of the capillarity test
The volume absorption rate per unit area i at a given time is calculated using
the formula
M (t) - M (0) / Pw.Aab
Figure 9: Sorptivity results of MT

and MFB mortars
It can be seen from Figure 7 that the sorptivities of the compositions MT

(0.2257 cm.mn-0.5) and MFB (0.1443 cm.mn-0.5) are comparable to other
compositions in the literature Table 4. The values found indicate that the
absorption character of the material produced is low, which favors water
tightness. Likewise, the brick fines influenced the results compared to the
control by reducing the absorption effect. Which is an advantage for the
durability of the material obtained.
Table 4: Sorptivity values of some materials

Materials Density Sorptivity
(cm.mn-0.5)
Autoclaved cellular 0.390 0.287

concrete Purzak J et al. 0.500 0.465
(1992)
0.650 0.503
Clay brick Purzak J et al. 1.700 1.239

(1992)
Concrete Purzak J et al. 2.300 0.239

(1992)
Cellular clay concrete 1.038 1.835

Goual M.S. (2000) 0.953 1.673
0.843 1.456
Béton Miniotaité R, 2.18 1.66

(2004)
Pinewood, Miniotaité R, 1.91 0.62

(2004)
Miniotaité R ceramic 0.385 0.090

brick, (2004)
Control mortar (marble 1.47 0.2257

sand + lime) MT
Benbertal Amina (2019)
Mortar with fine brick
(marble + lime + fine
brick) MFB, Benbertal 0,1443
Amina (2019)
1.56
Summary
This study dealt with the recovery of waste materials from construction sites,
such as waste marble and waste bricks. The raw material chosen for the
production of the repair material intended for the restoration of the site "palace
of the blind" comes from this marble and brick waste (basic materials of the
project in question)
From marble waste, a fraction of less than 2mm was used as sand for making
the mortar.
Waste bricks are transformed into fines by grinding and are used in the mortar
as substitutes to improve the performance of the proposed marble sand mortar.
Lime is used as a binder.
The present work is focused on the influence of the addition of 15% brick
fines on the mechanical behavior of the mortar based on marble sand and lime.
The analysis and interpretation of the various results obtained during this
study, allowed us on the one hand to have a more precise approach on the
mortar based on marble sand, lime and fine brick, and on the other hand to
determine the mechanical characteristics of this composite.
Several conclusions can be drawn from this experiment, among which:
• The addition of the brick fines in the mortar improved the compressive
strengths thanks to the pozzolanity effect of the bricks.
• The addition of brick fines causes a marked increase in tensile and
compressive strength.
Following the absorbency tests:
• Brick fines influenced the results compared to the control by reducing the
absorption effect.
These results show that brick fines improve the performance of the mortar
with regard to the strength and durability of the material.
References
[1] J. D. L. R. PHILIPPON J., La conservation de la pierre monumentale en

France, Paris, Paris, 1992.
[2] DAMENE Z, Valorisation des sables de dunes de la région de Laghouat

: Étude de béton cellulaire à base de sable de dune, chaux ciment et
poudre d’aluminium, Laghouat , 2017.
[3] R. ,. J. F. Rabah Chaid, «Impact de la poudre de marbre conjuguée au

calcaire du CEM II sur la durabilité du béton,» European Journal of
Environmental and Civil Engineering. EJECE, vol. 15, n° 3, p. 427 to
445, 2011.
[4] J.Coignet, comprendre les origines de l’humidité, diagnostiquer les

désordres, évacuer l’humidité, prévenir son retour, 2007.
***
Buckling Analysis of Axially loaded Column in ANSYS

Benish Khan*
Omair Inderyas**
Abstract
Columns are commonly used as a major vertical elements to support building
frames and transmit axial compression forces to subsoil. The failure modes of
columns comprise, compression failure for short column and buckling failure
for long columns. In the area of structural mechanics columns made of any
cross-sectional dimensions depends on their slenderness ratio which defines
strength of compression members. To ensure the elastic stability of axially
loaded columns, a special consideration is given to the compressive load and
their geometry. To check the structural stability of columns, buckling analysis
is used to determine the maximum critical load that the column can withstand
before it collapse.
The aim of this study is to investigate the buckling of varying cross-sectional
dimensions of the columns with free-fixed boundary condition in ANSYS
finite element analysis software and to find its critical load carrying capacity
and deformation. In result section, the critical load solutions using ANSYS
software were compared with the theoretical Euler's buckling load theory.
Keywords: Column, Elastic Buckling, Axial Load, Euler Buckling, FEM.
Introduction
Stability is the ability of a structure to support a given load without
undergoing a sudden change in structure. The load-carrying structures may
fail in a variety of ways, depending upon the type of structure, the types of
loads, boundary conditions (supports) and the materials used in construction
of structural members [1]. These kinds of failures can be prevented by
designing structures so that the maximum stresses and maximum
*
İzmir Katip Çelebi Üniversitesi, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Çiğli Main Campus, İzmir,
Turkey
Ege University, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Bornova Main Campus, İzmir, Turkey
**
Corresponding author: benishkhan636@gmail.com

displacements (strains) remain within tolerable limits. In structures, members

like columns are major vertical elements to support building frames and
transmit axial compression forces to subsoil [2] [3]. While designing a
column, the elastic stability of column is the most important aspect in term of
stiffness and strength. Commonly the columns failed in buckling, defined as
the large sudden lateral deflection in structural member due to a small increase
in an applied compressive load. This phenomenon leads to instability and
collapse of the member [5]. A buckling analysis is significant for axial loaded
members because the subjected compressive stress at the point of failure is
less than the material ultimate compressive stress. As a result, special
consideration is given to the compressive load and the components geometry
while designing axially compressed members in order to ensure failure will
not occur from elastic instability [6]. Columns are considered main structural
members/component which significantly affect the building’s overall stability
and performance. The failure of the column is therefore catastrophic and leads
to collapse of the whole structure. While designing and constructing columns,
the safety factors to be ensured which includes, material irregularities,
boundary conditions, construction inaccuracies, workmanship and
unavoidable eccentric loading. The failure modes of columns described as
yielding or crushing (material failure) and buckling failure (structural failure)
for short and long columns [7]. To be specific, the buckling of columns are
considered for long columns, loaded axially in compression. If compressed
member is relatively slender, rather than failing by direct compression, it
may fail in lateral deflection [8] [9]. Under an increasing axial load, the
lateral deflections will increase too, and eventually the column will collapse
completely. Linear buckling analysis is also known as Eigenvalue buckling
which comprises theoretical prediction of critical load relative to buckling
strength of an elastic structure, Whereas in a lot of recent studies it is also seen
that nonlinear buckling analysis predicts more realistic results than linear
buckling analysis [10] [11] [12].
The aim of this study is to determine the critical buckling load of an axial
loaded steel column with different cross sectional sizes dimensions using
Finite Element Analysis software ANSYS 19.2 and evaluate their results with
Euler's theoretical critical buckling load method.
Methodology
To estimate the critical buckling load and their deformations, buckling
analysis of steel columns with different cross-section sizes were carried out
by using ANSYS software for free-fixed support conditions and results were
certified by Euler’s theory. Accurate estimates of critical load and response
modes are difficult unless a structure falls well into the “slender” category.
Thus a 6m long column was selected to fulfil the requirement of slenderness
ratio. Following cross sections were selected for the analysis and their
material properties are listed in table 1.
• Square steel column of 200x200 mm
• Rectangular steel column of 200x150mm
• Circular steel column of 200 mm dia
Table 1. Material Properties of Column
Serial No. Description Value
1 Density 7800 kg/m3
2 Poisson ratio 0.3
3 Young’s Modulus 2x105 N/mm2
ANSYS is capable of doing linear buckling analysis based on finite element

analysis method. The Finite element modelling of the column is achieved
in ANSYS with two node beam element (BEAM 188). The long steel
columns with 3 different cross-sections were sketched and modelled in design
modeler as a beam elements. To accurately model a steel columns, loads and
boundary conditions were applied to the geometries. This was done by
applying 1N compressive force as a point load at the tip of the column, and
placing fix support at the base of column to define its boundary conditions.
Basically that 1N compressive unit load force describe the resulting
eigenvalue as a column’s critical load. Figure 1. shows the applied load and
boundary conditions applied to the Finite element model. The finite element
analysis was performed using ANSYS 19.2 and critical buckling load and
lateral deflection values were found for all cases.
Figure 1. 1N load and Boundary Conditions Applied to Model

For theoretical calculation of Euler’s critical buckling load, the values of

critical or buckling loads were calculated manually by using the given
formula;
𝜋 ! 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 =
4𝐿!
The value of theoretical critical or buckling load was later on compared with
estimated values of ANSYS software.
Results and Discussion:
The Table 2. Shows the critical buckling load of different cross-sectional
columns for both theoretical and analytical method. The percentage error in
results found in all the cases were in acceptable range (0.1-0.8). The
percentage of error in circular column was found much higher than sqaure and
rectangular column. Using ANSYS, eigen value or buckling load and its
corresponding lateral deflection or deformation values for square, rectangular
and circular columns were found for free-fixed boundary condition as shown
in figure 2, 3 and 4 respectively. The load multiplier value indicates the critical
buckling for all the cases. The maximum value of deformation was found at
top height of the column for all the cases because of the top free and bottom
fixed boundary conditions.
Table 2. Results of critical buckling load of different cross-sectional columns
Serial Shape of Theoretical Analytical Percentage

No. Column Critical Load Critical Load Error
(KN) (KN) (%)
1 Square 1.820x103 1.826x103 0.33
2 Rectangular 7.70x102 7.71x102 0.13
3 Circular 1.70x104 1.715x104 0.29

Figure 2. Eigenvalue and deformation of Square Steel Column
Figure 3. Eigenvalue and Deformation of Rectangular Steel Column

Figure 4. Eigenvalue and Deformation of Circular Steel Column
The comparison of critical buckling load and lateral deformations of various

steel columns are shown in figure 5 and 6 respectively. It was found that in
circular steel column of 200mm in diameter experienced large lateral
deformation under large critical buckling load as compared to square and
rectangular columns. The highest critical buckling load value and lateral
deflection value among all cases was found 1.70x104 KN, and 1.06mm
respectively in circular column. It was found that the rectangular column
among different shapes of columns experienced less critical load and
deformation.
Eigenvalue/Critical Buckling Load Vs Column

Shapes
1,80E+04
1,60E+04
1,40E+04
1,20E+04
Critical load (KN)
1,00E+04
8,00E+03
6,00E+03
4,00E+03
2,00E+03
0,00E+00
Circular Column Square Column Rectangular
Column
Column Shapes
Figure 5. Comparison of Critical Buckling Load in Steel Columns

Lateral Deformations Vs Column Shapes
1,06
1,05
1,04
1,03
Deformation (mm)
1,02
1,01
0,99
0,98
0,97
Circular Column Square Column Rectangular
Column
Column Shapes
Figure 6. Comparison of Lateral Deformation in Steel Columns
Conclusions
To check the structural stability of columns, buckling analysis is used to
determine the maximum critical load that the column can withstand before it
collapse. To ensure the elastic stability of axially loaded columns, a special
consideration is given to the compressive load and their geometry. From the
results of this study following conclusions were drawn;
1. Buckling loads extremely depends on the material properties and the
geometry of the column.
2. The critical load values of varying cross-sections of steel column
calculated from the Eigenvalue analysis, were found to be in acceptable range
to theoretical critical buckling.
3. The maximum value of deformation was found at top height of the
column for all the cases because of the top free and bottom fixed boundary
conditions.
4. The maximum critical buckling load value and lateral deflection value
among all cases was found only in circular column which illustrates that
critical load is directly proportional to material and geometrical properties.
References
[1] S.Timoshenko. Theory of elastic stability. McGraw-Hill Book Company,
Inc., New York, N. Y, 1936.
[2] Sumeet Chakraborty, M. S. Hora, K. K. Pathak. Buckling behaviour of
steel column having an intermediate support. ARPN Journal of Engineering
and Applied Sciences, ISSN 1819-6608, vol. 12, no. 15, august 2017.
[3] Anthony Beeman. Column buckling analysis. Thesis Report, April
26.2014.
[4] M.Avcar. Elastic buckling of steel columns under axial compression.
American Journal of Civil Engineering, Vol. 2, No. 3, 2014, pp. 102-108.
[5] Czeslow Szymczak, Marcin Kujawa. Buckling o f t h i n -walled
columns accounting for initial geometrical imperfection.
International Journal of Non-linear Mechanics (2017),
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnonlinmec.2017.06.003.
[6] Galambos.T. V, A. E. Surovek. Structural stability of steel: concepts and
applications for structural engineers. John Wiley & Sons (2008).
[7] J. Lee, S. E. Kim. Flexural-torsional buckling of thin-walled I-section
composites. Journal of Computers & Structures, Vol. 79, 2001, pp. 987-995.
[8] R. Bhoi, L. G. Kalurkar. Study of buckling behavior of beam and column
subjected to axial loading for various rolled I-sections. International Journal
of Innovative Re-search in Science, Engineering and Technology, Vol. 3,
2014, pp. 17639-17645.
[9] P. S. Lee,H. C. Noh. Inelastic buckling behavior of steel members under
reversed cyclic loading. Journal of Engineering Structures, Vol. 32, 2010, pp.
2579-2595.
[10] Carl-Marcus ekström , David wesley. Lateral-torsional buckling of steel
channel beams: a parametric study through fe-analysis. Master’s Thesis
2017:52, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Division of
Structural Engineering, Chalmers University Of Technology, Gothenburg,
Sweden 2017.
[11] Najah Rustum Mohsin, Younis Fakher Aoda, Raheem Abd Sayel. Effect
the beam section shape for different materials on buckling load using finite
element method. International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research,
140 ISSN 2229-5518, Volume 6, Issue 2, February-2015.
[12] Dominik Schillinger, Vissarion Papadopoulos, Manfred
Bischoff,Manolis Papadrakakis. Buckling analysis of imperfect I-section
beam-columns with stochastic shell finite elements. Computer Mech (2010)
46:495–510, DOI 10.1007/s00466-010-0488-y, © Springer-Verlag 2010, 8
April 2010.
***
Study Fractally-Spherical Concentric Model Colloidal

Submicroparticles Sio2 On The Example Amorphous-
Siliceous Opoks The Purpose Of Thermosynthesis Foam
Glass Composite Heat Insulation And Protective-
Decorative Application
Bibol Zhakipbayev*
Elmira Akhmetova**
Abstract
The possibility thermosynthesis foam glass composite heat insulating and
protective-decorative application on the basis of amorphous siliceous opoks,
excluding from the scheme of the traditional technologies and energy-
intensive process is economically disadvantageous melting and granulation of
special multi-component glass mass. It has been established that the
mechanism of formation of the primary microparticles colloidal particles of
SiO2 begins with the formation of monomers silicic acid with subsequent
polymerization and the formation of nucleation. It was found that the resulting
spherical particles of amorphous SiO2 have a complex internal structure of
fractal type, as shown by the example of the research opoks, provided globular
silicide formations. Substance and structural features of the researched opoks,
as well as well-known high reactivity of amorphous silica have formed a basis
for the formulation of these experimental works on thermosynthesis foam
glass composite. The optimum temperature-time mode of getting foam glass
composite: 600-8500C for 10-150C/min; holding at 8500C - 25-30 minutes and
annealing. The resulting foam glass composite samples were researched in a
scanning electron microscope, which indicates that the resulting material is a
solid foam glass composite, which can be protective and decorative insulated
exterior walls of buildings and structures from the cold seasons. The results
can be used as part of the transition of the Republic of Kazakhstan to the
"green" economy, to implement the concept of the second of its areas - the
energy efficiency of housing and communal services.
Keywords: Foam Glass Composite, Thermosynthesis, Amorphous-Siliceous
Opoks, Fractal Structure, Silicate-Sodium Mixture
*
Lomonosov Moscow State University, Geological Faculty
**
M.Auezov South Kazakhstan State University
Introduction
The rare natural conditions for the formation of a large number of balls of
amorphous silica of the same diameter with the correct closest packing in the
earth's crust are very interesting today, in particular for the silicate industry,
although they have not yet been fully studied [1].
It is assumed that silicic acid gels and a pure silica solution are deposited in
the cavity of the parent silica-containing rock (source of silicon) at the same
time as the slow evaporation of water for thousands of years from the silica
solution into the dry atmosphere of the earth’s surface, the silica balls were
densely packed under slight pressure of the upper rock, where bentonite clays
were located below as a waterproof litter, preventing the penetration of silica-
containing solution and water into the underlying horizons [1].
As a result of studies of the porosity of the opok matrices composed of
spherical particles of silicon dioxide of various diameters, it was found that
their density depends on their diameter, naturally decreasing with its growth
[1].
The mechanism of the formation of primary microparticles of colloidal SiO2
particles begins with the formation of silicic acid monomers with their
subsequent polymerization and nucleation, which grows due to the addition
of silicic acid monomers to them, where upon reaching the critical size of the
primary particles they begin to aggregate, continuing to form large particles,
where each the growth cycle forms a spherical concentric shell, consisting of
smaller particles [1].
Figure 1. TEM photographs of the studied opok matrices

When large SiO2 spherical particles (tertiary formations) of larger diameter

are reached, their further growth is carried out by attaching smaller spherical
particles (secondary formations) to the initial particle, which results in a
change in the porous structure of the particles from the center to the periphery.
Particles in the central part are a denser core with a single-level pore system,
and the shells have a less dense two-level pore system, where each shell of the
secondary particles ends with a dense thin layer of primary particles of SiO2
and low molecular weight silica, i.e. monomers, dimers and others [1].
As a result, the formed spherical particles of amorphous SiO2 have a complex
internal structure of a fractal type, which can be shown using the studied opoks
as an example [1].
The main component in the opoks under study is the opal-cristobalite-
tridymite phase, which is a structurally related combination of minerals of the
quasicrystalline silica group - x-ray amorphous opal and microblocks of α-
cristobalite and α-tridimite [2-3].
Experimental Part
The aim of this study is to involve the above-described studied amorphous-
siliceous opoks for the purpose of thermosynthesis of a foam-glass composite
of heat-insulating and protective-decorative purposes, with the addition of
cullet necessary only for protective and decorative glass coating with a low-
energy one-stage low-temperature heat treatment.
The main sources of waste glass (cullet) are glass containers (90%) and flat
glass (10%) [4]. According to the forecast estimate [4], the volume of
processing waste products for production and consumption of glass in 2015-
2016 is estimated at more than 1.8 million tons, the volume of which does not
take into account reverse cullet generated and processed directly at glass
enterprises [4].
Among other potential consumers of cullet, one of these is foam glass
manufacturers working according to traditional technology, including the
energy-intensive and economically disadvantageous process of cooking and
granulation of special multicomponent glass melt.
The production of foam glass according to traditional technology with the
application of a glassy layer on its surface, suggesting its subsequent heat
treatment, can lead to loss of strength, resizing and internal stresses, which in
turn contributes to the violation of the integrity of the foam glass structure and
its further deformation.
Obtaining foam-glass composite for thermal insulation and protective and
decorative purposes based on amorphous-siliceous flasks requires a
comprehensive study, since foam glass is a highly porous material (porosity
80-95%) and obtaining a solid high-quality glass coating on it is one of the

urgent tasks [5].
At the initial stage of the process for producing a foam glass composite, it is
the preparation of a sodium-silicate mixture already according to the optimal
composition found, only in this case a layer of cullet 1 cm thick from a green
container with dimensions of diameter up to 1 mm, and then the already
prepared mixture [5].
Experimental studies have established the optimal temperature-time regime
for the production of foam glass composite: the temperature of the mold
loading with the mass in the furnace is 6000C; the rate of temperature rise
from 600 to 8500С - 10-150С / min; holding at 8500С - 25-30 minutes and
annealing [5].
After extracting the samples of the foam glass composite from the molds, they
were given the specified sizes by trimming the faces and grinding the glass.
Figure 2 presents the obtained samples of foam glass composite with different
color shades of glass.
Figure 2. Thermosynthesized samples of foam-glass composite of heat-

insulating and protective-decorative purposes based on amorphous-siliceous
flasks and cullet
The microstructure of the foam glass composite was studied using a JSM
6490LV low-vacuum scanning electron microscope with an X-ray energy
dispersive microanalysis system, where it is clearly seen that the proposed
intermediate contact layer between the glass coating and the foam glass was
not found (Figure 3).
Figure 3. SEM microstructure of the obtained foam glass composite samples

with an increase of 40 and 500 times with the content of NaOH
Discussion of the Results

The results of SEM analysis indicate that the obtained material is an integral
foam glass composite that can simultaneously insulate the external walls of
buildings and structures from the cold seasons and have a protective and
decorative purpose.
1. One of the typical representatives of natural amorphous-siliceous raw
materials - opoks, previously considered cryptocrystalline rocks, are actually
very peculiar natural formations composed of tiny spherical particles of
amorphous SiO2, which have a complex internal fractal structure
2. The material and structural features of the studied opoks, as well as the
well-known high reactivity of amorphous silica, served as the basis for the
formulation of experimental data on the thermosynthesis of foam glass
composite
3. The optimal temperature and time regime for producing a foam glass
composite was established: 600-8500С for 10-150С / min; holding at 8500С -
25-30 minutes and annealing
4. Obtained foam-glass composite for thermal insulation and protective-
decorative purposes directly from natural opoks by low-temperature and
single-stage technology
References
[1] Grigoryeva N.A. Proceedings of the All-Russian Youth Conference
"Opal-like Structures", St. Petersburg, Solo Publishing House, 2012. - 200 p.

[2] Khvorova I.V., Dmitrik A.L. Microstructures of siliceous rocks. -
Proceedings of Geol. Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1972. - Vol.
246. - 50 p.
[3] Mikhailova O.A., Lygina T.Z., Grevtsev V.A., Aukhadeev F.L. Textural
and structural properties of natural and modified disperse systems
(polymineral zeolite-siliceous rocks) // Structure and Dynamics of Molecular
Systems, 2007, Issue No. 1
[4] Marketing research of cullet processing market // www.research-
techart.ru/report/scrap-glass-recycling-market.htm
[5] Zhakipbayev B.Ye. On the role of opok matrices for low-temperature
synthesis of foam glass. Collection of the 1st International Multidisciplinary
Scientific and Practical Conference "New opportunities for developing the
Scientific partnership in Europe", Germany: 2020. - P.87-90
***
Biyodizel Üretimi için Yenilenebilir Kaynaklardan

Katalizörlerin Elde Edilmesi
Elnura Artykbaeva**
Özet
Son zamanlarda, fosil kaynaklarının yetersizliği ve sera gazı emisyonları gibi
çevrenin kaygıları nedeniyle alternatif bir yakıt dikkat çekmektedir. Biyodizel
son zamanlarda yenilenebilirliği, sürdürülebilirliği ve petrol bazlı dizel ile
karşılaştırıldığında asgari miktarda CO2, SO2 ve hidrokarbon emisyonu ile
petrol dizel yakıtının ümit verici bir alternatifi haline gelmiştir. Biyodizel, yağ
asitlerinin monoalkil esterlerinden oluşan petrol dizeli için yenilenebilir bir
alternatiftir ve petrol dizeli ile benzer fiziksel özelliklere sahiptir, ancak
yenilenebilir, biyolojik olarak parçalanabilir, toksik olmayan ve düşük
emisyonlar da dahil olmak üzere benzersiz avantajları vardır. Biyodizel
genellikle bitkisel yağların veya hayvansal yağların katalizörlerin varlığında
kısa zincirli alkollerle (genellikle metanol) transesterifikasyonuyla üretilir.
Heterojen katalizör, ayırma ve yeniden kullanılabilirlik avantajları nedeniyle,
transesterifikasyon reaksiyonunda ikili bir rol oynar. Son zamanlarda,
yenilenebilir kaynaklardan türetilen heterojen katalizörler daha fazla dikkat
çekmiştir. Açıklanan yenilenebilir kaynaklar arasında kabuklar, kemikler,
bitki ya da ağaçtan elde edilen küller, doğal kaynaklar, büyük ölçekli
endüstriyel atıklar bulunur. Bu malzemelerden hazırlanan katalizörler
biyodizel ürününü daha sürdürülebilir, çevre dostu ve uygun maliyetli hale
getirebilir. Bu çalışmada, yenilenebilir kaynakların biyodizel üretiminin
katalitik işleminde katalizör olarak kullanılması olasılığını araştırıldı.
Yenilenebilir kaynakların biyodizel üretimi için düşük maliyetli katalizör
olarak yeniden kullanılması, kirletici maddelerin en aza indirilmesi,
biyodizelin üretim maliyetlerinin azaltılması ve biyodizelin tamamen ekolojik
olarak üretilmesi sürecinin azaltılması açısından incelenmiştir.
Anahtar Kelimer: Biodizel, Yenilenebilir Kaynaklar, Heterojen Katalizör
Giriş
Son zamanlarda, fosil kaynaklarının yetersizliği ve sera gazı emisyonları gibi
çevre sorunları nedeniyle alternatif bir yakıt dikkat çekmektedir[1],[2].
Biyodizel son zamanlarda yenilenebilirliği, sürdürülebilirliği ve petrol bazlı
dizel ile karşılaştırıldığında asgari miktarda CO2, SO2 ve hidrokarbon
*
Kocaeli Üniversitesi, Kimya Mühendisliği Anabilim Dalı, Kocaeli
emisyonu ile petrol dizel yakıtının ümit verici bir alternatifi haline gelmiştir
[2]. Ek olarak, biyodizel, motor modifikasyonu olmadan doğrudan motora
uygulanabilen fosil dizel ile benzer fizikokimyasal özelliklere sahiptir [3].
Biyodizel endüstrisinde en çok kullanılan ticari teknoloji, temel koşullarda
triasilgliserit (C14-C20) 'yi C1-C2 alkollerle transesterize etmektir[4] .
Transesterifikasyon reaksiyonu şu şekilde temsil edilir:
Genel olarak, K (Na) hidroksit gibi çözünebilir bazlar, hafif koşullar altında
oldukça yüksek katalitik aktivitelerinden dolayı transesterifikasyon
reaksiyonu için katalizör olarak kullanılır [5]. Maalesef, bu homojen
katalizörler reaktörlere olduğu kadar zor geri dönüşümlerine de aşındırıcıdır .
Sonuç olarak, metal oksitler, karışık oksitler, destekli alkali metaller, zeolitler,
hidrotalsitler vb. gibi heterojen katalizörler, daha az korozyon, kolay ayrılma
ve düşük çevre kirliliği nedeniyle homojen bazların yerini almak üzere geniş
çapta incelenmiştir[6].
Son zamanlarda, kataliz alanı, yüksek katalizörlerin yüksek üretim maliyeti
ve metal kayıpları nedeniyle katalitik işlemlerin genel sürdürülebilirliğini
arttırmak için yüksek hacimli yenilenebilir kaynaklardan türetilen heterojen
katalizörlerin kullanılması ve geliştirilmesine büyük önem vermektedir
[7],[8]. Tepkime sırasındaki yüksek aktiviteleri ve seçimlerinin yanı sıra,
yenilenebilir kaynaklar kaynaklı katalizörler ucuz bir şekilde sentezlenebilir,
bu da biyodizel üretiminin maliyetini daha da azaltır. Ayrıca, katalizörlerde
özellikle katı atıklarda yenilenebilir malzemelerin kullanılması, çevre
sorununu da kısmen çözebilir ve bertarafı ile ilişkili maliyetleri azaltabilir, bu
da bu yenilenebilir malzemelere katma değer anlamına gelir [8]. Geçtiğimiz
birkaç yılda, bazı makalelerde çeşitli yenilenebilir malzemeler gözden
geçirilmiştir. İnceleme literatürlerinin çoğu, biyokütle, yumurta kabuğu, nano
gözenekli materyaller ve benzeri gibi yenilenebilir tek malzemeler üzerine
odaklanmıştır ve vurguları da büyük oranda atık malzeme üzerine konurken,
yenilenebilir malzemelerin sınıflandırılması çok açık değildir. Yenilenebilir
kaynakların uygulanmasında kritik bir rol oynayan, araştırma ilerlemelerini,
zorluklarını ve yenilenebilir kaynaklardan türetilmiş heterojen katalizörlerin
gelecekteki fırsatlarını kapsamlı bir şekilde gözden geçirmektir. Bu makale
biyodizel üretimi için farklı yenilenebilir kaynaklar tarafından sınıflandırılan
çeşitli katalizörlerin uygulamaları araştırılmıştır. Kökenlerine göre,

bahsettiğimiz yenilenebilir kaynaklar; kabuklar (yumurta kabuğu ve
yumuşakça kabuğu), kemikler, bitki / ağaçtan küller vb. Ayrıca, gelecekteki
zorluk ve katalizörün yenilenebilir kaynaklardan geleceği de göz önünde
bulundurulur.
Biyodizel Üretimi için Kabuk Türevi Katalizörler
Kabuklar
Yumuşakçalardan elde edilen büyük miktarda kuş yumurtası ve et tüketimi
nedeniyle, katı atık bertarafı sorununa neden olan büyük miktarda atık
kabukları üretilir. Bu kabuk esas olarak CaCO3 içerdiğinden, CaO 600-
1000°C yüksek sıcaklıkta elde edilebilir. Bu nedenle, bu atık kabukları basitçe
kalsine edilebilir ve biyodizel üretimi için katalizör olarak kullanılabilir [11].
Kuş yumurta kabuklarının CaO'nun güvenilir kaynakları olduğu
kanıtlanmıştır [12]. En yaygın kuş kabuğu , tavuk yumurtasıdır [10].
Transesterifikasyon reaksiyonu için ilk kalsine edilmiş tavuk kabuğu
katalizörü, Wei ve diğ. [13] çalışmalarında, yumurta kabuğundan elde edilen
CaO katalizörü 1000°C'de 2 saat kalsine edildikten sonra biyodizel için
yüksek katalitik performans göstermiştir (% 95 biyodizel verimi). Ayrıca,
katalizörün katalitik aktivitesi ilk 13 döngüde kademeli olarak azaldı ve
17.döngüden sonra kalsiyum hidroksitin görünümü nedeniyle tamamen
deaktive oldu. Yenilemeyen yağların transesterifikasyonu için kalsine tavuk
yumurta kabuğu da kullanılmıştır [14]. Reaktiflerle temas eden CaO
türevinden önce yenmeyen yağlarda serbest yağ asidini çıkarmak için asit
katalizli bir esterleşme reaksiyonu yapılmalıdır [2]. Ördek yumurta kabuğu,
tavuk yumurta kabuğu ile benzer bileşenleri sergiler. Yin ve diğ. [15], kalsine
atık ördek kabuğunun, biyodizel sentezinde umut vaat eden başka bir CaO
katalizörü olduğu sonucuna varmışlardır. Kuş yumurta kabukları arasında,
boyutu sadece yarım tavuk yumurtasına eşdeğer olan bıldırcın yumurtası en
küçüğüdür Cho ve diğ. [16] hurma yağı transesterifikasyonu için asitle
muamele edilmiş bıldırcın yumurta kabuğu katalizörünü araştırmışlar. Yoğun
kütikül tabakasını çıkarmak için asitle muamele edilmiş HCI çözeltisi ile
kullanıldıktan ve daha sonra 800°C'nin üzerinde kalsine edildikten sonra,
sentezlenen katalizör 5 tekrarlı kullanım sırasında sürekli olarak yüksek
dönüşüm (% 98'in üzerinde) tutabilir. Üstelik, hazırlanan bıldırcın yumurta
kabuğu CaO, CH3OK'tan daha yüksek katalitik performans sergilemiş, çünkü
katalizör yüzeyindeki büyük gözenekler, yalnızca büyük miktarda güçlü bazik
bölge sağlamakla kalmayıp ayrıca yağ moleküllerinin geçişini kolaylaştırmış.
Bir devekuşu yumurtası, dünyadaki en büyük kuş yumurtasıdır ve her
devekuşu yumurta kabuğu yaklaşık 15 cm uzunluğunda, 13 cm genişliğinde
ve 1.4-2.0 kg ağırlığındadır. 1000°C'de kalsine edildikten sonra, elde edilen
CaO, daha küçük partikül büyüklüğü nedeniyle kalsine tavuk yumurta
kabuğuna (% 96 vs %94) kıyasla daha yüksek aktivite göstermiştir [17].

Özetle, tüm bu atık yumurta kabuğu CaCO3'ten oluşur ve CaO için kaynak
malzeme olarak başarıyla kullanılabilir. Bu yumurta kabukları arasında,
içerdiği CaO miktarı ve hazırlanan CaO'nun yüzey alanı esas olarak katalitik
aktivitesine neden olur. Yumurta kabuğunun doğrudan kullanımına ek olarak,
mikrodalga ve ultrasonik yöntemler gibi reaksiyon hızını artırmak için
biyodizel sentezinde yardımcı transesterifikasyon teknikleri indüklenmiştir
[18], [19]. Mikrodalga, temel olarak elektromanyetik radyasyondur (0.3 ve
300 GHz arasındaki frekanslar), doğrudan reaktiflere enerji aktarabilir ve
böylece yoğun lokalize ısıtmaya neden olur ve ön ısıtma basamağı elimine
edilir ve reaksiyon daha kısa sürede tamamlanabilir [18]. Khemthong ve
ark.[20], mikrodalga koşulu altında (900W mikrodalga gücü), yağ asidi metil
ester (FAME) verimi, kalsine edilmiş tavuk yumurta kabuğu katalizörü
üzerinde 4 dakikada bile % 96.7'ye ulaşabildiğini bulmuşlar.
Tipik bir yumuşakça kabuğu olarak salyangoz kabuğunun ana bileşeni
kalsiyum karbonattır [21]. Kalsine salyangoz kabuğunun (900°C'de), atık
kızartma yağı transesterifikasyonu ve biyodizel verimi sırasıyla %87,28 ve
%99,58 dönüşüm ile mükemmel aktivite göstermiştir.[22] İstiridye kabuğu,
700°C'nin üzerindeki kalsinasyon yoluyla CaO'ya dönüştürülebilir ve % 73.8
verim ile soya fasulyesi yağının transesterifikasyonu için başarıyla
kullanılmıştır [23]. Biyodizel üretimi için atık yengeç ve kırışık (Anadara
granosa) kabuklarını CaO'nun öncülleri olarak başarıyla kullanmıştır.
900°C'de kireçlenmeden sonra, karşılık gelen biyodizel saflığı yengeç kabuğu
için %96.5'e ulaşabilirken, kırışık kabuğu için %97.48 verim elde edilmiş
[24]. Pers Körfezi kıyılarında toplanan atık midyeler, 950°C'den yüksek
kalsinasyon sıcaklıklarında CaO'ya dönüştürülebilen bir başka CaCO3
kaynağıdır. Biyodizel üretimi için CaO katalizörleri elde etmek için atık
midyenin kabuğu için benzer bir strateji kullanılmıştır [25]. Sonuçlar,
1000°C'de kalsine edildikten sonra elde edilen katalizör, ticari CaO'ninkinden
daha yüksek aktivite sergilemiş ve biyodizel verimi % 86'ya kadar
ulaşabilir[26].
Kemikler
Hayvan kemikleri, biyodizel sentezinde hammadde olarak kullanılabilecek et
üretiminden elde edilen bir çeşit yaygın atık ürünüdür (Şekil 1'de).
Şekil 1. Biyodizel sentezinde hayvan kemiklerinin kullanımı.

Biyodizel sentezi için besleme stoğu olarak balık kemiğinin kullanımı ilk önce
kalsine balık kemiğinin yüksek katalitik performansının esas olarak yüksek
kalsinasyon sıcaklığında β-tri-kalsiyum fosfat oluşumundan kaynaklandığını
bulunmuştur[27]. Bir başka çalışmalarda [28], atılan balık parçaları sadece
hammadde yağı olarak değil aynı zamanda katalizör olarak da kullanılması ve
iki aşamalı bir işlemle biyodizel sentezinde denenmiştir. Esterleştirme
reaksiyonu gerçekleştirilmiş ve atık balık yağının biyodizel'e yüksek
dönüşümü (% 96'nın üzerinde) elde edilmiş. Evcil hayvan kemikleri, esas
olarak Ca3(P04)2 ve CaC03 içerir, ayrıca triasilgliseritten biyodizel üretmek
için de kullanılabilir. Örneğin, koyun kemiğindeki Ca3(P04)2, 800°C'de
hidroksiapatite dönüştürülebilir ve bu hazırlanan malzeme üzerinde
%96,78'lik bir yüksek metil ester (ME) dönüşümü elde edilebilir[29]. Soya
yağı transesterifikasyonu için aktif katalizörler elde etmek için kalsine atık
sığır kemiğinden yararlanılmıştır [30]. Sentezlenen katalizörün katalitik
aktivitesinin esas olarak CaO içeriğine bağlı olduğunu bulunmuş. Başka bir
çalışmada, atık kızartma yağından elde edilen biyodizel üretiminde atık
hayvan kemiği kullanılmıştır . Katalizör olarak doğrudan kullanıma ek olarak,
hayvan kemiği, gözenekli yapısı ve adsorpsiyon kabiliyeti nedeniyle iyi
destek olarak kabul edildi. Biyodizel üretiminde, destek olarak atık hayvan
kemiklerinden elde edilen doğal hidroksiapatit kullanan bir dizi heterojen
katalizör araştırılmıştır. Örneğin, atık balık (Lates calcarifer) kemik destekli
bakır katalizörü ve oleik asit esterifikasyonunun katalizindeki uygulaması
bildirilmiş. Başka bir çalışmada , balık pulu türevli hidroksiapatit, %59.90
Ni/Ca asit katalizörün balık pulu ve % 98,40 biyodizel verimi elde edilmiştir.
Kalsine edilmiş hayvan kemiği, katalizörlerin sentezi için potasyum tuzlarına
(K2C03 ve KOH gibi) destek olarak da kullanılabilir . Deneysel sonuçlar,
hazırlanan katalizörlerin, yüksek toplam bazlıkları nedeniyle yüksek katalitik

aktiviteye (elde edilen verimin% 96'nın üzerinde) sahip olduğunu ortaya
çıkardı [31] .
Bitki / Ağaç Kaynaklarından Elde Edilen Katalizör
Atık bitki / ağaç kaynaklarının katalitik malzemelere uygulanması son
zamanlarda çok dikkat çekmiştir [10]. Bitki / ağaç kaynaklarından elde edilen
kül içinde bulunan çok miktarda alkali veya alkali toprak elementleri
nedeniyle, biyodizel üretimi için çeşitli kül bazlı katalizörler araştırılmıştır.
Tropikal ülkelerde bol miktarda tarımsal katı atık olan yağ hurma külü (kazan
külü), hurma yağı fabrikası tüketimi için buhar ya da elektrik üretmek üzere
yağ hurma elyafı, çekirdeği, kabukları ve boş meyve demetlerinin
yakılmasından sonra üretilir. Külün ana inorganik elemanı, temel olarak
biyodizel sentezi için yüksek katalitik aktivitesine katkıda bulunabilecek K'dır
[32]. Lemna perpusilla Torrey, göletlerin su yüzeyinde doğal olarak yetişen
çok küçük bir su otudur. Rafine Jatropha curcas L.'de kullanılan Lemna
perpusilla Torrey külü, yağ transesterifikasyonu ortak yanmadan elde edilen
kül 550°C'de kalsine edilmiş. Maksimum yağ dönüşümü %89.43 olmuştur.
Lemna perpusilla Torrey külünün yüksek performansı, esas olarak yüksek
potasyum içeriğinden (%11.3) kaynaklanmaktadır. Benzer şekilde, yüksek
potasyum içeren kakao kabuğu ile jatropha yağı transesterifikasyonu yüksek
katalitik aktivite göstermiştir[33]. Odun külü de yüksek alkali bir malzemedir.
Jatropha yağının transesterifikasyonunda esas olarak Ca2SiO40.05Ca3(PO4)2
Ca3(P04)2 ve yüksek ester dönüşümünden (% 97-99) oluşan odun külünün elde
edilebileceğini buldu[11].
Başka bir çalışmada huş kabuğundan elde edilen külü (bir tür odun külü)
kullanmışlar ve elde edilen sonuçlar huş kabuğundan elde edilen odun
külünün CaO'dan oluştuğunu ve bunun da iyi katalitik performansa yol
açtığını göstermiş [34]. Kalsine edilmiş muz kabuğu külü başka bir tür yeni
kül bazlı katalizör olarak değerlendirilmiş [35]. Sadece açık havada yanmış
ve bir Muffle fırınında kalsine edilmiş, elde edilen kül, biyodizel üretimi için
oldukça etkili sonuçlar vermiş. K20 ve CaO varlığı, yüksek katalitik
aktivitesine bağlanır. Külün katalizör olarak doğrudan kullanılmasına ek
olarak, transesterifikasyon reaksiyonunda kül bazlı katalizörün aktivitesini
arttırmak için bir dizi modifiye yöntem araştırılmıştır [36],[37].
Sonuç
Bu makalede biyodizel sentezinde heterojen katalizörlerin sentezi için
hammadde olarak kullanılacak yenilenebilir kaynaklar araştırıldı. Yukarıdaki
bölümlerde anlatıldığı gibi, yenilenebilir kaynaklardan heterojen
katalizörlerin kullanılması biyodizelin sentezini daha sürdürülebilir hale
getirebilir ve çevre sorunlarına karşı koyabilir. Yukarıdaki araştırmada,
yenilenebilir kaynaklardan türetilmiş katalizörün katalitik aktivitesini

etkilemek için üç anahtar nokta olduğu düşünülmektedir: (1) yenilenebilir
kaynak malzemenin türü, (2) modifikasyon yöntemleri ve (3) kalsinasyon
sıcaklığı. Yenilenebilir kaynak malzemenin türü, biyodizel üretimi için
uygulamasında önemli bir rol oynamıştır. Bununla birlikte, birçok
yenilenebilir malzeme kalsinasyondan sonra bile hiçbir katalitik aktiviteye
sahip değildir. Katalizör olarak kullanılmadan önce değiştirilmeleri gerekir.
Değişiklik yöntemleri iki gruba ayrılabilir. Bir grup, yardımcı yöntemler olsa
da (yardımcı çözücü, hidrasyon, mikrodalga, vb.) Yenilenebilir kaynak
materyalden türetilmiş katalizörün katalitik etkinliğini arttırmak içindir. Diğer
grup, biyodizel sentezinde aktif hale getiren aktif fazları (H2S04, K, Ca tuzları
vb.) Yüklemek için özel yapısını (geniş yüzey alanı gibi) kullanmaktır.
Kalsinasyon sıcaklığı da katalitik aktivitede önemli bir rol oynar. Çünkü CaO
katalizörünün yüzey alanı kalsinasyon sıcaklığından belirgin şekilde
etkilenebilir. Bu katalizörler transesterifikasyon reaksiyonunda kabul
edilebilir bir katalitik etkinlik sergilemelerine rağmen, bu yeşil katalizörler
için hala zorluklar vardır. İlk olarak, CaO, K2O, Ca veya K destekli katalizör
gibi çok sayıda yenilenebilir kaynak katalizörü genellikle reaksiyon
ortamında deaktivasyon, zehirlenme ve sızıntı problemleri vardır .
Örneğin, yenilenebilir kaynaklardan türetilen saf CaO katalizörü için devre
dışı bırakma nedenleri aşağıdaki gibidir: (1) CO2 ve H20 havada mevcut ve
katalizörün CaO yüzeyiyle reaksiyona giren reaktif; (2) reaksiyon sırasında
katalizör yüzeyinde kalsiyum digliseroksit oluşumu ve (3) Ca2+ iyonlarının
CaO yüzeyinden süzülmesi. Bu problemi çözmenin bir yolu CaO ile MgO,
ZnO, SiO2 gibi diğer oksitler arasında kompozit oksitler oluşturmaktır. Bu
nedenle, gelecekteki çalışmalarımızda transesterifikasyon reaksiyonu için
daha kararlı ve yüksek verimli kompozit oksitler katalizörü bulmak çok daha
önemli bir yöntem olacaktır. Yenilenebilir kaynakların katalizörlerinin
çevresel faydaları, büyük miktarda çözücü veya tehlikeli / toksik kimyasallar,
enerji yoğun ısı veya basınç sistemleri veya pahalı ticari katkı maddeleri
kullanılarak sentezlenmeleri durumunda ihmal edilebilir. Biyodizel üretimi
için katalizörler alanını daha fazla keşfetme ihtiyacına rağmen, yenilenebilir
kaynaklardan türetilen katalizörler üzerinde yoğun ve çeşitli araştırmalar
yapılması potansiyeli, endüstriyel seviyede biyodizel üretimi için heterojen
bir katalizör olarak potansiyelini göstermektedir.
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***
Effects of Manufacturing Method on Mechanical

Properties of Glass/Epoxy Composite
Esmael Adem Esleman*
Gürol Önal**
Abstract
By substituting traditional materials such as steel, aluminum and other alloy
materials, the use of composite materials has already increased dramatically
in the aeronautics, automotive, military, and civil construction sectors.
Because laminated composite materials have high modulus / weight and
strength / weight ratios, excellent fatigue and non-corroding properties. The
main goal of this study is to investigate the effect of hand lay-up and vacuum
bagging techniques on mechanical properties of E-glass/Epoxy composites.
The tensile, in-plane shear and flexural test sample was prepared and tested
according to ASTM standard. The Samples were tested with a Computer
electro-hydraulic universal testing machine having a capacity of 600 KN. In
addition, the specimen was examined with Scanning Electron microscope
(SEM) to investigate the homogeneity of the laminate. By using hand layup
technique, 280 MPa, 112 MPa and 320 MPa were recorded for tensile, shear
and bending tests respectively. However, in vacuum bagging method the
results were higher. 330 MPa, 148 MPa and 435 MPa was obtained for those
tests respectively. The samples manufactured with vacuum bagging technique
have better mechanical properties (17.86%, 32.14% and 35.94% difference
for tensile, shear and bending tests respectively) than hand layup. Therefore,
the mechanical properties of the laminate were improved with vacuum
bagging techniques than hand lay-up techniques.
Keywords: Hand lay-up, Vacuum Bagging, ASTM, Mechanical tests, SEM,
Laminate
*
PhD student in Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Natural
Sciences, Konya Technical University, 42250 Selcuklu, Konya, Turkey, Email:
esm99a@gmail.com
**
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Konya
Technical University, 42250 Selcuklu, Konya, Turkey.
Introduction
By substituting traditional materials such as steel, aluminum and other alloy
materials, the use of composite materials has now evolved dramatically in the
aeronautics, automotive, military, and civil construction sectors. Thanks to the
high modulus / weight and strength / weight ratios of laminated composite
materials, outstanding fatigue properties and non-corroding behavior [1].
The manufacturing techniques, the stacking sequence, and the fiber
orientation were among the influential factors in the properties composite
laminates [1-3]. Different researchers tried to analyze those factors while
studying the mechanical properties of composite materials. The effects of
fiber types and manufacturing methods on the mechanical properties of
glass/epoxy and basalt/epoxy composites have been investigated by
Raajeshkrishna and Chandramohan [4]. In their study, vacuum bagging,
vacuum-assisted resin infusion and hand layup with compression
manufacturing methods have been applied to produce their samples. The
result shows that samples produced with hand layup with compression
molding shows better mechanical properties than other two samples. In
addition to the above work, Abdurohman et.al [5], have been studied the
effects of production techniques on the mechanical properties of glass EW
185/lycal composites. Hand lay-up, vacuum bagging and vacuum infusion
techniques were applied to manufacture their samples. The result testifies that
vacuum infusion method was superior manufacturing method for better
mechanical properties of the tested composites in comparison with the other
methods.
Moreover, the effects of hand layup, vacuum infusion and a combination of
these two methods on tensile and compression properties of GFRP composites
have been studied by Hennigan et.al. [6]. According to their result, GFRP
composite samples produced with vacuum infusion technique shows
improved tensile and compression properties. In a similar manner,
kenaf/polyester samples produced with vacuum infusion method shows better
tensile properties than samples produced with hand layup [7].
Cerbu et. el.[8] investigated the effects of hand layup molding pressure on
mechanical properties of glass epoxy composites. The result indicates that the
use of lower pressure have been decreasing the flexural strength of the
composites. In other stuy [9], the tensile properties of GFRP composites have
been improved under higher hand layup molding pressure.
The effects of manufacturing methods (compression molding and autoclave)
on the mechanical properties of flax/epoxy composites have been studied by
Sawi et.el. [10]. Authors recommended the compression molding than
autoclave for better mechanical properties of flax/epoxy samples.
In general, the research reviewed under this article shows that the
manufacturing method have a great influence on the mechanical properties of
the composites. The recommendation of different researchers shows a
disparity, however, most of them agreed that the application of pressure will
enable us to get better mechanical properties.
The main aim of this paper to analyze the effects of hand layup method and
vacuum assisted hand layup (vacuum bagging) techniques on the mechanical
properties of E-glass/epoxy composites. Tensile, in-plane shear and three-
point bending tests were conducted for the samples produced with these two
methods.
Materials and Methods
Materials
Woven E-glass fiber shown in figure 1, whose property is shown in table 1, is
used as a reinforcement and the epoxy resin was known with brand of
SYSTEM #2000 EPOXY RESINS and SYSTEM #2060 HARDNER.
According to the manual of the supplier, the ratio of net epoxy resin to
hardener was defined (3:1 by volume or 100:27 by weight).
Figure 10 E-glass fibers which is used for this work (a) Woven Fabrics E-
glass fiber (b) Rolled Woven Fabrics
Table 1Typical properties of E-Glass fiber used in this study
S/No. Property Unit Value
1. Normal Thickness mm 0.55
2. Weave type Degree Plain Woven (0, 90)

3. Density gm/cc 2.6
4. Tensile Strength MPa 2,500
5. Tensile Modulus MPa 74,000
6. Shear Modulus MPa 30,00
7. Elongation Percent (%) 3.5

Methods
Manufacturing of Samples
Vacuum Bagging and Hand lay-up techniques were used to manufacture the
sample of E-glass/Epoxy composite as shown in figure 2. After mixing the
epoxy resin with hardener, the mixture is applied to the layers of the fiber and
brush is used to remove the air bubbles in hand layup technique. Whereas, in
case of vacuum bagging method, a plastic film is used to seal the hand laid-
up laminate. In addition, vacuum pump is applied to remove the air bubbles
under the bag and thus up to one atmosphere of pressure can be applied to the
laminate to consolidate it [2, 3].
a) b)
Figure 11 Manufacturing of Composite Samples a) Vacuum Bagging b) Hand
Layup Method
Geometry of the Composite Samples
The tensile (220mmx20mmx2.5mm), in-plane shear
(220mmx20mmx2.5mm) and flexural (150mmx20mmx4mm) composite
samples were prepared according to American Society of Testing & Materials
(ASTM) [11-13], and is shown in figure 3 below.
Figure 12 Cutting of Sample according to ASTM

Testing of Samples
Computer controlled electro-hydraulic universal testing machine having a
capacity of 600 KN as shown in figure 4 is used to analyze the tensile, in-
plane shear and three-point bending properties of the composite sample.
Figure 13 Electro-Hydraulic Universal Testing Machine

In addition to destructive testing, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is used
to investigate the morphology of E-glass / Epoxy before testing to understand
the interfacial adhesion between fiber and matrix and tensile fracture after
destruction.
Result and Discussion
In this section, the results obtained from universal testing machine and
examination of SEM for both manufacturing methods were presented and
discussed. In figures 5, the tensile test results of a sample prepared with hand
layup and vacuum bagging techniques were shown. The result clearly
indicates that the sample prepared with vacuum bagging technique have a
better tensile strength and modulus than samples produced with hand layup.
This is due to the fact that in vacuum bagging technique the air bubbles
produced between matrix and fiber were extracted with the vacuum pump.
Therefore, there is a homogeneous or uniform distribution of matrix in to the
fiber. In a similar manner, the in-plane shear strength of the samples produced
with vacuum bagging method demonstrates better than the sample
manufactured with hand layup technique as shown in figure 6.
Figure 14 Tensile strength of E-glass/Epoxy Composite for Hand Layup and

Vacuum Bagging techniques
Figure 15 in-Plane Shear results of E-Glass/Epoxy Sample produced with

Hand Layup and Vacuum Bagging Methods

Figure 7 shows the flexural strength of the composite sample fabricated with
hand layup and vacuum bagging techniques. The samples produced with hand
layup shows improved property at the beginning due to the sliding of grip.
However, the ultimate values reveal that the samples manufactured with
vacuum bagging is better than hand layup produced sample.
Figure 16 Flexural strength results of E-Glass/Epoxy Sample produced with

Hand Layup and Vacuum Bagging Methods
Generally, the samples fabricated with hand layup method has the tensile
strength, in-plane shear strength and bending (flexural strength) results 280
MPa, 112 MPa and 320 MPa respectively. However, in the samples
manufactured with vacuum bagging method, the tensile strength, in-plane
shear strength and bending (flexural strength) results were 330 MPa, 148 MPa
and 435 MPa respectively, which was higher the results with hand layup
produced samples. Thus, the samples manufactured with vacuum bagging
technique have better mechanical properties (17.86%, 32.14% and 35.94%
difference for tensile, shear and bending tests respectively) than hand layup
produced samples. Therefore, the mechanical properties of the laminate were
improved with vacuum bagging techniques than hand lay-up techniques.
The destructive testing results were supported with the Scanning Electron
Microscopy (SEM). The SEM images of both of the samples were indicated
in figure 8 before test. The image supports the experimental result obtained
with universal testing machine. In other words, samples manufactured with

hand lay-up technique accumulates a large amount of matrix throughout the
sample, which leads to a brittle property. Thus, the mechanical property of the
sample will decrease. This is due to non-uniform distribution of the matrix
with the fiber.
Figure 17 Morphology of the sample before test

In figure 9, the fracture behavior of the composite sample after test were
presented. Both of the sample have problem like fiber pull out and
delamination, which are the key features that are associated with the
composites.
Figure 18 SEM image of the sample after test

Conclusion
The results of the mechanical properties of E-glass/Epoxy composite that was
manufactured with hand lay-up and vacuum bagging technique is presented
in this paper. The results from tensile, in-plane shear and flexural testing
shows better value in vacuum bagging than hand lay-up techniques. The
samples manufactured with vacuum bagging shows better interaction between
matrix and E-glass fibers as it is seen from scanning electron microscope
pictures. This is due to even distribution of the matrix in to the fiber with
vacuum pump.
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Test of a±45 Laminate," vol. 94, 2007.
***
Behavior of Concrete-Filled Steel Tube Columns under

Axial Load
Farhan Abdi Abdilahi, Omair Inderyas *
Abstract
Concrete-filled steel tube (CFST) columns are one of the inventive types of
composite columns and are gradually used in applications that require the
support of large loads such as tall buildings, piers and bridges. CFST columns
offer significant advantages over columns made of either steel or concrete
alone, such as high strength, high stiffness, high ductility, and high energy
absorption capacities.
In this paper, a numerical analysis of concrete-filled steel tube columns
subjected to axial load is presented. To examine the behavior of these
columns, finite element modeling is done with ABAQUS 6.14 software. To
verify the study, previous experimental results were compared in terms of
deflected shape and axial load capacity. The validated model is parametrically
studied such as the thickness of the steel tube and the friction coefficient
between core concrete and the inner surface of the steel tube on the axial load
capacity. The results found that friction coefficient between concrete and
inner surface of the steel tube has no significant effect on axial load capacity.
It is also observed that local buckling was the most common failure in the test
CFST short columns. Axial load capacity of elements changes linearly with
steel tube thickness when the diameter of inner concrete is kept constant.
Keywords: Concrete Filled Steel Tube, ABAQUS, Finite Element Method,
Axial load
Introduction
Concrete-filled steel tube (CFST) columns are one of the inventive types of
composite columns and are gradually used in applications that require the
support of large loads such as tall buildings, piers and bridges. Relative to
conventional structural steel and reinforced concrete components, CFST
columns offer significant advantages, such as high strength, high stiffness,
high ductility, and high energy absorption capacities.
*
Ege University, Dept. of Civil Engineering, İzmir, Turkey, Corresponding author:
engfarxan@gmail.com
Extensive experimental studies about concrete-filled steel tubes (CFSTs) have

been carried out during the last few decades. However, experimental alone are
not sufficient and numerical models are needed to develop predictive tools
required for design and analysis of structural members and frames.
Circular concrete filled steel tubular (CFST) columns have been target of area
to study among the researchers since late 90s. Johansson and Gylltoft
conducted an experimental investigation of behaviour of stub CFST column
under the loading of both steel and concrete simultaneously, as well as when
only concrete or only steel was loaded. As a result they found in both loading
pattern the concrete strength was increased by the bond between the concrete
and steel, and all the columns sustained large deformations with maintaining
the load resistance [1]. Tomii et al. carried out a detailed study on 268
specimens of CFST columns to draw special attention to that two failure
pattern could be observed during the test namely crushing of concrete
accompanied by local buckling of steel tube for short columns and overall
buckling for slender columns [2]. O’Shea and Bridge investigated the strength
of CFST columns under various types of loading such loading purely axial or
with small eccentricity [3]. Stephen P. Schneider presented a paper on the
experimental study on behaviour of short CFST columns. The main focus of
the research was on the effect of thickness and depth to wall thickness ratio of
the steel tube on the ultimate strength of the composite column [4].
Giakomelis and Lam presented the behaviour of circular concrete-filled steel
tubes (CFT) with different concrete compressive strengths under axial load.
To evaluate and study the effects of steel tube thickness, the bond strength
between the concrete and the steel tube, and the confinement of concrete they
conducted an experimental tests that comprise 15 specimens with 30, 60 and
100 N/mm2 concrete strength and with a D/t ratio from 22.9 to 30.5 [5]. The
results from experimental tests were compared with the values predicted by
Eurocode 4, Australian Standards and American codes.
This paper presents a numerical analysis of simulates a model of circular
concrete filled steel tube columns under axial compression loading using the
commercial finite element software ABAQUS 6.14.
Finite Element Model Details
Meshing
In this study a model of circular concrete filled steel tube columns was made
using ABAQUS 6.14 software package [8]. ABAQUS provides a set of
standard elements for modeling solid elements including (C3D4) 4-node
linear tetrahedron, (C3D6) 6-node linear triangular prism, (C3D8) 8-node
linear brick element. The infilled core concrete in the (CFST) columns behave
as a single solid block when subjected to compression axial load and only
under goes compression without making any rotation. (C3D8) 8-node linear
brick element does not require fine mesh that causes a lot of computational
time. Therefore, (C3D8) is observed to be suitable solid element for modeling
infilled core concrete.
For the thickness of the steel tube either the shell elements or the solid block
elements can be used for meshing. Shell elements have rotational degree of
freedoms DOFs in addition of transitional DOFs. After trails were performed
it found that C3D8 reproduce the deformed shape of the tube with good
accuracy.
One each of the bottom and the top of the assembly of concrete is confined by
two rigid plates. The rigid plates is defined using Discrete Rigid plate
provided by the ABAQUS 6.14. The mesh of the rigid plates were kept finer
than the assembly of column. Tie constrains is provided between the faces of
the column and the top and bottom plates. Fig.1 shown below describes the
FE model details.
Figure 19 Details of FE Model
Material Modeling
Steel
Multi-linear curve fig.2 is used for simulating the behavior of steel material
in this paper. This curve of steel stress strain is divided in to three parts. The
first part is linear elastic part that is equal the slope of elastic modules of the
steel up to the yield point. The elastic modulus is assumed to be 210,000 MPa
in this study. The second and the third parts are the constant at yield stress fy
and the strain hardening εt in steel upto fult (ultimate stress) and εu (ultimate
strain) of steel.
Figure 20 Steel tube stress-strain curve (source; [6])
Concrete
To simulate the plastic properties of concrete, linear Drucker Prager rule was
used since the model is suitable for response of material with compressive
stresses that dominate tensile stress in axially loaded concrete filled steel tube
columns. The confined stress-strain model provided by Huang, Hu, and Tsai
[7] is employed for simulating the confinement provided by the steel to
concrete.
Loading and Boundary Conditions
The bottom rigid plate was fixed in all direction using fixed boundary
condition while the top is restrained all degree of freedom except the
longitudinal direction. Loading application was performed by providing a
total displacement in small incremental to the upper rigid plate. Load carrying
capacity of the specimens was measured at the bottom rigid plate using
reference point.
Verification of Proposed Model
The validation of the FE model was judged by comparing the results of

proposed model to existing experimental results from the work done by
Giakoulmelis and Lam [3] and Stephen P. Schneider [4]. Peak load capacity
as shown in table.1 and deformed shape shown in fig. 3 from the FE model is
compared against the results from experiments.
Figure 21 Deflected shape C13 specimens & Deflected shape of FE Model
Table 2 Selected CFST columns Material Properties and FE Model results
D t L Ec Es fy fc Pexp Psim
Specimen
(mm) (mm) (mm) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (KN) (KN)
C1 140.8 3 602 25599 189475 285 28.18 881 852
C2 141.4 6.5 602 23528 206011 313 23.8 1825 1802
C13 114.3 3.98 300 28180 205322 343 31.4 948 972
Effect of Friction and Tube Thickness on Axial Load Capacity

After the verification of the FE model, the effect of friction and tube thickness
on axial load capacity of selected specimen is parametrically studied. Keeping
the dimeter of the infilled core concrete constant the thickness of the tube is
changed from 3 m up to 5.5m is evaluated. Also the friction coefficient
between core concrete and the inner surface of the steel tube is examined
changing from 0.05 up to 0.5 keeping all other properties unchanged. The
results of axial load changing with friction coefficient and steel tube thickness
are shown in below table 2 and 3 respectively.
Table 3 Axial load Changing with Friction Coefficient
Axial Load
S. No. Friction Coefficient
Psim(KN)
1 0.05 972
2 0.10 972.05
3 0.15 972.05
4 0.20 972.15
5 0.25 972.15
6 0.30 972.15
7 0.40 972.20
8 0.50 972.20
Table 4 Axial load Changing with Steel Tube Thickness
S. No Thickness (mm) Axial Load Psim (KN))
1 3.0 972
2 3.5 1125
3 4.0 1271
4 4.5 1555
5 5.0 1707
6 5.5 1866
Conclusions
Numerical model of simulating circular concrete filled steel tube columns
using ABAQUS 6.14 is presented in this paper. Validation of the FE model is
done by comparing the results of simulated model to an experimental results
from literature in terms of deformed shape and peak load bearing capacity.
After the verification of the model a selected specimen is studied. The effect
of tube thickness and friction coefficient is evaluated. It is concluded that:
4. Changing the steel tube thickness by keeping constant diameter of
infilled concrete have shown a significant effect and almost axial load
carrying capacity changes linearly with the thickness.
5. Changing the friction coefficient between infilled core concrete and
inner surface of steel tube had no noteworthy effect on the axial load carrying
capacity of specimens.
6. Local buckling failure is noticed at the ends of short CFST column
specimens.
References
[1] Johansson, M. and Gylltoft, K, “Structural behaviour of slender circular
steel-concrete composite columns under various means of load application”.
Steel and Composite Structures 1(4): 393-410, 2001.
[2] Tomii, M., Yoshinmura, K. and Morishita, Y, “Experimental Study on
Concrete Filled Steel Tubular Stub Columns Undr Concentric Loading”.
Proceedings of the international colloquium on stability of strucures undr
static and dynamic loads: 718-741, 1977.
[3] O’Shea, K. et al. “Design of Circular Thin-Walled Concrete Filled Steel
Tubes”Journal of Structural Engineering 126((11):1195–): 1303, 2000.
[4] SP., Schneider, “Axially Loaded Concrete-Filled Steel Tubes.” tubes.
Journal of Structural Engineering 124((10):1125–): 38, 1998.
[5] Giakoumelis, Georgios, and Dennis Lam, “Axial Capacity of Circular
Concrete-Filled Tube Columns.” Journal of Constructional Steel Research
60(7): 1049–68, 2004.
[6] Tusshar, Goel, and Tiwary Aditya Kumar, “Finite Element Modeling of
Circular ConcreteFilled Steel Tube (CFST).” Indian Journal of Science and
Technology 11(34): 1–9., 2018.
[7] Huang, C S, Hsuan-teh Hu, and Keh-chyuan Tsai., “Axial Load Behavior
of Stiffened Concrete-Filled Steel Columns Axial Load Behavior of Stiffened
Concrete-Filled Steel Columns.” Journal of Structural Engineering Vol. 128
Issue 9 – Sep, 2002.

[8] ABAQUS, ABAQUS analysis user’s manual version 6.9-2, Dassault
Systemes Simulia Corp., Providence, RI., 2009.
[9] Liang QQ, Fragomeni S, “Nonlinear Analysis of Circular Concrete-Filled
Steel Tubular Short Columns under Axial Loading”. Journal of Constructional
Steel Research. 65(2):2186–96., 2009.
[10] Hu HT, Huang CS, Wu MH, Wu YM., “Nonlinear Analysis of Axially
Loaded Concrete-Filled Tube Columns with Confinement Effect”. Journal of
Structural Engineering. 129(10):1322–9., 2003.
[11] Mander JB, Priestley MJN, Park R. “Theoretical Stress Strain Model for
Confined Concrete”. Journal of Structural Engineering. 114(8):1804–26.,
1998.
***
The Analysing of Total Harmonic Distortion due to

Variation of Carrier Signal Frequency in PWM H-
bridge Inverter
Galdi Hysa*
Abstract
This paper provides an analyzing of total harmonic distortion (THD) in single-
phase full H-bridge inverter controlled by PWM technique. The goal of the
inverter is to use a DC voltage source to supply a load requiring AC voltage.
The topology of this paper is mainly analytical. The control of inverter
switches is realized by pulse width modulation (PWM), which is a modulation
technique that provides a way to decrease the harmonic distortion of load
current. The amplitude of the output voltage can be also controlled with the
modulating waveforms by using PWM. Control of the switches for sinusoidal
PWM output requires a reference signal (modulating signal), which is a
sinusoid in this case and a carrier signal (triangular wave), which controls the
switching frequency.
The main purpose of the study is to investigate the values of THD due to
variation of carrier signal frequency. It was important to find the best carrier
signal frequency values that give clearer sinusoidal waveform results of the
output load current by decreasing the harmonics distortions. The single-phase
H-bridge inverter circuit is analyzed and it is implemented in
Matlab/Simulink.
Keywords: Full H-bridge Inverter, Total Harmonic Distortion (THD), Pulse
Width Modulation (PWM), Matlab/Simulink
Introduction
DC-AC power electronic converters, known as inverters are used to convert
DC voltage input to AC voltage. Their main ability is to produce sinusoidal
AC waveforms with controllable magnitude, frequency and phase from a DC
input voltage. Inverters are used in a wide range of applications such as: high
voltage DC converters for power transmission system, uninterruptible power
*
Ege Üniversitesi, Elektrik-Elektronik Mühendisliği, galdihysa11@gmail.com
supplies (UPS), speed control of electrical motor drives and solar power
generation [1], [2].
There are two types of inverters based on their structure: half H-bridge and
full H-bridge inverters as shown in fig. 1 and fig. 2, but just single-phase full
H-bridge inverter is analyzed in this study. In distributed power generation
systems, the single-phase full bridge inverter is commonly used as the only
interface between the DC sources and AC loads. The performance
requirements for this type of inverter include a regulated sinusoidal output
voltage with low total harmonic distortion and good transient response under
any changes in the load [3].
Fig. 1 Half H-bridge inverter Fig. 2 Full H-bridge inverter
PWM Modulation Technique

Pulse width modulation (PWM) is a powerful modulation technique for
controlling analog circuits with a processor's digital outputs. PWM provides
a way to decrease the harmonic distortion of load current. In PWM technique,
the amplitude of the output voltage can be controlled with the modulating
waveforms. Reduced filter requirements to decrease harmonics and the
control of the output voltage amplitude are two distinct advantages of PWM.
Disadvantages include more complex control circuits for the switches and
increased losses due to more frequent switching.
Control of the switches for sinusoidal PWM output requires a reference signal,
known as modulating signal, which has a sinusoidal waveform in this case
and a carrier signal, which is a triangular wave that controls the switching
frequency, as shown in fig. 3. The value of the output voltage can be adjusted
by modulating the shape of the signal, while for the frequency of the inverter
output signal, it can be adjusted by changing through the reference signal
frequency [4], [5].
Increasing the carrier frequency (increasing mf) increases the frequencies at

which the harmonics occur, as shown in formula (1) and decreases the filtering
requirement. A disadvantage of high switching frequencies is higher losses in
the switches used to implement the inverter [6].
$"#$$%&$ $
𝑚$ = $ = $ )$% (1)
$&'&$&("& *%(
Where mf – frequency modulation ration, fcarrier – carrier signal frequency,

freference – reference signal frequency.
If ma ≤ 1, the amplitude of the fundamental frequency of the output voltage
V1 is linearly proportional to ma, as shown in formula (2), (3) [7].
𝑉# = 𝑚% ∙ 𝑉&' (2)
($&'&$&("& (*%(
𝑚% = = (3)
("#$$%&$ ()$%
Where ma – amplitude modulation ration, Vreference – reference signal

amplitude, Vcarrier – carrier signal amplitude.
There are two kind of switching
schemes: bipolar and unipolar, but it is
used bipolar technique in this study.
When the reference sinusoidal signal
value is greater than the carrier
triangular signal, the output is at +VDC
(4). If the reference signal value is less
than the carrier triangular signal, the
output is at –VDC (5). Fig. 3 PWM modulation technique
Vo = +VDC for Vsinusoidal ˃ Vtriangular (4)
Vo = -VDC for Vsinusoidal ˂ Vtriangular (5)
Total Harmonic Distortion

The total harmonic distortion (THD) is defined as the ratio of the sum of
powers of all harmonic components to the power of the fundamental (6). Since
the objective of the inverter is to use a DC voltage source to supply a load
requiring AC, it is very useful and important to describe the quality of the AC
output voltage or current.
)∑-
(.!(((,$,* )
! -( !
)($,* /,$,*
𝑇𝐻𝐷 = = (6)
(/,$,* (/,$,*
The THD of current is determined by substituting current for voltage in the

above equation. The THD of load current is often of greater interest than that
of output voltage. This definition for THD is based on the Fourier series, so
there is some benefit in using the Fourier series method for analysis when the
THD must be determined [8].
Simulation and Results
The single-phase full H-bridge PWM inverter is simulated and analyzed in
Matlab/Simulink, as shown in fig. 4. The inverter topology in Simulink
consists of a single phase inverter which is controlled by PWM technique. The
inverter is built with the IGBT/diode block and the IGBT gate signals are
controlled by PWM generator. After simulation of the system, two different
waveforms are observed on the scope block: current waveform into the load
and output voltage of the inverter. Once the simulation is completed, the
powergui block is opened and FFT analysis is selected to display the 50-5000
Hz frequency spectrum of signals.
The fundamental component of inverter voltage is displayed above the
spectrum window. It
was also displayed
the harmonics
content in the
inverter voltage. The
full bridge
inverter generates a
monopolar voltage
varying between 0
and +VDC for one
half cycle and
then between 0 Fig. 4 Full H-bridge PWM inverter in Simulink
and -VDC for the
next half cycle. For the same DC voltage and modulation index, the
fundamental component magnitude is twice the value obtained with the half
H-bridge inverter.
It is examined the total harmonic distortion for output load current THDI and
output voltage THDV depending on variation of the carrier signal frequency.
The results that are taken by the simulation are shown in the fig. 5 to fig. 16.
Fig. 5 THDI (fcarrier = 500 Hz) Fig. 6 THDV (fcarrier = 500 Hz)
The values of harmonic distortion for load current THDI and output voltage
THDV depending on variation of the triangular carrier signal frequency are
concluded in table I and table II.
Table I THDI values depending on carrier signal frequency
fcarrier (Hz) 500 1000 2000 5000 10000 15000
THDI (%) 10,51 5,28 2,64 1,09 0,70 1,10
Table II THDV values depending on carrier signal frequency
fcarrier (Hz) 500 1000 2000 5000 10000 15000
THDV (%) 75,99 76,75 76,92 76,79 76,92 77,96
In the fig. 17 and fig. 18, there are shown the waveforms of output load current
and inverter output voltage for the lowest value of THDI = 0,7% which is
found for fcarrier = 10000 Hz, freference = 50 Hz, ma = 0,8.
Fig. 17 Inverter output load current (fcarrier = 10000 Hz, freference = 50 Hz)
Fig. 18 Inverter output voltage (fcarrier = 10000 Hz, freference = 50 Hz)

Conclusion
This paper provides an analyzing of THD in single-phase full bridge inverter
controlled by PWM technique. In order to provide performance requirements
of the inverter, the increase of the carrier signal frequency will always give
clearer sinusoidal wave results of the output load current. Therefore, total
harmonic distortion for output current (THDI) value is decreased by
increasing carrier signal frequency (fcarrier). The lowest value of THDI = 0,7%
is found for fcarrier = 10000 Hz and the highest value of THDI = 10,51% is
found for fcarrier = 500 Hz.
Total harmonic distortion for voltage (THDV) generally range from 75,99%
to 77,96% for the values of carrier signal frequencies that are taken in
consideration. The highest value of THDV=77,96% is found for fcarrier=15000
Hz.
References
[1] M. H. Rashid, Power Electronics Handbook, New York: Academic
Press, 2001.
[2] J. Soomro, T. D. Memon, and M. A. Shah, “Design and analysis of
single phase voltage source inverter using unipolar and bipolar pulse width
modulation techniques”, ICAEES IEEE, Nov. 2016.
[3] Y. Xue, L. Chang, S. Baekhj, K. Bordonau, and J. Shimizu,
“Topologies of single-phase inverters for small distributed power generators:
an overview” IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, vol. 19, no. 5,
pp.1305- 1314, Sept. 2004.
[4] A.B. Afarulrazi, M. Zarafi, W. M. Utomo and A. Zar, “FPGA
Implementation of Unipolar SPWM for Single Phase Inverter”, ICCAIE
IEEE, vol. 10, pp. 671-676, 2010.
[5] N. Aphiratsakun, S. R. Bhaganagarapu, and K. Techakittiroj,
“Implementation of a Single-phase Unipolar Inverter Using DSP
TMS320F241”, IEEE Explore, pp. 191-195, 2005.
[6] T. H. Loba, D. H. Wood, and E. P. Nowicki, “Improving Inverter
Efficiency at Low Power by Reducing Switching Frequency”, Proc. IEEE
Canadian Conference on Electrical and Computer Engineering, May 2015.
[7] L. M. Tolbert and T. G. Habetler, “Multilevel PWM Methods at Low
Modulation Indices”, IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, vol. 15, pp.
719-725, July 2010.
[8] D. W. Hart, Power Electronic, McGraw-Hill, 2011.
Characterization of Heavy Metals in Waste Stabilization

Ponds: A Case study of Waste Stabilization Ponds at
Chokera, Faisalabad.
Hafiz Qasim Ali, Dr. Amir Farooq*
Abstract
The increase in population, industrialization, and urbanization has increased
the demand for wastewater treatment. Waste stabilization ponds due to their
less demand for energy, minimal treatment cost, and low demand for skilled
labor are increasingly getting the attention of many communities and
countries, no matter, underdeveloped or developed. Effluents from
wastewater treatment plants are in unrestricted use, for agricultural activities.
If the effluents do not meet the standards, then the crops which get irrigated
with this water will ultimately harm the ecological environment and human
health. Six sampling points were selected, to check the characterization of
heavy metals in waste stabilization ponds at Chokera, Faisalabad. Four of
them were within the treatment system, and two from the Pharang drain that
carries effluent of treatment plant as well as industrial discharges. The
sampling was done in winter 2015 and summer 2016. Testing was done at the
Environmental Engineering Laboratory of The University of Lahore, Lahore,
Pakistan. The aim of this study was to figure out the seasonal and temporal
variation of heavy metals and their treatment efficiency. Additionally, to
check whether the treated effluent from waste stabilization ponds is meeting
the effluent standards and irrigation standards or not, in terms of selected
heavy metals such as Lead (Pb), Copper (Cu), Arsenic (As), Chromium (Cr),
and Cadmium (Cd). The results of this study show that pH and Arsenic were
meeting the guidelines of the Pakistan Environmental Quality Standards
(PEQS) for irrigation purposes, but all the others were higher than the safe
level.
Keywords: Heavy Metals, Waste Stabilization Ponds, EPA standards,
Unrestricted Irrigation, Groundwater
*
The University of Lahore, Civil Engineering Department, Lahore, Pakistan.
Introduction
One of the basic needs of life on earth is water. Freshwater on earth accounts
for only 3 % of the total water, out of which only 0.01 % is available for
drinking purposes [1]. Due to the rapid increase in population and
industrialization, this very small amount of water is under stress [2] ,[3] .
Heavy metals are those contaminants that pose human health at high risk[4].
Soil and water possess heavy metals as natural elements that are released into
the environment due to human activities and weathering [5]. The activities
which have increased the accumulation of heavy metals in the soil all around
the world especially in developing countries are; industrial discharges, use of
pesticides and fertilizers, irrigation of crops and vegetables with untreated
wastewater, and transportation through the atmosphere. Wastewater irrigation
is extensively being done worldwide, especially in developing countries,
where, Pakistan is not the exception [6],[7]. Irrigation of vegetables and crops
with treated effluents from wastewater treatment plants is both advantageous
and harmful for the agricultural sector. On one hand, effluents are a potential
source for agricultural sector and increase the essential nutrients & organics
in the soils. On the other hand, they increase soil contamination with heavy
metals [8]. However, effluent irrigation may not only contaminate the soil but
also adversely impact the agricultural products and ultimately the health of
consumers [9]. For instance, vegetables that were cultivated in a soil that was
irrigated with sewage reported having a higher amount of heavy metals than
allowed caused the health hazard to their ultimate users [10]. The higher
amount of heavy metals in soils is a very serious issue all around the world
because of their persistence nature, non-biodegradability, longer biological
half-lives, wide occurrence, toxicity to living things including humans, and
their ability to accumulate with the passage of time [11]. Due to increased
urbanization and industrialization, it is one of the major environmental issues
throughout the country, especially in Faisalabad, Pakistan.
The aim of this study was to check the suitability of water for unrestricted
irrigation along the Pharang drain. The main objectives were; 1. To check the
quality of wastewater at influent of the treatment system. 2. To check the
treatment efficiency of waste stabilization ponds in removing heavy metals
and the effect of treated effluent on Pharang drain. 3. To check the suitability
of water carried by Pharang drain for irrigation purposes. 4. To check the
seasonal variation of treatment efficiency of Waste Stabilization Ponds.
Study Area Description
Treatment plant under consideration, is located in Chokera town of the city
Faisalabad. This Treatment system consists of ponds arranged both in series
& parallel. The treatment plant was primarily designed and constructed for
domestic sewage. The total covered area by the whole treatment system is 155
hectares. Faisalabad Development Authority (FDA) and Water and Sanitation
Agency (WASA), Faisalabad, under the government of Punjab possess its
technical and administrative control.
The average intensity of rainfall, calculated from the last 60 years data in
Faisalabad city, is 408 mm/year and recorded wind speed is 94 mph. The
average highest and lowest recorded temperatures in the city are 45 and 12 oC
respectively [12].
Sampling and Analysis
There were total of six points selected for sampling purposes as listed below
and shown in the figure 1. SP1: Sampling at Influent of the treatment plant.
SP2: Sampling of the influent of anaerobic ponds. SP3: Sampling of effluent
of facultative ponds. SP4: Sampling before disposal into the Pharang drain.
SP5: Sampling of the drain before disposal of treated effluent. SP6: Sampling
of the drain after mixing with treated effluent.
Sampling, sample preservation, transportation, and testing was done as per the
standard procedures prescribed in “standard methods for the examination of
water and wastewater by, Arnold E. Greenberg and R. Rhodes trussel”[13].
Figure 22. Location of Sampling Points

Results and Discussions
Efficiency of Treatment Plant
The treatment plant was designed for 90 % removal efficiency. In the table 1,
it can be clearly observed that in summer season, the maximum removal

efficiency of arsenic is 80 percent. However, the removal efficiency of other
heavy metals is less than 50 % in most cases.
Table 5. Results of Tested Parameters
*SP = Sampling Point
**TP = Treatment Plant
***AWSPs = Anaerobic Waste Stabilization Ponds
****FWSPs = Facultative Waste Stabilization Ponds
Effici Effici
Pakis ency ency Effici
Tested of ency
Sr. tan of
Paramet Climate SP1 SP2 SP3 SP4 SP5 SP6 AWS of TP
No. Stand FWS
ers Ps
ards Ps (%)
(%) (%)
pH Summer 7.85 7.50 7.35 7.15 6.30 6.77 2.00 2.72 8.92
6.50-
1
(H+ 8.40
Winter 7.80 7.65 7.40 7.00 6.23 6.62 3.27 5.41 10.26
ions)
255.0 242.0 219.6 236.0 140.9

Summer 45.90 9.26 79.10 82.00
0 0 0 0 5
Turbidit
2 5.00
y (NTU)
227.0 222.0 163.0 224.0 140.6
Winter 57.20 26.58 64.91 74.80
0 0 0 0 0
Summer 3.15 2.97 2.19 1.95 1.65 1.80 26.26 10.96 38.10
Lead
3 0.50
(ppm)
Winter 3.34 2.86 2.65 2.20 1.90 2.05 7.34 16.98 34.13
Summer 2.05 1.11 0.92 0.84 0.77 0.81 17.12 8.70 59.02
Copper
4 0.20
(ppm)
Winter 1.91 1.34 1.01 0.94 0.88 0.91 24.63 6.93 50.79
Summer 0.07 0.05 0.04 0.01 0.02 0.02 19.61 65.85 80.00
Arsenic
5 0.10
(ppm)
Winter 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00
Chromi Summer 1.00 0.86 0.75 0.69 0.83 0.76 13.31 7.74 30.76
6 um 0.10
(ppm) Winter 0.77 0.64 0.57 0.50 0.69 0.68 10.94 12.28 35.06
Summer 0.40 0.38 0.30 0.26 0.23 0.24 21.90 13.18 35.43
Cadmiu
7 0.10
m (ppm)
Winter 0.43 0.38 0.34 0.32 0.24 0.28 10.13 5.93 25.93
Efficiency of Anaerobic Ponds

The treatment efficiency of anaerobic ponds for the removal of various heavy
metals can be observed, in the Table 1, given above. In the treatment system,
through waste stabilization ponds, anaerobic ponds must give maximum
heavy metals removal efficiency [14]. However, in this study efficiency was
minimum because of poor maintenance and operational inadequacy.
Anaerobic ponds showed the highest efficiency in removing turbidity during
the winter season that is 26.58 % and lowest in removing lead that is 10.13 %
in the same season.
Efficiency of Facultative Ponds
In table 1, it can be observed that the removal efficiency of most of the heavy
metals is less than 20 % compared to the designed 90 % efficiency, except for
arsenic that was low in concentration, even at the start of treatment process,
so no as such efficiency in this case as well. The highest and lowest removal
efficiencies achieved by facultative ponds were 65.85 % in removing arsenic
and 5.93 in removing cadmium.
Quality of Samples Drawn
pH
The desired range of pH in PEQS is 6.5-8.4 [15]. The pH variation throughout
the treatment system and in the drain was within the desired limits of national
environmental quality standards. There is no environmental and human
impact associated with the pH of the wastewater discharge into Pharang drain
and afterwards, used by the farmers.
Turbidity
Removal of turbidity in treatment was done significantly that is from above
200 NTU to around 50 NTU in both winter and summer seasons but that
reduction was not sufficient enough. The problem worsened when effluent
gets mixed with water in Pharang drain. The prescribed limit in PEQS for
turbidity is less than or equal to 5 NTU [15].
Lead
The upper desired limit of lead in the effluents from treatment plant is less
than 0.50 mg/l [15]. The tested amount of lead in the effluent, as well as water
carried by the Pharang drain, was alarmingly high such that it can cause
environmental and human health impacts. The results show that lead values
in samples 4 and 6 were 2.20 and 2.05 mg/l.
Copper
The detected amount of Copper in the effluent from WSPs was higher than
PEQS i.e. above 0.20 mg/l [15]. The situation remained same, almost after the
effluents get mixed with water in the Pharang drain. The water in the Pharang
drain, with the amount of copper is not suitable for unrestricted irrigation.
Arsenic
The detected amounts of Arsenic in both winter and summer seasons and at
all the sampling points were within the desired limit of PEQS. The set limit
for (As) is less than or equal to 0.10 mg/l in PEQS Pakistan [15].
Chromium
Although the amount of chromium in the influent was not as high as of copper.
The situation in the effluents was almost the same. The concentration of
chromium in the effluent was higher than the prescribed limit of PEQS, that
is less than or equal to 0.10 mg/l [15].
Cadmium
The desired limit of cadmium in the effluents from the treatment plant is less
than or equal to 0.10 mg/l [15]. However, the concentration in the effluents
was slightly higher than the limit. It also adds value to restrict the use of
effluents for irrigation of crops and vegetables.
Conclusions and Recommendations
Conclusions
i.Concentrations of pH and arsenic were within the desired limits, all remaining
parameters were exceeding the prescribed limits of Pakistan standards.
ii.WWTP based on WSPs was designed to treat domestic sewage only but
according to current situation industrial effluents are also being mixed with
domestic sewage that reaches the treatment plant.
iii.Anaerobic ponds are giving the lowest treatment efficiency because of the
non-removal of sludge since the treatment plant came into function.
iv.The absence of iron gates is the main hurdle in achieving proper detention
time.
v.Poor operation and maintenance, overloading in terms of flow, and high
concentrations of metals are the factors causing low efficiency.
Recommendations
i.For future studies it is recommended that bacterial testing should be
performed to check the quality of water coming to treatment system and going
out.
ii.Depth of anaerobic ponds should be maintained according to design by
desludging of ponds periodically (i.e. every 2-3 years).
iii.Iron gates should be installed to control the inflow and outflow from the
WSPs.
iv.Repair work should be done on immediate basis for various appurtenances of
treatment plant.
v.Industrial sewage must not be mixed with the domestic to avoid overloading
in terms of concentration of various parameters.
vi.Proper inventory should be prepared for flow and their characteristics at
inflow and outflow.
References
[1] Amini H., Haghighat G.A., Yunesian M., Nabizadeh R., Mahvi A.H.,
Dehghani M.H., Davani R., Aminian A-R., Shamsipour M., Hassanzadeh N.,
Faramarzi H., and Mesdaghinia A., “Spatial and temporal variability of
fluoride concentrations in groundwater resources of Larestan and Gerash
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1, pp. 25–37, 2016, doi: 10.1007/s10653-015-9676-1.
[2] Almasi A., Dargahi A., Amrane A., Fazlzadeh M., Mahmoudi M., and
Hashemian A., “Effect of the retention time and the phenol concentration on
the stabilization pond efficiency in the treatment of oil refinery wastewater,”
Fresenius Environ. Bull., vol. 23, no. 10A, pp. 2541–2548, 2014.
[3] Asghari F.B., Mohammadi A. A., Dehghani M. H., and Yousefi M.,
“Data on assessment of groundwater quality with application of ArcGIS in
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10.1016/j.dib.2018.03.059.
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10.1016/j.dib.2018.08.163.
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levels , potential ecological risk , and human health risk of heavy metals in
the soils from a typical county in Shanxi,” 2016, doi: 10.1007/s11356-016-
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[6] Dickin S. K., Schuster-wallace C. J., Qadir M., and Pizzacalla K., “A
Review of Health Risks and Pathways for Exposure to Wastewater Use in
Agriculture,” no. 7, pp. 900–909, 2016.
[7] Taghipour H., Mosaferi M., Pourakbar M., and Armanfar F., “Heavy
Metals Concentrations in Groundwater Used for Irrigation,” vol. 2, no. 2, pp.
205–210, 2012.
[8] Pirsaheb, M. Fazlzadehdavilb M., Hazrati S., Sharafi and K., “A

Survey on Nitrogen and Phosphor Compound Variation Processes in
Wastewater Stabilization Ponds,” no. January 2016, 2014.
[9] Khan M. J., Jan M. T., and Mohammad D., “Heavy metal content of
alfalfa irrigated with waste and tubewell water,” vol. 30, no. 2, pp. 104–109,
2011.
[10] Khan S., Cao Q., Zheng Y.M., Huang Y. Z., and Zhu Y. G., “Health
risks of heavy metals in contaminated soils and food crops irrigated with
wastewater in Beijing , China,” vol. 152, pp. 686–692, 2008, doi:
10.1016/j.envpol.2007.06.056.
[11] Science P., “Health risk assessment of metals transfer from soil to the
edible part of some vegetables grown in Patuakhali province of Bangladesh
Health risk assessment of metals transfer from soil to the edible part of some
vegetables grown in Patuakhali province of ,” no. July, 2018, doi:
10.26832/24566632.2018.0302013.
[12] Farooq M., and Munir H., “Climatic Trends in Faisalabad ( Pakistan
) Over the Last 60 Years ( 1945 - 2004 ),” no. January 2006, 2014.
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for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 23rd ed. Washington: APHA,
American WWA, WEF, 2017.
[14] Shpiner R., Vathi S., and Stuckey D. C., “Treatment of oil well
‘produced water’ by waste stabilization ponds: Removal of heavy metals,”
Water Res., vol. 43, no. 17, pp. 4258–4268, 2009, doi:
10.1016/j.watres.2009.06.004.
[15] Pakistan W., “National Surface Water Classification Criteria &
Irrigation Water Quality Guidelines for Pakistan,” Lahore, Pakistan, 2007.
[Online]. Available: http://mocc.gov.pk/moclc/userfiles1/file/MOC/National
Environment Quality Standards/National Surface Water Classification
Criteria.pdf.
***
Düşük Maliyetli Bir Robot Kolunun Dijital İkizinin Elde

Edilmesi
Harun Suljagıc, Numan Çelebi*
Özet
Endüstri 4.0’ın gelişimi ile sanayileşmede daha çok dijitalleşmeye yönelik
olmaya başlamıştır. Bu devrimle birlikte sanayileşme, yeni bir çağ başlayarak,
insan gücünün azalmasıyla makineleşme artmış ve dijital dönüşümler
fabrikalar için büyük rekabet avantajı sağlamıştır. Dördüncü sanayi devrimi
kapsamında üretim teknolojilerinde ve süreçlerinde siber fiziksel sistemlere
geçiş, nesnelerin interneti, üç boyutlu modelleme, otonom robotlar ve yapay
zeka kavramları ön plana çıkmıştır. Bu teknoloji gelişimleri akıllı fabrikalar
vizyonunun oluşmasına büyük katkı sağlamıştır. Dijital ikiz, nesnelerin
çevresi ile olan etkileşimlerini ve davranışlarını bilgisayar ortamlarına
yansıtılmasını sağlayan bir teknolojidir. Fiziksel sistemler, nesnelerin
interneti aracılığıyla gerçek zamanlı olarak birbirleriyle iletişim halindedir.
Bu teknoloji sayesinde, bir üretim sisteminin tüm aşamaları sanal simülasyon
modellerinin kullanımı sayesinde robotlar arasındaki görev paylaşımları ve
görevlerin sıralaması kontrol edilebilmektedir. Bu çalışmada, düşük maliyetli
bir robot kolunun dijital ikizi elde edildikten sonra gerçek zamanlı verilerle
bir simülasyon uygulaması gerçekleştirilmiştir. Çalışmada fiziksel robot
kolunun dijital kopyasını oluştururken kullanılan teknolojiler, yazılımlar
açıklanmıştır. Bu çalışma daha karmaşık üretim sistemlerinin de dijital
ikizinin çıkartılarak uygulanabileceğini göstermektedir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Dijital İkiz, Robot Kol Simülasyonu, Üretim Sistemleri,
Endüstri 4.0, Haberleşme
Giriş
Modern üretim sistemleri gittikçe karmaşık hale gelmeye başlamıştır [1].
Özellikle bilişim teknolojileri ve nesnelerin interneti, gibi teknolojiler modern
*
Sakarya Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Bilişim Sistemleri Mühendisliği
harun.suljagic1@ogr.sakarya.edu.tr, ncelebi@sakarya.edu.tr
iş dünyasında yeni üretim imkanlarına ve endüstriyel üretim alanında daha iyi

hizmet faaliyetlerine yol açmıştır [2].
Günümüzde modelleme ve simülasyon, örneğin tasarım görevlerini
desteklemek veya sistem özelliklerini doğrulamak için sistem geliştirmede
standart bir süreçtir. Genel olarak, simülasyon teknolojisi veri ve fizik tabanlı
yaklaşımları entegre etme ve gerçek ve sanal dünyayı tüm yaşam döngüsü
aşamalarında bir sonraki seviyeye getirme şansı sunmaktadır Ayrıca bu
sistemler sayesinde optimize edilmiş operasyonlar ve arıza tahmini gibi
çözümler de gerçekleştirilmektedir [3].
Akıllı sensörler, nesnelerin interneti (IoT), bulut bilişim, yapay zekâ (AI),
siber fiziksel sistemler (CPS) ve benzetim, bir üretim sisteminin dijital ikizini
oluşturmada kullanılan teknolojilerdir [4]. Bu teknolojiler gerçek zamanlı veri
toplama, hesaplama, iletişim, bütünleşme ve modelleme işlemlerinde,
kullanılmaktadır. Bu sayede fiziksel dünyanın sanal biçimleri elde edilerek,
dijitalleşme sağlanmaktadır [5]. Böylece, fiziksel sistemlerin tasarım ve
mühendislik sırasında oluşturulan bilgilerin mevcut sistemin çalışması
sırasında kontrol edilmesi mümkün hale gelmektedir. Sonuç olarak bu
teknolojiler, test süresini azaltarak, maliyet verimliliğini arttırarak ve otonom
araçların çevresel etkilerini azaltmada büyük fırsatlar sunmaktadır.
Dijital İkiz
Dijital ikiz, bir fiziksel varlığın veya bir sistemin dinamik dijital modeli olarak
tanımlanmaktadır [6],[7]. Dijital ikizler sayesinde, işletmeler ve makineler
arasındaki süreçlerin benzetimi sağlanarak, gerçek dünyanın daha güvenli bir
şekilde kontrol edilmesi sağlanmaktadır.
Digital ikizin asıl amacı başta inşa güvenliği olmak üzere sisteme zarar
gelmesini önlemek ve varlığının daha etkin bir şekilde çalışmasını
sağlamaktadır. Kontrol sistemleri geleneksel olarak genel algoritmalara
dayanır ve bakım işlemleri genellikle önceden tanımlanmış planları takip eder
[8]. Dijital ikiz sayesinde ise fiziksel varlıkların veya nesnelerin gerçek
dünyada olan hareketleri analiz etmek, benzetim yapmak ve değişiklikleri
kontrol etmek için kullanabilmektedir. Bu şekilde gerçek ortam tek bir yerden
kontrol edilebilmekte ve izlenebilmektedir. Grieves yaklaşımına göre dijital
ikiz kavramı üç ana bileşen içerir [9]:
• Gerçek ortamda fiziksel bir nesne,
• Sanal ortamda sanal bir nesne,
• Fiziksel ve sanal sistemleri birbirine bağlayan veri ve bilgi
bağlantıları.
Grieves’e göre dijital ikizlerin özellikleri, gerçek zamanlı durum yansıması,
fiziksel ve dijital yakınsama ve etkileşim evrimi olarak özetlenebilmektedir.

Üretim alanında, sensör donanımlı makineler üretim sisteminden gerçek
zamanlı olarak veri toplayabilmektedir. Fiziksel ve siber alanı bağlayarak,
dijital ikiz sistemin gerçek durumunu yansıtmaktadır [10]. Çalışan gerçek bir
fiziksel varlığın modeli oluşturmaktadır, verimlilikleri veya belirli olayların
gerçek varlığın davranışını kontrol etmek ve optimize etmek için operasyonda
kullanılmaktadır.
Literatür Araştırması
Dijital ikizin ürün yaşam döngüsü yönetimi için araştırmaları hala teorik
aşamadadır. Uygulama çerçevesi ve uygulama yöntemleri hala
geliştirilmektedir. Zheng ve ark. (2019) yaptığı çalışmada bu teknolojisinin
ilgili araştırma ve uygulaması sistematik olarak incelenmektedir, dijital ikizin
kavramı ve özellikleri yorumlanmaktadır. Bu temelde, ürün yaşam döngüsü
yönetimi için bir uygulama çerçevesi önerilmektedir [11]. Moreno ve ark.
(2017) yaptığı çalışmada, optimum NC işleme programlarının etkileşimli
tasarımını desteklemek için sac metal delme makinesi için dijital bir ikiz
oluşturma işlemi sunmuşlardır. Çalışmada dijital ikiz teknolojisinin fiziksel
ve dijital ortamlar arasındaki bağlantıları ve modellenmesi anlatılmaktadır
[12]. Larsen, (2019) çalışmasında, bir dijital ikiz üretim sistemi içinde bir
Kuka robotu için gerekli yetenekleri nasıl yaratabileceğini araştırmıştır.
Verilen hareket komutlarına bağlı olarak robotunun hareketini simüle
edebilmek için gerekli yeteneklerin araştırılmasını, geliştirilmesini ve aynı
zamanda dijital ikizler içeriğine bağlı olarak gerçek bir dünya robotuna bir
arayüz oluşturmayı içermektedir [13].
Dijital İkiz Modelleme
Fiziksel sistemin ikizini gerçek zamanlı olarak güncellemek için sensör ve
veri iletişim teknolojisi kullanılmaktadır ve fiziksel alandaki bir nesnenin
gerçek zamanlı verileri, arasındaki bağlantıyı elde etmek için yapılandırılmış
bir dijital simülasyon modeline iletilmektedir. Toplanan gerçek zamanlı ve
geçmiş verilerle, istatistiksel analiz, genel sistem değerlendirme, kontrol ve
karar verme desteği çevrimiçi olarak gerçek zamanlı olarak
gerçekleştirilebilmektedir.
Robot montaj sisteminin bir karşılığı olarak hareket eden olay güdümlü bir
simülasyon tabanlı dijital ikiz için önerilen temel sistem bileşenleri Şekil 1'de
gösterilmektedir.
Grieves yaklaşımına göre; Bunlardan birincisi, fiziksel ortamda ikizi
oluşturulacak bir robot kolu olmaktadır. İkinci olarak; dijital ortama
taşınmasını sağlayacak verilerin elde edilmesi gerekmektedir. Fiziksel ortamı
dijital platforma taşımak için bazı veriler matematiğe dökülmeli ve bazı
bilgiler bilgisayar kodlama dilindeki 1 ve 0 rakamlarına çevrilmesi
gerekmektedir. Sensörler ve servo motorlar ile bu iletişim olanaklıdır.

Sensörlerden gelen veriler ilgili sistemlerle ve önceden dijital ortama aktarılan
verilerle birleştirilip, dijital modellemeye hazır hale getirilmektedir. Üçüncü
ve son aşama ise; dijital ortamda ikizin oluşturulmasıdır. Bu aşamada fiziksel
ikiziyle sürekli iletişim halinde olan dijital ikiz, verileri işleyip farklı
senaryolarda sonuçlar çıkartırken aynı zamanda fiziksel ortamdan gelecek
herhangi bir gerçek veriyi de kaçırmadan ve gelen gerçek verilere
dayandırarak güncel olmaktadır.
Şekil 1. Temel sistem bileşenleri

Fiziksel Modeli
Robotik kol, insan koluna benzer fonksiyonlara sahip programlanabilir bir
mekanik kol türüdür. İhtiyaca göre böyle bir manipülatörün bağlantıları,
(a) (b)
Şekil 2. Fiziksel model tasarımı (a) Arduino Uno ve servo motorların elektronik devre şeması
(b) Plastik robot kol
dönme hareketine veya doğrusal yer değiştirmeye izin veren eklemlerle

bağlanmaktadır [14]. Bu çalışmada plastik robot kolun yanında toplam 4 servo
motor kullanılmaktadır, taban rotasyonu 180 derece olabilmektedir, sol ve sağ
taraf için birinci, ileri ve geri için ikinci ve yukarı ve aşağı hareketler için
üçüncü motor kullanılmaktadır. Şekil 2’de fiziksel modelin tasarimi
göstermektedir.
Robot kolu kontrol etmek için Arduino Uno içinde programlanan uygun ileri,
geri, sol ve sağ gibi komutlarını göndermek gerekmektedir. Arduino, fiziksel
dünyadaki nesneleri algılayabilen ve kontrol edebilen dijital cihazlar ve
etkileşimli nesneler oluşturmak için kullanılan mikrodenetleyicidir [15].
Arduino Uno tarafından dört servo motorların hareketini kontrol etmek için
belirlenmiş pimlerinde ilgili sinyali üretmektedir. Tüm bu dönüşüm Arduino
Entegre Geliştirme Ortamı (IDE) ile yazılmış bir kod kullanılmaktadır. Robot
kola enerji verildiğinde WiFi modülü kullanarak yazılıma yüklenilen bilgiler
vasıtasıyla internete bağlanmaktadır ve bu şekilde iletişim yapmaktadır.
Veri Aktarma Modeli
Bu model, dijital ve fiziksel dünyalar arasında gerçek zamanlı, kesintisiz iki
yönlü iletişim sağlamaktadır. Dijital ile fiziksel ortamlar arasında gerçek
zamanlı, çift yönlü veri iletimini sağlamak için MQTT protokol
kullanılmaktadır. MQTT, makineden makineye iletişim için yayınlama ve
abone olma mekanizmasını kullanan hafif bir ileti taşıma protokolüdür.
Protokol, minimum donanım ve ağ ayak izinin gerekli olduğu kısıtlı
ortamlarda çalışma için özel bir önemle geliştirilmiştir [16]. Bu çalışmada
iletişimi ve veri kaydetme işlemini gerçekleştirmek için Azure IoT Hub
kullanılmaktadır.
Dijital Modeli
Robot kolu simüle etmek için Matlab programlama dili kullanılmıştır. Peter
Corke tarafından önerilen kitabında robotik araç kutusu Matlab'da kinematik
modeli uygulamak için kullanılmaktadır [17]. Robotik araç kutusu, kinematik,
dinamik ve üretimi alanlarında kol tipi robotik analiz ve simülasyonu için
birçok işlevi yerine getirmektedir [18]. Tasarlanan robot kol modeli Şekil 3'te
göstermektedir.
Şekil 3. Dijital modelin gösterimi

Bu araç kutusu ayrıca üç boyutun konumunu ve yönünü temsil etmek için
gerekli olan vektörler ve homojen dönüşümleri gibi veri türleri arasında
işleme ve dönüştürme işlevleri de sağlamaktadır [19]. Bu araç sayesinde
fiziksel ortamda belirlenmiş olan hareketleri matematiksel işlemleri takip
ederek dijital ortamında hareketleri kontrol edilmektedir.
Simülasyon ve Analiz
Yapılan çalışma bir izleme uygulamasını sunmaktadır. Ancak dijital bir ikizin
tam değeri daha da ileri gitmektedir. İzlemeyi artıran bir geliştirme alanı, bir
izleme dijital ikizini bir süreç dijital ikizine dönüştüren süreçlerin gerçek
zamanlı simülasyonunun entegrasyonudur. Simülasyon denemeleri, modelin
sistemin gerçek durumunu yansıtabildiğini ve gelen verileri kullanarak
çalışma süresi deneylerini uygulayabildiğini göstermek için tasarlanmıştır.
Model sürekli gelen sensörden verilerini okumaktadır ve Matlab programlama
dili ile dijital robot kolu hareket ettirmek için matematiksel hesaplamalar
yapmaktadır. Örneğin, robot kolu sağ tarafa geçtiğinde robot kolun başlangıç
ve bitiş pozisyonları kullanılarak hareket matrisi hesaplanmakta ve robot kolu
o değerlere göre sağ tarafa döndürmektedir. Buna göre bir hareket senaryosu
oluşturuldu ve simüle edildi Robot bağlantılarının açısal yer değiştirmeleri
robotun X, Y, Z ilk ve son konfigürasyonları sırasıyla Şekil 4.(a, b, c)'de
gösterilmektedir. Gösterilen örnekte sadece X ve Z eksenlerinde değişim
olmaktadır, Y eksenindeki açı sabittir. Bu grafikler robot kolun her
hareketinden sonra güncellenmektedir. Robotun hızına göre zaman
ayarlanabilmektedir, bu örnekte hareket toplam 2 saniye sürmektedir.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Şekil 4. Açısal yer değiştirmeleri (a) X ekseninde zamana göre değişim (b) Y ekseninde
zamana göre değişim (c) Z ekseninde zamana göre değişim
Yapılan analizinde seçilmiş olan robot kolun en uç noktasını takip etmekte
olup üç farkli ekseninde belirtilen zaman aralıklarda radian değişiklikleri takip
etmektedir. Hareket etmek için kinematik kullanarak yol matrisi
hesaplanmaktadır ve robot simülasyonu kartezyen uzaydaki başlangıç
konumundan son konuma kadar yapmaktadır.
Sonuç
Bu çalışmada düşük maliyetli bir robot kolunun dijital ikizi elde dilmiştir.
Çalışma, daha büyük ve sanayi tipi uygulamaların dijital ikizinin elde
edilebileceğini göstermesi bakımından önemli çıktılar sunmaktadır. Bu
model sayesinde gerçek üretim ve fiziksel ortamların dijitalleşmesi sayesinde
bakım veya yönetim işlemleri kolayca uzaktan yapılabilmektedir. Sonuç

olarak dijital ikiz model ve modellerini kullanarak, yeni hizmetlerin daha az
çabayla gerçekleştirilmesi ve kontrol edilmesi mümkün hale gelmektedir.
Endüstri 4.0 ile birlikte gelecekte fiziksel sistemlerin dijital ikizlerinin elde
edilmesi daha da önemli hale gelecektir. Bu teknolojiye öncelik veren firmalar
rakiplerine üstünlük sağlamada bir adım öne geçecekler.
Kaynaklar
[1] A. Bilberg and A. A. Malik, “Digital twin driven human–robot
collaborative assembly,” CIRP Ann. - Manuf. Technol., vol. 68, no. 1, pp.
499–502, 2019.
[2] E. Hozdić, “Smart factory for industry 4.0: A review,” Int. J. Mod.
Manuf. Technol., vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 28–35, 2015.
[3] R. Rosen, S. Boschert, and A. Sohr, “Next Generation Digital Twin,”
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[4] G. Shao and D. Kibira, “Digital manufacturing: Requirements and
challenges for implementing digital surrogates,” in Winter Simulation
Conference, 2019, vol. December, pp. 1226–1237, doi:
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[5] Q. Qi et al., “Enabling technologies and tools for digital twin,” J.
Manuf. Syst., no. August, pp. 0–1, 2019, doi: 10.1016/j.jmsy.2019.10.001.
[6] K. E. Harper, S. Malakuti, J. Schlake, C. Ganz, and H. Petersen,
“Digital Twin: An Enabler for New Business Models,” 2019, no. July.
[7] A. Danielsen-Haces, “Digital Twin Development,” Nor. Univ. Sci.
Technol. Master Thesis, no. June, 2018.
[8] S. O. Erikstad, “Merging Physics, Big Data Analytics and Simulation
for the Next-Generation Digital Twins,” HIPER, High-Performance Mar.
Veh., no. September, pp. 139–149, 2017.
[9] M. Grieves, “Digital Twin : Manufacturing Excellence through
Virtual Factory Replication,” 2014.
[10] W. Yang, K. Yoshida, and S. Takakuwa, “Digital Twin-Driven
Simulation for a Cyber-Physical System in Industry 4.0 Era,” in DAAAM
International Scientific Book, 2017, pp. 227–234.
[11] Y. Zheng, S. Yang, and H. Cheng, “An application framework of
digital twin and its case study,” J. Ambient Intell. Humaniz. Comput., vol. 10,
no. 3, pp. 1141–1153, 2019, doi: 10.1007/s12652-018-0911-3.
[12] A. Moreno, G. Velez, A. Ardanza, I. Barandiaran, Á. R. de Infante,
and R. Chopitea, “Virtualisation process of a sheet metal punching machine

within the Industry 4.0 vision,” Int. J. Interact. Des. Manuf., vol. 11, no. 2,
pp. 365–373, 2017, doi: 10.1007/s12008-016-0319-2.
[13] C. Larsen, “Including a Collaborative Robot in Digital Twin
Manufacturing Systems,” Master’s thesis 2019 Digit., 2019.
[14] S. Shivalkar, G. Yadav, and S. P. | S. Dale, “Warfare Robot,” Int. J.
Trend Sci. Res. Dev., vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 781–783, 2019, doi:
10.31142/ijtsrd22888.
[15] S. Kumar, V. K. Nirala, S. Chaurasiya, and B. Singh, “A Review on
Robotic Arm Using Arduino,” Int. J. Sci. Res. Rev., vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 1698–
1702, 2019.
[16] J. David, “Development of a Digital Twin of a Flexible
Manufacturing System For Assisted Learning,” Mater Thesis, no. February,
2018, doi: 10.13140/RG.2.2.26398.08000.
[17] P. Corke, “Robotics Toolbox for MATLAB Realease 10,” Robot.
Toolbox, p. 437, 2017.
[18] M. E. Kütük, M. T. Daş, and L. C. Dülger, “Forward and Inverse
Kinematics Analysis of Denso Robot,” in Proceedings of the International
Symposium of Mechanism and Machine Science, 2017, no. September.
[19] R. R. Serrezuela, A. F. C. Chavarro, M. A. T. Cardoso, A. L. Toquica,
and L. F. O. Martinez, “Kinematic modelling of a robotic arm manipulator
using MATLAB,” ARPN J. Eng. Appl. Sci., vol. 12, no. 7, pp. 2037–2045,
2017.
***
Analysis of Various Agricultural Properties to Predict

Major Crops Production in Bangladesh Applying
Machine Learning Algorithms
Harun-Ur-Rashid*
Yann Emmanuel Miassi**
Nasrin Sultana***
Abstract
The majority of people who live in Bangladesh, a country renowned for its
rich fertile land and a population of about 163 million, are farmers. The states
of wealthy nutrients produce crop yields during the year, which are crucial to
the economy of Bangladesh. It is, therefore, vital to actively work towards
economic prosperity through agricultural planning and prediction modelling.
Production of crops depends on various factors, including the weather, the soil
condition, use of fertilizer, the financial condition of farmers, etc. For
agriculture planning and prediction, machine learning techniques can help
farmers and government organizations, to make better decisions and policies,
which lead to increased production. In this research, we concentrate on the
use of a machine learning techniques named Radial Basis Function (RBF) and
Multi-layer Perceptron (MLP) to gain information from agricultural data in
the primary agriculture areas of Bangladesh to forecast the production of
significant crops annually. For this purpose, we used the data from
Agricultural yearbook since 2008-2017 provided by Bangladesh Bureau of
Statistics. At the beginning, the models were trained to correlate past
environmental trends with crop production. Then the simulations are
assembled with uncertain climate variables for calculation of their
effectiveness and findings suggest that crop production for a specific area of
land is cost effective for cultivation.
*
Cukurova University, Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering, Adana, Turkey
harun.eee11@gmail.com
**
Cukurova University, Department of Agricultural Economics, Adana, Turkey
Noakhali Science and Technology University, Department of Food Technology &
***
Nutrition Science, Noakhali, Bangladesh

Keywords: Agricultural Properties, Crops Production, Radial Basis

Function (RBF), Multi-Layer Perceptron (MLP), Weather condition,
Fertilizer use
Introduction
Bangladesh, with a gross surface area of 144,000 km2 in northeastern South
Asia. The nation borders on the west, north and northeast with India, on the
southeast with Myanmar and on the south with the Bay of Bengal. Bangladesh
comprises a low, flat, fertile country, with the exception of hilly regions in the
southeast and some in the north-east and plains in the central and north-west
areas. Around 230 rivers across the country to the Bay of Bengal and their
tributary distances of a total length of 24,140 km. The alluvial soil is saturated
continuously with thick silt accumulated by the rivers by regular rainy season
flooding. The climate in the country is subtropical. The most popular of the
six distinct seasons are summer, monsoon and winter. Winter is a mild one,
with a minimum temperature between 70C-130C from November to February;
in summer, the mean temperature range is between 240C-410 C.
Throughout Bangladesh, the environment is perfect to produce rice. The
selling of rice to farmers accounted for between 75% to 28% of GDP[1].
Therefore, it is essential to predict Bangladesh 's maximum rice yield.
Ji et al. [2] analyzed the Fujian rice yield model in a typical mountain setting
that compares the performance of multiple linear regression models and ANN
models. Different experiments using ANNs for the construction of a
framework for rice production have been published.
In the prediction of rice production in Phimai, Thailand, Jabjone and Jiamrun
[3] have constructed an ANN model based on RMSE and MAPE. For rice
yield prediction, data for the years 2002-2007 have been used as training data.
Six meteorological variables were used for data entry: precipitation, water
distribution, evapotranspiration, temperature, humidity, and wind speed.
In Bangladesh, another study was conducted. Three main rice species were
chosen: Aus, Aman, Boro. They split the entire dataset in preprocessing based
on three weather phases of the year. This paper dealt with K-means and SOMs
for clustering from various areas in Bangladesh and used different
classification methods, including linear regression, nonlinear regression,
artificial neural network learning, etc. The authors could finally establish a
successful relationship between rice yield and climate variables from a certain
area[4].
Bharadi et al.[5] has also analyzed agricultural data by using K-means,
density-based algorithm and EM data mining techniques. The dataset of 4180,
with 8 features, including condition, crop type, name, area, manufacturing,
rains, and temperature, was used for the experiment. Their review of research
found that development continues to rise with rainfall from 1405.904 mm to
1562.3756 mm, with a temperature from 23.5156°C to 26.0942°C[5].
Weather metrics, such as rainfalls, precipitation distribution, soil moisture,
temperature, humidity, wind intensity, etc. are not commonly illustrated in
third world countries. Simultaneously, the primary crop production in
Bangladesh cannot be predicted with the use of fertilizer and climatic
evidence. We would like to figure out the better ANN model in this article by
contrasting Multi-Layer Perceptron (MLP) and Radial Basis Functions (RBF)
models for forecast the production of AUS, AMAN, BORO, WHEAT,
POTATO and JUTE for Bangladesh, by some user choice criterion. Several
tasks and various configurations of the hidden layer have been checked to find
an acceptable sequence.
Methodology
Artificial Neural Network (ANN)
The Neural Network (NN), which also stood out from Biological Neural
Networks, was referred to as the Artificial Neural Network (ANN). he modern
configuration of the information retrieval framework is the central item of this
example. This consists of a vast number of firmly integrated computing
components known as neurons collaborating to solve particular problems.
Learn by illustrative example, ANN works like as men. ANN is optimized
into a learning method for a given task, for example, pattern recognition or
data classification. Biological processes training requires modifications of the
neural interactions between neurons. This also extends to ANNs.[6].
Figure 01: Individual Neuron Organization.

As in Figure 01, biological neurons do have artificial neurons, which obtain
the knowledge from other elements or other artificial neurons, and then the
outcome is converted by a transfer mechanism to the output after the inputs
are weaved and connected.[7].
Multi-Layer Perceptron (MLP)
This research provided the model with the backpropagation algorithm with
weights dependent on multilayer perception (Figure 02). For the triggering
function of these models, tangent hyperbolic is used. The hyperbolic tangent
./012
function can be written according to the mathematical form as, 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ𝑥 =
34.12
…… …… …… … …… … …… … (1)
5 0 -5 10 5 0 65 10 5 0 -5 10
The tanhx function describes tanh = !
÷ !
= 5 0 65 10 ……………
… … . (2)
And as in figure 03, the activation function graph can be illustrated.
Figure 02: Multi-Layer Perceptron (MLP) ANN Architecture.

Radial Basis Function (RBF)
The RBF network is built on the principle of traditional approximation. This
has the power to calculate uniformly. The RBF network is a common option
for the famous multi-layer (MLP) perceptron, as its configuration and training
phase is much quicker. [8]. The RBF network originates in the exact
combination of several data points in a multi-dynamic domain [9]. It could be
viewed as one form of functional link nets[10].
Figure 03: Radial Basis Function (RBF) ANN Architecture.

This has a network architecture close to normalization. [11] where the simple
functions are the Green operator functions connected with the stabilizer.
When the stabilizer is longitudinal, an RBF network is extracted. RBFs are
employed as kernel function[8]. Input, hidden, and output layers include
neurons x1, x2, and xJ3, respectively, 𝜑7 €→‚ = 1 relates to the output level
2
8
bias, while 𝜑7 €→‚ 𝑠 denote the hidden nodes' nonlinearity.
2
Model Selection Criteria
Selecting a suitable model has been based on various product selection
criteria. Similar to AIC, BIC, MSE, MAPE. We considered in this paper that
the MSE is to choose the best model. MSE of an estimator measures the
average error squares or differences — that is to say the difference between
the estimator and the estimated amount.
The MSE measures the accuracy of an estimator or a forecaster. The general
#
form of MSE may be published as 𝑀𝑆𝐸 = 0 ∑0/9#…𝑌/ −
𝑌ˆ/ ‰ … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (3)
Where, 𝑌̂is a vector of n predictors, Y is the vector of observed values of the
variable is being predicted[12].
Data Collection and Data Information:
Data is provided by the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS) [13]. This
dataset contains ten years of agricultural information from 2008 to 2017—this
information was collected from 7 different districts near the capital of Dhaka.
The initial dataset has 44 parameters. But in our study, key concentrations are
AUS, AMAN, BORO and WHEAT, POTATO, JUTE production forecasting.
We used meteorological and fertilizer information for research.

Table 01: Original Dataset Information and Variables
Data location Dependent Independent Variables

Variables
Dhaka Meteorological Year, Avg. rainfall,

Gazipur AUS, AMAN, data Min. Temperature,
BORO Max. Temperature,
Mymensingh Humidity
Kishoreganj
Tangail WHEAT,
POTATO, Fertilizer Area, TSP, MP,
Narayanganj JUTE information DAP, Urea
Norsingdi
Each data includes numerical values. Since 2008-2010, field details are
lacking. For predict the next ten years of growth, location-based data are used.
While all data are in numerical format, data cleaning phase is not relevant.
Yet here data are not healthy, that's why data is standardized before applying
machine learning algorithms.
Results and Discussion
General Discussion
The design of the neural network has been developed based on the multi-layer
vision and radial base mechanism. To build the ultimate architecture, specific
seed values, initial node weights and numerous hidden layers were used.
Specific meteorological values and fertilizer usage during 2008-2017 were
used to forecast performance more accurately. As a consequence, rice
production time series value was used to forecast future value. Whil RMSE
was used to pick the best model for different tasks, the MSE selected the best
model.
The findings of the comparative study of the two algorithms Multilayer
Perceptron (MLP) and Radial Basic Function (RBF) are clarified. The data
containing nine attributes, crop yield rate per year of six major crops from
seven major regions of Bangladesh was used for this analysis. The considered
crops are AUS, AMAN, BORO, WHEAT, JUTE and POTATO. For learning
cases and consistency research, the data from 2008-2018 is considered. The
findings were obtained by eliminating outliers that represent the system 's
potential by examining the context. The comparative review contrasts the
percentage of error in both of these crop yield forecasts with the results of the
two algorithms listed above. Furthermore, this segment discusses whether
each algorithm's error rate is fluctuating and focuses on how well it works.
The findings of this study are accurate, as the resultant error was smaller than
10% in certain situations. In other situations, the inability to forecast a similar
value was attributed to predictors' incoherence and even because the
experiment was carried out without omitting any outliers. This indicates that
more improvements will increase the accuracy and reliability of this
prediction model.
Prediction Analysis
The following table demonstrates the superior forecasting of the five hidden
layer locations for AUS, AMAN, BORO, WHEAT, JUTE and POTATO for
MLP algorithms. Here, Aus prediction had an error rate of 1.40%, while other
predictions were almost more relevant than 10%. On the other hand, Potato
yield prediction had an error rate of 63.1%, which is worse than other yields.
Before the implementation of the MLP algorithm, all applied data were
normalized.
Table 02: Mean Sum of Square (MSE) Error for Training and Testing Sets of
Data on MLP
Training Testing
AUS 0.012 0.014
AMAN 0.057 0.109
BORO 0.097 0.137
WHEAT 0.043 0.102
POTATO 0.120 0.631
JUTE 0.063 0.166
By implementing the RBF algorithm, it was observed that AUS's lowest error
rate was expected for other outputs, with just 1.1%. This was a more robust
outcome for Aman and Wheat than MLP neural networks. The prediction of
potato yield given the worst precision again, but here it is strengthened by
almost more than 20%.
Table 03: Mean Sum of Square (MSE) Error for Training and Testing Sets of
Data on RBF
Training Testing
AUS 0.007 0.011
AMAN 0.009 0.026
BORO 0.006 0.232
WHEAT 0.008 0.080
POTATO 0.369 0.441
JUTE 0.015 0.108
Independent Variable Importance:

To get the accuracy, as mentioned earlier and its continuation, it is crucial to
determine the effectiveness of variables that helps better forecasting.
Figure 04 and Figure 05 shows that, for AUS, AMAN, BORO production,
area, DAP has greater than 90% importance, where urea has only 58%, and
others have average importance. For WHEAT, POTATO, JUTE production
DAP, urea has more significant 80% importance, and others are average
importance.
Figure 23 Important variables on prediction of AUS, AMAN, BORO with MLP

Figure 24 Important variables on prediction of WHEAT, POTATO, JUTE with MLP

Figure 06 & Figure 07 show that the value for AUS, AMAN, BORO, urea,
Figure 26 Important variables on Figure 25 Important variables on

prediction of AUS, AMAN, BORO with prediction of WHEAT, POTATO, JUTE
RBF with RBF
and humidity exceeds 90%. The DAP and the tsp have almost 80%, whereas
others have an average. The output value for JUTE of JUTE, WHEAT,
POTATO, is almost 100%, as min temperature with average avg rainfall is
70%.
Conclusion
In this age of technology, spending massive amounts of money into
cultivating a crop chosen by based on intuition should be regarded as a
medieval act. Investigation offers a solution to this problem that farmers in
Bangladesh wanted a lot. Although the work is limited to such fixed datasets,
more data can be analyzed with more machine learning techniques for better
accuracy in future. Here, Models have been picked with the lowest MSE. It is
easy to tell now from above that the RBF algorithm of the neural network
gives a better result than the MLP algorithm. While different predictive
methods are available only using climatic data, but here climate data with
fertilizer details are used together to forecast rice and other three major yields
output prediction using ANN. In fact, in the event of similarity between the
data collection, the ANNs are more robust and efficient and do not need as
much reckoning as the time series model.
References
[1] Heitzman James, Worden Robert L., Nyrop Richard F., and Library
of Congress. Federal Research Division, “Bangladesh : a country study,”
Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA.
https://www.loc.gov/item/89600298/ (accessed Aug. 13, 2020).
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rice yield prediction in mountainous regions,” J. Agric. Sci., vol. 145, no. 3,
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10.12720/ijoee.1.3.177-181.
[4] M. M. Rahman, N. Haq, and R. M. Rahman, “Application of data
mining tools for rice yield prediction on clustered regions of Bangladesh,” in
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and A. M. Joshi, “ANALYSIS AND PREDICTION IN AGRICULTURAL
DATA USING DATA MINING TECHNIQUES,” Int. J. Res. Sci. Eng., vol.
7-ICEMTE, no. Special, pp. 386–393, Mar. 2017.
[6] N. S. Chauhan, “Introduction to Artificial Neural Networks(ANN),”
Medium, Oct. 10, 2019. https://towardsdatascience.com/introduction-to-
artificial-neural-networks-ann-1aea15775ef9 (accessed Aug. 13, 2020).
[7] E. Y. Li, “Artificial neural networks and their business applications,”
Inf. Manage., vol. 27, no. 5, pp. 303–313, Nov. 1994, doi: 10.1016/0378-
7206(94)90024-8.
[8] Y. Wu, H. Wang, B. Zhang, and K.-L. Du, “Using Radial Basis
Function Networks for Function Approximation and Classification,” ISRN
Applied Mathematics, Mar. 06, 2012.
https://www.hindawi.com/journals/isrn/2012/324194/ (accessed Aug. 13,
2020).
[9] M. J. D. Powell, “Radial basis function methods for interpolation to
functions of many variables,” p. 23.
[10] M. Klaseen and Y.-H. Pao, “The functional link net in structural
pattern recognition,” in IEEE TENCON’90: 1990 IEEE Region 10 Conference
on Computer and Communication Systems. Conference Proceedings, Sep.
1990, pp. 567–571 vol.2, doi: 10.1109/TENCON.1990.152674.
[11] T. Poggio and F. Girosi, “Networks for approximation and learning,”
Proc. IEEE, vol. 78, no. 9, pp. 1481–1497, Sep. 1990, doi: 10.1109/5.58326.
[12] M. Dekking, A modern introduction to probability and statistics:
understanding why and how. London: Springer, 2005.
[13] T. ISLAM, “Agricultural Dataset Bangladesh (44 parameters),”
www.bbs.gov.bd. https://kaggle.com/tanhim/agricultural-dataset-bangladesh-
44-parameters (accessed Aug. 13, 2020).
***
Effects of Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)

Techniques on a Mini Grid PV System in Asmara
Huruy Gebremarıam*
Abstract
Photovoltaic (PV) energy is a free energy used as a substitute to fossil fuel
energy. However, PV system without maximum power point tracking
(MPPT) produces a low, unstable power and with an extended energy pay-
back time (EPBT). Maximum power point trackers (MPPTs) play a
substantial part in extracting power from photovoltaic generating systems as
they draw the maximum power output available, regardless of continuous
changes of temperature and solar irradiation. From the various MPPT tracking
algorithms, Perturb and Observe (P&O) technique is highlighted because of
its’ simplicity to implement within electronic programmable circuits. This
proposed system is tracking for maximum power on applying Perturb and
Observe MPPT algorithm to a PV system, and MATLAB is used as a
Simulink environment. This paper clearly shows the effect of MPPT on
increasing Profit, Productivity and Efficiency of a PV system. Productivity is
calculated and shown both in terms of yearly profit and EPBT years. The
selected location for experiment is in Eritrea, Asmara and all the required
data’s of temperature and irradiance are available on a local solar radiation
map.
Keywords: Maximum Power Point Tracking, Photovoltaic System, Perturb
& Observe Algorithm, Energy Pay-Back Time, Solar İrradiation
Introduction
Photovoltaic (PV) solar energy is the fastest growing type of renewable
energy that gains its energy direct from the sun. PV energy serves as a
substitute to fossil fuel energy sources. In developed countries, PV energy
works as a hybrid network, a combination of energy from the main grid and
PV systems. However, most homes in developing countries such as Eritrea
and Ethiopia still depend almost fully or partly on electricity from the grid and
*
Sakarya University, Ins. Natural Sciences, Dept. Electrical & Electronics
Engineering, tewie135@gmail.com
the tariff charged using electricity from the grid have been increasing over the
past years due to high demand for fossil energy [1]. On the other hand,
separate from the initial cost of implementation, PV energy is considered very
economical, freely available, unlimited, less pollutant, noise-free, low
maintenance and running cost, and with step decrease in cost of PV panels
over the recent years as newer and efficient technology that cost less for its’
production of PV panels [2].
Moreover, Africa is a continent that experience high exposure of sunlight, thus
allowing the extraction of more energy from the PV system, that lead to a
reduced energy payback time (EPBT) for the PV panel. EPBT is the length of
time, in years, needed for a complete PV system to return all its’ expenses
through energy production [3]. Mathematically, Equation (1) represents the
EPBT of a PV panel while equation (2) estimates the profit earned using
photovoltaic energy.
𝐸𝑃𝐵𝑇(𝑦𝑟𝑠)
𝐸𝑖𝑛
= (1)
𝐸𝑠𝑣
PVprofit/yr = Extracted energy (KWh) ∗ total efficiency
∗ tariff(usd/kWh) (2)
𝐸𝑖𝑛, is the initial total cost of PV production in US Dollar. And, 𝐸𝑠𝑣 is the
saved energy which refers to the product of the yearly power attainable from
a PV system, time of operation in hours and tariff charged on electricity per
kWh in US Dollar in Eritrea ($0.22). PVprofit/yr , denotes the profit made
using solar energy, on multiplying the total extracted energy of the PV system
with the electricity tariff per KWh, on considering the total efficiency of PV
system.
MPPT Techniques
A normal solar panel converts only up-to 40 percent of the incident solar
radiation into electrical energy. Maximum power point tracking technique is
used to advance the efficiency of the solar panel. According to the Maximum
Power Transfer technique, the output electrical power of the designed
electrical circuit approaches maximum when the value of source impedance
equals with the load impedance or when the PV panel impedance equals with
load end impedance. In the source or generation side, a boost converter is
connected to a solar panel in order to improve the output voltage as shown in
figure 1 below. By changing the duty cycle of the buck boost converter
properly, the source impedance is matched with that of the load impedance.
And, Perturb and Observe algorithm is responsible on triggering a signal to
effectively control the duty cycle of the specifically designed MOSFET, so
that DC-DC converter can appropriately work to track the maximum power
[4], [5].
Figure 1. Control scheme of MPPT controlled PV system.
Perturb and Observe Method of MPPT and Algorithm

The Perturb and Observe (P&O) is widely used, because of its low cost,
Simple in its algorithm and implementation, and it’s comparatively an
accurate MPPT technique. In this method, P & O algorithm, the controller
regulates the voltage by a small amount from the array and measures the
output power, if the power rises, further adjustments in the direction are tried
until power starts to stay stable at its peak value. Due to easiness of
implementation and cost effectiveness, it is the most frequently used MPPT
method [6]. The impedance seen by the panel controls the operating point of
the solar panel. Thus by changing the impedance seen by the panel, the
operating point can be moved to the direction top power point. Since panels
are DC devices, DC-DC converters must be used to transform the impedance
of one source circuit to the other load circuit. This indirectly means
differentiating the duty ratio of the DC-DC converter which results in an
impedance variation as seen by the PV panel [7]. Figure 2, Shows voltage,
current and power operating points of PV cell.
Figure 2. Current-voltage and power-voltage relationships for a PV cell.

The voltage to a cell is increased primarily, if the output power increase,
the voltage is continually increased until the output power starts
declining. Once the output power starts decreasing, the voltage to the
cell decreased until maximum power is stretched. This process is
continued until the MPPT is obtained.
Figure 3. Implementation of P and O MPPT algorithms on MATLAB.

The outcome results in an oscillation of the output power around the
Maximum Power Point of PV module’s output power curve as a
function of voltage (P-V curve), at the constant irradiance and the
constant module temperature, considering the PV module is operating
at a point which is away from the MPP. If the power decreases, the
operating point has moved away from the MPP, and the direction of
perturbation should be upturned to move back toward the MPP [8].
Perturb and Observe method is widely recognized as the most common
method for MPPT because of its design simplicity [9], and the algorithm is
clearly shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4. P&O Algorithm Flowchart

Materials Data and Methodologies
As mentioned in above, the main purpose of this project is to examine MPPT
effects on improving the efficiency of the PV system and its economic
benefits. Also, the EPBT, in years, both with and without the application of
MPPT to the PV system is calculated. Asmara, the capital city of Eritrea, is
taken as an experiment place for the solar energy production. Asmara is
located in the high lands of Eritrea with a high exposure of solar energy.
Eritrea has a very high solar energy potential, with an average insolation of
5.0-6.5 kWh/m2/day. So, without a doubt, the use of renewable energy such
as solar power is, evidently, the most feasible one in Eritrea.
Here is the Mean or Average daily solar irradiation Data of Eritrea in general
and specifically, the city of Asmara from the global Solar Electricity
handbook 2019 Measured in kWh/m2/day onto a horizontal surface [10]. And
as shown below clearly in table 1, the yearly average value of mean daily solar
irradiation’ in Asmara is 5.8525 kWh/m2-day [11].
Table 1. Mean daily total solar radiation
Months kWh/m2-day
January 5.14
February 5.67
March 6.15
April 6.63
May 6.54
June 6.52
July 5.91
August
5.66
September
6.11
October
5.81
November
5.23
December
4.86
Table 2. PV panel specification
PV Model CSM320-120
Pmax (Maximum power) 320 Wp
Vmpp ( maximum Voltage) 33.69 V
Impp (Maximum Current) 9.55 A
Panel Efficiency 19.2%

All the specification of the PV panel selected for experiment is mentioned in

Table 2, above. Also, the total price of the required PV panels, the invertor
used for the purpose of DC-AC conversion, batteries, and connecting cables
are calculated for the purpose of EPBT calculation. For, an experimental set
up, a 10 KW PV system is established and the system is designed to provide
electricity to a relatively big living apartment.
The produced Electric power, statistical data, for a specific location in Eritrea
at the city of Asmara is calculated upon using 30 pieces of PV modules with
each module producing maximum power of 320 Watt at maximum solar
irradiance of 1000 w/m2 and area 1.66 m2. The Temperature coefficient of the
PV panels is -0.37 [12]. Also, for the purpose of calculation the electricity
selling price in Eritrea which is $0.22 per kilowatt hour is used. Moreover, the
maximum power demand of the implemented system is 9.6 KW and minimum
6.72 KW which makes a difference of 30%.
EPBT Calculations and Results
The below shown 2 tables shows the produced power, consumed power and
EPBT calculations with proper procedures. The data available in the below
Shows the direct produced power from the PV Arrays, upon using the
irradiance and temperature data of the city Asmara. One can typically get a 20
to 45% power gain in winter and 10-15% in summer. Generally, the actual
gain can vary widely depending weather, temperature [13], battery state of
charge, and other factors. So, irradiance efficiency, 30% in the summer and
fall time and 40% in the spring and winter time, power reduction is applied.
Table 3, below shows the extracted solar energy data for each month both
provided in Kilo-watt and Kilo-watt hour.
Table 3. Extracted power and energy at the PV end

Seasons Months Produced Monthly Produced Monthly
Power Produced Power with Produced
without Energy with-out MPPT (KW) Energy
MPPT MPPT (KWh) with-
(KW) MPPT
(KWh)
Winter Jan 24.34 754.53 45.79 1,419.53

Feb 24.89 697.05 53.10 1,486.81
Spring Mar 25.08 777.54 56.99 1,766.73
Apr 27.71 831.35 59.78 1,793.30
May 26.75 829.12 59.02 1,829.60
Summe Jun 27.73 832.03 58.35 1,750.39
r
Jul 24.25 751.90 52.34 1,622.61
Aug 23.86 739.55 50.74 1,573.07
Fall Sep 25.02 750.51 54.95 1,648.47
Oct 23.69 734.53 53.45 1,603.60
Nov 21.84 655.08 48.74 1,510.91
Winter Dec 21.90 678.83 44.19 1,325.66
PV Annual Power 9,032.02 19,330.67
& Energy.
297.06 637.44
This information irradiance data is used to calculate the average daily power
generation a photovoltaic system will produce in any given month. The initial
cost which depends on the monthly direct produced power is calculated
considering a unit price of $0.22 per KWh. Table 4 clearly shows the
statistical data of the consumed power at the load end after the application of
MPPT to the PV system. For PV power systems, the EPBT depends on a
number of factors: PV-cell manufacturing technology, kind of encapsulation,
support of the PV array, and solar cell size efficiency. The total efficiency of
the PV system (66.38%) is composed of the multiplication of the efficiencies
of Charge controller (95%), battery (90%), battery depth of discharge (80%)
and the inverter (97%).
The consumed energy without the application of MPPT is the product of the
produced energy and the total efficiency which is 3,878.88 KWh
(5,846.26*0.6638). In the other hand, the consumed energy with the
application of MPPT is 8,292.11 KWh (12,497.90*0.6638). According to
equation (2), the final energy profit extracted without the application of MPPT
device is $853.35 ($0.22*9,032.02KWh). And, once MPPT device is

attached, the energy profit increase to $1,824.26 ($0.22*12,497.90). The sum
of the costs of PV module $1824, inverter $788, Battery $7,200 and Cabling
is $10,012 in USD. This total sum is interpreted as Energy Input, 𝐸𝑖𝑛.
Table 4. Consumed power after the application of MPPT at resistive end with
EPBT.
Seasons Months Monthly Consumed Monthly Consumed
Energy with-out MPPT Energy with-MPPT
(KWh) (KWh)
Winter Jan 528.17 993.67
Feb 487.93 1,040.76
Spring Mar 466.52 1,060.04
Apr 498.81 1,075.98
May 497.47 1,097.76
Summer Jun 499.22 1,050.23
Jul 451.14 973.56
Aug 443.73 943.84
Fall Sep 525.36 1,153.93
Oct 514.17 1,057.63
Nov 458.56 927.96
Winter Dec 475.18 8,292.11
Extracted Energy/yr at load end 5,846.26 12,497.90

(KWh).
Extracted Energy/yr at PV end 9,032.02 19,330.67

(KWh).
Total Losses percentage 0.33652 0.33652
Tariff per Kwh $0.22 $0.22
Solar profit/yr. $853.35 $1,824.26
Total Cost of PV System $10,012.00 $10,012.00
EPBT (yrs.) 11.73 5.49

Discussion
Currently, in Eritrea there is a huge difference in the demand and supply of
electric power. The increase and update of power supply at different intervals
has not been sufficient with the increase in the use of power. Small industries,
hospitals, education facilities and municipal services have increased
massively. The increase in service has enlarged the demand for electricity.
The ministry of energy already concluded that expansions of Renewable
Micro-grid solar energy sources are the only future solution. Depending on
the conditions and considering the very high potential for solar energy,
implementation of small and medium scale PV solar systems is the most
effective way of approaching the solution. In this project experiment, a fixed
10KW PV energy system is designed to meet the energy demands of a general
purpose big apartment around Asmara and the high exposure of sunlight
effectively gives a lower EPBT. Besides, the effectiveness of P and O MPPT
algorithm is clearly observed on the MATLAB simulated PV system. The
maximum yield of the PV system with MPP (Vmpp * Impp) is up to 114.58%
larger than the usual traditional fixed solar PV system. This is the reason that
in the recent years, the development of the different MPPT algorithms is
highly functional and experts are working in almost all PV production
companies. In the other side Eritrea is benefiting gradually from such an
effective solar technology.
Experimental Results
Generally, the average efficiency of MPPT is 92% to 97% but recently many
companies are working hard to improve it [14]. As even 1% increase in
efficiency can make a huge difference of power in a long time, designing of
MPPT power controller is a key point on maximizing the powe yield [15].
The below figure 5. shows the mean efficiency value of the P & O MPPT for
the month February, taking febuaruary as a sample to measure the efficiency,
and the average value of the efficiency is 93.77%, which is a relatively fair
percentage. The demonstrated P&O MPPT method is implemented with
MATLAB-SIMULINK.
Figure 5. Efficiency of the MPPT Power tracker for the month February.
Conclusion
Upon designing a 10KW PV system in MATLAB environment, the effects
applying MPPT are shown with the following results;
• The EPBT for both the PV systems, with and without the application of
MPPT techniques, are consecutively 5.49 and 11.73 years.
• The MPPT applied PV system shows a difference of 6.24 years compared
with the PV system without MPPT.
• There is a profit difference of $970.91 between MPPT applied and direct
extracted electrical energy PV system in 1 year.
• After the implementation of the P and O MPPT algorithm to the charge
controller of the normal PV system, a total energy gain of 10.30 KWh
(114.58%) is shown in the 1st year.
• As the increase in the power/energy gain after the application of Perturb and
Observe MPPT is up-to 114.58% the electrical yield also increases
accordingly with the same percentage. This indicates that the same energy, on
the PV system with MPPT, can produce with a smaller size PV generator.
• The EPBT of the PV system is less than its’ lifespan (range from 25-40
years) even without applying any tracking mechanism.
References
[1] K. B. Jayakrishnan, S. Umashankar, D. Vijayakumar and D. P. Kothari,

J. J. Nedumgatt, "Perturb and observe MPPT algorithm for solar PV
systems-modeling and simulation," 2011 Annual IEEE India

Conference, Hyderabad, pp. 1-6, Jan 2011.
[2] Ceyda & Yavuz, Cenk. Aksoy, "Environmental life cycle analysis of a
fixed PV ener-gy system and a two-axis sun tracking PV energy system
in a low-energy house in Turkey," Smart and Sustainable Built
Environment, vol. 8, pp. 391-399, 2019.
[3] A. N. Hasan and A. Ali A. M. Farayola, "Use of MPPT techniques to

reduce the energy pay-back time in PV systems," 2018 9th International
Renewable Energy Congress (IREC), Ham-mamet, pp. 1-6, 2018.
[4] K & Reddy, Sai & Mouli, C & Raju Pradeep, "Development of Dual-
Axis Solar Tracking using Arduino with Lab VIEW," International
Journal of Engineering Trends and Tech-nology, vol. 17, pp. 321-324,
2014.
[5] A. Zakriti and A. Khamlichi Y. Rais, "Maximum Power Point Tracking

in Photovoltaics: Overview and Application," 2018 Renewable
Energies, Power Systems & Green Inclusive Economy (REPS-GIE),
Casablanca, pp. 1-6, 2018.
[6] M. Abdul-Niby, L. Devis and A. Davis T. Selmi, "P&O MPPT

implementation using MATLAB/Simulink," 2014 Ninth International
Conference on Ecological Vehicles and Renew-able Energies (EVER),
Monte-Carlo, pp. 1-4, 2014.
[7] G. Purohit D. K. Sharma, "Advanced perturbation and observation

(P&O) based maxi-mum power point tracking (MPPT) of a solar photo-
voltaic system," 2012 IEEE 5th India Inter-national Conference on
Power Electronics (IICPE), Delhi, pp. 1-5, 2012.
[8] S., AI, X. & WU, Z. Salman, "Design of a P-&-O algorithm based
MPPT charge controller for a stand-alone 200W PV system," Prot
Control Mod Power Syst 3, vol. 25 , 2018.
[9] Rozana & Jusoh, Awang & Sutikno, Tole Alik, "A Review on Perturb
and Observe Maximum Power Point Tracking in Photovoltaic System,"
TELKOMNIKA (Telecommunication Computing Electronics and
Control), vol. 13, p. 745, September 2015.
[10] Michael Boxwell. (2019, January) Greenstream Publishing Limited.

[Online]. http://www.solarelectricityhandbook.com/solar-links.html
[11] Jean Meeus. weatherspark. [Online].

https://weatherspark.com/y/100678/Average-Weather-in-Asmara-
Eritrea-Year-Round
[12] enfsolar. enfsolar. [Online]. https://www.enfsolar.com/pv/panel-

datasheet/crystalline/43779
[13] Sumitha T L Nithyashree S, "Partial Power Processing Boost Converter

with MPPT Control for PV Systems," International Journal of Science
and Research (IJSR), vol. 4 , no. 5, pp. 594 – 599, May 2015.
[14] Anil & Patil, Mugdha & Vinchurkar, Hemangi Hiwale, "An Efficient
MPPT Solar Charge Controller," International Journal of Advanced
Research in Electrical, Electronics and In-strumentation Engineering,
vol. 3, pp. 10505-10511, 2014.
[15] Michael & Bründlinger, Roland & Arz, Ortwin & Miller, Werner &
Schulz, Joachim & Lauss, Georg Müller, "PV-off-grid Hybrid Systems
and MPPT Charge Controllers, a State of the Art Analyses," Energy
Procedia, vol. 57, pp. 1421-1430, 2014.
***
Issues Mining – Environment

Imene Rogai*
Abstract
Over time, mining has contributed immensely to the economic development
of industrialized countries. However, in the face of these considerable
economic benefits, there are many major environmental problems that are
detrimental to human life. Indeed, significant changes in the relief and soil of
underground mining sites (creating voids in the earth's crust) that lead to
changes in stability, environmental and public safety systems, as well as
impact and visual aggression to the local landscape such as subsidence,
deformation and displacement of overlying rocky terrain.
In order to avoid the falling of the rock mass on the surface and to preserve
the environment during the mining works of the deposits of the useful
minerals, there are new methods that the classical methods, towards this optics
our work is oriented. From where it will focus on the study of the use of
techniques and special technologies, which aim at improving the economy of
the companies of works of extraction of the useful substance and to avoid the
harmful effects of the works mining techniques and technologies of traditional
exploitation on the environment.
Keywords: Mining Techniques; Extraction Of Mineral Resources;
Geotechnical ; Mining Environment
Introduction
The classic mining technologies of mining for hundreds of years have not
undergone any fundamental change. Work around the world is carried out
according to the traditional pattern: extraction, preparation for enrichment,
enrichment and redistribution into the final product, for example, metal. With
the constant depletion of the deposits, the deterioration of the mining and
geological conditions of their occurrence, the increase in the depth of
development, the main cost of the extracted ore increases exponentially, the
costs of enrichment and redistribution increase [1]. In this situation, the end
product becomes very expensive and weakly competitive in the market. In this
regard, in world practice there is a clear trend to shift from conventional
*
Karadeniz Technical University, Mining Engineering, Trabzon
mining technology to modern technology, harnessing its capabilities to

develop new geotechnical methods of mining.
Traditional Mining And The Environment
Conventional mining poses very acute environmental problems. The major
difficulty in approaching environmental problems in the mining industry
comes from the extreme diversity of the situations encountered caused by the
work of extraction and mining of useful mineral deposits, among these
damages cites: the creation of voids in the earth's crust (underground mining),
the storage of mining wastes and waste rock, subsidence, collapses and
landslides.
Figure 1. Formation of a subsidence basin above mining works.

Geotechnological Methods
Geotechnological methods of mining rely on the transfer of minerals by
thermal, hydrodynamic and chemical processes directly into the bowels of the
earth or at the surface, from solid to liquid or gaseous state [2].
Geotechnology is characterized by a number of useful qualities: it does not
require sophisticated machinery, it offers high labor productivity, and the
earth's surface is little disturbed by mining. With the help of geotechnology,
it is possible to economically develop poor minerals, old landfills and tailings.
Geotechnology frees a person from working underground - extraction is
carried out through wells without the presence of people in the clearance
space.
Currently, the following geotechnologique methods are used.
Leaching: is a hydro-metallurgical method of extracting valuable components
from ores following their selective dissolution. Water, aqueous solutions of
acids, alkalis, salts, as well as organic solvents can be used as solvents.
Leaching is sometimes preceded by a preparatory operation aimed at

converting the leached component into a more soluble form, such as sulphate
roasting, which allows insoluble sulphides to be transferred to soluble
sulphates [3].
Figure 2. diagram of a technical configuration, of the extraction method by

leaching. (Case of mines which have changed technology) 1- pipe for the work
agent; 2 - product evacuation line; 3- crushed ore; 4 - irrigation pipe; 5 -
recovery tank
Underground Dissolution - the dissolution of salt deposits and the creation
of underground reservoirs. The dissolution method is used on an industrial
scale in the development of deposits of mineral salts, kaolin and other similar
minerals. Water serves as their solvent, but the physico-chemical essence of
the "dissolution" process is not the same. If the rock salt does pass through an
aqueous solution, the kaolin does not dissolve in the water but forms a pulp.
The final process for extracting these minerals is the reverse process -
evaporation of salt or precipitation of kaolin. Saline solutions are obtained by
forming (cleaning) the chambers in a set of salt deposits. Salt solutions are
produced by injecting water through wells that dissolve the salt in the chamber
of a given size [4].
Figure 3. General technical diagram of a solubilization system for a salt

deposit.
Underground Gasification: transfer of minerals in the gaseous state. For
example, the thermochemical process of obtaining gas from coal [4].
Underground Smelting: involves melting low-melting minerals by pumping
coolant
Hydraulic Drilling Mine: the method of extracting minerals by
hydromechanical impact, based on the transfer of rocks under the influence of
high pressure water in a mobile state. The mineral reservoirs are opened by a
series of wells. Above the wellhead is a mast equipped with lifting devices
[4].
Table 1: The field of use of geotechnological methods [2]
Method Industrial Development Objects
Underground Leaching Oxidation zones of sulphide deposits of

copper, nickel, gold, uranium, aluminum,
zinc, etc.
Underground Dissolution Deposit of stone, potash salts, kaolin, etc.
Underground Foundry Native sulfur deposit, borax, ozokerite

Underground Lignite and lignite deposits
Gasification
Hydraulic Drilling Mine Phosphorite deposit, construction sand

Extraction Of Minerals Deposit of waters with iodine and waters
From Groundwater containing boron, uranium, strontium
Remove And Use The Natural steam hydrotherms. Heat of "dry"

Heat Of The Earth rocks
Characteristics Of Geotechnological Methods

• The use of wells as a means of opening, preparing and exploiting
minerals.
• Set of elements of the technological process:
Ø preparation for the unit of work agents;
Ø mining field - (mine field);
Ø a unit for processing production fluids (the fluid is a substance with
easy mobility which includes: solution, melt, gas, suspension);
• The means of extraction are not the mechanisms but the working
agents, that is to say the chemical solutions, the electric current, water as a
cooling agent:
• Obtaining a new state of aggregation of the material - productive
fluids;
• Manage the surface extraction process by modifying the parameters
of the agents, ie. flow rate, temperature, pressure, concentration, etc.
• The lack of people in the cleaning space;
• Environmental protection - lack of piles and waste rock on the
surface;
• Organization of services to control the movement of treated reagents
in order to protect bodies of water, an underground source on the Earth's
surface.
Table 2: The classification of geotechnological methods according to the
method of influence [2].
Mobile state of Ways to move a mineral in a mobile state

the mineral
physical Chemical Combined (physico-
product chemical and chemico-
bacterial)
Gaseous Exposure to Oxidation, Chemical reactions

temperature, decomposition involving physical
pressure (partial and fields, bacterial
complete exposure
incineration,
roasting)
Liquid (molten, Exposure to Leaching and Dissolution, leaching

solution) temperature, dissolving to and hydrogenation
pressure form involving physical
(melting and molecular fields, bacterial

distillation, solutions exposure
heating)
Hydromechanical Hydropneumatic Dissoudre le Dissolve the binder

Mixing destruction liant Dispersion by
surfactants, chemical
reagents, physical
fields, bacteria
Conclusion
We analyze the application of classical methods and geotechnological
methods, we find that the latter are the only way out that can allow us to
extract the various useful minerals necessary for our various industries, while
preserving the environment. However, a special training program for future
managers and workers specializing in mining must now be established. Now
is the time to sensitize decision-makers to abandon old techniques and focus
on more environmentally friendly technologies.
References
[1] E.I. Rogov, S.E. Rogov and A.E. Rogov, The beginnings of the
foundations of the theory of mining technology, Almaty: Gylym, 2001.
[2] V.ZH. Arens, Physico-chemical geotechnology, Moscow: MSMU
publishing house, 2001.
[3] E.I. Rogov and A.E. Rogov, "Prospects for the development of theory and
practical application of mining technologies," Mining Journal of Kazakhstan,
2007.
[4] V.ZH. Arens, " Geotechnology and geotechnological methods," in the
book Mining science and rational use of mineral resources, Responsible
editor A.V. Sidorenko, Moscow: Science publishing house, 1978.
***
Analysis of G+15 Storeyed RCC Building in Seismic

Zone-IV with and without Shear Wall System
Jay Prakash*
Shifat Kayser**
Abstract
The Uttarakhand is among the most seismically active parts of India and
Dehradun is the city of Uttarakhand which exist in seismic zone IV according
to IS code 1893 (Part 1): 2002. Hence, special attention required on the effect
of the earthquake in designing high rise structures. Shear walls are the most
common structural elements in high storey RC building. In this research
paper, the analysis of G+15 storeyed RC irregular building with and without
shear wall system is prepared by ETABS finite based software under the
response spectrum analysis method. The structure type of suggested building
is used special RC moment-resisting frame (SMRF). The structural elements
are designed by using IS 456: 2000. The mechanical characteristics of
concrete and steel are used according to IS 456: 2000 and IS 800: 2007,
respectively. Seismic forces in both directions are assumed in the analysis and
shear walls are arranged in a specific manner to resist the lateral loads. The
load combinations are considered in frame and shear wall analysis. The G+15
storeyed RC irregular building is analysed by arrangements of shear wall
system for determining the parameters such as storey drift, storey shear,
fundamental time period, storey overturn moment, and lateral displacement.
Model 4 satisfactory reduces the lateral displacement in both directions and it
is very suitable from the structural point of view.
Keywords: Shear Wall System, Seismic Zone, ETABS, Displacement
Introduction
A few years earlier, the population of the world were not massive. Hence, the
people used to stay in the horizontal system because of the large area available
for per person but at the current time, people stay in vertical system because
*
Karadeniz Teknik Üniversitesi, Mühendislik Fakültesi, İnşaat Mühendisliği Bölümü, 61080,
Trabzon, Türkiye jaypee@outlook.in
**
Karadeniz Teknik Üniversitesi, Mühendislik Fakültesi, Elektrik-Elektronik Mühendisliği
Bölümü, 61080, Trabzon, Türkiye
of the shortage of area. When building’s height increases then all forces act
on high rise building. By which, the building becomes more and more
susceptible. From these, earthquake is one of the most natural disasters which
result in an economic loss of property, infrastructure and most importantly
loss of human lives.
Metro cities are witnessing an immense increase in high rise building due to
housing demand, increase cost of land, migration towards cities from
surrounding villages. Lateral strength and stability of the building are
necessary to concern for high rise building because of increasing height. By
increasing height, the building becomes more sensitive to the lateral loads.
The lateral load is produced high stresses, sway movement or may cause
vibration in the building. Hence, it is very important for the structure which
has significance properties in terms of sufficient stiffness and strength against
lateral loads [1]. The structure based on shear wall system is one of the
greatest systems for resisting the lateral loads in high rise building [2].
Many studies had been investigated on the non-linear behaviour of reinforced
concrete building with and without shear walls by considering several factors,
such as drift, displacement, and base shear etc. [1]-[11]. In this research paper,
shear wall systems are providing for suggested building at different locations
which resist the seismic loads.
Preparation
Plan and 3-D View of The Suggested Building
The research investigates the G+15 storey reinforced concrete residential
irregular building with and without shear wall systems. The suggested
building is situated at Dehradun (seismic zone IV). The maximum plan
dimension is 26.850 m in X-direction and 34.580 m in Y-direction. The entire
height of high-rise building is 60.85 m (depth of foundation = 1.6 m, ground
floor = 3 m and height of 15th floor = 3.75 m). Plan and 3D view of the
suggested building are shown in Figure 1, 2 and 3.
Figure 1. Line diagram of the suggested building.
Figure 2. Plan view for suggested Figure 3. 3-D view for suggested
building. building.
Mechanical Characteristics
The material properties are characterized by Indian specification. Table 1 and
2 signifies the mechanical properties of construction materials [12].
Table 1. Mechanical properties of concrete (M25).
Table 2. Mechanical properties of reinforcement (Fe500).
Loading Considerations
The permanent and imposed load are considered as gravity load in the design
which is given in Table 3. The earthquake parameters are given in Table 4
which is defined by IS 1893 (Part 1): 2002.
Table 3. Permanent and Imposed load details.

Permanent load Values
Outer wall load 15 kN/m2
Inner wall load 7 kN/m2
Parapet load 2.5 kN/m2
Slab load, S1 1 kN/m2
Slab load, S2 1.875 kN/m2
Imposed load for all storeys 3.0 kN/m2
Table 4. Seismic load details.
Response Spectrum Analysis Method

In this research paper, the response spectrum method is employed for the
assessment of seismic parameters of the building. It will be executed by using
the design spectrum stated in the Clause 6.4.2 of IS 1893 (Part 1): 2002.
Following steps are perform for the analysis of any building:
Step 1: Compute the seismic weight of the suggested building (𝑊).
Step 2: Create the mass [𝑀] and stiffness [𝐾] matrices of the suggested
building.
Step 3: Applying mass [𝑀] and stiffness [𝐾] of the second step and by using
the principles of dynamic, calculate the model frequencies {𝜔} and equivalent
mode shapes [𝜑].
Step 4: Compute the model mass 𝑀: of mode 𝑘 using the below relationship
with 𝑛 number of modes considered in equation 1.
!
;∑(
%./ <% =%2 >
𝑀: = ? ∑( ! (1)
%./ <% = %2
Step 5: Compute model participation factor 𝑃: of mode 𝑘 using the below

relationship with 𝑛 number of modes considered in equation 2.
∑(%./ <% =%2
𝑃: = ∑( ! (2)
%./ <% = %2
Step 6: Calculate design lateral force (𝑄/: ) at each floor in each mode using
the equation 3.
𝑄/: = 𝐴1(:) 𝜙/: 𝑃: 𝑊/ (3)
Step 7: Calculate the storey shear forces at each storey in each mode (𝑉/: )
which is given by equation 4.
𝑉/: = ∑0/6# 𝑄/: (4)
Step 8: Calculate the storey shear forces due to all modes in storey 𝑖 (𝑉/ ) by
applying either CQC or SRSS model combination methods.
Step9: Calculate the design lateral forces at each storey 𝑖 as per calculated
by equation 5.
𝐹/ = 𝑉/ − 𝑉/6# (5)
Problem Statement
Four models of the irregular building of G+15 is modelled with a fixed base
and analysed the non-linear behaviour of building. Four models are designed
with different arrangements of the shear wall which are considered in this
study. The configurations of these models of the building are separately
discussed as follow:
Case no. 1: A building without shear wall system (M1).
Case no. 2: When the central shear wall is located around lift of building (M2).
Case no. 3: When the central shear wall is located around the lift of the
building and planar shear walls are located at outer edge equally parallel to X-
direction and at re-entrant corners (M3).
Case no. 4: When the central shear wall is located around lift of building and
planar shear walls are located at outer corner equally both direction (M4).
Table 5 represents the details of the structural member used in suggested

models. Model 1, 2, 3 and 4 are shown in Fig. 4, 5, 6 and 7, respectively.
Figure 4. Plan diagram of suggested Figure 5. Plan diagram of suggested

building without shear wall (M1). building with central shear wall (M2).
Figure 6. Plan diagram of Figure 7. Plan diagram of

suggested building with central suggested building with central
and planar shear wall (M3). and planar shear wall (M4).
Table 5. The details of structural members.

Structural Members Dimensions
Beam sizes 230 mm x450 mm
Column Sizes C1 = 300 mm x 600 mm

C2 = 300 mm x 600 mm
C3 = 600 mm x 300 mm
C4 = 300 mm x 450 mm
C5 = 450 mm x 300 mm
C6 = 230 mm x 400 mm
C7 = 450 mm x 450 mm
C8 = 450 mm x 450 mm
Clear cover 25 mm for beam

40 mm for column
50 mm for foundation
Slab thickness S1 = 160 mm

S2 = 125 mm
S3 = 125 mm
Shear wall thickness 230 mm
Results and Comments

Fundamental Time Period
Figure 8 compares the time period of the models. It can be concluded that the
fundamental time period reduces by assembling of the shear walls in RCC
frame. All the models with shear walls have approximately 15 to 20% less
time period as compared with model 1.
3,5
Fundamental time Period
Time period in sec

2,8
2,1
1,4
0,7
0
M1 M2 M3 M4
Models
Figure 8. Variation of time period for building on levelled ground.

Storey Shear
The relative result of storey shear values in both directions is shown in figure
9 and figure 10. The story shear value of M1 is 1.34 times less than M2, 2.25
times less than M3 and 3.1 times than M4 in X-direction at ground floor. So,
building without shear wall system (M1) has the minimum story shear and
model 4 ensures the greatest story shear value in X and Y-directions.
M
30000 1 30000 M
M 1
25000 2 25000 M
M 2
20000
3 20000 M
M 15000 3
15000 M
4
4
10000 10000
Storey shear, kN
5000 5000
Storey shear, kN
0 0
RF 13 10 7 4 1 RF 13 10 7 4 1
Storey Storey
Figure 9. Proportion of storey shear in Figure 10. Proportion of storey

Storey Drift X-direction shear in Y-direction.
The relative result of storey drift values in both directions is shown in figure
11 and figure 12. The storey drifts value of M1 is 1.35 times more than M2,
2.44 times more than M3 and 3.23 times more than M4 in X-direction at storey
4. The storey drifts value of M1 is 2.12 times more than M2, 2.37 times more
than M3 and 4.60 times more than M4 in Y-direction at storey 4. Therefore,
the storey drift in Model 4 ensures the least value in X and Y-directions.
M 0,012 M
0,01 1
1
M 0,01 M
0,008 2
2 0,008
M M
0,006 3
3 0,006
M M
0,004 4
4 0,004
0,002 0,002
Drift ratio
drift ratio
0 0
RF 13 10 7 4 1 RF 13 10 7 4 1
Storey Storey
Figure 11. Proportion of storey drift Figure 12. Proportion of storey
in X-direction. drift in Y-direction.
Storey Overturning Moment

The relative result of storey moment values in both directions is shown in
figure 13 and figure 14. The storey moment value of M1 is 1.08 times slightly
less than M2, 1.21 times less than M3 and 1.33 times less than M4 in X-
direction at GF. The storey moment value for M1 is 1.02 times slightly less
than M2, 1.25 times less than M3 and 1.34 times less than M4 in Y-direction
at GF. Therefore, model 4 has the greatest storey moment.
3000000 M1
Overturning moment,
2500000 M2
2000000
M3
1500000
kN-m
1000000 M4
500000
0
RF 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 GF
Storey
Figure 13. Proportion of storey overturning

moment in X-direction.
2000000 M1
moment, kN-m
Overturning
1500000 M2
1000000 M3
M4
500000
0
RF 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 GF
Storey
Figure 14. Proportion of storey overturning

moment in Y-direction.
Lateral Displacement
The comparative study of lateral displacement values in X and Y-direction for
all cases are shown in figure 15 and figure 16. The lateral displacement value
of M1 is 1.30 times more than M2, 1.61 times more than M3 and 2.15 times
more than M4 in X-direction at RF. The lateral displacement value of M1 is
1.43 times more than M2, 1.5 times more than M3 and 2.33 times more than
M4 in Y-direction at RF. Therefore, Model 4 has the smallest lateral
displacement.
450 M1
400
Displacement, mm
350 M2
300
250 M3
200
150 M4
100
50
0
RF
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
GF
Storey
Figure 15. Proportion of lateral displacement in X-direction.

Displacement, mm 500 M1
400 M2
300 M3
200 M4
100
0
RF
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
GF
Storey
Figure 16. Proportion of lateral displacement in Y-direction.
Conclusion
In this research paper, the analysis of G+15 storeyed RC irregular building in
seismic zone IV with and without shear wall system is prepared by ETABS
under the response spectrum analysis method. By the non-linear analysis of
G+15 storeyed irregular building, the following conclusions are discussed:
The effect of shear wall arrangement on model 4 is more stable amongst other
models. The choice of the placing and quantity of shear walls has the greatest
significance in strengthening the building strength. In context, M4 shows
better performance among the other models and can be taken as reference for
construction in a seismic area.
References
[1] P. Nagrale, and M. M. Mahajan, “Critical study of the buildings with
shear walls for the best suitable placement,” J. Civil Eng. Environ. Technol.,
vol. 2, no. 11, June, pp. 54-57, 2015.
[2] K. O. Lakshmi, J. Ramanujan, B. Sunil, L. Kottallil, and M. J.
Poweth, “Effect of shear wall location in buildings subjected to seismic
loads,” ISOI J. Eng. Comput. Sci., vol. 1, no. 1, Dec., pp. 07-17, 2014.
[3] L.Y. Mon, “Comparative study on dynamic analysis of irregular
building with shear walls,” IJSEA, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 22-30, 2014.
[4] H. A. A. Abd-el-Rahim, and A. A. Faeghaly, “Role of Shear Walls in
High Rise Building,” J. Eng. Sci., vol. 38, no. 2, Mar., pp. 403-420, 2010.
[5] E. S. Firoozabad, K. R. M. Rao, and B. Bagheri, "Effect of shear wall
configuration on seismic performance of building," In Proc. Int. Conf. on
Advances in Civil Eng., 2012, pp. 121-125.
[6] P. Vaidya, “Performance Evaluation of Shear Wall-Frame Interaction

System Based on Location of Shear Wall,” IJETT, vol. 1, no. 1, Sep., pp. 115-
117, 2014.
[7] M. Jameel, A. B. M. S. Islam, R. R. Hussain, M. Khaleel, and M. M.
Zaheer, “Optimum structural modelling for tall building,” The Structural
Design of Tall and Special Building, vol. 22, no. 15, Oct., pp. 1173-1185,
2012.
[8] P. P. Chandurkar, and P. S. Pajgade, "Seismic analysis of RCC
building with and without shear wall," Int. J. Modern Eng. Res., vol. 3, no. 3,
May, pp. 1805-1810, 2013.
[9] S. Bhagat, "Optimization of a Multistorey-building by Optimum
Positioning of shear wall," Int. J. Res. Eng. Technol., vol. 3, no. 1, Jan., pp.
56-74, 2014.
[10] M. S. Aainawala, and P. S. Pajgade, “Design of Multistoried R.C.C.
Buildings with and without Shear Walls,” Int. J. Eng. Sci. Res. Technol., vol.
3, no. 7, pp. 498-510, 2013.
[11] P. A. Sangave, and S. M. Nikate, “A Study on Structural Optimization
of Multistoried RCC Buildings,” Int. J. Eng. Res. General Sci., vol. 3, no. 3,
pp. 326-353, 2015.
[12] A. Choudhary, M. Malik, J. Prakash, A. Kumar, and S. Tiwari, “A
numerical analysis on slender columns for flat-plate structures using finite
element method (FEM) technique,” In Proc. IOP Conference Series:
Materials Science and Engineering ’12. 2018, Vol. 455, No. 1, pp. 1-11.
[13] Plain and reinforced concrete-code of practice, Indian Standard 456,
2000.
[14] General construction in steel-Coe of practice, Indian Standard 800,
2007.
***
Taş Mastik Asfalt Özellikleri ve Uygulaması

Khalil Ahmad Sultanıi*
Özet
Taş Mastik Asfalt (TMA/SMA) ilk 1960 sonlarında Almanya’da
geliştirilmiştir. Bu karışımın geliştirme amacı çivili lastiklere daha iyi dirençli
bir karışım geliştirmektir. Basitçe ifade edersek, SMA taşın taşa doğrudan
teması sağlamak için tasarlanmış kesikli gradasyonu sahip bu karışım iri
agrega iskeleti içindeki boşlukların bitüm-filler harcı ile doldurulmasıyla elde
edilmektedir. Karışım, istenen miktar ve kıvamda / özellikle bağlayıcı
bakımından zengin bir bağlayıcı içerir. Almanya'da TMA'nın geliştirilmesi ve
kullanımı ile diğer ülkelerdeki deneyimler hakkında daha fazla bilgiler
vererek dünyada yayılmış oldu şimdi dünyanın dört yanında TMA
kullanılmaktadır.
Türkiye'ye girişinden bu yana, taş mastik asfalt (TMA), saha performansını
artırmak ve asfalt kaplamaların ve kaplamaların yaşam hizmet ömrüne
uzatmak için birinci sınıf asfalt karışımı olarak karayolları müdürlükleri
arasında büyük popülerlik kazanmıştır.
TMA karışımının maliyeti, klasik yoğun granülometrili karışımlara göre
%20-25 oranında daha yüksektir. Elyaf, modifiye bitüm ve daha yüksek bitüm
içeriğinin getirdiği ilave maliyetlerdir. TMA’nın yüksek performansı ve uzun
hizmet ömrü nedeniyle sağladığı başlıca faydaları dikkate alarak, TMA’nın
maliyetinin uygun olduğu anlaşılmaktadır.
Bu çalışmada tartışılan karışım tasarımı, plenti üretimi, yol kaplamada,
sıkıştırma ve kalite Kontrolü için öneriler, SMA potansiyelini en üst düzeye
çıkarmak ve üretim sorunlarını en aza indirmek için gerekli rehberliği
sağlamalıdır.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Taş Mastik Asfalt, TMA, SMA, Tasarım, Uygulaması
Taş Mastik Asfalt (TMA) Tanımı

Taş mastik asfalt (TMA) iskeletini oluşturan kaba agrega boşlukları dolduran
mastik harcın birleştirmesiyle zengin bir bağlayıcı harcını sahip bir kaplama
türüdür. TMAnın yapısı şekil 1de gösterilmiştir. Mastik harç, içerisinde ince
* Yüksek lisans Öğrencisi Konya Teknik Üniversitesi İnşaat Mühendisliği Bölümü

agrega, filler, bitüm ve elyaf bulunmaktadır. Bu karışımlarda stabilite kaba

agregaların birbirine temas ederek kenetlenmesi ile meydana gelmektedir.
TMA karışımlarda hava boşluklarının yüksek olması nedeniyle ihtiyaç
duyulan bitüm oranı yüksektir. Bitüm oranının yüksek olması TMA
karışımların stabilitesini ve plastik deformasyonlara karşı dayanımını arttırır.
Tipik olarak, SMA yüzde 70 ila 80 kaba agrega, yüzde 8 ila 12 filler ve yüzde
6 ila 7 asfalt bağlayıcıdan oluşur. Silo depolama ve nakliye sırasında asfaltın
süzülmelerini önlemek için karışıma genellikle küçük stabiliz katkılar selüloz
veya mineral elyaf kullanılır [1]
Şekil 1. TMA yapısı

TMA üstyapı kaplama tabakası olarak binder ve aşınma olarak kullanılmakta
genellikle ekonmi açısından aşınma tabakası olarak kullanılmaktadır. TMA
kaplamalarının en önemli özelliği, kalıcı deformasyonlara karşı daha dirençli,
sürüş konfor emniyeti, durabilitesi daha fazla yüksek ve daha ince tabakalı
yüzeyler elde edilmektedir. TMA kaplamalarda daha fazla bitüm içeriği ve
daha dayanıkı agregalar tercih edilmektedir (ARSLAN, 2014).
TMA yapısını baktığımızda iri agrega aktive yükleri taşıyan ince ve
filler agregalar yük taşımayan sadece dolgu harç olarak görev
yapmaktadırlar. Şekil 2de TMA bileşimi göstermektedir. Ancak,
TMA’nın performansı arttırıcı etkisi ile bu yüksek başlangıç maliyeti,
orta ve ağır trafik koşullarının hâkim olduğu yollarda telafi edilebilir.
Yüksek dayanım gibi yararlarına ek olarak, yorulmaya, tekerlek izine,
iri yüzey dokusundan kaynaklanan yağışlı havalardaki kaymaya karşı
gösterdiği direnç sayılabilir. TMA literatürde sessiz asfalt olarak ta

anılmaktadır (ARSLAN, 2014).
Daha önce söylediği gibi, TMA karışımlarının geliştirilmesinin esas amacı,
tekerlek izine gösterdiği direnç ve dayanıklılıktır.
Şekil 2. Taş mastik asfalt bileşimi

Dünyada TMA Üretimi
2010 ile 2015 yılları arasında bazı Avrupa ülkelerin kullanılan bitümlü sıcak
karışım (BSK) ve taş mastık asfalt (SMA) miktarları Tablo1’de açıklandı.
ABD'de SMA kullanımını Avrupa ve Kannadadan sonra başlayan nispeten
yeni bir karışım türü olmasına rağmen, 1991'den 2000 kadar 4 milyon tonun
üzerinde taş mastık asfalt kullanılmıştır [2].
Tablo 1. Avrupa ülkelerinde TMA kullanımı ( [2]

TMA’nın Avantajları
Taş mastik asfalt karışımlar modifiyeli ve modifiyesiz olarak kullanılarak,
artan dingil yüklerine ve trafik hacmine sahip yollarda, uygun maliyetli
olabilen yenilikçi karışımlardır. TMA karışımı sahip olduğu yüksek dayanım
özelliğinden dolayı yenilenme süresi daha uzundur. Dolayısı ile yoğun
gradasyonlu sıcak karışım asfalta göre geliştirilmiş üstyapı performansıyla
TMA'nın en önemli avantajı sağladığı uzun hizmet ömrüdür. Ulusal Asfalt
teknoloji merkezi (NCAT), ABD içindeki 85 SMA projesinin performansını
değerlendirdi. Aşağıdaki gözlemler yapıldı:
• SMA projelerinin yüzde 90'ından fazlasında 4 mm'den az tekerlik izi
ölçümleri vardı ve yüzde 25'inde ölçülebilir tekerlik izi yoktu.
• SMA karışımları, yoğun dereceli BSK'ya göre çatlamaya daha dirençli
olduğunu gösterdi.
• TMA yoğun dereceli BSK'ları göre tekerlik izi %30-%40 daha azdır.
• TMA, yoğun dereceli BSK'ya kıyasla yorulma çatlamasına karşı 3 ila 5
kat daha fazla dirence sahiptir.
• Almanya'daki deneyim, SMA'nın 20-30 yıllık hizmet ömrünün istisnai
olmadığını gösterdi.
• Soyunma, yüzey çatlaması (hem sıcaklık hem de trafik kaynaklı) ve
sökülme, SMA'da genel olarak karşılaşılmayan kusurlar
mekanizmalarıdır.
• Almanya'da yapılan bir çalışma, yoğun dereceli BSK'nın SMA ile
değiştirilmesi durumunda gürültü azaltmanın 2,5 dB (A) kadar
olabileceğini gösterdi.
• İngiltere Ulaştırma Araştırma Laboratuvarı (TRL), bazı karışımlar için
agrega boyutu ve gürültü seviyeleri arasındaki ilişkiyi değerlendirmiştir.
Nominal maksimum agrega boyutu 14 mm, 10 mm ve 6 mm olan üç SMA
karışımı çalışmaya dahil edildi. 14 mm SMA, geleneksel sıcak
haddelenmiş asfalttan (tipik olarak İngiltere'de kullanılır) 2.7 dB (A) daha
sessizdi. Buna karşılık, 10 mm SMA 14 mm'den 0.8 dB (A) daha sessizdi,
6 mm SMA yine 1.8 dB (A) daha sessizdi.
• Yüksek stabilite ve tekerlek izi oluşumu şeklindeki plastik
deformasyonlara karşı yüksek dayanım sağlarlar.
• Kesikli bir granülometriye sahip olmaları nedeniyle kayma dirençleri
yüksektir.
• Fren mesafesini kısaltarak sürüş güvenliğini arttırırlar.
• Kaplama tabakası üzerinde, yağışlı havalarda su nedeniyle oluşan film

tabakası oluşumunu azaltırlar.
• Kaplama üzerindeki yatay trafik işaretlerinin görünürlüğünü arttırırlar.
• Geceleyin taşıtlara ait far ışıklarının yansıma yapmasını azaltırlar.
• Taşıtların kaplama üzerinde düşük gürültü ile geçmesini sağlarlar.
• Bu karışımların durabiliteleri yüksek olup hizmet ömürleri uzundur.
• Çok düşük sıcaklık şartlarında kılcal çatlakların meydana gelmesini
geciktirirler.
• Stabilitelerinin ve durabilitelerinin. diğer sıcak karışımlara oranla daha
yüksek olması nedeniyle daha az bakım ve onarım gerektirirler [3].
Şekil 3.TMA yük aktarma şekli ve taşın taşa teması
Taş Mastik Asfaltta kullanılan malzemeler

Agrega
Kaba agregalar TMA iskeletini oluşturur, yüksek dane teması ve iç
kenetlenme ile trafik yüklerini taşır. Mastik harç ise boşlukları doldurarak
yüksek bitüm oranı nedeniyle dayanımı arttırır. Taş mastik asfaltta karışımını
hazırlarken agrega gradasyonu seçimi en önemli aşamalardan biri kabul
etmektedir kesikli bir gradasyon belirlenmeli. Genelde taş mastik asfaltta
bazalt ya kalker agregalar kullanılmaktadır. Agrega seçilirken kübik, sert ve
taşın taşa temasını sağlayan gradasyon seçilir, bu agregalara bir araya tutan
mastik harcı (asfalt bitüm, filler and stabilize katkılar) kullanılmaktadır agrega
gradasyonu aşağıda verilmiştir. Kullanılan malzemeler teknik şartlamalara
uygun seçilmeli KTŞ istenilen şartlamalar aşağıda verilmiştir [4]
Şekil 4. Çeşitli sıcak karışımların gradasyon eğrisi [5]

Tablo 2. KTŞ’ye göre kaba agrega özellikleri [6]
DENEY ŞARTNAME DENEY

LİMİTLERİ STANDARDI
Los Angeles Aşınma 25 EN 1097

Kaybı Maksimum % (ASTM C-131)
Na2SO4 ile Dayanıklılık 8 EN 1367 (ASTM
Kayıp, Maksimum % C-88)
Yassılık İndeksi, Maksimum 25 BS-812
%
Cilalanma Değeri, Minimum 50 TS EN 1097-8
Soyulma Mukavemeti, 60 * Kısım 403 EK-A
Minimum %
Su Absorbsiyonu, 2.0 TS-3526 (ASTM
Maksimum % C-127)
Kil Topakları ve Ufalanabilir bulunmayacak TS-3526 (ASTM
Daneler, maksimum % C-142)
* Soyulma mukavemeti % 60'dan düşük olan taşlar soyulma
mukavemetini arttırıcı katkı maddeleriyle kullanılabilecektir.
Tablo 3.KTŞ’ye göre ince agrega özellikleri
DENEY ŞARTNAME DENEY

LİMİTLERİ STANDATI
Plastisite İndeksi N.P. TS-1900
Organik Madde, renk skalası 0-1 TS-3673
Organik Madde, % Bulunmayacak AASHTOT194
Asfalt Bağlayıcı
Esnek üstyapılarda kullanılan bitüm 40-300 penetrasyon katılığa sahip
bağlayıcı malzemelerdir. Türkiye’de en fazla tercih edilen 50/70
penetrasyonlu bağlayıcı kullanılmaktadır. Asfalt seçimi çevre ve iklim
şartlarını göre seçilmeli, TMA’da modifiye bitüm kullanılmakta bitüm
modifiye edilirken uygun modifiye katkısı ve karıştırma süreleri dikkate
alınmaktadır. Bitüm modifiye edilirken en çok plastomer (PE, PP, EVA,
EBA) ve Termo Plastik Elastomer (SBS, SIS, SEB) kullanılmaktadır.
Günümüzde en çok SBS (STİREN-BUTADİEN-STİREN) dünyanın dört
yanında kullanılmaktadır.
Tablo 4. Bitüm modifikasyonunda kullanılan popüler polimerler (Zhu ve ark., 2014)
Kategori Polimerler Avantajlar Dezavantajlar
İyi yüksek sıcaklık

PE Elastikiyette sınırlı gelişme
özellikleri
PP Nispeten düşük maliyet Faz ayrımı problemleri

Plastomer
Nispeten iyi depolama
EVA Elastik geri dönmede sınırlı gelişme
kararlılığı
Tekerlek izine karşı yüksek Düşük sıcaklık özelliklerinde sınırlı

EBA
direnç artış
Bazı bitümlerde uyumluluk

SBS Artan sertlik
problemleri
Termo Isıya, oksidasyona ve ultraviyoleye

Düşük sıcaklık hassasiyeti,
plastik SIS karşı düşük direnç, nispeten yüksek
gelişmiş elastikiyet
maliyet
Elastomer
Isıya, oksidasyona ve Depolama kararsızlığı sorunları,
SEBS ultraviyoleye karşı yüksek nispeten azalan elastikiyet, yüksek
direnç maliyet
Bitümün modifiye edilmesindeki genel amaçlarından bazıları Lewandowski

(1994) şu şekilde sıralamıştır.
1. Düşük sıcaklıklar için daha yumuşak karışımlar elde etmek ve
çatlakları azaltmak.
2. Yüksek sıcaklıklar için daha sert karışımlar elde etmek ve tekerlek
izinde oturmayı azaltmak.
3. Yapım sıcaklıklarında viskoziteyi düşürmek.
4. İşlenebilirliği ve sıkışmayı iyileştirmek.
5. Karışım dayanımını ve stabilitesini artırmak.
6. Karışımın aşınma dayanımını iyileştirmek ve agrega kopmasını
azaltmak.
7. Kaplamanın düşük sıcaklık çatlaklarını azaltmak.
8. Karışımın yorulma dayanımını iyileştirmek.
9. Yaşlanmış asfalt bağlayıcıyı tekrar gençleştirmek.
10. Asfalt bağlayıcının ömrünü uzatmak.
11. Agrega üzerinde daha kalın bitüm filmi oluşturmak.
12. Yapışmayı iyileştirmek ve asfalt bağlayıcının agrega yüzeyinden
soyulmasını azaltmak
13. Kusmayı azaltmak.
14. Geliştirilmiş çatlak dolgusu sağlamak.
15. Yakıt döküntülerine karşı dayanım artışı sağlamak.
16. Yaşlanmaya ya da oksidasyona karşı dayanım artırmak.
17. Kaplama tabakalarının kalınlığı azaltmak.
18. Kaplamanı ömür-döngü maliyeti azaltmak.
TMA Karışımın Tasarımı
TMA tasarımında ilk aşaması uygun agrega ve uygun gradasyon seçimi, iri
agreganın iskeletini taşın taşa temasını sağlanmalıdır. İkinci aşamada ise,
istenilen bağlayıcı ile karışımın kıvamını sağlayan yeterli harcın
oluşturulmasıdır. Bu nedenle, agrega daneleri arası boşluk (VMA) ve bitüm
içeriği klasik karışımlar için verilen asgari miktarın çok üzerindedir. İyi bir
TMA karışımı elde etmek için Şekil 5’te verilen tasarım aşamaları takip
edilmelidir [7]
Uygun Agrega Seçimi
Uygun Agrega Granülometrisi Tayini
Asgari VMA (Agrega Daneleri Arası Boşluk) Şartı
Hava Boşluğu ve Optimum Bitüm Bulunması
Su Hassasiyeti ve Bitüm Süzülmesinin Değerlendirilmesi
Şekil 5. TMA karışım tasarımı şeması [7]

TMA karşım tasarımı için karayolu teknik şartnamesine göre Marshall
beriketler hazırlanmalı. KTŞ’ye göre Marshall tasarımı aşağıda verilmiştir.
Tablo 6. KTŞ’ye göre Marshall tasarımı (kısım 408)
Taş Mastik Asfalt Karışımlarının Serilmesi ve Sıkıştırılması

TMA karışımlar yoğun gradasyonlu karışımlar gibi serilip sıkıştırırlar. Buna
rağmen bazı farklılıkları vardır. Avrupa’da TMA karışımlarının sıkıştırılması,
ağırlığı 10 ton olan çelik tamburlu silindir kullanılarak yapılmaktadır.
İstenilen sıkışmaya (yoğunluk) 6-8 geçişte elde edilmektedir. Çelik
selinderlerin vibratör kullanıp kullanmamak için farkı görüşleri vardır,

vibratör kullanmak bazı görüşleri göre TMA karışımlar geleneksel karışımlar
gibi yumuşak karışımlar değildirler vibratör kullanmak agregaların
kırılmasını sebep olabiliyor agreganın kırıldığında gradasyon bozulmaya
sebep olmaktadır. Diğer görüş ise çelik silindirin vibratör kullanmak enerji
tasarrufunu sağlamaktadır 6-8 geçiş yerine 4-5 geçişle istenilen yoğunluk elde
edilir. TMA karışımlarının sıkıştırılmasında, bitümlü bağlayıcının kalın film
tabakasından ve malzemenin toplanmasından dolayı pnömatik lastik
silindirler kullanılmamalıdır [8].
Geleneksel asfalt karışımlar yumuşak karışımlardır, 5cm kalınlığı elde etmek
için 6,35cm kalınlığı serilirler ve kalınlığın 2,5cm başına 0,64cm sıkıştırırlar,
bunu başparmak kuralı denilmektedir. Ama TMA karışımlar kesik
gradasyonu sahip oldukları için 2,5cm başında 0,32cm sıkıştırılır. Gerek
duyulan maksimum teorik birim ağırlığa erişmek için kaplama yüzeyinin her
bir noktasından 6-8 geçiş TMA karışımın sıkışması için yeterlidir [8].
Sonuçlar ve Öneriler
TMA sağlam, kararlı, dayanıklı ve tekerlik izini dirençli bir yapıyı sahiptir.
TMA tasarım konsepti, mukavemet sağlamak için taşın taşa temasına ve
dayanıklılık sağlamak için zengin bir harç bağlayıcısına dayanır. Bu hedeflere
genellikle kesik gradasyon eğri bir agrega ile ulaşılır, fiber veya polimer
modifiyeli yüksek asfalt içerikli bir matris ile birleştirilir.
Aşağıdaki hususlar bit TMA tasarım ve yapım için önemlidir.
• İyi performans için sert (maksimum LA Aşınma Kaybı yüzde 25), kübik
(maksimum F & E oranları; 3: 1, yüzde 20; 5: 1, 5), tamamen kırılmış
agrega seçimi.
• Agrega gradasyon seçiminde, yüzde 20–28'in 4,75 mm (No. 4) eleği
geçmesini ve yüzde 8–10'un 0,075 mm (No. 200) eleği geçmesini
sağlamak.
• Bir karışım, bu yayında belirtilen tüm gereklilikleri, özellikle de taşın taşa
temasını, minimum VMA gereksinimlerini ve asfalt içeriğini karşılayacak
şekilde tasarlanmalıdır.
• TMA genellikle ek mineral dolgu maddesi, stabilize edici bir madde ve
modifiye edilmiş bir asfalt gerektirdiğinden, üretim sırasında planetin
uygun kalibrasyonda tutulması.
• Karışımın çalışabilir olmasını sağlamak ve sızdırmaya önlemek için sabit
bir planetin üretim sıcaklığını stabilize etmek.
• Sabit bir asfaltlama hızı ve sıkıştırma önem sağlamak.
• Minimum yüzde 94 yoğunluk elde etmek için sıkıştırma için gerektiği gibi
iki veya üç silindir kullanılır.
• Yüksel kaliteli bir TMA kaplama için kaplamanın tüm şamalarını (serme
ve sıkıştırma ) sık sık kontrol etmek gereklidir.
• TMA'nın maliyeti tipik asfalt karışımlardan yüzde 20-30 daha yüksek
olabilse de, faydalar - uzun ömür beklentisi, tekerlik izi azalma, azaltılmış
gürültü ve olası bir kalınlık azalması - artan maliyetini dengelenir.
• Burada bildirilen bulgulara dayanarak, TMA karışımları yüksek hacimli
trafik alanlarında iyi bir performansa sahiptir.
• TMA'nın yüksek trafik koşullarında kullanım için sağlam, stabil, tekerlik
izini dayanıklı bir karışım olduğu kanıtlanmıştır. Taşın-taşa teması ve
zengin asfalt harcı ile TMA karışımları zorlu kaplama koşullar altında
hem mukavemet hem de dayanıklılık sağlar.
Kaynaklar
[1] NAPA, «Advances in the Design, Production,and Construction of Stone

Matrix (Mastic) Asphalt,» pp. 6-10, 2018.
[2] EAPA, «Europan Asphalt Pavement Association,» [Çevrimiçi].

Available: https://eapa.org/.
[3] NCAT. [Çevrimiçi]. Available:

http://www.eng.auburn.edu/research/centers/ncat/search/.
[4] E. KABADAYI, «ÜLEKSİTİN TAŞ MASTİK ASFALT

KARIŞIMLARDA FİLLER OLARAK KULLANILABİLİRLİĞİNİN
ARAŞTIRILMASI,» YÜKSEK LİSANS TEZİ, 2019.
[5] F. ARSLAN, «TAŞ MASTİK ASFALT KARIŞIMLARDA

İSTANBUL ÇEVRESİNDEKİ CEBECİ-DOLAMİTLİ KİREÇTAŞI,
GÖLCÜK - KUMTAŞI VE KARATEPE - BAZALTI
KULLANIMININ İNCELENMESİ,» yüksek lisans tezi, 2014.
[6] KTŞ, «Karayolu tenik şartnamesi,» 2013.
[7] Z. Temren, «Taş Mastik Asfalt Dizaynı, Üretimi ve Uygulamaları,»

Asfalt Müteahhitleri Derneği (ASMÜD) Yayınları,, 2009.
[8] J. A. Scherocman, «CONSTRUCTION OF STONE MASTIC

ASPHALT TEST SECTIONS IN THE U.S.,» 1992.
[9] L. H. Lewandowski, «Polymer Modification of Paving Asphalt

Binders,» Rubber Chemistry and Technology , 1994.
[10] J. Zhu, B. Birgisson ve N. Kringos, «Polymer modification of bitumen:

Advances and challenges,» european polymer journal, 2014.
***
Solution Chemistry of Lead Removal by Triple

Superphosphate
Mahamane Chapiou Souley Garba*
Erol Kaya. Fatih Turan**
Mertol Gökelma. Gabriella Tranell***
Abstract
The objective of this paper is to elucidate the solution chemistry of the triple
superphosphate (TSP) in the removal of lead (Pb) from wastewater using
aqueous stability area diagrams. Research has demonstrated the ability of TSP
to dissolve and precipitate heavy metals. The stabilization mechanism is based
on the formation of metal phosphate precipitates. The solution chemistry of
the lead with TSP is analyzed in terms of aqueous stability diagrams. In order
to predict the feasibility of dissolution reactions and to determine which
species and compounds are stable, a thorough analysis of the aqueous
chemistry is necessary.
In this study, Eh-pH diagrams for Pb-PO43-.H2O system were constructed by
a computer program called HSC chemistry in order to establish the
predominance area of different species, and lead-phosphate equilibrium.
Precipitation tests with pure Pb metal using TSP and lime were conducted at
different conditions. The results of precipitation tests with pure Pb metal show
86% lead removal with TSP that brought pH to 3.3, and 99% lead removal at
pH 10 with adding lime into the lead-TSP-water system.
Keywords: Heavy Metal, Triple Superphosphate, Precipitation, Eh-pH
Diagrams
Introduction
Lead is the most common heavy metal and its presence in soils and water is a
*
Dokuz Eylul University, The Graduate school of Natural and Applied Sciences, Mining
Engineering Department, Izmir, Turkey mahamane.souley@ogr.deu.edu.tr
**
Dokuz Eylul University, Mining Engineering Department, Izmir, Turkey
***
Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Department of Materials Science and
Engineering, Trondheim, Norway
major environmental issue due to its rapid mobility and bioavailability. In

natural water, the presence of Pb is highly harmful to human health and
aquatic animals even at low concentrations because of its bioaccumulation in
the food chain [1]. Therefore, the efforts have been made for lead removal,
and many studies on Pb stabilization were performed using various
phosphorus-based materials, which reduce the mobility of Pb by the formation
of lead-phosphate insoluble compounds [2, 3]. Experiments involving in the
treatment of metal contaminated soils with rock phosphates (apatite and
hydroxyapatite) have shown that the formation of metal-phosphate
precipitates and minerals reduced heavy metal solubility [4]. Also, the
chemical immobilization treatment of Pb in contaminated soil depends on the
addition of sufficient phosphate materials. Ruby et al. [5] level indicated that
the formation of insoluble complexes and the reduction in the potential
mobility Pb depend on the adequate level of soil phosphate. Research has also
shown that TSP reacts with Pb in soil treatment, and theoretically form
chloropyromorphite [6]. As reported by Hwang et al [7], there are three (3)
kinds of methods to remove heavy metals, which are precipitation method,
adsorption method, and ion exchange methods. However, the removal of Pb
by TSP through the chemical precipitation method is influenced by many
parameters such as pH, the concentration of TSP, and the concentration of Pb
in solution. The objectives of this study were: (1) to analyze the stability area
of different species and compounds through the construction of Eh-pH
diagram of lead-TSP by HSC 6.1 chemistry program; (2) to carry out
precipitation tests and study the parameters influencing lead removal from
aqueous solution by TSP.
The reagent utilized in this study were Triple superphosphate (TSP) and
received from the fertilizer industry (GÜBRETAŞ-Turkey) in granular forms.
The standard stock solutions of pure metal (Pb2+) were used for the
precipitation experiments, and the computer program used to construct the
Eh-pH diagram was HSC 6.1 Chemistry for windows.
Construction of Pb-H2O and Pb-PO43- . H2O Pourbaix Diagram
Pourbaix (Eh-pH) diagrams of Pb-H2O and Pb-PO43-. H2O systems were
constructed with the aids of a computer program called HSC 6.1 Chemistry.
Most of the necessary thermodynamic data were taken from the HSC
database, and others were collected from the literature. The thermodynamic
calculation procedures for phase diagram speciation of aqueous solution were
explained by Brookins, [8]. The available thermodynamic data and different
equilibrium reactions used to plot Eh-pH and speciation diagrams are given
in Table 1 [9].
Precipitation tests
The laboratory-scale of chemical precipitation experiments were conducted in
the following steps at room temperature. Firstly, the masses of TSP 5g, and
12.5 g; equivalent to 0.04M, and 0.1M of TSP respectively weighed were
mixed separately into 500 ml of distilled water, then the beakers containing
the mixtures were agitated at 3 rpm, and dissolved within 30 min of reaction
time by using a magnetic. After the granular of TSP was solubilized in an acid
medium (pH=3.3), 20, 50 ppm (mg/l) of Pb (II) ions were adding into the
solution separately, followed by the sampling (5 ml of sample were taken) at
different times: 0, 5, 10, 15, 30, 60, 120 min. Sulfuric acid (H2SO4), and
powder lime (Ca (OH)2) were used to adjust the pH of solution at 1 and 10
respectively. The pH measurements were carried out by pH meter as shown
in the schematic of the experimental setup (Fig 1). Thus, the concentrations
of Pb contained in the sample were determined by the atomic absorption
spectrophotometer type “Analytic Jena – Nova 300”.
Table 1. Oxydo-reduction reactions and equilibrium constant for Pb-PO43-.
H2O system at 25°C [9]
No Equilibrium reactions Log K

Lead
1 Pb(c) ↔ Pb2+ +2 e 4.33
2 PbO(c) + 2H+ ↔ Pb2+ + H2O 12.72
3 Pb3O4(c) + 8H+ + 2e ↔ 3Pb2+ + 4H2O 73.79
4 PbO2(c) + 4H+ + 2e ↔ Pb2+ + 2H2O 49.68
5 PbOH+ + H+ ↔ Pb2+ + H2O 7.70
6 Pb (OH)20 + 2H+ ↔ Pb2+ + 2H2O 17.75
7 Pb (OH)3- + 3H+ ↔ Pb2+ + 3H2O 28.09
8 Pb (OH)42- + 4H+ ↔ Pb2+ + 4H2O 39.49
9 Pb2OH3+ + H+ ↔ 2Pb2+ + H2O 6.40
10 Pb3 (OH)42- + 4H+ ↔ 3Pb2+ + 4H2O 23.89
11 Pb3(OH)44++ 4H+ ↔ 4Pb2+ + 4H2O 20.89

12 Pb6(OH)84++ 8H+ ↔ 6Pb2+ + 8H2O 43.58
13 HPbO2- + 3H+ ↔ Pb2+ + 2H2O 28.07
Lead-Phosphate
14 Pb(H2PO4)2(c) +2H+ ↔ Pb2+ + 2H3PO40 -5.55
15 PbHPO4(c) +2H+ ↔ Pb2+ + H3PO40 -2.10
16 Pb3(PO4)2(c) + 6H+ ↔ 3Pb2 + 2H3PO40 -0.96
17 Pb4O(PO4)2(c) + 8H+ ↔ 4Pb2+ + 2H3PO40 + H2O 6.54
18 Pb5(PO4)3OH(c) + 10H+ ↔ 5Pb2+ + 3H3PO40 + H2O 2.31
19 PbH2PO4+ + H+ ↔ Pb2+ + H3PO40 0.65
20 PbHPO40(aq) +2H+ ↔ Pb2+ + H3PO40 6.26
Figure 1. Schematic of the experimental study.

Results and Discussions
Pourbaix and Speciation Diagram
Pourbaix Diagram of Pb-H2O and Pb-PO43-.H2O System
Pourbaix (Eh-pH) diagrams of Pb-H2O and Pb-PO43-.H2O system at 25°C
plotted through the HSC 6.1 chemistry indicate the formation of different
species of lead and lead-phosphate onto the water stability diagram. As
potential-pH Diagrams are derived entirely from thermodynamics, the
diagram can be used to determine which species is thermodynamically more
stable at a given potential (Eh) and pH [10]. Referring to Figure 2, lead ion
Pb(+2a) is predominant at pH≥ 6.9 but lead hydroxyl complex in aqueous
solution namely Pb6(OH)8(+4a) and Pb (OH)4(-2a) are predominant species at
pH< 8.7 and, pH≥12 respectively. Also, the formation of lead oxide PbO(c)
appeared as a precipitate between pH 8.7 and 12.
Apart from the redox potential and pH influence in aqueous solution, the
reactions between metals and TSP are affected by the concentrations of TSP
and lead. Figures 3 and 4 indicate the diagram of Pb-PO43- .H2O system at
25°C according to TSP concentration effects, and the effect of dissolved lead
concentrations. As observed, the high concentration of TSP ([H3PO40] = 1
Kmol/m3]) produces Pb(H2PO4)2(c) and PbHPO4(c) as precipitates through
the reaction of the
lead ion with phosphate. Thus, the removal of lead occurs through the reaction
of Pb6(OH)8(+4a) with phosphate and forms lead (II) phosphate
[Pb3O(PO4)2(c)] in both conditions (i.e., acid and basic medium). At pH≥ 13,
the soluble compound of Pb (OH)4(-2a) has appeared in the Pourbaix diagram
of the lead-water system (Fig. 3a). The decrease in TSP concentrations
reduces the size of the lead phosphate stability region for lead dihydrogen
Pb(H2PO4)2(c), and lead hydrogen phosphate PbHPO4(c) compounds (Figs.
3b and 3c). By contrast, the dimension of the stability area for compounds
Pb3(PO4)2(c) and Pb4O(PO4)2(c) increases with a reduction in TSP addition
and stays stable even the concentration of TSP reduces extensively.
Figure 4 indicates high and low concentrations of lead at constant TSP
concentrations. Also, lead phosphate appears as the most predominant area in
the presence of TSP and it does not change even at maximum pH values.
Figure 2: Pourbaix diagram for the Pb-H2O system at 25°C, and [Pb]=10-3
kmol.m-3.
Figure 3. Pourbaix diagram for the Pb-PO43-.H2O system at 25°C;

[Pb]=10-3 kmol.m-3.
Figure 4. Pourbaix diagram for the Pb-PO43-.H2O system at 25°C; [H3PO40]

=10-3 kmol.m-3.
Log [Pb]-pH Diagram
Figure 5 shows the effect of TSP concentrations in the formation of lead
phosphate compounds. At zero value of potential redox (Eh= 0.0 volt) and
higher concentrations of TSP, the lead phosphate complexes occupy the
maximum area in the system. As the concentrations of TSP decrease, the size
of the stability regions for Pb3(PO4)2 and Pb4O(PO4)2 increases, but the
insoluble compounds Pb(H2PO4)2(c) and PbHPO4(c) disappear at low
concentrations of TSP (Fig. 5c). At Eh =1.5 volts, the lead system is
dominated by PbO2(c), and Pb(H2PO4)2(c) is stable around pH≥2 (Fig 6a),
whereas Pb(H2PO4)2(c) and PbHPO4(c) compounds are stable until pH=7
(Fig. 6b).
Log [PO43-]-pH Diagram
Figure 7 is the equilibrium log [PO43-]-pH diagram at 25°C with the lowest
potential redox (Eh= 0.0 volts) and different metal ion activities. Referring to
a high concentration of lead ions, lead phosphate compounds are dominant in
the system (Fig. 7a), and the stability areas reduce with decreasing lead ion
concentrations. From both Figures (Fig. 7b and 7c), lead does not form
insoluble compounds or precipitates when the pH value is greater than 12.
Figure 5. Log [Pb]-pH diagram for the Pb-PO43-.H2O system at 25°C; Eh= 0.0
volt.
Figure 6. Log [Pb]-pH diagram for the Pb-PO43-.H2O system at 25°C,

[H3PO40] =1 kmol.m-3.
Figure 7. Log [PO43-]-pH diagram for the Pb-PO43-.H2O system at 25°C; Eh=
0.0 volt.
Lead Removal from Aqueous Solution by TSP

Effect of TSP Concentration
The effect of triple superphosphate concentration on lead removal was carried
out with two different concentrations under acidic conditions. From Figure 8,
it can be seen that the lead removal increased with the raising of TSP
concentration. The maximum of Pb removal was achieved (86%) with a TSP
dosage of 0.1 M (12.5g). As mentioned in the previous paragraph for Eh-pH
diagram of Pb-PO43-.H2O system at 25°C; [Pb]=10-3 kmol.m-3 (Fig. 3), the
concentration of TSP affects strongly lead removal from aqueous solution.
The study has also demonstrated that increasing the phosphate dose in Pb
immobilization resulted in an increasingly lower lead solubility in the acid
range [11]. In other words, the more TSP is dissolved in a solution containing
lead ion, the more formation of insoluble compounds (lead-phosphate) occurs.
Similar funding has reported that easily soluble phosphoric amendments
lower soil pH and decrease the concentration of Pb in solution leading to an
instantaneous formation of pyromorphite- type minerals [12]. Although the
concentration of TSP has an impact on the efficiency of lead removal, the
reaction time also plays an important role to lead precipitation because it
influences the formation of insoluble compounds.
100
90
80
Lead removal (%)
70
[TSP]= 0.04M
60
[TSP]= 0.1 M
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 5 10 15 30 60 120
Times, (minutes)
Figure 8. Effect of TSP concentration on lead removal using 5g (0.04M) and

12.5 g (0.1M) TSP separately at room temperature. Initial concentration of
lead: [Pb]= 20ppm.
Effect of Pb initial concentration

The efficiency of lead removal at different initial concentration was presented
in Figure 9. As expected, the percentage of lead removal decreases with the
increasing initial concentration of Pb. So, the concentration of lead influences
the rate of lead removal from aqueous solution by TSP. From Figure 9, it was
observed that TSP removes 86% Pb in the case of 20 mg/l Pb than 40 mg/l Pb
(70.12%) as the initial concentration at 120 min. of reaction time. This means
that TSP becomes less efficient to eliminate the Pb2+ ions in an aqueous
solution as the concentrations of Pb increased.
100
90
80
Lead removal (%)
70 [Pb]=20ppm
60
50 [Pb]=50ppm
40
30
20
10
0
0 5 10 15 30 60 120
Times, (minutes)
Figure 9. Effect of Pb initial concentration on lead removal using 12.5 g

(0.1M) TSP separately at room temperature, Initial concentration of lead:
[Pb]= 20 ppm, [Pb]= 50 ppm.
Effect of pH
The results from the analysis show that pH influenced lead removal from
aqueous solution by TSP (Fig.10). The percentage of lead removal was 86%
at a pH value of around 3. So, given enough time, TSP is likely converted to
PbHPO4 under acidic conditions. The study has demonstrated that TSP
reduces the bioaccessibility of soil Pb by 89%, and the removal of Pb2+ from
the solution by phosphate amendment was almost complete at the pH value
range 3 to 12 [13]. Hafsteinsdóttir et al [14] have proposed also that the
leaching of the phosphate source and formation of lead-phosphate (PbHPO4)
is pH-dependent. The removal of lead by phosphate amendment is influenced
by the addition of H3PO4 which would reduce the soil pH and promote the
dissolution of soil Pb and increase the activity of soluble P to enhance the
formation of pyromorphite [15]. Under alkaline solution, (adjusted at pH≥10
by 4.2 g of Ca (OH)2), TSP removes 99 % of Pb from the solution. In this
case, it can be concluded that the combination of TSP and lime is an

alternative to increase the efficiency of lead removal. By contrast, decreasing
pH to 1 by sulfuric acid produces a reduction of lead removal from 86 to 18
%. This phenomenon can be explained by the mobility of free Pb2+ when the
pH becomes 1.
100
90
80
Lead removal (%)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 3,3 10
pH
Figure 10. Effect of pH on lead removal using 12.5 g (0.1M) TSP in 120
minutes of reaction time at room temperature. Initial concentration of lead:
[Pb]= 20 ppm; at pH=1 (with TSP and pH adjustment by sulfuric acid), at
pH=3.3 (with TSP and no pH adjustment), and pH=10 (with TSP and pH
adjustment by lime).
Conclusion
The Eh-pH and speciation diagram for lead-water and lead-phosphate-water
solution chemistry were constructed with different triple superphosphate
(TSP) and lead (Pb) concentrations and potential redox (Eh) by the available
thermodynamic data from HSC 6.1 chemistry software.
Based on the Eh-pH diagrams constructed, TSP may remove lead from
solution in both conditions (acid and basic) and the insoluble lead phosphate
compounds formed in the lead system are stable in a large area of Eh and pH
values.
The experimental test results, demonstrate the successful lead (Pb) removal in
aqueous solution using TSP. The removal is strongly influenced by TSP and
Pb initial concentrations and pH of the solution. As the concentration of TSP

increases, the removal efficiency of lead increases, but the rise in the initial
concentration of lead generates a decrease in the rate of lead removal. The
lead removal was 18.2% at pH of 1 (with TSP and pH adjustment by sulfuric
acid), 86.0% at pH of 3.3 (with TSP and no pH adjustment), and 99.0% at pH
of 10 (with TSP and pH adjustment by lime).
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Dokuz Eylul University, İzmir-Turkey,
Scientific Research Projects Coordination council (BAP). Project number
201999-20-08-2020, and Norwegian University of Science and Technology
(NTNU), Faculty of Natural Materials and Engineering for partially funding
this research.
References
[1] L. Dong, Z. Zhu, Y. Qiu, and J. Zhao, “Removal of lead from aqueous
solution by hydroxyapatite/magnetite composite adsorbent,” Chem. Eng. J.,
vol. 165, no. 3, pp. 827–834, 2010.
[2] Ma, Qi Ying, et al. “In situ lead immobilization by
apatite” Environmental Science & Technology 27.9, pp.1803-1810, 1993.
[3] Zhang, Pengchu, and James A. Ryan. “Formation of
chloropyromorphite from galena (PbS) in the presence of
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***
Power Loss Optimization With TCSC Using Particle

Swarm Optimization Method In Distribution Network
Maımaıjıang Aishan, Dr. Öğr. Fatih Mehmet Nuroğlu*
Abstract
Development of social life has caused increment in reactive power
consumption in residential areas. It is obvious that the overloading of the line
due to increased reactive power should be prevented in order not to cause high
power losses and voltage drops. Therefore, TCSC are prevalently used in
distribution systems in order to solve these problems.
Thyristor Controlled Series Compensator (TCSC) is the representative of the
new compensation technology and an important member of the Flexible AC
Transmission System FACTS family[1].
The main role of Thyristor Controlled serial Serial Compensator (TCSC)
technology in the distribution network increases the line voltage level,
minimizes the power loss, increases the transmission capacity of the line. In
previous studies, the appropriate location and value is selected according to
the optimal location and value experience of the Thyristor Controlled Series
Compensator (TCSC). Therefore, a new Optimization method is important to
find the most suitable location and size of the TCSC. At the same time, the
best location and the best TCSC size can minimize the cost of the distribution
network.
In this study, it provides the optimum position and value of Thyristor
Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC) in the power system to minimize Power
Loss using particle swarm optimization technique. Simulations will be
analyzed using the Newton Raphson load flow algorithm, in the IEEE 14
busbar system, IEEE 30 busbar system and the IEEE 57 busbar system.
Keywords: TCSC, Power Loss Minimization, PSO, Newton Raphson Load
Flow Algorithm
*
Karadeniz Teknik Üniversitesi Elektrik- Elektronik Mühendisliği
Introduction
This section presents a brief discussion on different methods and proposes an
innovative technique for the location of FACTs device. This technique
focuses on the effect of incorporating FACTS device TCSC on the real and
reactive power flows of that line. The objective of the work is to minimize
loss, which is very important because it can lead to more economic operation
of power system. The power can be consumed more efficiently if losses are
to be minimized as possible. In this thesis an objective function is formulated
to find the optimal location and size of TCSC device using Particle Swarm
Optimization for minimizing the transmission loss and improving the voltage
profile, subjected to various equality and inequality constraints of the power
system. Simulations will be analyzed using the Newton Raphson load flow
algorithm, in the IEEE 14 busbar system, IEEE 30 busbar system and the
IEEE 57 busbar system[2].
Modeling of TCSC
TCSC is defined as “A capacitive reactance compensator, which is made up
of a series capacitor bank, parallel with an inductor which is thyristor
controlled and shunted by the series capacitor”. Thyristor Controlled Series
Capacitor (TCSC) provides a powerful means of increasing and controlling
power transfer level of a transmission line by varying the apparent impedance
of the same transmission line[3]. As an important component for transmission
system losses and voltage control, it is usually installed on the line where the
tap - setting transformer is not connected. The modelling of TCSC as a
controllable reactance XTCSC is shown in Fig. 1[4].
Figure 4. The Variable reactance model of TCSC

The total reactance of the transmission line can be expressed mathematically
as:
𝑋@/05 = 𝑋A'B' + 𝑋$C
(1)
Where,
𝑋$C =Reactance of a transmission line between bus “f” and “t”.

𝑋A'B' =Reactance of the TCSC
𝑋@/05 =Total reactance of line after placing the TCSC. The reactance of the
TCSC in term of degree of compensation of the line “a” is expressed as
𝑋A'B' = 𝑎 × 𝑋@/05
(2)
Eq(1.13) is modified as
𝑋@/05 = 𝑎 × 𝑋$C + 𝑋$C
(3)
𝑋@/05 = (𝑎 + 1) 𝑋$C
(4)
Objective Function
Power flow is an important tool of electric power system. A multi-objective
function is executed utilizing Newton Raphson power flow to discover an
answer comprising of both the location and size of TCSC that minimizes the
aggregate power loss and keep up the voltage profile at all buses, described as
follows,
Minimize the Active Power Loss
Transmission losses in the network constitute economic loss providing no
benefits. The magnitude of these losses needs to the accurately estimated and
practical steps taken to minimize them. The total real power loss in an electric
power system is expressed mathematically as[5],
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑓# = 𝑃@4.. = ∑0@/05 ! !
:9# 𝐺:D •𝑉: + 𝑉D − 2𝑉: 𝑉D 𝑐𝑜𝑠…𝛿: − 𝛿D ‰Ÿ
DE#
(5)
Where,
nline= total number of transmission lines,
Gkj = conductance between the bus “k” and “j”
Vk = voltage of the bus “k”
Vj = voltage of the bus “j”
δk = angles of bus “k”
δj = angles of bus “j”
Newton Raphson Method
It is an iterative technique for solving a set of various nonlinear equations with
an equal number of unknowns. There are two methods of solutions for the
load flow using Newton Raphson Method. The first method uses rectangular
coordinates for the variables while the second method uses the polar
coordinate form. Out of these two methods the polar coordinate form is used
widely[6].
Particle Swarm Optimization
Particle swarm optimization is an exciting new methodology in evolutionary
computation that is somewhat like a genetic algorithm in that the system is
initialized with a population of random solutions. Unlike other algorithms,
however, each potential solution (called a particle) is also assigned a
randomized velocity and then flown through the problem hyperspace. Particle
swarm optimization has been found to be extremely effective in solving a
wide range of engineering problems.
Studies and Findings
This section discusses about the PSO algorithm implementation for optimal
location of TCSC in three test system i.e IEEE-14,30 and 57 Bus System. The
parameter value of the PSO is listed in Table 2.
Parameter Value
Number of iterations 100
Population Size 50
Number of design variable 2
Inertial Weight, w 0.9 to 0.4
Constant, C1 0.1
Constant, C2 0.1
rand1 0 to 1
Rand2 0 to 1
Table 1. PSO Parameters

Implementation of PSO Algorithm for the Optimal Placement Of TCSC
Particle swarm optimization (PSO) is an optimization method that gives the
optimal solution for the given problem. It is a kind of algorithm utilized to
discover the best solution by simulating the movement and flocking of birds.
The algorithm works by initializing a flock of birds randomly over the

searching space, where each bird is called a “particle”. These “particles” move
in the search space with a certain velocity and find the best global position
after some cycle. When a particle is moving through the search space, it
compares its fitness value at the current position to the best fitness value it has
ever reached at any cycle up to the current cycle. The simulation is performed
on an IEEE 14 bus system, IEEE 30 bus system and IEEE 57 bus system using
MATLAB. The active power loss with TCSC and without TCSC is given in
Table 2 and the reactive power loss with TCSC and without TCSC is given in
Table 3.
IEEE BUS SYSTEM Without TCSC With TCSC
14 111.3715 111.3101
30 12.8014 12.7602
57 111.3715 111.3101
Table 2. Active Power Transmission loss in MW
IEEE BUS SYSTEM Without TCSC With TCSC
14 40.1825 111.3101
30 48.2761 47.9530
57 438.1758 438.0256
Table 3. Reactive Power Transmission loss in MW

Results And Dıscussıon
Matlab Simulations were performed on IEEE 14,30 and 57 bus systems.
Results of the three systems revealed the following[7]:
1. Test results indicated that optimally placed TCSC by PSO could
significantly reduce real power losses and reactive power losses
2. PSO exhibited robust convergence characteristic so it could be used to
effectively calculate
TTC. PSO obtained sub-optimal solution within 40 iterations, so the proposed
PSO based algorithm to find the best location and sizing of TCSC to minimize
total generation cost and installation cost of TCSC while satisfying various
constraints.
The simulation results obtaoned from Matlab software are as given below,
Optimal TCSC location using PSO in IEEE-14 Bus System-Matlab Code

A single-line diagram of the IEEE 14-bus test system is shown in Figure 15.
It consists of five synchronous machines with IEEE type-1 exciters, two of
which are synchronous compensators used only for reactive power support.
This test system has enough generation and load to simulate an electricity
market and, thus, produce meaningful results that allow the analysis of the
proposed techniques[8].
Figure 8. Bus Voltage of IEEE-14 Bus system with TCSC using PSO
Figure 16. shows the results of voltage when load variation is subjected to bus
14. It can be observed that voltage get reduced for each bus correspondingly
when bus system data get increased. The results shown that TCSC installation
manage to improve the voltage better.
Figure 9. Performance of PSO Algorithm-14 Bus system
Figure 17. shows the performance of PSO algorithm with the maximum
number of iterations iteration is 100. From the Figure 17[9]. it can be observed
when reaching the iterartipon values the fitness value is stabilized since it got
the optimized value. The best solution (fitness) it has achieved so far,this
value is called pbest. Another "best" value that is tracked by the particle
swarm optimizer is the best value, obtained so far by any particle in the
population. This best value is a global best and called gbest. When a particle
takes part of the population as its topological neighbors, the best value is a
local best and is called lbest. After finding the two best values, the particle
updates its velocity and positions with following equation (6) and (7).
𝑉/:6# = 𝑤𝑉/: + 𝑐# 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑑# ∗ …𝑝𝑏𝑒𝑠𝑡/: − 𝑋/: ‰ + 𝑐! 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑑! ∗ (𝑔𝑏𝑒𝑠𝑡/: − 𝑋/: )
(6)
𝑋/:6# = 𝑋/: + 𝑉/:6#
(7)
The network shown in Figure 19. is used as a test case system which is IEEE-
30 Bus System study. It has 6 generators and 24 load nodes.
30. From the test system-2 the inital value of voltage with and without TCSC
are identical and later the voltage are different between the bus 13 to 30. The
peak voltage value with TCSC is 1 which attains at bus-1 and least voltage
value is 0.965 attains at bus-30. Similiarly, peak voltage value without TCSC
is 1 which attains at bus-1 and least voltage value is 0.96 attains at bus-30 .It
can be observed that voltage get reduced for each bus correspondingly when
bus system data get increased.
Figure 11. Performance of PSO Algorithm-30 Bus system

number of iterations iteration is 100. From the Figure 21. it can be observed
when reaching the iterartion value 7 the fitness value is stabilized since it got
the optimized value.
The network shown in Figure 23. is used as a test case system which is IEEE-
57 Bus System study. It has 7 generators and 50 load nodes.
57. From the test system-3 the inital value of voltage with and without TCSC
are identical and later the voltage are different between the bus 50 to 57. The
peak voltage value with TCSC is 1.01 which attains at bus-16 and least
voltage value is 0.91 attains at bus-31. Similiarly, peak voltage value without
TCSC is 1.01 which attains at bus-16 and least voltage value is 0.91 attains at
bus-31.
Figure 13. Performance of PSO Algorithm-57 Bus System

number of iterations iteration is 100. It can be observed when reaching the
iterartion value 4 the fitness value drastically reduced and become stable for
next 4 iteration and later it is stabilized to the value of 111.31 since it got the
optimized value.
Recommendations
From the simulation results the proposed PSO algorithm find the
optimal location of single TCSC between the lines, among many
combinations by optimizing the objective function. From the results, it
is observed that the installation cost and real power transmission losses
are reduced in the power system. It is also shown that voltage of the
buses is kept within ±5% limit of the corresponding bus voltage, while
considering system constraints. The obtained results of the simulation
on the considered test systems show the effectiveness and performance
of the proposed PSO algorithms.
Furthermore, the PSO algorithm has some problems that ought to be
resolved. Therefore, the future works on the PSO algorithm will
probably concentrate on the following:
1. Find a particular PSO algorithm which can be expected to provide

good performance.
2. Combine the PSO algorithm with other optimization methods to
improve the accuracy.
3. Use this algorithm to solve the non-convex optimization problems.
Reference
[1] Narain G. Hingorani, Laszlo Gyugyi, Mohamed E. El-Hawary.
Understanding FACTS Concepts and Technology of Flexible AC
Transmission Systems. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
[2] Thomas J. overbye, Doug Brown, “Use of FACTS devices for
power system stability enhancement”, Proceedings of the 36th Midwest
Symposium on Circuits and Systems, IEEE, Vol. 02, pp. 1019-1022.
[3] Douglas J. Gotham, G. T. Heydt, “Power flow control and power
flow studies for systems with FACTS devices”, IEEE Transactions on
power systems, Vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 60-65.
[4] X e Da, NiuHui, Chen Chen, Wu Jishun, “An Algorithm to Control
the Power Flow in Large Systems Based On TCSC”, Proceedings of
Power System Technology, IEEE, Vol. 01, pp. 344-348.
[5] C. R. Fuerte-Esquivel, E. Acha, H Ambriz-Perez, “A Thyristor
Controlled Series Compensator Model for the Power Flow Solution of
Practical Power Networks”, IEEE Transactions on power systems, Vol.
15, No. 1, pp. 58-64.
[6] H. Pinto, J. Pereira, N. Martins, J. Filho, S. Junior, F. Alves, J.
Ferraz, R. Henriques, V. Costa, “Needs and Improvements in Power
Flow Analysis”, VII Symposium of Specialists in Electic Operational
and Expansion Planning, Brasil.
[7] Ying Xiao Y.H.Song, Y.Z. Sun, “Versatile Model for Power Flow
Control Using FACTS Devices”, Proceedings of the third International
Power Electronics and Motion Control Conference, IEEE, Vol. 02, pp.
868-874.
[8] S. Mukhopadhyay, A. K. Tripathi, V. K. Prasher, K. K. Arya,
“Application of FACTS in Indian Power System”, Proceeding of IEEE,
Transmission and Distribution Conference and Exhibition 2002: Asia
Pacific. IEEE/PES, Vol. 01, pp. 237-242.
[9] Abdel-Moamen M. A., N. P. Padhy, ‘‘Newton-Raphson TCSC

Model for Power Flow Solution of Practical Power Networks’’,
Proceedings of Power Engineering Society Summer Meeting, IEEE,
Vol. 03, pp. 1488 – 1493.
***
Efficient MoWO3/VO2/MoS2/Si UV Schottky

Photodetectors; MoS2 Optimization and Monoclinic VO2
Surface Coupling
Mohamed A. Basyooni*, Shrouk E. Zaki**, Mohamed Shaban***
Yasin Ramazan Eker****, Mucahit Yılmaz *****
Abstract
The distinctive properties of strongly correlated oxides provide a variety of
possibilities for modulating the properties of 2D transition metal
dichalcogenides semiconductors (TMDs); which represent a new class of
superior optical and optoelectronic interfacing semiconductors. We report a
novel approach to scaling-up molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) by combining the
techniques of chemical and physical vapor deposition (CVD and PVD) and
interfacing with a thin layer of monoclinical VO2. MoWO3/VO2/MoS2
photodetectors were manufactured at different sputtering times by depositing
molybdenum oxide layers using a PVD technique on p-type silicon substrates
followed by a sulphurization process in the CVD chamber. The high quality
and the excellent structural and absorption properties of
*
Nanophysics Laboratory, Department of NanoScience and NanoEngineering, Institute of
Science and Technology, University of Necmettin Erbakan, Konya 42060, Turkey,
Nanophotonics and Applications Laboratory, Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, Beni-
Suef University, Beni-Suef 62514, Egypt, Science and Technology Research and Application
Center (BITAM), University of Necmettin Erbakan, Konya, 42060, Turkey.
**
Nanophysics Laboratory, Department of NanoScience and NanoEngineering, Institute of
Science and Technology, University of Necmettin Erbakan, Konya 42060, Turkey.
***
Nanophotonics and Applications Laboratory, Department of Physics, Faculty of
Science, Beni-Suef University, Beni-Suef 62514, Egypt
Department of Metallurgy and Material Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and
****
Architecture, Necmettin Erbakan University, Konya 42060, Turkey, Science and

Technology Research and Application Center (BITAM), University of Necmettin
Erbakan, Konya, 42060, Turkey
*****
Nanophysics Laboratory, Department of NanoScience and NanoEngineering,
Institute of Science and Technology, University of Necmettin Erbakan, Konya 42060,
Turkey
MoWO3/VO2/MoS2/Si with MoS2 deposited for 60sec enables its use as an

efficient UV photodetector. The electronically coupled monoclinic VO2 layer
on MoS2/Si causes a redshift and intensive MoS2 Raman peaks. Interestingly,
the incorporation of VO2 dramatically changes the ratio between A-exciton
(ground state exciton) and trion photoluminescence intensities of
VO2/(30sec)MoS2/Si from < 1 to >1. By increasing the deposition time of
MoS2 from 60 to 180sec, the relative intensity of the B-exciton / A-exciton
increases, whereas the lowest ratio at deposition time of 60sec refers to the
high quality and low defect densities of the VO2/(60sec)MoS2/Si structure.
Both the VO2/(60sec)MoS2/Si trion and A-exciton peaks have higher
intensities compared with (60sec) MoS2/Si structure. The MoWO3/VO2/(60
sec)MoS2/Si photodetector displays the highest photocurrent gain of 1.6,
4.32x 108 Jones detectivity, and ~1.0 × 1010 quantum efficiency at 365 nm.
Moreover, the surface roughness and grains mapping are studied and a low
semiconducting-metallic phase transition is observed at ~ 40oC.
Keywords: VO2, MoS2, Thin Film, Photo Detector, Optoelectronics
Introduction
The current experiments of integrating 2D TMDCs into nano-electronic
devices such as MoS2, WS2, and black phosphorous still have challenges like
low carrier mobility and low photoluminescence (PL) efficiency which limit
their further applications in optoelectronics. It is believed that in 2D TMDCs,
the Van der Waals (VDWs) interlayer forces are weak and little defects can
enhance the intrinsic phonon scattering and lead to better electrical
conduction. Charge traps in 2D TMDCs are found to have a direct relationship
with the carrier mobility and the output resistances of the electronic devices
[1]. Therefore, in order to enhance the Raman intensity, PL intensity, and the
charge carrier mobility of the optoelectronic devices, either by an interfacing
functional channel material or a functional substrate that modulates the device
output in multiple ways, many functional oxides have been used to offer
unique properties such as piezoelectricity, strong polarization, and spin
injection.
Commonly, chemical vapor deposition (CVD) is considered the most
common synthesis method to prepare MoS2. In which MoO3 and sulfur
powders are used through two or three zone quartz tube with some inert gases.
At downstream gas flow, the substrate can be maintains to grow MoS2 [2]–
[4]. However, this growth technique has many drawbacks through which 2D
MoS2 are formed as in depended, non-homogenous, small flakes in micro- or
nano-dimensions which limits their large scale optoelectronic devices. On the
other hand, “top-down” methods such as exfoliation approaches have used to
prepare 2D sheets graphene, MoS2, etc. This method including different forms
such as micromechanical exfoliation[5], sonication-assisted liquid-
exfoliation[6]–[8], shear exfoliation[9], [10] and chemical exfoliation [11],

[12]. Micromechanical exfoliation still have some disadvantages such as low
quality, small-scale production, high amount of defects, size up to tens of
microns [13]. One more drawback is that the exfoliated MoS2 has to transfer
to new substrate which hander its scaling up and large production [14].
However, the fabrication of wafer scale, homogeneous 2D materials such as
MoS2 increased during the last years for the next generation of optoelectronics
and quantum computers. Mainly, these methods including atomic layer
deposition (ALD) method [14], [15], pulsed laser deposition (PLD) [16], [17],
thermal evaporation [18], [19] and magnetron sputtering techniques [20]–
[22]. Magnetron sputtering have been broadly employed in large-scale
commercial manufacturing at low cost and with easy control.
Strongly correlated oxides are a wide range of materials where the associated
electronic, magnetic properties, and spin are strongly correlated with each
other. The local spin density approximation (LSDA) has been used to
determine the energy band structure of many kinds of materials. However, the
LSDA fails to describe the electronic structure of some materials in which the
interaction among the electrons is strong (e-e interaction) such as strongly
correlated electron systems [23]. Meanwhile, the dominant role of the
Coulomb repulsion forces between the electrons in VO2 and V2O3 systems is
opening the insulating gap [24], [25]. However, when strongly correlated
oxides interface with 2D TMDCs, multi-functions such as bandgap, charge
transfer, energy transfer, and strain can be tuned [26], [27]. Among them,
vanadium dioxide (VO2); an archetypal strongly correlated functional oxide
that exhibits a metal-insulator transition (MIT) above room temperature. At
ambient pressure, below the transition temperature (𝑇3 ), VO2 has a monoclinic
(M1 phase), with space group 𝑃2# /𝑐(#14) [28] and lattice constant of 𝑎 ≈
5.75 Å, b ≈ 4.53 Å, c ≈ 5.38 Å, β = 122.64 [29], [30]. Above the 𝑇3 , VO2
adopts a tetragonal rutile (R) structure with space group 𝑃4! 𝑚𝑛𝑚(#136) and
a lattice constants 𝑎 = 𝑏 ≈ 4.55 Å, c ≈ 2.85 Å [30].
The fabrication of MoS2/VO2 heterostructure for optoelectronics has received
high attention due to the superior physical properties at the interface between
MoS2 and VO2 layer. However, the fabrication process of homogenous,
scaled-up of MoS2 should to be taken into account for optical and
optoelectrinic productions. Nicoló Oliva et al., reported Van der Waals
MoS2/VO2 as a photodetetctor. However, the fabrication process of MoS2 in
that study is containing a lot of steps related to the micromechanical
exfoliation process[31]. Joshua A. Robinson et al., studied the photo-excited
carriers transfer in MoS2 and VO2 through CVD powder vaporization growth
technique of MoS2 which yields small flaks of MoS2 [32]. However, in the
current study, by controlling the deposition time and growth parameters, a
homogenous and scaled-up MoS2 can be prepared easily for industrial

applications. Here, we report the preparation, characterization, and
optoelectronic application of MoWO3/VO2/MoS2/Si (p-n-n-p) structure
towards 365nm photodetector at room temperature. Different sputtering times
of Mo-O have been controlled followed by sulfurization process and
interfacing with a monoclinic VO2 layer as seen in Figure 1 (a). Most of the
reported studies were trying to enhance the Raman, PL, optoelectronic of
VO2-MoS2 by controlling the device temperature. Figure 1 (b) shows the band
alignment of the optimized structure of p-n-p-type with different sputtering
times of Mo-O toward controlling the bandgap of MoS2 as calculated in our
previous study [33]. However, these attempts did not relay for low
temperature-phase transition optoelectronic devices. This study focus on the
surface coupling and strain-induced optoelectronic modulation on a few-layer
VO2/MoS2/Si heterostructure. A nanostructured thin layer of Mo0.2W0.8O3 was
deposited on the surface of VO2 as a protective and anti-reflection layer [34].
( (
Fig. 1 (a) and (b) show the optimized structure for UV photodetector, and its band
alignment with different Mo-O sputtering time (30, 60, 120, 180, and 240sec),
respectively.
This study involving more complex structure to enhance the optical coupling
between VO2 and MoS2 layer through surface strain engineering track with
one more layer of WMoO3 as an anti-reflective layer. Nevertheless, the role
of optical antireflective coating layer here increase photodetector responsivity
and strongly eliminate the undesired effects from optical interference thus
largely eliminating optical interference. Many studies used anti reflection
coating layer in photodiodes [35], image sensor [36], and
semiconductor photodetectors [37] have reported before. The structural and
morphological properties are studied. Raman, PL, electrical, optoelectronic
characterization of strongly correlated oxide (VO2), and 2D VDW
heterostructure (MoS2-Si) will be discussed
Results and Discussion

Structural and Composition
The crystal structure of vanadium oxide and molybdenum oxide was
calculated in detail to understand the structural analysis of the deposited films.
Figure 2 (a) shows the XRD pattern of the deposited VO2 thin film. XRD
result of VO2 shows a monoclinic phase with a JCPDS card number of [# 96-
153-0871] with a space group of C12/m1(12). Different diffraction peaks are
observed at 2θ = 15.45 o, 20.49 o, 31.28 o, 47.69 o, and 62.32o. The unit cell
parameters are a= 12.03000Å, b= 3.69300Å, c= 6.42000Å while the angle is
β= 106.100º. However, the Wyckoff position of metal atoms are (2a): (0, 0,
0) and (4f): (0.25, 0.25, 0.25) and oxygen atoms are (4i): (0.175, 0, 0.25),
(0.175, 0.5, 0.25) and (8j): (0.075, 0.25, 0.75). The calculated amount of O:V
in the VO2 compound indicating that more oxygen vacancies. Oxygen
deficient in vanadium oxide (VO2-ẟ) has reported many times to stabilize the
metallic state of VO2 [38], decrease the semiconductor-metal phase transition
(SMT) [39] as reported here and to narrow the bandgap in the monoclinic
phase [40]. Oxygen vacancies are acting as an electron donor with n-type
conductivity which can change the electron orbital occupancy, band
structures, and contribute to high photocurrent gain when staking with MoS2
[41].
The preparation of molybdenum oxide was achieved using the Mo target at a
sputtering temperature of 400oC. Figure 2 (b) shows the XRD Rietveld
refinement of Mo-O bonding in molybdenum oxide. The calculated R-factors
were found to be Rwp=7.52, Rexp=3.26, and χ=2 5.31. The Refinement analysis
shows that MoO3 and MoO2 crystal phases are contributed. The distribution
of atoms in unit cells of MoO2 and MoO3 was plotted with the VESTA
program and shown in Figure 2 (b). The amounts of Mo in MoO2 and MoO3
were calculated as 1.837 and 1, respectively. While the amounts of O2 in
MoO2 and MoO3 were 3.836 and 3.012, respectively. The calculation of the
crystal structure was showed that 9.46% as MoO2 phase and 54% as MoO3
phase. Moreover, the unit cell parameters of the MoO2 structure are a=9.788,
b=8.604, c=4.714Å. While for MoO3 structure are a=15.309, b=3.719,
c=3.976Å.
Fig.2. XRD crystal structure of (a) monoclinic VO2 and (b) Rietveld structure
refinement XRD pattern of molybdenum oxide (in our case MoO2 and MoO3).
Fig. 3. Raman spectra of the deposited multilayer MoWO3/VO2/MoS2 on p-type Si

substrate; (a) the full range (200-1700 cm-1) Raman spectra of the deposited films; (b-
e) magnified ranges of the full range spectra.
Raman Characterization
The physics behind interfacing structures such as 2D semiconductors and
correlated oxides should receive high attention. The importance of these
structures can be highlighted by controlling the band alignment of the 2D
materials such as MoS2. Moreover, controlling the carrier mobility, coupling,
and strain effect (as reported in the current work) [42]. Raman spectra of the
deposited multilayer structure MoWO3/VO2/MoS2 on p-type Si substrate are
depicted in Figure 3. The full range (200-1700cm-1) Raman spectra of the
deposited structures are shown in Figure 3 (a) and the magnified ranges of the
full range spectra are shown in Figure 3 (b-e). The Raman peaks of VO2 at RT
are shown in Figure 3 (a, b, and d) which confirm its monoclinic phase.
#
Whereas, Figure 3 (c) shows the two characteristic peaks of MoS2 of 𝐸!?
-1 -1
(385cm ) and 𝐴#? (405cm ) originate from their in-plane and out-of-plane
phonon characteristics [43]. The peaks positions, intensities, distance between
#
𝐸!? and 𝐴#? position at different sputtering time of MoS2 are summarized in
Table 1 and Figure 4.
Fig. 4. Raman peaks of MoS2/Si fabricated at different sputtering times in the presence
and absence of VO2 layer on the surface.
Many authors tried to study the effect of VO2 in contact with TMDs layers
such as MoS2 and WS2 [31], [32]. While in our current study, we tried to study
the matching behavior of 50nm thin VO2 layer onto the surface of MoS2/Si
heterojunction. Additionally, the current work showed that different

thicknesses of Mo-O structure have a direct effect on Raman, PL, electrical
and optoelectronic characterization of MoS2 peaks (position and intensity). It
is seen from Raman spectra that with incorporated the monoclinic VO2 layer,
there is a redshift and an increase in the intensity peaks as in Figure 4 (a-d).
These observations showed that MoS2 and VO2 were electronically coupled,
similar results observed before [32]. The observed shift in Raman modes may
be attributed to the presence of compressive strain induced by implementing
the VO2 layer, similar results observed when interfacing MoS2 with PMN-PT
[44]. Generally, compression stress exerted on VDWs structure decreases the
lattice constant [45], [46] and consequently increases the film crystallinity and
photocurrent as reported here.
It is known that the intensity of Raman peaks is referring to high crystallinity
effects. In most cases, Raman scattering is sensitive to the degree of
crystallinity in a sample. Typically a crystalline material yields a spectrum
with very sharp, intense Raman peaks, whilst an amorphous material will
show less intense Raman peaks [47]–[49]. Table 1 and Figure 4 show the
Raman intensities of the corresponding thin films. These results show high
attention to the applications of enhancing the Raman signal/intensity. The
#
difference between peak positions of 𝐸!? and 𝐴#? in the presence and absence
of VO2 layer are deposited in Table 1. It shows a decrease with increasing the
MoS2 layer thickness from 30 to 240sec for both MoS2/Si and VO2/MoS2/Si
structures, which may contribute to a decrease in the film layers and enhance
the band gap [50] as seen from Table 1. However, the film deposited at 180sec
is out of this base. Meanwhile, the differences between the intensities of the
peaks show an enhancement in the peak intensity with increasing the MoS2
film thickness which may contribute to high crystallinity effects. In counter,
the film deposited at 240sec shows a decrease in the intensity. The highest
intensity was observed for VO2/MoS2/Si with 180sec, whereas the lowest
intensity was attributed to 240sec film. These results are concluded that the
MoS2 sputtering time of 180sec is optimized for VO2 and MoS2 optical
coupling. Consequently, the observed results may highlight the importance of
incorporating strongly correlated oxide through 2D VDWs MoS2 structure to
control film crystallinity, surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) of
MoS2 for better signal detection and spatial resolution [51]–[53], optical
coupling [54], [55], Plasmonic local-field enhancement [54] and
optoelectronic behavior [52].

Table 1. The Raman peaks positions and intensities of VO2/MoS2/Si and MoS2/Si
structures.
Deposition 30sec 60sec 120sec 180sec 240sec
time
VO2 Layer With Without With withou With withou With without With with
t t out
Position of 382.02 384.91 382.16 385.26 382. 385.93 381.51 385.51 382.51 385.
𝑬𝟏𝟐𝒈 (cm-1) 49 39
Position of 407.73 410.03 407.61 410.22 407. 410.39 409.86 410.80 406.14 409.
𝑨𝟏𝒈 (cm-1) 80 79
Position 25.71 25.12 25.44 24.96 25.3 24.46 28.31 25.28 23.63 24.4
difference 1 0
(𝑬𝟏𝟐𝒈 −
𝑨𝟏𝒈 ) (cm-1)
Intensity of 110852 22177.5 204858 39921. 2312 71156. 503416 191107.0 45413. 1204
𝑬𝟏𝟐𝒈 .8 .9 1 97.2 9 .9 2 85.6
Intensity of 313824 60847.9 664071 113963 7628 180168 136493 465300.5 144965 2405
𝑨𝟏𝒈 .8 .8 .2 47.3 .1 3.3 .8 74.3
Intensity 202972 38670.4 459212 74042. 5315 109011 861516 274193.5 99552. 1200
difference .0 .9 1 50.1 .2 .4 6 88.7
(𝑬𝟏𝟐𝒈 −
𝑨𝟏𝒈 )
Table 2. The PL peaks positions and intensities of VO2/MoS2/Si and MoS2/Si

structures.
MoO3
Deposition 30sec (nm) 60sec (nm) 120sec (nm) 180sec (nm) 240sec (nm)
Time
VO2 Layer With Without With without With without With without With without
696.06 679.32 673.08

679.54 678.78
Trion 678.65 Blue 682.47 Red 676.29 Red 690.40 681.32
Red shift Red shift
shift shift shift
Position
622.21 618.11 634.7 633.50 635.12
(nm)
A-exciton 625.08 Red 617.20 Blue 602.82 Blue 624.97 Blue 626.15 Blue
shift shift shift shift shift
B- exciton 606.80 605.69 606.41 606.69
Trion 425.54 782.63 939.08 609.64 621.29 7554.96 3383.10 41642.54 712.12 12328.14
Intensity A-exciton 955.40 378.21 401.69 136.24 64.85 295.21 658.62 134.53 292.37 145.70
B-exciton 88.73 514.81 300.94 209.37

Moreover, by means of Raman mapping, the peak intensities and positions of

#
𝐸!? , 𝐴#? and Si peak are investigated at 385, 410, and 520cm-1, respectively
and reported in Fig. S3 (a, b, c, d, and e).
Photoluminescence Measurements (PL)
The PL spectrum of MoS2 is strongly dependent on the number of layers of
2D VDWs structures. In other words, a strong PL peak may observe in single-
layer MoS2 or WS2 film and decreasing with increasing the number of layers
[56]. Trion is defined as a quasi-particle that can potentially carry out more
information and data than electrons for which make them useful towards
different applications such as optoelectronics and quantum computing [57].
Trions are consisting of three charged particles bound together by very weak
bonding energy that makes them quickly fall apart [58]. It is known that the
dominated peak in Figures 5 and 6 attributed to the recombination of the
photogenerated electron-hole pair, whereas the observed weaker peak at lower
wavelength may be attributed to the valance band splitting due to the presence
of strong spin-orbit coupling of MoS2 [59]. In the literature review, the
definition of trion and exciton peak is dominated by their locations and the
trion peak is located at lower energy than exciton peak [60]–[62]. Figure 5 (a)
and (b) shows the PL spectra of MoS2/Si and MoWO3/VO2/MoS2/Si structures
at RT. The MoS2/Si has two peaks at ~ 679 and ~ 620nm which corresponding
to components from trion and A-exciton [63]. However, trion and A-exciton
positions have changed by controlling the deposition time of MoS2 as seen in
Table 2. Also, this table shows the position of the characteristic peaks (A-
exciton, B-exciton (higher spin-orbit splitting state), and trion) in the presence
and absence of the VO2 layer. Generally, it is seen that the trion peak shifted
to lower energy by implementing the VO2 layer onto the surface of the
MoS2/Si structure as seen in Table 2.
Fig. 5. PL spectra of (a) MoS2-Si heterojunction and (b) MoWO3/VO2/MoS2-Si

photodetectors.
The A-exciton peak has a higher intensity in the case of the VO2/MoS2/Si
structure than in the case of MoS2/Si structure for 30 and 60sec deposition
time of MoS2 layer, Figure 6 (a) and (b). The trion peak is enhanced and
shifted to longer wavelengths by increasing the deposition time to 60sec. The
increase in PL intensity refers to an enhancement in light emission efficiency
and increases the density of states of the photo carriers by modifying the band
structure [46]. At 30sec, the A-exciton peak intensity is higher for the
VO2/MoS2/Si structure than the MoS2/Si structure. i.e., the incorporation of
VO2 dramatically changes the ratio between photoluminescence intensities of
A-exciton and trion from < 1 to >1 for VO2/(30sec)MoS2/Si structure.
However, the opposite case is observed for the trion. Meanwhile, by
incorporating the VO2 layer, a blue shift in the trion peak is observed, while a
redshift is observed for the A-excitons. The observed peak position of PL that
shifted towards lower energy (redshift) attributed to the non-radiative
electron-hole recombination effect. However, by increasing the deposition
time to 60sec, the A-exciton peak have higher intensity compared with the
trions peak in the case of VO2/MoS2/Si structure than MoS2/Si structure as
seen in Figure 6 (b). By increasing the deposition time of MoS2 from 60 to
180sec, the B-exciton /A-exciton relative intensity increases, whereas the
lowest ratio at 60 s deposition time refers to the high quality and the low
defects densities of VO2/(60sec) MoS2/Si structure. Moreover, a redshift was
observed for the trion peak and a slight blue shift when incorporating the VO2
layer. The increase in PL intensity refers to an enhancement in light emission
efficiency and increases the density of states of the carriers by modifying the
band structure and consequently enhance the radiative recombination of
carriers, similar results were observed in a compressively strained trilayer
MoS2 sheet [46], [64], [65]. This result shows that strong coupling between
VO2 and MoS2 at 60sec Mo-O deposition time was observed at room
temperature. While the PL intensity with MoS2/VO2 structure has only
enhanced with increasing the film temperature [31], [32], [66], while our
reported results show a dramatic enhancement in the PL intensity at RT by
incorporated VO2 layer on the surface of MoS2/Si structure.
On the other hand, trion peak quenching was found in Figure 6 (c, d, and e);
with increasing the Mo-O layer from 120, 180, and 240sec when VO2 is
deposited on MoS2/Si structure. We thought that the quenching of PL spectra
in Figure 6 (c, d, and e) may be owing to the fact that MoS2 is an n-type with
a close Fermi level to the conduction band. However, the deposited VO2 layer
at thicker Mo-O layer (120, 180, and 240sec) may shifts Fermi level to the
mid-band gap by drawback the electron coupling of VO2 and MoS2 [67], [68].
Similar results observed using back-gating with SiO2/Si [67], dopants
molecule like F4-TCNQ, metal-centered Phthalocyanine molecules on the
surface of monolayered TMD [56], [69]. It is interesting to note that in all
Figure 6 (a, b, c, d, and e), A-excitons have higher intensities when
incorporated VO2 layer. This result draws high attention for enhancing A-
exciton peak intensity and raises strong spin-orbit coupling by incorporating
the monoclinic VO2 thin layer. Moreover, the B-exciton peak was observed
in the MoS2/Si structure at 606nm (2.04eV), but it did not appear in the
VO2/MoS2/Si structure as seen in the insets of Figure 6 (b, c, d, and e). It is
known that the PL spectra of MoS2, surprisingly, increases with decreasing
layer thickness [63]. However, the origin of PL spectrum in MoS2 arises from
the direct excitonic electronic transitions which shows higher radiative
recombination rate than nanocrystals [70]. Therefore, the enhanced
photoluminescence with increasing the deposition time of Mo-O has to be
attributed to a dramatically slower electronic relaxation factor 𝜅G5@%2 as in
Equation 1, suggesting a substantial change in electronic structure of MoS2
when going from the short to longer deposition time of Mo-O as seen in Figure
6.
𝜅G%K
𝜂HIJ ˷ (1)
(𝜅G%K + 𝜅K5$53C + 𝜅G5@%2 )
Where 𝜅G%K , 𝜅K5$53C , 𝜅G5@%2 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜂HIJ are representing the rates of radiative
recombination, defect trapping, and electron relaxation, Luminescence
quantum efficiency within the conduction and valence bands, respectively.
It is concluded that by depositing the VO2 layer on MoS2/Si structure, both
trion and exciton peaks get shifted as seen in Table 2. It is implemented that
the presence of the VO2 layer on the surface of the MoS2/Si structure results
in a redshift through trion peaks, while a blue shift for A-exciton. The peak
position of PL for trion is shifted towards lower energy due to the occurred
non-radiative electron-hole recombination. However, 30sec sample is out of
this rule with a blue and redshift in the trion and A-exciton peak on the VO2
layer, respectively.
Fig. 6. PL spectra of MoS2/Si fabricated at different sputtering times without and with
VO2 supporting layer on the surface.
Fig. 7. 2D AFM images (a, d, g, j, and m), 3D AFM images (b, e, h, k, and n), and the
grain/grain boundary mapping (c, f, I, l, and o) of the prepared MoWO3/VO2/MoS2-
Si thin film with sputtering time of 30, 60, 120, 180, and 240sec, respectively.
Surface topography and grain boundary mapping
AFM has been used to investigate the surface topography, roughness, grain,
and grain boundary mapping. Surface topography and parameters such as
average roughness Ra(nm), root mean square or standard deviation of the
height value Rq(nm), height different or peak-to-valley (Rpv), ten-point height
(Rz), skewness (Rsk) and kurtosis (Rku) as well as fractal and grain analysis
were inspected by the XEI software. Figure 7 (a, d, g, j, and m) shows a 2D
surface topography, (b, e, h, k, and n) 3D visualization and (c, f, I, l, and o)
shows the grain boundary mapping of the prepared MoWO3/VO2/MoS2/Si
thin film with sputtering time of 30, 60, 120, 180, and 240sec, respectively.
The films that deposited at short deposition time show higher uniformity,
while with increasing the deposition time a small clusters of different sizes
less than 100nm have been observed. The average roughness values of the
prepared thin films have summarized in Table 3 and show that 30sec and
180sec thin films have the lowest and highest Ra value of 3.28 and 48.0nm,
respectively. It seems that with increasing the deposition time of Mo-O, the
accumulated nanoparticles show bigger sizes, consequently higher roughness
factors. The calculation of the grain and grain boundaries of interfacing thin
films are important parameters that provided information about the nature of
interfaces between two layers. Figure 7 (c, f, I, l, and o) shows the grain size
and grain boundary distribution maps of the prepared thin films. The SEM
images of VO2, MoO3, Mo0.2W0.8O3, and MoS2/Si thin films are presented in
Figures S1 and S2 and discussed in supplementary data.
Large scale MoS2 thin films have been studied in our previous work by
combining CVD and sputtering technique[71]. SEM images (Fig. S2) in the
supplementary document show a homogenous nanoparticle distribution. Fig.
7 shows the AFM images and the uniform distributions grain distributions of
MoWO3/VO2/MoS2-Si thin film with sputtering time of 30, 60, 120, 180, and
240sec, respectively. AFM grain distribution shows a uniform distributions.
The AFM scanning area was 5x5 µm2 with their corresponding grain/grain
boundaries distributions shows a scale up, homogenous, and connected MoS2
samples.
Table 3. The roughness parameters of MoWO3/VO2/MoS2/Si photodetector.
Parameters 30sec 60sec 120sec 180sec 240sec
Rpv (nm) 26.364 76.913 91.878 226.585 73.849
Rq (nm) 4.458 15.987 22.246 55.048 12.934
Ra (nm) 3.283 13.460 18.430 48.080 10.688
Rz (nm) 22.126 59.141 74.573 161.619 48.946
Rsk -1.143 0.026 -0.196 -0.172 -0.091
Rku 5.362 2.333 2.143 1.973 2.895

Temperature-Resistance Measurement (T-R)

The phase transition of the prepared VO2 thin film has been performed using
a four-probe measurement system connected to a heating stage ranging from
RT to 78oC. We investigated the influence of the 50 nm VO2 thin layer on
Raman, PL, and optoelectronic measurements of a few-layers MoS2 with
different sputtering times of Mo-O layer. So, the electrical semiconductor-
metal phase change of VO2 has been tested as depicted in Figure 8. In our
case, the VO2 phase transition temperature was calculated to be 40oC by
controlling the sputtering condition (high vacuum and long-time annealing
temperature) which may affect the lattice-strain and oxygen vacancy
concentrations of VO2 [72]–[74]. The reason for the low semiconductor-
metallic phase transition may owing to the high concentration of oxygen
vacancies. Oxygen deficient in vanadium oxide (VO2-ẟ) has reported many
times to stabilize its metallic state [10], decrease the semiconductor-metal
transition (SMT) [11] and narrowing the bandgap of the monoclinic VO2
phase [12]. Oxygen vacancies are electron donors with n-type conductivity
which can change the electron orbital occupancy and band structures and
contribute to the high photocurrent generation when staking by MoS2 [13]. To
check these coupling effects between theses layer, UV-optoelectronic
measurements have been carried out.
Fig. 8. Semiconductor-metal phase transition of 50nm thin VO2 layer from room
temperature to 78oC.
Electric and Optoelectronic Properties
This section discusses the electric characterization of MoS2/Si
heterostructures before and after depositing the VO2 layer under dark and UV
conditions. In order to investigate the I-V and photoresponse of the prepared
devices, we measured the I-V curve under dark and upon UV light
illumination by applying a sweep voltage from +5 to -5V for different
sputtering times of Mo-O as shown in Figure 9. Figure 9 shows the electrical
and optoelectronic properties of MoWO3/VO2/MoS2/Si thin film with

different thicknesses of the MoS2 layer. Figure 9 (a, b, c, d, and e) shows the
voltage-current (V-I) electrical curve under dark and UV illumination with
deposition time of 30, 60, 120, 180, and 240sec, respectively. In the current
study, the back and front contacts of Al and Pd-Au, respectively in the this
study utilized a vertical electron transfer and consequently vertical
conductivity measurements [37], rather than that reported in [31] (a horizontal
conductivity). Nevertheless, the vertical electron transfer measurements
(electrical and optoelectronic) promise a high density of active edge sites [37].
The current optimized heterojunction photodetector does not contain a high
resistance layer such as SiO2 as reported before [31], which consequently
increased the vertical conductivity of the optimized structure here. So, non-
linear I-V curve was obtained under dark conditions indicating that a good
double-Schottky contact behavior was formed between the Au-Pd electrode
and film surfaces as predicted before [34]. For better colleting signals, a back
contact of Al has been used. Al metal makes Ohmic contact type with p-Si,
which is also observed when probed on two contact pads on the same side,
however noble metals such as Ag, Au, etc make schottky contact with p-Si.
On the other hand, the Au-Pd front contact was built in the anti-reflection
Mo0.2W0.8O3 layer, in which the formed Schottky barrier height and width
could be controlled by the current passing through the metal-semiconductor
contact. The role of asymmetric metal contacts can offer a built-in potential
gradient assigned to the work function difference of asymmetric electrodes as
reported before for different applications such as gas sensors [75] and
photodetector [76], which leads to enhanced device performance as reported
here. For instance, Casolina et al. used an asymmetric Al-Si-Cu (metal-
semiconductor-metal) structure based Si photodetector [77]. On the other
hand, many studies support the asymmetrical metal contacts for photodetetcor
application to control the dark current [71].
Figure 10 (a, b, c, d, and e) shows the log-current curves under dark and UV
illumination of 30, 60, 120, 180, and 240sec conditions, respectively. It is
clearly seen that UV illumination shifts the logarithmic I-V curve towards the
negative voltage region. This behavior may address the induced strain effects
from the VO2 layer or unidirectional charge transport mechanism from the top
to bottom layer due to the different electron concentrations [78]. Interestingly,
it seems that the VO2 layer enhances the positive and negative current.
Meanwhile, the dark current obtained after depositing the VO2 layer on the
surface of MoS2/Si is about 2-3 folds’ improvement over pure MoS2/Si device
for 30 and 60sec samples, as in Figure 10 (a) and (b). The observed higher
value of photocurrent under UV illumination is also attributed to enhancement
though the band-to-band excitation in the VO2/MoS2/Si region. Moreover,
carrier recombination and tunneling across the device junction may be
(a) (b)
(c)
(d) (e)
(a) (b)
(c)
(d) (e)
addressed as a reason for the enhancement I-V under UV illumination.

Nevertheless, fast response and recovery times, high responsivity, high
reliability, and low signal-to-noise ratio are important characteristics for
detector applications [79] [80], which is discussed below in details.
Fig. 9 (a, b, c, d, and f) shows the linear I-V characteristics of the

MoWO3/VO2/MoS2/Si device in dark and under UV illumination with 30, 60, 120,
180, and 240sec sputtering time of MoS2 layer, respectively.
Figure 10 (a, b, c, d, and e) shows the semi-logarithmic scale I-V of
MoWO3/VO2/MoS2/Si device under dark and UV illumination with 30, 60, 120, 180,
and 240sec sputtering time of MoS2 layer, respectively.
Transient Response
Figure 11 (a, b, c, d, and e) shows the optoelectronic transient/dynamic curves
with switching time of 5 sec, a bias voltage of 1V, UV illumination of 365nm
with Mo-O sputtering time of 30, 60, 120, 180, and 240sec, respectively.
Moreover, the optical modulation under dark and UV illuminations of
Mo0.2W0.8O3/VO2/MoS2/Si structure devices are plotted in Figure S4
(supplementary data). The designed optical sensors were used to measure the
time domain photoresponse in case of ON/OFF and OFF/ON transitions of
the UV light source, repeated many times for each 5sec at a bias voltage of 1
V. The response/raise time was measured when the light source turned on,
while the recovery/decay time when the light turned to off condition as shown
in Figure 12 (a). The combined sputtering and CVD deposition process of
MoWO3/VO2/MoS2/Si UV photodetector device shows symmetrical response
and recovery time which not exceed 0.2sec using the selected wavelength of
365 nm, and a channel bias of 1V, as shown in Figure 12 (b) which considered
more efficient than K. Ang et al., [80]. The fast response and recovery speed,
indicating that electron-hole pairs could be effectively generated and
separated in the proposed structure under UV illumination at room
temperature. The calculation of the response and recovery time have
conducted from the ON-OFF dynamic photoresponse as in Figure 11. The
gradient increase/decrease in the dynamic curve of MoS2(120sec) promises a
high response/recovery detection time as in Figure 11 (c) and 12 (b). It is
important to note that the fabricated device of MoS2(120sec) shows a fast
response/recovery of 0.19sec at an applied voltage of 1V, without any external
series resistances in contrast to S. Das et al. [81]. The observed fast
response/recovery time in case of 120sec, may be attributed to the fast
generated/separated electron-hole pairs as shown in Figure 11(c).
Nevertheless, it is known that higher applied bias voltage can generate more
photocurrent and consequently decrease the response and recovery time. A
clear high photocurrent can be observed in the ON state at 1V which makes
the gate voltage lowers the potential barriers at the contacts, resulting in highly
efficient photogenerated carrier extraction and thus increased photocurrent at
a low applied voltage (1V). The reason behind this is that the gate voltage can
affect the height of the Schottky barrier between the metal contact and film
surface and thus shift the Fermi level [82], [83]. It seems that our designed
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e)
photodetector did not require high bias voltage which makes it more
applicable for low power photodetector technology. Figure 11 (a, b, c, d, and
e) shows the ON-OFF time-resolved photoresponse of MoWO3/VO2/MoS2/Si
device in dark and under UV illumination. These curves shows slight increase
in the current value with time dynamic response at different sputtering time
of MoS2 from 30 to 240sec as shown below. A bit increase in the current
dynamic values towards 30 and 120sec samples are observed as shown in
Figure (a) and (b) below. These small defections may come from that some
organic trap states accumulated during the CVD sulfurization process. Wile,
MoS2 (60, 120, and 240sec) show high stability, high quality and low defect
densities which contributed to the stable on/off dynamic curve. This result
support the high efficiency of the MoS2 (60sec) device.
Photocurrent gain (Pg) and Photoresponsivity (𝐑 𝛌 )
The induced photocurrent Iph is given by 𝐼M1 = 𝐼H/?1C − 𝐼&%G: , where
𝐼M1 increases with increasing the applied voltage and the light power [84].
Photocurrent gain (Pg) can be defined and determined by 𝑃? =
(𝐼M14C4 − 𝐼K%G: )⁄𝐼K%G: , where 𝐼M14C4 and 𝐼K%G: are photocurrent and dark
current respectively [79].
Fig. 11 (a, b, c, d, and e) shows ON-OFF time-resolved photoresponse of the

MoWO3/VO2/MoS2/Si device of 30, 60, 120, 180, and 240sec, respectively. All
measurements were done at applied voltage of 1V, witching time of 5sec, and under
UV illumination source of 365nm.
Fig. 12 (a) Enlarged view of a single current-time photoresponse cycle for
MoWO3/VO2/MoS2-Si (30sec)-based UV photodetector to identify the response and
recovery times and (b) the estimated response and recovery times as a function of the
photodetector sputtering time.
Also, the detector responsivity (𝑅N ) can be expressed as 𝑅N = ∆𝐼/(𝐴 × 𝑃),
where ∆𝐼 is the difference between the photocurrent and dark current, A is the
illuminated area, and P is the UV light power. Figure 13 (a) shows the
photocurrent and photocurrent gain of the tested samples under 365nm UV
illumination source. The plotted responsivity in A/W of MoS2/Si and
MoWO3/VO2/MoS2/Si photodetector device with different sputtering time of
MoS2 layer ranging from 30 to 240sec is shown in Figure 13 (b). The
responsivity values show a liner increasing with sample sputtering time for
both MoS2/Si and MoWO3/VO2/MoS2/Si photodetector devices. Responsivity
of MoWO3/VO2/MoS2/Si UV detector shows high values ranging from 0.3 to
4.7A/W corresponding to MoS2 sputtering time of 30 to 180sec, this values is
higher than 2.4mWcm-2 that reported by X. Li et al, [85]. The enhanced
photoresponsivity by interfacing the VO2 layer may be owing to the film strain
include stresses arising from the different thermal expansion coefficients of
the VO2 and MoS2/Si film due to a high deposition/sulphurization
temperatures of ~ 400/650°C and growth stresses arising from crystal
structure changes after deposition. Nevertheless, more efficient light
absorption involving more e-h pairs generation, resulting in higher mobility
and more detection capability.
(a) (b)
Fig. 13 (a) shows the photocurrent and photocurrent gain of MoWO3/VO2/MoS2/Si

device as a function of the sputtering samples (30, 60, 120, 180, and 240sec). While
(b) represents the responsivity as a function of the MoS2 sputtering time for both
MoS2/Si and MoWO3/VO2/MoS2/Si photodetector devices.
External Quantum Efficiency (EQE) and Detectivity (𝐃∗ )
In order to produce the photocurrent Iph, the fraction of the extracted free
charge carriers to the photo flux φin collected at a given energy Eph is called
13P
the External Quantum Efficiency, defined by [86] as 𝐸𝑄𝐸 = 5N 6 , where h is
the Planck’s constant (~ 4.135 x10-15 eV.s), e is the elementary electron charge
(~1.602x 10-9C), c is the light velocity (~3x108m/s), and λ is the excitation
wavelength (365 nm). The EQE values as a function of the prepared samples
are plotted in Figure 14 (a), where EQE varies from 6.6 × 108 to ~1.0×1010 at
365nm which considered higher than the mesoscopic multilayer MoS2 as
reported before [87]. Another important figure of merit of a photodetector is
the detectable signal [84], referred by the specific detectivity measured in
(QR)7.9 P6 /
Jones, which given by 𝐷∗ = (𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑧 ! 𝑊 -# ), where 𝐴 is the effective
/(
area of the d in cm2, B is the bandwidth, and in is the measured noise current.
If the shot noise from the dark current is the main noise source, the specific
P Q7.9
detectivity can be simplified as 𝐷∗ = 6
7.9 ,Where 𝑒 is the charge of an
(!5S :#$2 )
elementary electron [88]. The calculated D* for MoS2/Si and
MoWO3/VO2/MoS2/Si is depicted in Figure 14 (b). D* of MoS2/Si device
shows a linear increase with sputtering time from 30 - 240sec. For MoS2/Si
(b)
(a)
device, the maximum D* was 0.4 x108Jones. While the maximum D* is ~

4.3x108Jones at RT and applied voltage of 1V for the MoWO3/VO2/MoS2/Si
for 60sec deposition time. In contrast the MoWO3/VO2/MoS2/Si with a 30sec
deposition time shows D* of 0.47x108Jones.
Fig. 14 (a) shows the EQE of MoWO3/VO2/MoS2/Si device with linear increase in
EQE value with increasing the Mo-O sputtering time. (b) Represents the detectivity
of both MoS2/Si and MoWO3/VO2/MoS2/Si devices. Both figures are function of the
sample’s sputtering time.
Mechanism
Now we turn to the underlying photoresponse mechanism of the VO2/MoS2/Si
as a UV photodetector device. The photoresponse properties of VO2/MoS2/Si
heterojunction can be understood from the energy-band alignment diagram as
in Figure 1 (b). Due to the free dangling bonds of the surfaces of MoS2 film,
the MoS2/Si heterojunction can be affected by lattice matching. Clearly, the
implanting of VO2 layer-based UV photodetector was overwhelmingly play
an important role in enhancing the Raman signal/intensity, PL intensity,
electrical and optoelectronic performance of MoS2/Si device. Under the zero-
bias condition, an insignificant current was observed due to the high depletion
layer at the n-p (MoS2-Si) junction which restricts the movement of the
carriers. Under VO2 interfacing, both positive and negative current increased
significantly and the photocurrent Iph of VO2/MoS2/Si film is much higher
than that in MoS2-Si, which can be attributed to the more photon absorption
on the top of MoWO3/VO2 layer and larger photocurrent-gain due to higher
carrier mobility [89], [90]. With increasing the amount of Mo-O (deposition
time of 30, 60, 120, 180, and 240sec), the induced current is enhanced due to
the more electron-hole pair generation by UV light absorption and the applied
voltage shifts dramatically towards negative voltage, which indicates the
continuous accumulation of electrons in the vertical VO2-MoS2 channel as
seen from the logarithmic scale current. In the positive voltage region, the
MoS2/Si n-p structure shows that umpteen electrons are accumulated on the
MoS2 band which shifts Fermi level near the conduction band. Because 1V is
able to decrease the depletion width and the barrier height, electrons are able
to overcome the barrier height through thermionic emission, resulting in a
high flux of photocurrent and more efficient photocurrent extraction. It is
interesting to observe that under a shorter sputtering time of Mo-O (30, then
60sec), a significant forward photocurrent was observed which did not
observe before in MoS2/Si structures [53], [91]. Meanwhile, with increasing
the Mo-O content, MoO3 starts to get folded and the reverse photocurrent
starts to get highlighted as seen in the semi-logarithmic scale I- V Figure 8 (b,
e, h, k, and n).
Conclusion
In summary, the next generation of optoelectronic devices integrates the
physics of light-matter interaction of 2D materials at nanoscale for light-
harvesting applications and these optoelectronic devices can control the light
that converts trions, excitons, and photons to electrical signals. Our approach
is based on a high vacuum deposition of Mo-O compound at 400oC, followed
by a sulphurization process in a chemical vapor deposition tube. Here we
study the interfacing effect of monoclinic VO2 with MoS2 film for UV
optoelectronic applications. It showed that different thicknesses of the MoS2
compound have a direct effect on the Raman, PL, electrical, optoelectronics
of MoS2 peaks. A redshift was observed in Raman spectra with a high
electronic coupling between VO2 and MoS2 for the case of 180sec sputtering
time. Photoluminescence measurements showed that the intensity of the trion
peak has a higher intensity than the A-exciton peak for MoS2/Si structure. On
the other hand, the opposite case was observed for the VO2/MoS2/Si device.
Current-voltage, response/recovery time, external quantum efficiency, time-
resolved photocurrent, and detectivity, photocurrent gain, photo-responsivity
of VO2/MoS2/Si device have been demonstrated. It’s shown that the increase
of the deposition time of MoS2 from 30 to 240sec enhances the photo-
absorption, photo-responsivity, and external quantum efficiency of the
MoWO3/VO2/MoS2/Si device due to the associated folding effects of MoO3.
These results show a multiplexed photodetector fabrication technique of high
reproducible and scalable process based on CVD and PVD system and draw
high attention towards the interfacing effects of strongly correlated oxide
films MoS2 devices.
Materıals and Methods
Device Fabrication
Preparation of MoS2 layer on p-type Si substrate has prepared through two
steps in physical vapor deposition (PVD) - Radio Frequency magnetron

sputtering system, followed by chemical vapor deposition (CDV) process. Si
substrates were cleaned through many steps; firstly, kept in NH4OH-H2O2
solution diluted with de-ionized (DI) water for 5 minutes at 75oC, then rinsed
with DI water for 5 minutes. After that, they left in HF (%5) solution for 5sec,
then rinsed in DI water and dried with high purity N2. Immediately, the
cleaned Si-substrates transferred to a 3x10-7 Torr RF magnetron sputtering
system (VAKSIS Midas 3M1T). In-situ Ar-plasma source has activated for
10 min at a power of 100W and low pressure of 6 x 10-3 Torr at room
temperature to activate the Si surface. Mo-O thin films were grown using a 3-
inches pure molybdenum target (99.9%) utilizing Ar plasma as a carrier gas
and O2 as a reactive gas. The substrate temperature was stabilized at 400°C
for more than 30 min before the deposition process with steps of
100oC/30min. The O2 and Ar flow rates were kept constant, whereas
O2/(Ar+O2) of ¼ ratio. The deposition was carried out at 5x10-3 Torr and
137W with different sputtering times of 30, 60, 120, 180, and 240sec. The
system was kept to cool down normal up to the room temperature (RT), then
immediately transferred to the two-zone CVD quartz chamber (MTI-OTF
1200 system) for the sulphurization process. The as-deposited molybdenum
oxide (Mo-O) thin films transferred to the center of the CVD furnace and the
temperature is raised to 650oC. Sulphur powder (0.5g) is put in a ceramic boot
with 100sccm high purity Ar source. An external heating belt with a distance
of 50 cm to the substrate was used to evaporate the sulphur for 22min. Then,
the system cooled down until RT with the same flow rate of Ar (100 sccm).
After forming the MoS2 layer, a thin layer of monoclinic VO2 has grown. The
same sputtering system was used with a 190W deposition power and Ar/O2
ratio was 41/2.2sccm, while the deposition time was set to produce 50nm film
thickness. Then the samples were in-situ annealed at 400oC for 2 hours with
50 sccm Ar flow. A protective and anti-reflection thin layer of Mo0.2W0.8O3
was deposited on the surface of VO2 as optimized in our previous work [34].
High vacuum thermal evaporation system was used to deposit aluminum and
gold-palladium that used as a back and front contacts, respectively
Device Characterization
The crystal structures were analyzed using Grazing Incidence X-ray
diffraction (XRD GNR ADP PRO 2000), with CuKα (λ=1.5405Å) radiation
source with a step of 0.01. VO2 layer was deposited at a high vacuum
condition to ensure its high crystallinity and low semiconductor-metallic
phase transition. Parameters such as space group, diffraction peaks, angles,
Wyckoff position of vanadium (V) and oxygen (O) atoms, ratio of O:V, and
oxygen vacancy concentrations were calculated from refinement analysis.
The refinement calculations were done using Match and Fullprof Suite
program. Moreover, the refined structures were plotted in a three-dimensional

view using 3D visualization VESTA program. The surface morphology was
recorded using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) TESCANMAIA3 XMU.
Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) has been used to investigate the surface
topography, roughness, and grain mapping. Each sample was characterized
by XE-6 AFM (Park Systems Corp., Suwon-Korea) that controlled with XEP
software for data acquisition and XEI software for image analysis and
processing. AFM images were obtained through a 0.5×0.5μm area (x-y
accessible area) at a 0.5Hz scan rate. Measurements were taken with a non-
contact mode using a PPP-NCHR silicon cantilever consisting of tip radius
<10nm and 42N/m force constant (Nanosensors TM, Neuchâtel-Switzerland).
Raman measurements and photoluminescence (PL) spectra were carried out
using Renishaw inVia Confocal Raman microscope with a 532nm laser beam,
while an incident laser power of 3mW was chosen to acquire a single Raman
spectrum. The temperature-resistance measurement of monoclinic and high
crystalline nanostructure VO2 thin film has been performed using a four-probe
measurement system connected to a heating stage ranging from RT to 100oC.
The electrical and optoelectronics measurements were measured using 2450
Kethley SourceMeter and 365 nm ultraviolet (UV) light lamp for
optoelectronic measurements.
Acknowledgment
The authors declare that they have received financial support from Scientific
Research Projects Coordination (BAP) - Konya Necmettin Erbakan
University (NEÜ), under project number: 191319007 that have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper. Moreover, the authors would like to
thank the Science and Technology Research and Application Center (BITAM)
- NEÜ for the continuous support through the characterizations section.
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Additional information
Competing financial interests: The authors declare no competing financial

interests.
Author contributions
Mohamed A. Basyooni suggested, designed and performed the whole
experiments, characterizations, analysis, and writing the manuscript. Shrouk
E. Zaki, performed some experiments, characterization, and contributed for
writing the manuscript. Yasin Ramazan Eker and Mucahit Yilmaz contributed
to writing, supervision, discussions and analysis of the data. Mohamed Shaban
analyzed the data, contributes to the plot of some figures, writing of the
manuscript in addition to revision and editing
***
Temperature Effect on Flexible Pavement Performance:

A Case Study of Afghanistan
Mohammad Razeq Shakhan*
Ali Topal, Burak Şengöz **
Abstract
The conventional AASHTO pavement design methods (1962,1972,1986, and
1993) were developed only for specific climate conditions (Ottawa and
Illinois) in the USA, which significantly limits its ability to consider the
climate conditions in other parts of the world. In contrast, the climate effects
widely are considered in the Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide
(MEPDG), which improves pavement performance. Afghanistan like many
developing countries still uses the conventional AASHTO 1993 for pavement
design method. This study is tried to investigate the temperature effect on
flexible pavement distresses (Rutting and Alligator Cracking) in hot and cold
regions (Kandahar and Bamiyan), Afghanistan. Therefore, a typical flexible
pavement was designed using AASHTO 1993 for tree traffic levels (5, 20, and
50 million Equivalent Single Axle Load (ESALD)) and then, the designed
pavement structures were simulated by MEPDG software (3D Move Analysis
Software) to predict the pavement distresses (Rutting and Alligator Cracking).
The predicted pavement distresses were compared with threshold values to
control the designed pavement thickness. The results show that rutting depth
would exceed from threshold value before the end of design life in Kandahar
for medium and high traffic levels. Alligator cracking is sensitive to traffic
levels, which is increased by increasing traffic level. It seems that AASHTO
1993 under-designs the flexible pavement for high traffic levels in hot regions.
It can be recommended for highway agencies and pavement engineers to have
a conservative pavement design in hot zones like Kandahar and for high traffic
levels if the AASHTO 1993 is used.
Keywords: Alligator Cracking, Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design,
Rutting, Pavement Design
*
The Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences, Dokuz Eylul University, Turkey
raziqshakhan@yahoo.com
**
Department of Civil Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Turkey
Introduction
Afghanistan and other developing countries have been implementing the
empirical AASHTO pavement design method (1962-1993) for several
decades. The empirical AASHTO Pavement Design methods are significantly
limited to the original test conditions such as one climate zone, one subgrade
type, one type of asphalt concrete mixture, two million traffic repetitions, tire
pressure, and only two years test duration, which can be highlighted as
disadvantages of this method. If the original test conditions are not
implemented the pavement design would lead to over or under-estimate [1,
2]. To overcome and alleviate the disadvantage of Conventional AASHTO
Pavement Design Method (1962-1993), the new generation of pavement
design method which is called the Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design
Guide was emerged in 2004 by the AASHTO Joint Task Force and the
National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP). The MEPDG
and Its software (AASHTOWare Pavement ME Design) calculate the
pavement responses (stresses and strains) and predict the pavement distresses
(rutting, fatigue and thermal cracking as well as international roughness index
(IRI)), respectively. The MEPDG Uses the historical climate data (e.g., hourly
temperature, hourly wind speed, hourly sun shine, hourly precipitation, and
hourly humidity) to consider the effect and influence of environment on
pavement performance. The MEPDG recommends that climate data would be
collected equal to the years number of pavement design life. Many countries
and state agencies in the USA have tried to compare the AASHTO 1993 and
MEPDG in order to find out the impact of local conditions (Traffic, Climate,
Subgrade Type, Materials, and reliability level) on pavement performance [1,
2, 4].
In a comparative study between AASHTO 1993 and MEPDG, Carvalho and
Schwartz designed the typical three-layer flexible pavement (e.g., hot mixed
asphalt layer, granular base course, and subgrade) using the AASHTO 1993
and then, the MEPDG software was used to simulate the designed pavement
sections and predict the pavement performances (e.g., rutting and fatigue
cracking). In this study, three traffic levels (low, medium, and high), different
binder grades (PG 70-16, PG 76-10, PG 64-22, PG 64-28, and PG 64-22),
different resilient modulus (subgrade, and granular base course) were used as
design inputs. The design was done for different US climate conditions at
three reliability (85%, 90%, and 95%) levels. They found that designed
flexible pavement structure by AASHTO 1993 would be faced with premature
failure in warm areas and at high traffic levels according to predicted
distresses by MEPDG software (i.e., the AASHTO 1993 would under-design
the pavement structures in hot regions at high traffic level) [5].
A comparative study between AASHTO 1993 and MEPDG were carried out
in Kansas State University. The typical Portland Cement Concrete (PCC) and
Asphalt Concrete (AC) pavements were designed using AASHTO 1993 and
MEPDG. The results show that AASHTO 1993 overestimates the flexible
pavement structure comparing to MEPDG for all projects [6].
El-Badawy, S. M. et al. compared the Idaho Pavement Design Procedure with
AASHTO 1993 and MEPDG method. In this investigation, a typical two-layer
pavement structure (AC surface and granular base) were designed for a 20-
year design life. The study result shows that the Idaho Transportation
Department (ITD) pavement design method scientifically overestimates the
pavement structure when compared whit AASHTO 1993 and MEPDG
methods. But almost similar results were found when the pavement was
design using AASHTO 1993 and MEPDG. [7].
A case study was carried out in Iran, the AASHTO 1993 and MEPDG were
compared using local design inputs (climate condition, traffic characteristics,
and materials). In this study, five previously constructed flexible pavement
sections that had been designed by the empirical AASHTO method were
redesigned using MEPDG software. The researcher found that MEPDG
designs thinner sections compared to AASHTO 1993 [8].
In another case study in Egypt, the Egyptian Flexible Pavement Design Guide
and MEPDG were compared for different Egyptian climate zones. In this
study, the typical flexible pavement structure was designed for two different
traffic volumes and two subgrade types (weak and strong) for a 20-year design
life at a 90% reliability level using AASHTO 1993. The designed pavement
sections were evaluated in terms of pavement performances (rutting and
alligator cracking) using MEPDG software. The results show that "the
variation of the MEPDG-predicted performance of the AASHTO 1993
designed pavement structures increased with the increase in traffic level and
decrease in the subgrade strength. This variation was different for different
climatic conditions. For the Egyptian conditions, the predominant distress was
rutting. Finally, the climatic conditions showed a significant effect on distress
occurrence and time to failure, especially the AC rutting" [9].
The objective of this study is to carry out a comparative study between the
Turkish Flexible Pavement Design Guide (TFPDG) and MEPDG to evaluate
the TFPDG.
Study Methodology
The design procedure that is followed by TFPDG differs from the MEPDG
design procedure, so the direct comparison may not be possible. The design
inputs required by TFPDG and MEPDG are quite different in numbers and
types. The TFPDG uses single design criteria (Present Serviceability Index
(PSI)) while different pavement performance (e.g., rutting, fatigue and
thermal cracking as well as roughness) are used as design criteria in the

MEPDG. Therefore, firstly, the thickness of the typical three-layer flexible
pavement (Asphalt Concrete (AC) layer, granular base and subbase layers)
was designed using TFPDG for different traffic levels (e.g., 15, 50, and 100
million Equivalent Single Axle Load (ESAL)) at 85% reliability for 20-year
of design life. Then, the designed pavement structures were examined using
the MEPDG software (3d Move Analysis) in terms of pavement distress (e.g.,
rutting and alligator cracking). The design was conducted for different climate
zones (e.g., Kayseri, Afyonkarahisar, Erzurum, Istanbul, Izmir, Şanlıurfa, and
Mersin). The predicted pavement distress was compared with the MEPDG
recommended performance threshold values (Table 1) to check the pavement
structure failure conditions, which were designed in the first step.
Table 1. The MEPDG recommended performance limited values [4]
Performance types Performance Reliability

threshold
values %
Alligator cracking (% lane area) 25 85
AC rutting, in (mm) 0.25 (6) 85
Subgrade rutting, in (mm) 0.20 (5) 85
Total rutting, in (mm) 0.75 (19) 85
Design Inputs for TFPDG

The design inputs for designing of the typical pavement structure (AC layer,
granular base/subbase layers, and subgrade) were extracted from the TFPDG
[3]. The design was carried out for 15, 50, and 100 million ESAL. The design
inputs for the TFPDG were illustrated in Table 1.
Table 6. Design inputs for the TFPDG
Values for all traffic

Design input
levels
Initial service ability, P0 4.2
Terminal serviceably, Pt 2.5
Reliability (%) 85
Overall standard deviation, S0 0.45
Design life, Years 20
Resilient modulus (Mr) of granular base, psi

30000 (207)
(MPa)
Resilient modulus (Mr) of granular subbase,

15000 (103)
psi (MPa)
Resilient modulus (Mr) of subgrade, psi

5800 (40),7500 (52)
(MPa)
AC Layer coefficient, a1 0.42
Base Layer coefficient, a2 0.14

Subbase Layer coefficient, a3 0.11
Drainage coefficient, m2 1
Drainage coefficient, m3 1
Design Inputs for MEPDG

The MEPDG requires extensive detailed design inputs (bound and unbound
material properties, traffic characteristics, and climate data). In this study, the
local design inputs such as AC layer specification (asphalt penetration grade,
effective binder content, air voids, poison’s ration, and aggregate gradation)
are extracted from Turkish Flexible Pavement Design Guide [3], Turkish
Highway Technical Specification[10], and Asphalt Mixture Laboratory
Studies [11]. The design inputs illustrated in Table 2 and Table 3.
Table 2. AC mixture properties

Inputs Values
Penetration grade, (0.1mm) 60/70
Effective binder content Vbe (%) 5
Air voids Va (%) 4
AC poison’s ratio 0.35
Table 3. Aggregate gradation
Inputs values
% passing the No.200 sieve 5
cumulative % retained on in No.4 sieve 30
cumulative % retained on in 3/8” sieve 15

cumulative % retained on in 3/4” sieve 0
The climate data for selected zones (e.g., Kayseri, Afyonkarahisar, Istanbul,
Şanlıurfa, and Mersin) have been extracted from Turkish State Meteorological
Service [12] as shown in Table 4.
Table 4. Average seasonal air temperature
Study zones Bamiyan Kandahar
Average yearly air temperature (°C) 5.04 19.24
The designed pavement structures (Table 5) and traffic levels (15, 50, and 100 million
ESALD) were used as design inputs in the 3D Move Analysis software to predict the
pavement distresses. The 3D Move Analysis Software was developed based on the
MEPDG by The Asphalt Research Consortium (ARC), Western Research Institute
(WRI), Texas A&M University (TAMU), University of Wisconsin Madison (UWM),
University of Nevada-Reno (UNR), and Advanced Asphalt Technologies (AAT). The
software calculates pavement responses (stress and strain) under different traffic
loading conditions using finite-layer method and predicts various pavement distress
[13].
Table 5. Pavement structure layers thicknesses designed by AASHTO 1993

Traffic volume (ESAL in million)

Layer types 15 50 100 15 50 100
Low Subgrade Strong Subgrade
AC surface (mm) 190 240 260 190 240 260
Base (mm) 200 200 200 200 200 200
Subbase (mm) 350 400 400 200 200 200
Analysis and Results

The pavement structure analysis and deisgn was done at 85% reliability for
20-year design life. The MEPDG design software was run once for every
pavement structure. The result shows that predicted alligator cracking is not
exceeded from threshold values for all traffic levels in all regions. In other
words, the pavement structure may not be faced with premature failure due to
alligator cracking see Figure 1 below. The designed pavement layer thickness
using AASHTO 1993 is sufficient.
25
Alligator Cracking after 20
24
23
years
(%)
22
21
20
5 20 50
Traffic Level (Million ESAL)
Bamyan
Figure 1. Alligator cracking The AC rutting amount

The AC rutting is sensitive to traffic level and extremely sensitive to air
temperature. The AC rutting is exceeded from the threshold value when traffic
volume is higher than 15 million ESAL (see Figure 2) in cold regions like
Kayseri, Afyonkarahisar, and Erzurum. In hot regions, the AC rutting is very
high compared to cold and mild regions for the same traffic level, and the
rutting value exceeds the threshold value when the traffic level reaches 10
million ESAL.
18
Bamyan Kandahar
16
AC Rutting After 20 years(mm)
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
5 20 50
Figure 2. AC rutting
Similarly, the total rutting is very sensitive to pavement temperature but less
sensitive to traffic volume as reflected in Figure 3. In cold and mild regions
when traffic level reaches at 70 million ESAL, the total rutting value surpasses
the threshold values. While in hot regions, the predicted total rutting is higher
than allowed total rutting when traffic level is more than 20 million ESAL.
As a result, it seems that Turkish Flexible Pavement Design Method
underestimates the pavement layer thickness comparing to MEPDG design
software (3d Move Analysis).
24
22
Bamyan Kandahar
20
18
16
Total Rutting After 20
14
12
years(mm)
10
8
6
5 20 50
Figure 3. Total Rutting

Conclusion
The conclusion of the comparative study of Turkish Flexible Pavement
Design Method and MEPDG are explained as following.
1. The alligator cracking is sensitive to traffic level and environmental
conditions but the cracking amount is not exceeded from threshold values in
the end of design life. According to predicted distresses using 3D Move
Analysis Software, the Turkish Flexible Pavement design Guide may not
underestimate or overestimate the flexible pavement layer thicknesses and the
pavement would not be faced to premature failure in all selected regions.
2. The AC permanent deformation is very sensitive to environmental
conditions and traffic levels. The AC rutting values were greater than the
threshold values in all regions when traffic volume reaches more than 10
million ESAL. Similarly, it was also amount higher in hot regions compared
to cold and mild regions for the same traffic level.
3. The total rutting (AC, base, subbase, and subgrade rutting) is
extremely sensitive to air temperature. The total rutting is rapidly increased in
hot regions (Izmir, Şanlıurfa, and Mersin) and it exceeded the threshold values
when traffic volume reaches to 20 million ESAL. On the other hand, the total
rutting is less sensitive to traffic level. In other words, the total rutting was
greater that the threshold values only when the traffic level is more than 75
million ESAL.
4. The Turkish Flexible Pavement Design Guide designs thinner
pavement layers for high traffic levels and in hot regions.
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***
Cost and Benefit of Transportation vehicles

Obaidullah Khpalwak*
Abstract
As we know for our daily Origin, destination, (O.D) activities we use different
types of vehicles for targeted travel. This travel depends on the type of used
vehicle, which causes costs, and these costs might be cheap or expensive.
Most of the people have limit knowledge of transport economic. If they were
asked, they would say that just want to be able to travel conveniently, safely
and affordably, without higher taxes, pollution or conflict with other road
users. While publics have less knowledge of cost and benefit analysis (CBA)
at transportations, we engineers should do CBA and provide them the
economic type of transport especially to those societies where low economic
growth, crowed, highway width and other transportation factors are effecting
the usage of transportation vehicle types. This research purposes to compare
two types of Public and private transportation economics at each 10.000
person’s transport usage per day. For this purpose, two analytical models and
formulas have been used, outcome of these two models have been analyzed,
and as result, the economic one is recommended.
Keywords: Analysis, Evaluation, Cost, Benefit, Economic
Abbreviations:
CBA Cost and benefit analysis
PC Private car
CC Common car
B Bus
Goal
The goal of this study is to analysis the cost and benefit of transportation
vehicles based on the travelers data at Charahi Qambar – Kote Sangi
Transportation line of Kabul City. In this research, three types of vehicles
were evaluated.
*
Sakarya University, Sub Department Transportation Engineering Sakarya, Turkey
obaidullah.khpalwak@ogr.sakarya.edu.tr Assistant Professor: Hakan ASLAN -
haslan@sakarya.edu.tr
• Private Car
• Common Car (Corolla)
• Minibus
History
Cost and benefit analysis is the most widely used method of project appraisal
throughout the world. Its origin can be traced back to a classic paper on the
utility of public works by Dupuit (1844), written in the French language [3].
Cost-benefit analysis is also widely used throughout Europe. The 1960s and
1970s witnessed a rapid expansion in the use of cost-benefit analysis within
the UK as a tool for assessing major transportation projects. These studies
included the cost-benefit analysis for the London Birmingham Motorway by
Coburn Beesley and Reynolds (1960) and the economic analysis for siting of
the proposed third London airport by Flowerdew (1972)[1, 4, 5].
Effective Factors in Transportation Type (Vehicle) Choice: [2].
Characteristics of Traveler
ü Income level
ü private car ownership
ü Usage of private car
ü Age
Ø Travel Characteristics
ü Travel purpose
ü Travel destination point
ü Travel time
Ø Transport systems characteristics
ü Waiting time
ü Travel speed
ü Cost
ü Comfort level
ü Terminal and transfer points accessibility
First Evaluation
In this evaluation, the total cost of specific vehicle type as per ten thousand
(10.000) travelers per day at specified line is obtained. For this approach based
on the Car record Survey which was made at Karte Mamorin Square at the
mid of Charahi Qambar- Kote Sangi Transportation line of Kabul city in 2017.
We estimated 10.000 travelers per day at this line for each specific vehicle.
• Data required for this analysis are:
Number of travelers at specified line
Distance
Fuel usage
Fuel Cost
v First Step:
Number of cars =Travelers /Car capacity= N/n (1)
A) 10000/(1-3)= 10000/2= 5000 Private Cars
B) 10000/5=2000 Corolla cars
C) 10000/18=556 Minibuses
v Second Step:
As Charahi Qambar- Kote sangi line is about 6 Km and for this distance 0.6
Liter fuel required at each check out or arrival which its cost comes 30 Afg.
Figure 1. Chaharahi Qambar- Kote Sangi Line

Total cost of each type of car = Distance*fuel amount*Fuel Cost*total car
(2)
A) Total cost private car= 6*0.6*30*5000=540000 AF =66%
B) Total cost corolla= 6*0.6*30*2000=216000 AF= 26%
C) Total cost minibus car= 6*0.6*30*556=60000 AF= 7.35%
Percentage of Costs per day for each type of

vehicle
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Private Car Corolla Minibus
Diagram1. Percentage of costs per day for each type of vehicle

Second Evaluation:
In this evaluation, it is found that total travelers prefer which type of vehicle.
• Utility function formula usage: [2].”
v First Step: Here compared three category of cars.
Pc= Private Cars
Cc= Common cars (Corolla)
B= Minibuses
Based on the Cost and time of each type of vehicle preference car usage can
be found as the factor of benefit.
UPC =2.2 -0.2CPC-0.03TPC (3)
UCC=0.8 -0.2CCC-0.03TCC
UB= -0.2CB-0.03TB
Required Data
At each check out or arrival the followıng data is found.
ü Private Car:
Cost = 50 Afghani
Time= 12 Minutes
ü Common Car (Corolla):
Cost is= 20 Afghani

Time= 18 Minutes
ü Minibus:
Cost is= 10 Afghani
Time= 25 Minutes
v First step
UPC =2.2 -0.2*30-0.03* 12=-4.16
UCC=0.8 -0.2*20-0.03*18= -3.74
UB= -0.2*10-0.03*25=-1.25
e-4.16= 0.0156
e-3.74= 0.0237
e-1.25= 0.286
A) PPC= 0.0156/0.0156+0.0237+0.286=0.0156/0.325=4.8%
B) PCC= 0.0237/0.0156+0.0237+0.286= 0.0237/0.325= 7.2%
C) PB= 0.286/0.0156+0.0237+0.0639= 0.286/0.325= 88%
Percentage of car preference

100,00%
80,00%
60,00%
40,00%
20,00%
0,00%
Private Car Usage Corolla Usage Minibus Usage
Diagram 2. Percentage of car preference

v Second Step:
A) Private car preferred = 10000*0.048= 480 person
B) Corolla preferred = 10000*0.072= 720 Person
C) Minibus preferred = 10000*0.88= 8800 Person
Result
As we see among these three types of vehicles, minibus servicing 10,000
people per day with the costs of 60,000 Afg with the cost percentage of 7.35
% have the highest economic advantage, Corolla servicing 10,000 people per
day with cost of 216,000 Afg with cost percentage of 26% have medium
economic advantage and private car servicing 10,000 people per day with
costs of 540,000 Afg with cost percentage of 66% is disadvantage.
On the other hand, as the results show among these 10,000 person 8,800
person with percentage of 88% prefer minibus at Qambar - Kote Sangi line,
720 person with percentage of 7.2% prefer corolla, 480 person with
percentage of 4.8% prefer private car.
Therefore, based on the analyses that have been done, minibus is cheaper and
economical furthermore the demand for minibus is high, so it is recommended
to facilitate access to minibus, buses and other public transportations in order
to provide economical services to travelers.
References
[1] Martin Rogers, HIGHWAY ENGINEERING- - Department of Civil and
Structural Engineering Dublin Institute of Technology Ireland.
[2] Hakan Aslan , Forecasting Travel Demand Chapter- Lecture Note- -
Sakarya University.
[3] Todd Alexander Litman Victoria, Transportation Cost and Benefit
Analysis Techniques, Estimates and Implications Second Edition Transport
Policy Institute With Eric Doherty, 2 January 2009.
[4] COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS IN TRANSPORT: A UK PERSPECTIVE- COST-
BENEFIT ANALYSIS IN TRANSPORT: A UK PERSPECTIVE
[5] Professor Ecole des Ponts , THE PRACTICE OF COST-BENEFIT
ANALYSIS IN TRANSPORT THE CASE OF FRANCE- Emile QUINET
Emeritus ParisTech and Paris School of Economics Paris France.
***
A Review of Ultrasonic Testing Techniques for

Inspection and Monitoring of Concrete Structures
Omair Inderyas, Ninel Alver*
Abstract
Ultrasonic testing is a nondestructive testing (NDT) method which employs a
diverse set of techniques to generated and detected mechanical vibrations or
waves within materials. In modern days, the usage of ultrasonic testing in
concrete structures is very extensive due to advancement of signal processing
techniques, development of sensors and latest techniques in digital image
formations. Ultrasonic testing is used to monitor the structural integrity or
health of the structure throughout its lifespan. The ability and the effectiveness
of NDT using ultrasound method on concrete provides information about the
quality and status of the concrete structure. With the method it is possible to
check the structural integrity and detect voids, cracks and delamination. A
review of ultrasonic non-destructive testing on concrete structures is presented
in this paper to highlight the important aspects like signal capturing,
processing and image processing in inspecting and monitoring concrete
structures.
Keywords: Ultrasonic Testing, Pulse velocity, Pulse Echo, Ultrasonic
Tomography.
Introduction
One of the most widely used materials in building structures is concrete, a
composite material used for constructing buildings, bridges and roads etc.
Although concrete structures have good durability and stability, there are
some factors such as, unexpected overloading, errors in design and chemical
reactions that cause damage to concrete [1]. Nowadays, to examine the
properties of concrete, in addition to conventional destructive testing, non-
destructive testing (NDT) has become well-known in health monitoring of
structures [2] [3]. NDT allows for the inspection of materials or objects
without damaging the internal state of the object. The usage of ultrasonic non-
destructive testing in concrete structures is very extensive due to advancement
of signal processing techniques, development of sensors and latest techniques
*
Ege University, Department of Civil Engineering, Bornova Main Campus, Izmir, Turkey
in digital image formations [4]. It is based on methods, standards and

specifications and also bound to limitations for performing any NDT test.
Ultrasonic NDT techniques can be used to monitor the integrity of the
structure throughout the structure’s life. The ability and the effectiveness of
NDT using ultrasound method on concrete provide information about the
quality and defect content of the concrete structure [5].
In ultrasonic testing, the parameter to be tested can be divided in to two
categories; the quality of the concrete and the defect of the concrete structure.
Usually, the quality of the concrete can be determined by obtaining the
strength of the concrete. Second parameter is the defect content of the concrete
where the cases are quite complex and varies with application and aged of the
concrete structure. The two major techniques used in ultrasonic testing are
based on utilization of multiple ultrasound sensors. The most common
application is using a pair of sensors (One acting as transmitter and second as
a receiver) called Pulse Velocity Method. If only one sensor (acting as
transmitter and receiver) is used at the same location and the reflected wave
or echo are detected, the technique is known as Pulse Echo Method. When
both these techniques individually or combined are used with a sufficient
point of measurement, the technique can be extended as Tomography [6].
A review of ultrasonic non-destructive testing on concrete structures is
presented in this paper to highlight the ultrasonic techniques; important
aspects like signal processing, data interpretation and image processing in
inspecting and monitoring concrete structures.
Signal Processing
In the past few years of information technology, researchers across the world
paid much attention to develop various signal processing techniques for health
monitoring of concrete structures. These techniques are prompted to improve
the quality of ultrasound signals to extract the valuable information and
interpret them accordingly [7] [8]. Dealing with concrete structures in NDT,
signal processing is considered to be one of the complicated tasks while
performing ultrasonic testing because of the non-stationary signal frequency
bandwidth traveling in concrete elements. By using only frequency or time
domain analysis method, it is difficult to detect signal and meet test
requirements. Thus, numerous studies have been conducted to interpret a
signal both in time domain and frequency domain. In modern days, some of
the proposed time-frequency analysis methods based on Fourier Analysis are
short time Fourier transform (STFT), wavelet transform (WT), Wigner-Ville
distributions, S transform etc. which are estimating and simulating
experimental ultrasonic signals with high accuracy [9] [10]. In health
monitoring of structures, these signal processing methods based on

mathematical transformations effectively improve the imaging resolution,
sound to noise ratio (SNR), and convolution algorithm in ultrasonic signals.
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Method (UPV)

One of the most popular NDT test methods is ultrasonic pulse velocity, in
which mechanical vibrations produced by electro-acoustical transducers are
considered to perform quality assessment of concrete. When electrical pulses
are applied to transmitter, the electro-acoustical transducer produces
longitudinal waves of sound. The UPV equipment fundamentally consists of
an electrical pulse generator, a pair of transducers, an amplifier and an
electronic timing device which measures the time interval between the
initiated pulse generated by transmitting transducer and receiving transducer
[11]. The common couplants such as grease, petroleum jelly, soft soap or
glycerol paste is used on the surface of both concrete and transducers. The
ultrasonic pulse velocity transducers are in general of low frequency ranging
20-150 kHz. To measure pulse velocity through concrete, there are
commonly three ways; Direct Transmission, Semi-direct Transmission and
Indirect/surface Transmission [12]. In direct method, transducers are held on
opposite faces of concrete specimen as shown in Figure 1. The semi-direct
method is applicable to adjacent faces of the concrete specimen under test
as shown in Figure 1. The sensitivity of semi direct method is comparatively
lower than that of direct method because the path length of sound wave is not
well-defined. The indirect method is applicable when only one face of
concrete is accessible as shown in Figure 1. This is the least acceptable
method because pulse velocity measurements is only recorded near the
surface of concrete and do not give information about deeper layers of
specimen and thus, weaker concrete layer cannot be detected completely or
precisely below a strong surface of concrete. In indirect method, the path
length of wave sound is not well defined. In general, direct transmission
method have higher pulse velocity and accuracy than other two methods
[13].
Figure 1. Methods of performing UPV test (Source; [25])
The ultrasonic pulse velocity propagating in medium is an important factor

for characterizing the concrete properties. When the generated pulse or waves
is transmitted into the concrete, it endures to reflect, refract, and diffract which
leads to change in the propagation velocity in three main types; longitudinal
waves, transverse waves and surface waves. The fastest of these waves is
longitudinal wave or P-wave given by following equation (1);
TU(#- V)
𝑉𝑝 =
TW(#6 V)(#-! V)
(1)
Where Y is Young’s modulus of elasticity, σ is Poisson’s ratio, and ρ is the

density [13];
The above equation indicates that elastic properties and density of materials
is correlated with p-wave velocity. The values of density, Poisson’s ratio and
elastic modulus are different when there are defects (voids, and cracks etc.)
present in concrete. The value of 𝑉p determines the quality of concrete in terms
of homogeneity, uniformity and density.

The measurement of the UPV through concrete has applications in
determining the uniformity of concrete layers in specimens. Most commonly,
quality control divisions use the correlation of UPV and strength in
assessment of concrete quality [14].
Ultrasonic Pulse Echo Method (UPEM)
Ultrasonic pulse-echo method is used to study the structural geometry and

integrity of concrete elements by introducing a stress pulse into concrete from
an accessible surface by a one sensor (acting as transmitter and receiver). A
typical pulse-echo inspection system consists of an electrical pulse generator,
transducer and a display device. Electrical pulse generator uses high
frequency ultrasonic energy which is introduced through transducer and
propagates into concrete in the form of waves. Discontinuities (gaps,
delaminations or cracks) in the wave are reflected back from defects and the
back wall surface is recorded on the surface receiver, either displayed on screen
or stored for further processing [16]. There are numerous methods to
investigative a test specimen using the pulse-echo method. The advantage
using this technique is that only one point is needed to apply the sound wave
propagation and the reflected wave will give us the needed information such
as crack, location of steel bar and back wall. Ultrasonic pulse echo method
uses high frequency sound waves generally ranging between 50-250 kHz to
conduct inspections and make measurements. The advantage of UPEM is that
it is profound to both subsurface and surface gaps available inside concrete
layers and accurate in determining their position to help in estimating its size
and shape.
Data/Results Representation
Based on scanning methods, ultrasonic data can be displayed in three most
common formats known as A-scan, B-scan and C-scan. Each scan offers a
different perspective of regional assessment of the material. The A-scan is a
one-dimensional amplitude mode of view for given specimens. The A-scan
demonstrates only the amplitude of signal as a function of time as shown in
the Figure 2. At time t=0, the initiated can be seen by signal IP (initiated
Pulse). When the transducer is moved along every fixed position on
specimen’s surface, different time intervals signal A, B, C (likely to be flaws)
and back wall BW are expected to appear on screen.
Figure 2. Graphical Representation of A-Scan & B-Scan (Source; [26])

The B-scan is a brightness mode which contains a series of parallel A-scans
and produces a two-dimensional image of given specimens. The B-scan
displays specimen’s results cross-sectionally. Whenever the signal
intensity is great enough to initiate, a bright point is formed on the screen.
In B-scan transducer is not fixed and can be movable. When the transducer is
scanned on specimen’s surface, on different time intervals signal A, B, C and
back wall are likely to appear as a bright point on screen [17] [25]. The C-
scan comprises of both A-scan and B-scan. It provides a plan view displaying
both location and size of given test specimens. The high frequency ultrasonic
C-scan is used to examine defects inside a material and helps experts to
identify it’s depth from reference level [18]. The modern computerized
ultrasonic scanning systems are so valuable that it can display all three scans
data simultaneously in finding precise location of delaminations, voids, and
cracks.
Ultrasonic Pulse Echo Imaging
Ultrasonic pulse-echo imaging is one of the most powerful tools to locate
defects inside specimens, but, at the same time while carrying out imaging of
concrete structures it has n numerous challenges as concrete is a non-
homogeneous material. The different constituent materials inside concrete,
complex physical geometry and presence of reinforcement make it more
complicate to produce precise and best fit images. To overcome this situation,
tomography imaging a three- dimensional representation, taking
measurements from slice of xy‐planes or cross sections is used for identifying
and locating defects inside concrete [19] [20]. To express tomography results
with best fit images, higher sensitivity and resolution, imaging algorithms
should be taken into consideration to locate defects precisely inside concrete.
Based on imaging algorithm, an experimental study conducted by Tayfur et
al. used successfully Stack Imagining of Spectral Amplitude Based Impact
Echo (SIBIE) and Synthetic Aperture Focusing Technique (SAFT)
algorithms to accurately visualize voids inside concrete block [21].

In ultrasonic pulse echo imaging, transducers use high frequency likely
greater than 20,000 Hz sound waves to distinguish the properties of materials
or sight their defects [22]. There are a lot of tomography tools available for
examining concrete defects. One of them is the Ultrasonic Shear-wave
Tomographer known as MIRA shown in Figure 3. It is an advanced
instrument for generating a 3-D tomogram based on coherent reflected signals
from internal defects and received by set of arrays [23].
Figure 3. Ultrasonic Tomography-MIRA [Source; [24])
It is based on the ultrasonic pitch-catch method which uses an array of dry

point contact (DPC) transducers to transmit shear waves into given test
elements. A signal processing technique known as synthetic aperture
focusing technique (SAFT) allows to reconstruct a 2-D image of inner
concrete specimen on surface scan locations. The series of 2-D images with
the help of proprietary imaging software assembles 3-D images. The software
helps to build 3D sectional images of the concrete’s internal geometry and
automatically combines multiple scans. To consider the application of
MIRA, a study was conducted by Alexandr et al. [24] in which a thick
concrete block of 400 mm was drilled at three parallel locations and tested
using MIRA. The result shown in Figure 4 is the B-scan tomogram, in which
large drilling holes/defects were visualized inside the test sample. From the
tomogram, the size, location and depth from surface of specimen for all three
defects were perfectly observed.
Figure 4. B- Scan Tomography-MIRA on the concrete block (Source; [24])
The Ultrasonic tomography-MIRA is not only limited to concrete structures,

its applications are also wide in multiple fields including assessment of typical
pavements and metal pipes etc. Ultrasonic tomography results confirm its
utilization even on large scale structures with significant efforts and user
expertise.
Conclusions
The application of ultrasonic NDT techniques plays an important role in
health monitoring of concrete structures. The selection of technique though
has its merits and limitations based on signal processing techniques and
transducer’s selection but their main objective is to assess or monitor the
integrity of concrete. In modern days, due to advancement of signal processing
techniques, development of sensors and latest techniques in digital image
formations ultrasonic testing has become effective in identification and
localization of defects in concrete structures. Ultrasonic pulse velocity testing
technique is used to characterize the material properties of concrete by using
relationship between strength and quality of concrete. On the other hand
ultrasonic pulse echo testing technique helps to locate voids and delaminations
inside testing specimens. To visualize these defects or voids, ultrasonic
tomography is used to display interpreted test data into sectional images. By
using advance imaging techniques and algorithms like Synthetic Aperture
Focusing Technique (SAFT), the test results can be achieved precisely with
higher sensitivity and resolution to generate accurate and better quality
subsurface images.
References
[1] Farmington Hills., MI., American Concrete Institute ACI 224.1-R07
“Causes, evaluation and repair of cracks in concrete structures”, 2007.
[2] W. Sun & S. Yan, “Health monitoring strategy for smart piezoelectric
concrete structures” Proc. SPIE 6932 69320I, 2008.
[3] A.C. Evangelista, I. Shehata, L. Shehata, “Parameters that influence the
results of non-destructive test methods for concrete strength” Int. Symp. on
Non-Destructive Testing in Civil Engineering (NDT-CE) Berlin- 2003.
[4] K. Schabowicz. “Ultrasonic tomography–The Latest Nondestructive
Technique for Testing Concrete Members–Description, Test Methodology,
Application Example”. Arch. Civ. Mech. Eng. 14(2): 295– 303, 2014.
[5] H. Irie, Y. Yoshida, Y. Sakurada, and T. Ito. “Non-destructive testing
Methods for Concrete Structures”. NTT Tech. Rev. 2008.
[6] N. Ahmad, R. A. Rahim, H.A. Rahim, M.H. F. Rahiman, “A Review of
Ultrasonic Application on Non-destructive Testing Method for Concrete
Structure” in Jurnal Teknologi, 2014.
[7] A. Gupta and J. C. Duke Jr., “Identifying the arrival of extensional and
flexural wave modes using wavelet decomposition of ultrasonic signals,”
Ultrasonics, vol. 82, pp. 261–271, 2018.
[8] K. A. Tiwari, R. Raisutis, and V. Samaitis, “Signal processing methods to
improve the signal-to-noise ratio (snr) in ultrasonic non-destructive testing of
wind turbine blade,” Procedia Structural Integrity, vol. 5, pp. 1184–1191,
2017.
[9] C. L. Nogueira, “Wavelet analysis of ultrasonic pulses in cement-based
materials,” ACI Materials Journal, vol. 107,no. 3, p. 248, 2010.
[10] Juncai Xu, Hai Wei. "Ultrasonic Testing Analysis of Concrete Structure
Based on S Transform", Shock and Vibration, 2019.
[11] Malek , Jedidi | Kaouther , Machta. "Destructive and Non-Destructive
Testing of Concrete Structures", Jordan Journal of Civil Engineering, 2014.
[12] I. Yaman and G. Inci. “Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity in Concrete Using
Direct and Indirect Transmission”, ACI Mater. J. 98:450–457., 2001.
[13] R. Jones and I. Fącąoaru, “Recommendations for Testing Concrete by
the Ultrasonic Pulse Method”, Matériaux Constr. 2(4): 275–284., 1969.
[14] N. V Mahure and G. Vijh., “Correlation between Pulse Velocity and
Compressive Strength of Concrete”. Int. J. Earth Sci. Eng. 04(06): 871– 874.
2011.
[15] P.F. Almirand F.C. Protasio, “Application of NDT to concrete strength

estimation,” NDT.Net, vol.5, no.2, pp.1–6, 2000.
[16] M. Krause, H. Wiggenhauser, “Ultrasonic pulse echo technique for
concrete elements using synthetic aperture”, NDTnet - Vol.2 No.05 May
1997.
[17] Ch. Maierhofer, H.-W. Reinhardt, G. Dobmann: Non-destructive
Evaluation of Reinforced Concrete Structures. Cambridge: Woodhead
published in 2010.
[18] M. Schickert, U. Tümmler, L. Bühling: Rapid Scanning Approaches for
Ultrasonic Imaging of Concrete. 9th European Conference on NDT
(ECNDT), Berlin, 25.–29.9.2006.
[19] H. K. Chai, D. G. Aggelis, S. Momoki, Y. Kobayashi, and T. Shiotani.,
“Single-side Access Tomography for Evaluating Interior Defect of Concrete”.
Constr. Build. Mater. 24(12): 2411–2418., 2010.
[20] M. Schickert, “Progress in Ultrasonic Imaging of Concrete”. Materials
and Structures, Special issue on Concrete Science and Engineering, 38. 807–
815., 2005.
[21] S. Tayfur, N. Alver, "Betondaki boşlukların darbe-eko ve ultrasonik-eko
yöntemleri ile görüntülenmesi." Gazi Üniversitesi Mühendislik Mimarlık
Fakültesi Dergisi 33.1 (2018).
[22] K. Schabowicz, “Ultrasonic tomography–The Latest Nondestructive
Technique for Testing Concrete Members”–Description, Test Methodology,
Application Example. Arch. Civ. Mech. Eng. 14(2): 295–303., 2014.
[23] Samokrutov A. A., “Kozlov V. N., Shevaldykin V. G. Ultrasonic testing
of concrete objects using dry acoustic contact. Methods, instruments and
possibilities”. The 5th International Conference “Non-Destructive Testing and
Technical Diagnostics in Industry”. Abstracts book. Mashinostroenie, p.152.
, 16-19 May 2006.
[24] Alexandr V. Bishko, Andrey A. Samokrutov, Victor G. Shevaldykin,
“Ultrasonic echo-pulse tomography of concrete using shear waves low-
frequency phased antenna arrays”, 17th World Conference on Nondestructive
Testing”, Shanghai, China, 25-28 Oct 2008.
[25] Tiscali Italia, Portable Ultrasonic Non destructive Digital Indicating
Tester, Accessed Aug.05,2020.[Online].Available on
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Available on
https://eis.hu.edu.jo/ACUploads/10526/Ultrasonic%20Testing.pdf
VR Technology as an Architectural Representation Tool

for Better Spatial Understanding: Evaluation of Best
Practices
Rana Tanbour*
Abstract
Over the past few years there has been an obvious and continuous change in
the architectural design current demands, especially with the high
technological life style we are facing. Architectural representation tools were
invented to improve the user’s (client) spatial understanding and perception
to the design; such as 3D programs, animation, and models. But these
solutions have its own limitations; it can transfer the image but without the
feeling or the scale! VR (Virtual Reality) or VW (Virtual World) have been
started to exist since 1980, but was more applicable recently, especially in the
architectural world. VR solution offers the user/client a more reliable design
experience in comparison of other solutions. This paper evaluates the use of
VR technology within the design process, focusing on improving user’s
spatial understanding, against the normal 3D rendering programs. Using
qualitative methodology; exploring the best practices internationally (in-
direct interviews) and locally (direct interview) with architectural companies
that uses VR as a representation tool. This paper also tries to answer the main
question, why VR as a tool is still not that common within architectural field.
Keywords: Spatial Understanding, Spatial Representation, VR Technology,
Mixed Reality, Architectural Representation Tools
Introduction
Architecture has always been able to merge with different kind of fields, each
merge usually brings new techniques to a problem that some usual methods
cannot solve. The 3D spatial representation; such as 3D image rendering,
animation programs or even 3d models, gives limited view to the user -or
more specifically the client- [1] in a way that he cannot fully understand the
design. But as its seems clear to the architect, on contemporary the recipient -
as human with no 3d drawing reading educational background- face some
*
Mimar Sinan University for Fine Arts, Department of Architecture, Istanbul, Turkey
kind of difficulties to percept and visualize the space or design.

Spatial understanding, spatial perception or visualization is all terms which
describe human ability to understand dimensions and contents of his
surrounding space. [2] Researches shows that this ability can be gained and
improved by different practices; such as mentally exercise and games
(University of Colorado at Boulder, 2018) and one of these applications, a
new and developing tool is digital/virtual environments. [3]
Virtual reality (VR) or more specifically in literature terms Immersive VR1
environments can provide the user with a more reliable experience; in which
user wear glasses, that is connected to3D space, represent software, listen to
3D realistic sounds, and are free to move physically to explore and interact
within a 3D simulated world. [4] it treats the user as the center of the
mechanism, which called as – Human Centered approach- which start with
user’s perception, decision, and action, contrary to the computer centered
approach. [5] See Figure 1
Figure 1: The "perception, cognition, action" loop passing by the virtual mode.
For architectural designers, applying VR may enable them to deliver the of

their own designs to their client instantly. This may be able to comprehend
their works by walking through the virtual space to visualize the color and
texture of assigned materials, proportions of the spatial layout, and the
aesthetic expression of structural elements. These potentials can lead to create
1
Immersive Virtual Reality is a term to describe immersing the user in virtual environment by
engaging most of his scenes, to develop what is called spatial immersion: the perception of
being physically present in non-physical environment. [6]
a dialog between designer and client, to have instant feedback which

eventually will lead to better project management.
Spatial Understanding
While searching in the psychological filed for a scientifically definition of the
spatial understanding or awareness, you have to cross through other similar
definitions such as spatial orientation, spatial perception and spatial
visualization, which all are assigned to spatial intelligence. These different
definitions, yet very close to each other, have something in common; they
confirm that it’s a human skill or ability; which can be trained and improved
by different methods, While spatial understanding adds to that the
representational techniques of viewing the space.
Spatial ability; is a psychometric tool with two main factors: spatial
orientation and visualization as were defined by Ekstrom, French, Harman,
and Dermen. [6] Spatial orientation is the measurement of the ability to remain
focused and unconfused, while changing the position of the object or visual
stimuli.
On other hand, McGee defines the spatial visualization as measure of brain
ability to manipulate the component of the stimulus, which involves
recognizing and recalling configuration when the object is moved. Spatial
perception is related more of the percipient’s neural system, the perception of
light, color…etc; attached more to our sensations. [2]
Spatial understanding /awareness as defined by Lynn Robertson; is a
combination of both the cause of stimuli or object perception, and percipient’s
ability to make a verbal judgment or report about the perceived object.
According to John Capbell, a spatial awareness is more related to a conscious
visual perception of an object, which combines both non-conscious perception
and the percipient experience.[7] Added to that, spatial
understanding/awareness depends also to the space representational
techniques of viewing the space.
Architectural Spatial Representation
Tools Evolution and Limitation
In the architectural designing process, there are usually two main groups; the
designers which in this case the architects, and the recipients who are the
clients or the customers. The need of the design spatial representation lies
within the need to fill up the gap between these two groups.
The importance of representation; that it is central to the way architects
design. From the schematic ideas to the final drawings, architects engage
repeatedly in “representing-thinking-representing,” cycle. They establish
dialogues, which are a way of communicating design features to others such
as team members and clients [8] Sometimes it is not just considered as a tool;
in many cases it affects the client’s decisions whether to accept the concept or
not! Therefore, choosing one type of representation during this process
significantly influences the outcome of the project, since the choice enhances
one design solution over alternative options [8]
The architectural designing field is facing continues and fast development,
which include also a development in its representation tools. Starting from
handmade sketches and sculptures which can be traced in ancient centuries,
until the beginning of 1960th, which was the start of merging computer
technologies with the architectural field. [9] From 2D & 3D drawings, 3D
animation and 3D models, were developing fast as representation tool to
bridge the gap between architects and clients.
However, these previously mentioned tools have its limitation. Firstly, it
reduced the 3D spatial data into 2D emotionless images, which effect the
spatial information, must be delivered. Secondly, it displaced the scale
problem instead of resolving it, nothing in same size and height. Furthermore,
in animation as an example, the client is only remotely directed to the model
path, as it is previously being controlled. And most importantly, all these tools
cannot deliver the feel of the space! [1] To make them closer to the real space
they should have to offer more convincing illusion of depth, scale, and
material, which most likely the IVR technology can offer.
VR Tool for Architects
“VR is bringing designers and end-users together in a way we’ve never been
able to before” Kelly Funk [10]
In architectural, there are many tools that help the designers in concept,
design, and even sale phases. Recently, VR became the tool that captioned the
attention of the architectural industry; because of its abilities. This
technology, allows the user to visualize real spaces or spaces generated by
software using a VR Headset, allowing us to walk through all rooms of a
house, or a museum as an example.
VR technology started to be linked to design world in general in 1991, with
the first commercial that shows virtual kitchen by Japan’s Matsushita Electric
Works, where customers can experience what their kitchen is going to look
like. [11] John Walker, cofounder of Autodesk, started the VR in PC platform,
which was a development of Autodesk Cyberspace that was invented in 1988.
[4]
VR as a design tool uses both a hardware and a software; hardware which
basically consists of four categories: smartphone, PC, standalone, and
windows mixed reality, (See figure 2) with positive and negative
characteristics of each category; such as prices and quality. For the software
that links the normal 3D to the VR tool set, there are different kinds of
software such as; Symmetry, IrisVR, ARQVR, Truvision, NBBJ…etc. [10]
Figure 2: VR hardware categories [13]
In VR environments, the user/ client will be surrounded with three-

dimensional stimuli, instead of looking to a fixed or moving pic. Using
sensors, the user become a center part of the environment, engaging most of
his senses by walking around the space. Furthermore, it enable the client to
percept the spatial qualities of the design. [4]
The benefits of using VR technology within architecture, goes further than
allowing the client to capture the architect’s ideas! It consider as an important
project management tool, which saves project time, and allows the designer
to focuses more on developing the project rather than looping within concept
stage! [12]
Space Perception in VR
User’s perception within a virtual environment defers of that with real world,
even though some research tried to use exact replica of the real environment.
As we define earlier the spatial perception as: the ability of being aware of
spatial characteristics around you, as sizes, distances…etc. A lot of researches
in VR, found a notable misperception when compared with the real world.
[13] According to Langbehn, the reasons which cause this misperception are:
• the limited quality of the 3D virtual display comparing to the real
world; “Current head-mounted displays … usually offer stereoscopic vision,
position and orientation tracking, high resolution (> FullHD), low latency (<
20ms), high frequency (90 hertz), and a wide field of view (~110°). This is
already quite good and delivers a high degree of immersion. But it does not
yet fit the needs of human perception. The human field of view is about 220°
and the human eyes would need a resolution with ~116,000,000 pixels while
Rift or Vive offer only 2,592,000 pixels.” Langbehn. This can be relatively
solved while improving the technology. [14]
• It is the matter of judging spatial circumstance, which is relevant to
eyes accommodation (the ability of the eyes to bring objects at a certain
distance into focus) and convergence (the ability of the eyes to rotate inwards
and outwards to fixate a certain object), so we can see clearly, which can’t be
achieved properly in the VR world. [14]
For the client perception to the designed model in VR, it is not necessary to
be exact replica of real world environment, because in this cause the purpose
of the experience is different; while others studies tries to simulate as much
as real as it can be for purposes of game development and experiments of
user’s perception, the case with architectural application doesn’t go beyond
using VR as a representational tool for the designed model.
Best Practices
Using VR as representational tool for architects is not that common as it
seems, although as discussed before has many potentials especially in
architectural field. Nowadays VR is used more in gaming field and human
based researches. This section investigates the best VR practices within
architectural filed globally and locally.
Five globally architectural companies that use VR: see table 1 which shows
the interviews questions and answers for a 5 globally companies that uses VR
within as representation tool. [15]2
2
These companies’ opinions were interviewed and published in ArchDialy website by Manuel
Albornoz, without direct interview between them and the author.
Table 1: 5 globally companies that uses VR within as representation tool.
Company City VR Opinions

Name programs
Utile Canada Revit, Blen “We use VR both to collect

der, Cycles feedback during the planning
Render phase and to showcase ("visit")
apartments during the leasing
phase”
Wha Los Autodesk “VR allows our clients to

Architecture Angeles CAD, Sket visualize a project before it is
chUp, Lum built. This is a great design tool
ion, VRay for the construction industry
because it allows you to find and
correct issues before the project
is built. It helps save on the cost
of construction by providing a
virtual representation of the
floor plans and exteriors without
having to build the models.”
DG-LA Venezue SketchUp, "The 360 experience has

la VRay, communicated perfectly with our
Photoshop philosophy of good design and
attention to detail, allowing our
clients to visualize their projects
in a closer and more intimate
way".
Designhaaus India SketchUp, "It helps us to visualize a space

VRay in a better way that, in turn,
results in aesthetically pleasing
and efficient spaces, and helps
the client to better understand
the design and make faster
decisions. [It also helps] the
construction team on the site
during the execution phase."
Gashu Argenti 3ds Max "The virtual reality experience

Arquitectos na surpasses any other technology
developed so far for the
interpretation of a space that
[has not yet been built], and also
communicating the project to
clients. It has been an enormous
contribution to the design
process."
GarageAtlas (Turkey)
GarageAtlas located in Turkey, considered as the first XR (VR/AR/MR)
company with architectural roots, manages to merge the content between
physical and virtual reality. It started as TasarimAtlas design Company in
2012, but now it is more oriented to XR (Extended Reality) architecture based
applications. The following table shows interview questions and answers held
in 17 Jan 2020.
Table 2: GarageAtlas company interview
Question Answer
Starting Date for using VR as a 2017

tool in your company
Used VR set HTC Vive Pro/ Oculus Quest/ Oculus Go
Used Programs -VR programs: Unreal Engine / Unity

-Modeling programs: blender
Biggest applied VR Projects Istanbul Airport, Antalya Congress Center
1. Is using VR as Our company is mainly VR based company

representation tool within your now, so when a costumer comes to us, he
designs optional? With extra wants us to do the VR, if not we convince
cost? them by showing them examples. For the cost
it depends on the required details and size of
the project which basically time cost!
2. Do you use VR tools We use them both in design process as for

and equipment during design showing the client his designs for instant
process or they use them only feedback and modifications, and for
for representation? representation even to give the client the

feeling of the scale and space.
3. How often does the We convince them to do it.

costumer ask you to implement
VR to his design?
4. As a company, do you We don’t give him the option, we just show it

prefer using VR? Why? to him and then they will chose it directly; we
and the costumers are speaking two different
languages, and its time and effort consuming
just because he don’t understand the design.
5. For which building Usually costumers with big sized project

scale do you think it is effective come to us, of course it is much effective and
to use VR and why? it is just for representation purposes so it’s a
onetime project. Other continuous projects are
smaller with less money but continue such as
virtual office.
6. What do you think For designer, it requires 3d skills, Nero

about the usability of the VR science, and basic programing knowledge!
tools and equipment for Even now as VR designers, it is not necessary
customer and designer? to know coding it’s enough to have an idea to
work with blue print! For customer it doesn’t
require any thing for him, he will come to the
office and put the VR set!
7. Between VR tool and Of course, with the VR

normal 3D representation, can
you tell in which case you have
less interfere with the customer
(to explain the design)?
8. As a XR applications As a total from all our applications, we can

company with architectural say that the percentage of VR applications for
background, what is the architectural purposes not more than 15%.
percentage of VR projects for
architectural purposes that you
applied so far?
9. What is the usual - One of the projects was in ongoing

feedback you get from the design phase for 2 years, but when we
costumer? implement the VR it was approved in 3

months!
- The feedback from one of the big
projects, that the employee (who tried the
design in VR) and was constructed, the space
feels more familiar! And he knows where to
go easily!
- An old customer refused to try it
saying it’s for youth people, but after trying it
he insisted to represent in VR after every
modification!
10. Did the costumers None, some of them were just refusing to use
showed any signs of unit at first but after using it they did not show
comfortability after using VR any signs of uncomfortability.
set?
11. Why do you think it’s For many reasons:

still not that common to 1- Building a VR space requires more
implement VR as a tool within skills than building a normal 3D space; in 3D
architectural companies? shot, your mind is focused on singular view
with its details, but in VR every little detail
must be there.
2- It requires background knowledge of
Nero science and coding.
3- Needs really expensive tools for the
best quality, and a monster computer. For VR
set only more than 1000$ (this applies only on
big projects with huge budgets).
4- People still now doesn’t have
enough information about VR potentials and
afraid to use it.
5- It is so functional but not that simple!
So you need to open yourself to this idea in
order to simplify it.
6- Manly the idea of VR that it’s a
production for gaming only which means for
the use of younger users (teenagers).
Hayri Atak Arch. Design Studio (Turkey)

Hayri Atak Studio located in Turkey; it’s an architectural studio uses XR
(Extended Reality) architecture-based applications as representation tool. The

following table shows interview questions and answers held in 11 May 2020.
Table 3: Hayri Atak Studio interview
Question Answer
Starting Date for using VR as a tool 2019

in your company
Used VR set HTC Vive Pro/ Oculus Quest/ Oculus Go
Used Programs -VR programs: Unreal Engine / Unity

-Modeling programs: blender
1. Is using VR as Actually, It should be optional, but we

representation tool within your use it all time with our project
designs optional? With extra cost? representations and it is not extra cost.
2. Do you use VR tools and We just use VR render to representation,

equipment during design process or But our customers use them to show all
they use them only for detail to their worker
representation?
3. How often does the They all don’t know about what can do
costumer ask you to implement VR with VR. Usually we suggest them
to his design?
4. As a company, do you Yes we prefer all time, it save time so

prefer using VR? Why? much. And also we can represent our
projects just with 1 render.
5. For which building scale do It is useful for all scale

you think it is effective to use VR
and why?
6. What do you think about It is new technology. So that, peoples do

the usability of the VR tools and not know what is the limit for them. But
equipment for customer and every passing day, all customers and
designer? designer will want to use it.
7. Between VR tool and Actually it is not related with presentation

normal 3D representation, can you techniques. It is related with your design.
tell in which case you have less
interfere with the customer (to
explain the design)?
8. As a XR Applications We made our last 3 project presentations

Company with architectural with VR.
background, what is the percentage
of VR projects for architectural
purposes that you applied so far?
9. What is the usual feedback We saw them captivated and therefore

you get from the costumer? ordered to have the best VR technology
10. Did the costumers showed Until today not. But VR glasses should be
any signs of uncomfortability after used for a 5-10 minutes max. Because
using VR set? using it may feel sick after 10 minutes
11. Why do you think it’s still Because designers and customers don't
not that common to apply the VR ? know yet what they can do with VR
technology.
Evaluation
Viewing lead international architectural companies’ opinions3 and local
company interview that implement VR within their projects, the following
common notes can be highlighted:
- Most used programs for modeling VR space is SketchUp and Blender.
- VR tool is being used in design feedback, representation, advertisement,
and execution phases.
- It is a time and cost saving tool.
- It focuses on design’s details.
- It creates user-space connection and familiarity.
- Helps the client in his decision making process.
- Give the client a better perception to the design.
- Usually VR is applied for big projects.
- The effectiveness of using VR depends on the size of the project and the
level of details.
3
These companies’ opinions were interviewed and published in ArchDialy website
by Manuel Albornoz, without direct interview between them and the author.
- As an architect, implementing VR does not require special skills more

than the usual 3d modeling skills, but it requires a background of Nero
science and coding.
- The costumer starts of asking to use VR tool after experiencing it, not
from the first time.
- No signs of un-comfortability were registered from clients after using VR
set.4
- Lack of information about VR and confined it to game production only,
created this misusing the VR tool potentials.
Conclusions
Client’s spatial understanding can be considered as a crucial subject for the
project. It eases the work flow, saves project time and money; with direct and
instant feedback, without looping in an infinite circle of misunderstanding!
VR as a tool for architects can decrease this loop to minimum.
Virtual Reality as discussed before is not a new topic; it has been developing
since 1980, and as it was developing, VR reached a high quality level with
practical and affordable solutions to use among different types of community.
But the problem became clear when VR was considered more as a gaming
tool rather anything else, which makes it exclusively being used among young
and teenagers.
VR is considered in many communities as an advance technology that for sure
comes with expensive prices, although it comes with different types and
affordable versions! As architects who want to visualize their project, with
best quality but without extreme difference in added design prices in order to
compete with the market! The efficiency of using such technology comes with
big sized projects with huge budgets. Even though as the only VR architecture
based company in turkey says, from all their applications only 15% were for
architectural purposes, this highlights a question mark wither both architects
and clients understand the importance of such use!
The use of VR cannot be seen in small low budget office for many reasons;
such as lack of proper knowledge of VR potentials; such as instant feedback
and decisions, although the in these small companies, a 3D rendering,
4
Cardiff University study (which was specifically applied on using IKEA VR
kitchen) showed that 46.2% of users declared that they did had a feeling of
uncomfortability on their eyes. The study refers this number to using cheaper
versions of VR set. (Thomas Szpak, 2016)
animation and models has been used as a tool to convenes the client with the
concept. So the time and effort to build a 3d visualization has already been
done, but the problem lies that these tools cannot transfer the feeling of size
and space to the client!
This conflict mainly goes on architects shoulder, although architects usually
struggle to find best ways to communicate with their client; for better overall
project management which leads eventually saving project’s time and cost!
Choosing proper VR set with proper amount of detailing depends on size and
budget of the project.
References
[1] Henry Daniel, "Spatial Perception in Virtual Environments:

Evaluating an Architectural Application," University of Washington,
Washington, thesıs 1992.
[2] Iftikhar B. Abbasov, "Psychology of Visual Perception," Southern

Federal University, Russia, thesıs 2019.
[3] Onkar P., & Narula M., Rashed F., "Immersive virtual reality to
enhance the spatial awareness of students," in The 7th International
Conference, China, 2015.
[4] Chiu Shui Chan, "Virtual Reality in Architectural Design," Lowa

State University, USA, thesıs 1997.
[5] Philippe Fuchs, Domitile Lourdeaux, Dominique Millet, Cédric

Buche, et al. Simon Richir, "How to design compelling Virtual
Reality or Augmented Reality experience?," International Journal of
Virtual Reality, no. IPI Press, pp. 35-47, 2015.
[6] Chewn J., "Are Spatial Visualization Abilities Relevant to Virtual

Reality?," Faculty of Cognitive Sciences and Human Development
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Malaysia, 2006.
[7] Capbell John, "What’s the Role of Spatial Awareness in Visual

Perception of Objects?," Mind & Language publication, United
Kingdom, 2007.
[8] De. La puerta, "El croquis, proyecto y arquitectura. [The Sketch,

Project and Architecture]," Madrid: Celeste, 1997.
[9] Pedro Da Luz Pinto Miguel Baptista Tavares Carreiro, "The evolution
of representation in architecture," 1ST eCAADe Regional
International Workshop, Portugal , 2013.
[10] TMD Studio LTD. (2017,) Virtual Reality Uses in Architecture and
Design. [Online]. https://medium.com/studiotmd/virtual-reality-
uses-in-architecture-and-design-c5d54b7c1e89
[11] Gene Bylinsky. (1991) THE MARVELS OF 'VIRTUAL REALITY'. [Online].

https://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/1991/0
6/03/75081/index.htm
[12] Sentio VR. (2019) Virtual Reality as an important tool in the AEC
Industry. [Online]. https://www.sentiovr.com/post/virtual-reality-as-
an-important-tool-in-the-aec-industry
[13] Langbehn et al, "Visual Blur in Immersive Virtual Environments:

Does Depth of Field or Motion Blur Affect Distance and Speed
Estimation?," 2016.
[14] Langbehn E., "Perception: The most technical issue of VR," in the
Quo Vadis 2017 conference, Berlin, 2017.
[15] Manuel Albornoz. (2018) 5 Architecture Offices Using VR to Present

Their Designs. [Online]. https://www.archdaily.com/899599/5-
architecture-offices-using-vr-to-present-their-designs
[16] Freina L., "A Literature Review on Immersive Virtual Reality in

Education: State Of The Art and Perspectives," in international
scientific conference elearning and software for education, Bucharest,
2015.
Betonarme Kare En-Kesitli Kolonların Şekil Değiştirme

Esaslı Hasar Sınırlarının Araştırılması
Rohullah Jamal, S. Bahadır Yüksel*
Özet
Yapısal elemanların deprem performansının belirlenmesi için bu çalışmada,
Türkiye Bina Deprem Yönetmeliği 2018’de kare en-kesitli betonarme
kolonlar için öngörülen şekil değiştirme esaslı hasar sınırları analitik olarak
incelenmiştir. Gerçek malzeme davranışları esas alınarak elde edilen
momenti-eğrilik ilişkilerinden kolon kesitlerinin elastik ötesi davranışları
incelenmiştir. Şekil değiştirme değerleri TBDY 2018’de tanımlanmış olan
Göçmenin Önlenmesi (GÖ), Kontrollü Hasar (KH) ve Sınırlı Hasar (SH)
performans seviyeleri için hesaplanmıştır. Betonarme kolonlar için göz önüne
alınan üç ayrı hasar sınırı ve bu hasar sınırlarına karşı gelen birim şekil
değiştirme değerleri incelenmiştir. İlgili yer değiştirme taleplerine karşılık
gelen kolon hasarları gözlemlenmiş ve hasar sınırları değerlendirilmiştir.
Betonarme kolonlarda farklı performans düzeyi için beton ve donatı çeliği
birim şekil değiştirmeleri ve plastik dönmeleri hesaplanarak performans
düzeyleri araştırılmıştır. Kare en-kesitli betonarme kolonlarda uygulanan
eksenel yükün artırılması ile akma dönme açılarının (θX ) arttığı fakat göçme
(YZ) ([Ö)
öncesi ve kontrollü hasar dönme açılarının (𝜃M ve 𝜃M ) azaldığı
gözlenmiştir. Kare en-kesitli betonarme kolonlarda, enine donatısı aralıkların
azalması ile akma dönme açılarına (θX ), KH ve GÖ performans seviyesi beton
(YZ) ([Ö)
birim kısalmasına (𝜀3 ve 𝜀3 ) ve KH ve GÖ performans seviyesi dönme
(YZ) ([Ö)
sınırlarına (𝜃M ve 𝜃M ) etkili olduğunu gözlemlenmiştir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Moment-Eğrilik, Performans Düzeyi, Hasar Sınırları,
Birim Şekil Değiştirme Sınırları, Plastik Dönme
*
Konya Teknik Üniversitesi, Mühendislik ve Doğa Bilimleri Fakültesi, İnşaat Mühendisliği
Bölümü, Konya / Türkiye
Giriş
Dünyada betonarme yapı sistemlerinin kullanılmaya başlanması, 19. yüzyıl
sonlarına kadar dayanmaktadır. Ülkemizde yaygın olarak kullanılan bu
sistem, beton ve donatı çeliği olmak üzere iki ana malzemeden oluşmaktadır.
Bu iki malzemeden betonun davranışı gevrek, çeliğin davranışı ise sünektir.
Beton doğrusal-elastik olmayan davranış sergilerken, donatı çeliğinin elasto-
plastik davrandığı, yani akma gerilmesine ulaşıncaya kadar doğrusal elastik,
akma gerilmesini aştıktan sonra ise plastik davranış sergilediği kabul edilir.
Bu iki malzemenin birleşiminden meydana gelen betonarme malzemesinin
davranışı ise nonlineer olup hem betonun hem de çeliğin mekanik
özelliklerinden etkilenmektedir [1].
Betonarme yapı elemanlarının davranışını, elemana ait kesit davranışı
belirlemektedir. Kesit davranışı, kesitte kullanılan malzeme, kesitin
geometrisi ve kesite etki eden yüklemelere bağlıdır. Eğilme etkisi altındaki
bir kesitin davranışı ise en sağlıklı biçimde moment eğrilik ilişkisinden
belirlenebilir. Moment eğrilik ilişkisi gerçek malzeme davranışını temel
alarak yapılan analitik ve deneysel çalışmalar sonucu elde edilir [2].
Yapı taşıyıcı sisteminin doğrusal sınır ötesindeki kapasitesinin de dikkate
alındığı hesap yöntemleri son yıllarda yaygınlaşmıştır. Yapının dayanım ve
yerdeğiştirme kapasitelerini ortaya çıkaran, göçme aşamasına kadar oluşacak
hasarlarının adım adım izlenebildiği doğrusal olmayan hesap yöntemleri
kullanılarak, yapı davranışı daha iyi anlaşılabilmektedir. Yapı performansı,
amaçlanan deprem istemi etkisinde yapıda oluşması beklenen hasar durumu
ile ilişkilidir. Sağlanan kapasite ile deprem istemine ait veriler yapının tasarım
ve güçlendirmesine yönelik performans düzeyinin belirlenmesinde
kullanılmaktadır [3].
Talep; sismik hareketlerin yapıdan karşılamasını istediği yer değiştirme ve
kesit tesirleri olarak tanımlanabilir. Performans ise yapının kapasitesinin
sismik talepleri hangi oranda karşılayabileceği ile ilgilidir” [4].
Performans esaslı değerlendirme yönteminin en önemli aşamalarından birisi
yapısal elemanların her birinin hasar düzeylerinin belirlenmesidir. Doğrusal
olmayan değerlendirme yöntemi ile analiz edilen yapıdaki yapısal elemanların
kesitlerinde oluşan şekil değiştirme değerinin, yürürlükte olan yönetmelikteki
kesit hasar seviyesine tekabül eden şekil değiştirme üst sınır değerleri ile
kıyaslanması ile kesitin hasar seviyesi elde edilir. Dolayısı ile yapıların
deprem güvenliğini belirlemede kesit hasar sınır değerlerinin doğru bir şekilde
elde edilmesi oldukça önem arz etmektedir. Eleman davranışı kesit
davranışından ve kesitin davranışı moment eğrilik ilişkisinden izlenilebilir
[5].
Türkiye Bina Deprem Yönetmeliği (TBDY, 2018)’de tanımlanan yapı
elemanlarında hasar sınırları ve hasar bölgeleri (kesit hasar durumları) sünek

elemanlar için kesit düzeyinde üç hasar durumu ve hasar sınırı tanımlanmıştır.
Bunlar Sınırlı Hasar (SH), Kontrollü Hasar (KH) ve Göçme Öncesi Hasar
(GÖ) durumları ve bunların sınır değerleridir. Sınırlı hasar ilgili kesitte sınırlı
miktarda elastik ötesi davranışı, kontrollü hasar kesit dayanımının güvenli
olarak sağlanabileceği elastik ötesi davranışı, göçme öncesi hasar durumu ise
kesitte ileri düzeyde elastik ötesi davranışı tanımlamaktadır. Gevrek olarak
hasar gören elemanlarda bu sınıflandırma geçerli değildir [6].
Bu çalışmada; C30 beton sınıfı, sabit boyuna donatı oranı ve enine donatı
çapına sahip farklı enine donatı aralığı ve farklı eksenel yüke maruz kare en-
kesitli betonarme kolonların moment-eğrilik ilişkisi değerleri SAP 2000 [7]
programı ile hesaplanmıştır. TBDY 2018’e göre kontrollü hasar performans
düzeyi göçme önlenmesi performans seviyesinin %75’i olacak şekilde
tanımlanmıştır. Sınırlı hasar performans düzeyinde beton ve donatı çeliği için
izin verilen birim deformasyonların değerleri sabit olarak verilmiştir. SH
performans düzeyi için taşıyıcı sistemde plastik mafsal oluşumuna izin
(BZ)
verilmemiştir (𝜃M = 0). Bu çalışmada beş tip toplam 25 adet betonarme
kare en-kesitli kolon tasarlanmıştır. Tip-1, 2, 3, 4 ve 5 olarak isimlendirilen
betonarme kare en-kesitli kolonlarda C30 beton sınıfı ve B420C donatı sınıfı
kullanılmıştır. Tip-1, 2, 3, 4 ve 5 olan betonarme kare en-kesitli kolonlarda
değişen parametreler enine donatıların aralıkları ve uygulanan basınç kuvveti
miktarıdır. Tüm elemanlarda 8mm çapında 50mm, 75mm, 100mm, 125mm
ve 150mm aralığında etriyeler ve farklı 𝑁/𝑁J%2 =
0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 ve 0.4 oranı ele alınarak hasar sınırları TBDY 2018’e göre
hesaplanmıştır. Çalışmada değişen parametrelerin hasar sınırlarına etkisi
araştırılmıştır. TBDY 2018’e göre Göçmenin Önlenmesi (GÖ) performans
([Ö)
hasar sınırlarında izin verilen beton birim kısalmaları (𝜀3 ), donatı çeliği
([Ö)
için izin verilen birim uzamaları (𝜀. ) ve izin verilen performans dönme
([Ö)
açıları (𝜃] ) Tablo (1)’de verilen denklemlere göre hesaplanmıştır.
TBDY 2018’e göre İzin Verilen Şekil değiştirme Sınırları
GÖ, KH ve SH performans düzeyi için yapılacak performans
değerlendirmesinde kullanılmak üzere, yüksek binalar ve yeni betonarme bina
elemanlarında yayılı plastik davranış modeline göre hesaplanan beton ve
donatı çeliği toplam birim şekil değiştirmeleri için izin verilen sınırlar aşağıda
tanımlanmıştır. GÖ, KH ve SH performans düzeyi için beton birim kısalması
([Ö) (YZ) (BZ)
(𝜀3 , 𝜀3 𝑣𝑒 𝜀3 ), donatı çeliği birim şekil değiştirmesi
([Ö) (YZ) (BZ) ([Ö) (YZ) (BZ)
(𝜀. , 𝜀. 𝑣𝑒 𝜀. ) ve plastik dönme sınırları 𝜃] , 𝜃] 𝑣𝑒 𝜃]
değerleri kare en-kesitli kolon, kiriş ve perdeler için
Tablo (1)’de verilen denklemler ile hesaplanmaktadır.

Tablo 1. Betonarme elemanları için izin verilen şekildeğiştirme üst sınırların
denklemleri [6]
Betonarme Elemanları İçin İzin Verilen Şekildeğiştirme ve İç Kuvvet

Sınırları
Kontrollü Hasar Sınırlı Hasar

Göçme Öncesi Hasar (GÖ)
(KH) (SH)
([Ö)
𝜀3 = 0.0035 + 0.04¯𝜔^5
≤ 0.018
([Ö)
𝜀. = 0.40𝜀.I
([Ö) 2
𝜃] = ±…𝑘I − 𝑘X ‰𝐿] ²1
3
𝐿] (YZ) ([Ö) (BZ)
𝜀3 = 0.75𝜀3 𝜀3 = 0.0025
− 0.5 ³
𝐿. (YZ)
𝜀. =
([Ö)
0.75𝜀.
(BZ)
𝜀. = 0.0075
+ 4.5𝑘I 𝑑_ ´ (YZ) ([Ö) (BZ)
𝜃] =0
𝜃] = 0.75𝜃M
𝑓X^5
𝜔^5 = 𝛼.5 𝜌.1,J/0
𝑓35
∑ %%!
𝛼.5 = €1 − a_ ‚ €1 −
; 1;
. . Q
!_;
‚ €1 − !1 ‚ , 𝜌.1 = _ *<.
; 2
([Ö) (YZ) (BZ)

Tablo 1’de verilen 𝜀3 , 𝜀3 𝑣𝑒 𝜀3 sırasıyla GÖ, KH ve SH performans
([Ö) (YZ) (BZ)
düzeyi için izin verilen beton birim şekildeğiştirmesidir. 𝜀. , 𝜀. 𝑣𝑒 𝜀.
sırasıyla GÖ, KH ve SH performans düzeyi için izin verilen donatı birim
([Ö) (YZ) (BZ)
şekildeğiştirmesini gösterilmektedir. 𝜃] , 𝜃] 𝑣𝑒 𝜃] sırasıyla GÖ, KH
ve SH performans düzeyi için izin verilen dönme açılarıdır. Tablo (1)’de
verilen denklemlerde 𝜔^5 , 𝜀.I , 𝑘I , 𝑘X , 𝐿] , 𝐿. ve 𝑑_ sırasıyla etkin sargı
donatısının mekanik donatı oranını, donatının çekme dayanımına karşı gelen
birim uzamayı, maksimum eğriliğini, akma eğriliğini, plastik mafsal
uzunluğunu, kesme açıklığını ve boyuna donatı çapını göstermektedir.
Göçme önlenmesi performans düzeyi için izin verilen beton birim kısalması
([Ö)
(𝜀3 ) denklemindeki ilk terim (0.0035) sargısız betonun birim kısalmasına
karşı gelmektedir. 𝜔^5 ; etkin sargı donatısının mekanik donatı oranı, αse sargı
donatısı etkinlik katsayısı ve 𝜌.1 kesitte hacimsel enine donatı oranı, Tablo
(1)’de verilen denklemler ile hesaplanmıştır. Tablo (1)’de verilen
denklemlerde; αse, 𝜌.1,J/0 ve 𝑓X^5 sırasıyla sargı donatısı etkinlik katsayısını,
dikdörtgen kesitte iki yatay doğrultuda hacimsel enine donatı oranının küçük
olanını ve enine donatının ortalama akma dayanımını göstermektedir. Tablo
(1)’de göçme önlenmesi denklemlerinde 𝐴.1 ve 𝜌.1 gözönüne alınan
doğrultuda enine donatının alanını ve hacimsel oranını, 𝑏: dik doğrultudaki
çekirdek boyutunu (en dıştaki enine donatı eksenleri arasındaki uzaklık), 𝑠
enine donatı aralığını, 𝑏4 ve ℎ4 sargı donatısı eksenlerinden ölçülen sargılı
beton boyutlarını, 𝑎/ bir etriye kolu veya çiroz tarafından mesnetlenen boyuna
donatıların eksenleri arasındaki uzaklığını göstermektedir. Etkin kesit
rijitlikleri kullanılarak yapılan hesapta SH performans düzeyi için taşıyıcı
sistemde plastik mafsal oluşumuna izin verilmemektedir.
Akma durumu için yer değiştirmiş plastik mafsal eksen dönmesi 𝜃X Denklem
(1) ile hesaplanmıştır. Kiriş ve kolonlarda h katsayısı, h = 1, perdelerde ise
h = 0.5’dir. Denklem (1)’de 𝑓35 ve 𝑓X5 sırasıyla betonun ortalama (beklenen)
basınç dayanımı ve donatının ortalama akma dayanımıdır. TBDY (2018)’de
𝑓35 = 1.3𝑓3: ve 𝑓X5 = 1.2𝑓X: olarak tarif edilmiştir. 𝑓3: ve 𝑓X: sırasıyla
betonun karakteristik basınç dayanımı ve donatı çeliğin karakteristik akma
dayanımıdır.
𝑘X 𝐿. ℎ
𝜃X = + 0.0015h ²1 + 1.5 ³
3 𝐿B
𝑘X 𝑑_ 𝑓X5
+ (1)
8¯𝑓35
Tasarlanan kare en-kesitli betonarme kolonlarda gerçek malzeme davranışları
esas alınarak sabit beton basınç dayanımı, enine donatı çapı, boyuna donatı
oranı, farklı enine donatı aralığı ve uygulanan basınç kuvvetine göre moment-
eğrilik analizi yapılmıştır.
Materyal ve Metot
Bu çalışmada betonarme yapısal elemanların deprem performansının
belirlenmesi için TBDY (2018)’de verilen kurallara göre farklı parametrelere
sahip 25 adet betonarme kolon modeli tasarlanmıştır. Her betonarme kolon
modeli için beş farklı eksenel yük seviyesi (N=0, N=0.1Nd, N=0.2Nd,
N=0.3Nd ve N=0.4Nd) ve beş farklı sargı donatı aralığı (50mm, 75mm,
100mm, 125mm ve 150mm) kullanılmıştır. Boyuna donatı (8F16) ve sargı
donatı çapı (F8mm) sabit olarak dikkate alınmıştır. Betonarme kolon
modellerinde beton sınıfı C30 ve donatı sınıfı B420C dikkate alınmıştır. Kare
en-kesitli betonarme kolon modellerinde moment-eğrilik analizlerinden 𝑀X ,
𝑘y 𝑀I , 𝑘u ve µ değerleri hesaplanmıştır. Moment ve eğrilik değerleri
SAP2000 Exact ideal analiz modellerinden elde edilmiştir. Yönetmelikte
verilen hasar sınırlarını tanımlayan birim şekil değiştirme ve iç kuvvet
değerleri kare en-kesitli betonarme kolon modelleri için hesaplanmıştır. Şekil
değiştirme ve iç kuvvet sınırlarının hesaplanmasında TBDY, (2018)’de
tanımlanmış üç farklı hasar sınırı olan GÖ, KH ve SH performans seviyeleri
göz önünde bulundurulmuştur. Kare en-kesitli betonarme kolon kesitlerinde
farklı performans düzeyi için oluşan şekil değiştirme ve iç kuvvet sınır
değerleri hesaplanarak Tablolar ve Grafikler halinde sunulmuştur. Birim şekil
değiştirme istemlerinin belirlenmesi plastik şekil değiştirmelerin meydana
geldiği betonarme sünek taşıyıcı sistem elemanlarında, farklı kesit hasar
sınırlarına (GÖ, KH ve SH performans düzeyleri) göre izin verilen beton ve
donatı çeliği şekil değiştirme üst sınırları (kapasiteleri) hesaplanmıştır. Yığılı
plastik davranışına göre modellenen betonarme kare en-kesitli kolonların
moment-eğrilik ilişkilerinden elde edilen 𝑘y ve 𝑘u değerlerine göre plastik
mafsal dönmeleri hesaplanmıştır. Betonarme kolon kesit hesabı ve tasarımı
yapılırken dikkat edilmesi gereken en önemli husus, elde edilen kesitteki
boyuna donatı oranının, 𝜌J/0 ≤ 𝜌 ≤ 𝜌J%2 olmasını sağlamaktır. Tasarlanan
kare en-kesitli kolonların boyuna donatı oranının, TS500’e [9] göre %1 ile %4
arasında olması gerekmektedir. Betonarme kare en-kesitli kolonların
tasarımında kullanılan malzeme özellikleri Tablo (2)’de verilmiştir.
Betonarme kolonların boyuna donatı oranı, enine donatı çapı, enine donatı
aralığı, beton ve donatı çeliği için hesaplarda ve malzeme modellerinde
kullanılan parametreler Tablo (3)’te özetlenerek verilmiştir. Kare en-kesitli
betonarme kolonların en-kesit boyutları ve donatı yerleşim planı Şekil (1)’de
verilmiştir.
Şekil 1. Tasarlanan kolon modellerinin en-kesit boyutları ve donatı yerleşim planı

Tablo 2. Malzeme modellerinde kullanılan parametreler [6]
Malzeme Parametre Değer
Sargısız betonun maksimum gerilmeye ulaştığı birim

0.002
Beton şekil değiştirme değeri (𝜀!" )
Sınıfı:
Sargısız betonun nihai birim şekil değiştirmesi (𝜀!# ) 0.0035
C30
Karakteristik beton basınç dayanımı (𝑓!$ ) 30MPa
Donatı çeliğinin akma birim şekil değiştirmesi (𝜀%& ) 0.0021
Donatı çeliğinin pekleşme birim şekil değiştirmesi

0.008
(𝜀%' )
Donatı
Çeliği:
Donatı çeliğinin kopma birim şekil değiştirmesi (𝜀%# ) 0.08
B420C
Donatı çeliğinin karakteristik akma dayanımı (𝑓&$ ) 420MPa
Donatı çeliğinin karakteristik kopma dayanımı (𝑓%# ) 550MPa
Tablo 3. Tip-1, 2, 3, 4 ve 5 olarak tasarlanan betonarme kolon modellerine ait donatı

oranı ve alanları
Kesit Beton 𝑨𝒔 Eksenel Enine

Kesit No
Grubu Sınıfı (𝒎𝒎 ) 𝟐 basınç kuvvet donatı
C1-0 0.0
C1-0.1 0.1Nd
Tip-1 C1-0.2 0.2Nd Ф8/50
C1-0.3 (8Φ16) 0.3Nd

C30
C1-0.4 1608.5 0.4Nd
C2-0 0.0
Tip-2 C2-0.1 0.1Nd Ф8/75
C2-0.2 0.2Nd
C2-0.3 0.3Nd
C2-0.4 0.4Nd
C3-0 0.0
C3-0.1 0.1Nd
Tip-3 C3-0.2 0.2Nd Ф8/100
C3-0.3 0.3Nd
C3-0.4 0.4Nd
C4-0 0.0
C4-0.1 0.1Nd
Tip-4 C4-0.2 0.2Nd Ф8/125
C4-0.3 0.3Nd
C4-0.4 0.4Nd
C5-0 0.0
C5-0.1 0.1Nd
Tip-5 C5-0.2 0.2Nd Ф8/150
C5-0.3 0.3Nd
C5-0.4 0.4Nd
Araştırma Bulguları
Kare en-kesitli betonarme kolon modelleri için farklı parametrelere göre
moment-eğrilik analizlerinden elde edilen sonuçlar kullanılarak kolon
modelleri için 𝑀X , 𝑘y 𝑀I , 𝑘u ve µ değerleri hesaplanmıştır. Betonarme kolon
modellerinin moment-eğrilik ilişkilerinden elde edilen veriler kullanılarak
kolon kesitlerinin davranışları incelenmiştir. TBDY (2018)’de donatı çeliği
(YZ) ([Ö)
için GÖ ve KH performans seviyelerinde verilen hasar sınırları (e. , e. ),
donatı çeliğinin çekme dayanımına karşı gelen birim uzama değerleri sabit
katsayılar ile çarparak elde edilmektedir. SH performans düzeyi için verilen
(BZ)
hasar sınırı ise sabit bir değer olarak verilmektedir (e. = 0.0075). Sınırlı
hasar performans düzeyi için beton birim deformasyonu sabit bir değer olarak
(BZ)
verilmektedir (e3 = 0.0025). GÖ ve KH performans düzeyi için verilen
plastik dönme hasar sınırları qM ; 𝑘X , 𝑘I , 𝐿M , 𝐿. ve 𝑑_ ’nin fonksiyonudur. SH
performans düzeyinde taşıyıcı sistemlerde plastik mafsal oluşmasına izin
verilmediği için farklı parametrelere göre betonarme kiriş kesitlerinde
(BZ)
𝜃] = 0 elde edilmiştir. Tip 1, 2, 3, 4 ve 5 olarak tanımlanan betonarme
(SH) (SH) (BZ) (YZ) (YZ)
kare en-kesitli kirişlerin hesaplanan (εc ), (εs ), (𝜃M ), (𝜀3 ), (𝜀. ),
(YZ) ([Ö) ([Ö) ([Ö)
(𝜃M ), (𝜀3 ), (𝜀. ) ve (𝜃M ) değerlerin karşılaştırmalı grafikleri Şekil
2, 3, 4, 5 ve 6’da verilmiştir.
Tasarlanan betonarme kare en-kesitli kolonlarının analiz ve hesap
sonuçlarından elde edilen değerler karşılaştırmalı olarak Şekil (7)’de
verilmiştir. Kare en-kesitli betonarme kolon modellerinden elde edilen göçme
önlenmesi (GÖ), kontrollü hasar (KH) performans düzeyi için izin verilen
sargılı beton birim kısalması (𝜀3[Ö , 𝜀3YZ ) değerleri ve (𝑁/𝑁J%2 ) oranın
karşılaştırmalı grafikleri Şekil (7)’de verilmiştir. GÖ ve KH performans
düzeyi için izin verilen plastik dönme açılarının (𝜃][Ö , 𝜃]YZ ) değerleri ve
(𝑁/𝑁J%2 ) oranı karşılaştırmalı grafikleri Şekil (7)’de verilmiştir. Akma
durumu için dönme açısı (qX ) değerleri ve (𝑁/𝑁J%2 ) oranı karşılaştırmalı
([Ö) (YZ)
grafikleri Şekil (7)’de verilmiştir. TBDY (2018)’de 𝜀. = 0.4𝜀.I , 𝜀. =
([Ö) (BZ)
0.75𝜀. ve 𝜀. = 0.0075 değerleri olacak şekilde verilmiştir.
0,016 0,035
0,014 0,030
0,012
0,025
0,010
0,020 SH
0,008 SH
εc
εs
KH
KH 0,015
0,006 GÖ
GÖ
0,010
0,004
0,002 0,005
0,000 0,000
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4
N/Nmax N/Nmax
0,06
SH
0,05 KH
GÖ
0,04
ӨP
0,03
0,02
0,01
0
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4
N/Nmax
Şekil 2. Tip 1 betonarme kolonların farklı parametrelere göre (𝜀! − 𝑁/𝑁*+, , 𝜀% −

𝑁/𝑁*+, 𝑣𝑒 𝜃- − 𝑁/𝑁*+, ) karşılaştırmalı grafikleri
0,014 0,035
0,012 0,030
0,010 0,025
0,008 0,020 SH
SH
εc
εs
0,006 KH 0,015 K
GÖ H
0,004 0,010
0,002 0,005
0,000 0,000
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4
N/Nmax N/Nmax
0,06
SH
0,05 KH
GÖ
0,04
ӨP
0,03
0,02
0,01
0
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4
N/Nmax

𝑁/𝑁*+, 𝑣𝑒 𝜃- − 𝑁/𝑁*+, ) karşılaştırmalı grafikler
0,012 0,035
0,010 0,030
0,025
0,008
SH 0,020 SH
0,006
εc
εs
KH KH
0,015 GÖ
0,004 GÖ
0,010
0,002
0,005
0,000 0,000
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4
N/Nmax N/Nmax
0,06
SH
0,05 KH
GÖ
0,04
ӨP
0,03
0,02
0,01
0
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4
N/Nmax

0,010
0,035
0,008 0,030
0,025
0,006 SH 0,020
SH
εc
KH
εs
0,004 GÖ 0,015 KH
GÖ
0,010
0,002
0,005
0,000 0,000
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4
N/Nmax N/Nmax
0,06
SH
0,05 KH
GÖ
0,04
ӨP
0,03
0,02
0,01
0
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4
N/Nmax


0,035
0,010
0,030
0,009
0,008 0,025
0,007 0,020 SH
εs
0,006 KH
εc
0,015
SH GÖ
0,005
0,010
0,004
0,005
0,003
0,000
0,002
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4
N/Nmax N/Nmax
0,06
SH
0,05
0,04
ӨP
0,03
0,02
0,01
0
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4
N/Nmax

0,012 0,025
0,011
0,010 0,024
0,009
εcKH
εsKH
0,008 0,023
Tip-5
0,007
Tip-4
0,006 0,022 Tip-3
Tip-5 Tip-4 Tip-2
0,005 Tip-3 Tip-2 Tip-1
Tip-1
0,004 0,021
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4
N/Nmax N/Nmax
0,05
0,04
0,03
ӨPKH
0,02
Tip-5
Tip-4
0,01 Tip-3
Tip-2
Tip-1
0
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4
N/Nmax
0,015 0,033
0,013 0,032
0,011 0,032
εcGÖ
εsGÖ
Tip-5
0,009 0,031 Tip-4
Tip-3
0,007 Tip-5 Tip-4 0,031 Tip-2
Tip-3 Tip-2
Tip-1
Tip-1
0,005 0,030
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4
N/Nmax N/Nmax
0,06
0,05
0,04
ӨPGÖ
0,03
Tip-5
0,02
Tip-4
Tip-3
0,01
Tip-2
Tip-1
0
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4
N/Nmax
0,0120
0,0115
0,0110
0,0105
ϴy
0,0100
0,0095
Tip-5
0,0090 Tip-4
Tip-3
Tip-2
0,0085 Tip-1
0,0080
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4
N/Nmax
Şekil 7. Betonarme kare en-kesitli kolonları 𝜀!./ , 𝜀!0Ö , 𝜀%./ , 𝜀%0Ö , 𝜃-./ ve 𝜃-0Ö
değerlerinin (𝑁/𝑁*+, ) oranına göre karşılaştırmalı grafikleri
Sonuç
Betonarme kare en-kesitli kolonlar için araştırma bulgular bölümünden elde
edilen sonuçlar aşağıda maddeler halinde verilmiştir.
• Kare en-kesitli betonarme kolonlarda sabit beton basınç dayanımı, sabit
boyuna donatı oranı, sabit enine donatı çapı ve aralığı için eksenel basınç
kuvvetinin artması ile moment-eğrilik ilişkilerinden elde edilen 𝑀X , 𝑀I
ve 𝑘X değerleri artmaktadır.
• Betonarme kolonlarda sabit beton basınç dayanımı, sabit boyuna donatı
oranı, sabit enine donatı çapı ve aralığı için eksenel basınç kuvvetinin
artması ile moment-eğrilik ilişkilerinden elde edilen 𝑘I ve 𝜇 değerleri
azalmaktadır.
• Eksenel basınç kuvvetin artması ile moment-eğrilik ilişkilerinden elde
edilen 𝜃X değerleri artırmaktadır.
oranı, sabit enine donatı çapı ve aralığı için eksenel basınç kuvveti artması
ile analizlerden elde edilen sonuçlara göre GÖ ve KH performans
seviyelerinde beton ve donatı çeliğin birim deformasyon değerleri sabit
kalmaktadır.
oranı, sabit enine donatı çapı ve aralığı için eksenel basınç kuvveti artması
ile GÖ ve KH performans seviyelerinde izin verilen dönme açılarının
değerleri azalmaktadır.
oranı, sabit enine donatı çapı ve uygulanan sabit eksenel basınç kuvveti
için enine donatı aralığın artması ile akma momenti, maksimum moment,
akma eğriliği ve maksimum eğrilik değerleri azalmaktadır.
oranı, sabit enine donatı çapı ve uygulanan eksenel yük miktarı için enine
donatı aralığı artması ile hesaplanan 𝜃X değerleri azalmaktadır.
oranı, sabit enine donatı çapı ve uygulanan eksenel yük miktarı için enine
(YZ) ([Ö) (YZ)
donatısı aralığı artması ile elde edilen 𝜀3 , 𝜀3 azalmakta ve 𝜀. ve
([Ö)
𝜀. değerleri sabit kalmaktadır.
oranı, sabit enine donatı çapı ve uygulanmış eksenel yük için enine donatı
(YZ) ([Ö)
aralığı artması ile 𝜃M ve 𝜃M değerleri azalmaktadır.
• Kare en-kesitli betonarme kolonlarda uygulanan eksenel yük miktarının
artmasının akma momentine (𝑀X ), maksimum momente (𝑀I ), akma
eğriliğine (𝑘X ) ve akma dönme açılarına (θX ) etkili olduğunu
ispatlanmıştır.
• Kare en-kesitli betonarme kolonlarda enine donatı aralıklarının
azaltılmasının akma momentine (𝑀X ), maksimum momente (𝑀I ), akma
eğriliğine (𝑘X ), maksimum eğriliğe (𝑘I ), akma dönme açılarına (θX ),

eğrilik sünekliğine (𝜇), KH ve GÖ performans seviyesi beton birim
(YZ) ([Ö)
kısalmasına (𝜀3 ve 𝜀3 ) ve KH ve GÖ performans seviyesi dönme
(YZ) ([Ö)
açılarına (𝜃M ve 𝜃M ) etkili olduğunu gözlemlenmiştir.
Kaynakça
[1] ERSOY, U., ÖZCEBE, G., Betonarme. 3. dü. İstanbul: Evrim
Yayınevi, 2012.
[2] CANBAY, E., ERSOY, U., ÖZCEBE, G., SUCUOĞLU, H., WASTI,
S. T., “Binalar İçin Deprem Mühendisliği Temel İlkeler” 1. dü. Ankara: Bizim
Büro, 2008.
[3] Sönmez, İbrahim K, “Betonarme Yapı Sistemlerinde Yapısal
Performans Düzeyini Belirleyen bir Bilgisayar Programı Geliştirilmesi”
Yüksek Lisans Tezi, İTÜ Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, 2010.
[4] Çavdar, Ö., Bayraktar, E. & Çavdar. A, “Mevcut Perdeli Betonarme
Bir Yapının doğrusal Olmayan Yöntemle deprem Performansının
Belirlenmesi” International Burdur Earthquake & Environment, 2015.
[5] Ersoy. U ve Özcebe G, “Sarılmış Betonarme Kesitlerde Moment-
Eğrilik İlişkisi Analitik Bir İnceleme” Teknik Dergi, 9(4), 1998-1827, 1998.
[6] TBDY, 2018, “Türkiye Bina Deprem Yönetmeliği” T.C. Bayındırlık
ve İskân Bakanlığı, Ankara, 2018.
[7] SAP2000. “Structural software for analysis and design, Computers
and Structures” Inc. Version 20.0.0. USA.
[8] Çağlar. N, Akkaya. A, Demir. A, Öztürk. H, “Farklı Kesit
Geometrilerine Sahip Betonarme Kolonların Davranışının İncelenmesi”
ISITES2014, p. 2095-2105, Karabük/Türkiye, 2004.
[9] TS500, 2000, “Betonarme Yapıların Tasarım ve Yapım Kuralları”
Türk Standartları Enstitüsü, TSE, Ankara.
***
Boşluklu Perdelerde Bağ Kirişlerin Test edilen

Sonuçlarının Kapasite Tasarımı Sonuçları ile
Karşılaştırması.
Özet
Diğer modern deprem yönetmeliklerinde olduğu gibi, 2018 Türk
Deprem Yönetmeliği’nde de kapasite tasarımı ilkesi ve uygulamaları
geniş olarak yer almaktadır. Kapasite tasarımı, şiddetli bir deprem
hareketi altında sistemde meydana gelmesi öngörülen doğrusal-elastik
sınır ötesi davranış mekanizmasının seçilmesi ve sistemin bu
mekanizma durumuna uygun olarak davranmasını sağlayacak tasarım
önlemlerinin alınması olarak tanımlanabilir. Bu kapsamda, kapasite
tasarımına yönelik uygulamalar; daha güçlü kolon tasarımı ile yapısal
sünekliğin arttırılması ve kat mekanizmalarının oluşumunun
önlenmesi, betonarme elemanlarda ve birleşim bölgelerinde kesme
kırılmalarının meydana gelmemesinin sağlanmasıdır. Betonarme
elemanların daha yüksek bir kapasiteye sahip olacak şekilde
boyutlandırılması, boyuna ve enine donatıların uygun bir şekilde
yerleştirilmesi gerekmektedir. Bu çalışmada bağ kirişlerinin net
açıklığının kesit yüksekliğine oranı 1 ≤ 𝑙! /ℎ ≤ 4 arasında ele
alınmıştır. Bağ kirişleri genellikle iki farklı şekilde donatılmaktadır.
Kesmeye karşı daha etkili davranması için iki farklı donatı tipi olarak;
geleneksel donatılmış bağ kirişleri ve diyagonal donatılmış bağ kirişleri
tasarlanmaktadır. Çalışmada geleneksel donatılmış bağ kirişlerinin test
sonuçları ile kapasite tasarımından elde edilen sonuçlar
karşılaştırılmıştır. Test edilen deney sonuçlar ile analitik olarak elde
edilen sonuçların farkı araştırılarak yorumlanmıştır.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Bağ kirişi, Kapasite Tasarımı, Betonarme Binalar,
Doğrusal-Elastik, Süneklik
*
Bölümü, Konya / Türkiye jamal.rohullah@gmail.com
Giriş
Bağ kirişleri genellikle orta ve yüksek binalarda, merdivenler ve asansörlerin
çevresinde boşluklu perde duvarların uçlarının bağlanması amacıyla
kullanılmaktadır. Bağ kirişleri bu durumlarda iki perde ucunun
bağlanmasında ve bağ kirişli boşluklu perde duvar sistemi oluşturarak,
deprem yükleri etkisinde çok deformasyon yapmadan dayanabilmesini
sağlarlar. Deprem sırasında bağ kirişli boşluklu perde duvar sisteminin en
kritik ve zayıf bölgesi bağ kirişlerinin uçlarıdır. Bağ kirişlerinin deprem
sırasında aşırı deformasyon yapmadan sismik yüklere karşı dayanıklı olması
beklenmektedir. Bağ kirişli sistemlerde bağ kirişleri perde duvarlar ile birlikte
çalışmakta ve deprem sırasında aşırı kesme kuvvetlerine maruz
kalmaktadırlar. Bağ kirişlerinin deformasyon yapabilmesi elemanın kesme
deformasyonu yapabilme kapasitesine bağlıdır. Bu çalışmada literatürde
geleneksel donatılmış bağ kirişlerinin deneysel sonuçları bu çalışmadan elde
edilen kapasite tasarımı sonuçları ile karşılaştırmıştır.
Bağ kirişlerin pozitif etkilerinden birincisi iki perde duvarı birleştirerek kesme
etkisinin perde duvarlara aktarılmasını sağlayarak, perde duvarların eğilme
rijitliğinin artırılmasına sebep olmasıdır. İkincisi bağ kirişleri, aşırı plastik
deformasyonlara maruz kalarak sismik enerjinin yutulmasını sağlarlar.
Üçüncü ise bağ kirişli perde duvarlı taşıyıcı sistemlerin, tek perdeli taşıyıcı
sistemlere göre yanal rijitlinin fazla olmasıdır. Bağ kirişlerin tasarımında
amaç, bağ kirişlerin sünek davranmasını, aşırı deformasyona karşı daha
dayanıklı olabilmesini, fazla dönme yapabilmesini ve daha fazla enerji
tüketilmesini sağlayabilmektir. Bağ kirişleri genellikle kısa ve derin eleman
olarak tanımlanır. Düşük derinlik / uzunluk oranına sahip olduklarından
yüksek kesme kuvvetlerine maruz kalırlar. Deprem sırasında dayanım ve
rijitliklerini artırabilmek ve gevrek kırılmayı önlemek için bazı deneysel
çalışmalar yapılmıştır. Farklı araştırmacılar tarafından geleneksel donatılmış
bağ kirişlerinin test sonuçları irdelenmiştir.
Bağ kirişlerin davranışını büyük ölçüde etkileyen faktör (𝑙0 / ℎ) net açıklık /
derinlik oranıdır. Eğer net açıklık / derinlik oranı 𝑙0 / ℎ > 4 olursa bu bağ
kirişleri narin veya ince bağ kirişleri olarak tanımlanır ve düzlem kesit teorisi,
eğilme davranışının belirlenmesi için kullanılabilir. Net açıklık / derinlik oranı
𝑙0 / ℎ < 2 ikiden küçük olan bağ kirişleri ise derin bağ kirişleri olarak
tanımlanır. Bu durumda elemanlar aşırı kesme gerilmesine maruz kaldığı için
yönetmeliklere göre çapraz donatıların donatılması zorunludur. Net açıklık /
derinlik oranı 2 ≤ 𝑙0 / ℎ ≤ 4 olan bağ kirişleri normal uzunluklu bağ
kirişleridir. Normal bağ kirişleri ile ilgili literatürde çok sınırlı sayıda çalışma
vardır.[4].
Net açıklık / derinlik oranı 2 ≤ 𝑙0 / ℎ ≤ 4 arasında olan bağ kirişlerinin
donatılması ile ilgili, ACI318-14’de net bir açıklama yapılmamıştır. Net
açıklık / derinlik oranı 2 ile 4 arasında olan bağ kirişlerin donatılması inşaat
mühendislerinin kararına bırakılmıştır. Bu durumda hem diyagonal hem de
geleneksel donatılar kullanılabilmektedir. Literatür çalışmalarda, 𝑙0 /ℎ < 2
olan bağ kirişlerinin, ACI318-14’e göre diyagonal donatılar ile donatılması
önerilmiş ve bu donatıların kesme ve eğilmeye karşı çok etkili olduğu
ispatlanmıştır. 𝑙0 /ℎ > 4 olan bağ kirişlerin geleneksel kesme donatısı ile
donatılması önerilmiş ve diyagonal donatıların kesmeye karşı çok etkili
olmadığı ve geleneksel etriyelerin çok daha etkili olduğu gözlemlenmiştir [2],.
[3].
Literatürde Erwin ve arkadaşları 2016’da deneysel çalışmalarının sonucunda
normal bağ kirişlerinde çapraz donatının kesmeye karşı çok etkili olmadığını
ispatlamıştır. Normal bağ kirişlerde etriyelerin kesmeye karşı daha fazla etkili
olduğu görülmüştür. Deneysel çalışmalar sonucunda çapraz donatılmış derin
bağ kirişlerinin kesme ve eğilmeye karşı çok etkili olduğu görülmüştür.
Bu çalışmanın amacı, literatürde bulunan Brena ve İhtiyar 2011, Erwin Lim
ve arkadaşları 2016 ve Abu Bakar Nabilah ve arkadaşlarının 2016 deneysel
çalışmalarından elde edilen sonuçlara ulaşmak için kapasite tasarımı içeren
analitik bir çalışmanın yapılmasıdır. Elde edilen deneysel çalışmaların
sonuçlarına ulaşmak için kullanılmış malzeme özellikleri (beton basınç
dayanımı, boyuna ve enine donatılarının çekme dayanımı), boyuna ve enine
donatıların miktar ve oranları SAP 2000 programına tanımlanmıştır. SAP
2000 programında kullanılmış boyuna ve enine donatıların miktar ve
özellikleri, beton basınç dayanımının gerçek değerleri tanımlanmıştır. Bu
çalışmada sadece geleneksel donatılmış bağ kirişleri modellenmiştir. Elde
edilen sonuçlar deneysel çalışmalarının sonuçları ile karşılaştırılmıştır.
Tasarım parametrelerinin incelenmesi için analizlerde dikkate alınan bağ
kirişlerinin en-kesit geometrisi ve donatı yerleşim planı Şekil 1’de verilmiştir.
Materyal ve Metot
Betonarme kesitlerin moment-eğrilik ilişkilerini etkileyen ve tasarım
aşamasında birer parametre olarak düşünülen, beton basınç dayanımı, çekme
ve basınç donatısı oranı ve enine donatı oranı gibi faktörler moment-eğrilik
davranışını en çok etkileyen parametreler olarak bilinmektedir. Bu amaçla
betonarme bağ kirişleri en-kesitlerinin moment-eğrilik ilişkisi araştırılarak
akma momenti, maksimum moment ve bunlara karşılık gelen eğrilik değerleri
elde edilmiştir. Betonarme bağ kirişlerinin davranışının anlaşılabilmesi için
bağ kirişlerinin test sonuçlarından gerçek davranışın tahmin edilebilmesi
gerekmektedir. Betonarme bağ kirişlerinin doğrusal olmayan davranışına etki
eden en önemli faktör; çekme ve basınç donatısı oranı, enine donatıların çapı,
aralığı ve beton basınç dayanımıdır. Farklı en-kesit alanına sahip dikdörtgen
betonarme bağ kirişlerinin test sonuçları literatür çalışmalarından elde
edilmiştir. Betonarme bağ kirişlerinin moment-eğrilik ilişkileri gerçekçi
malzeme modellerine dayanan SAP2000 programı ile elde edilmiştir.
Modellenen bağ kirişlerinin moment eğrilik ilişkisinin grafikleri çizilerek
akma momenti 𝑀X ve maksimum momenti 𝑀I elde edilmiştir. İncelenen bağ
kirişlerin akma momenti, maksimum moment ve bunlara karşılık gelen eğrilik
değerlerinden, akma durumuna karşı gelen kesme dayanımı ve maksimum
kesme dayanımı değerleri kapasite tasarımı yöntemi ile elde edilmiştir.
Betonarme bağ kirişlerinin doğrusal olmayan davranışları dikkate alınarak
analizler SAP2000 (Ver.20.2.0) [6] programında gerçekleştirilmiştir.
Betonarme bağ kirişlerinin kesit hesabı ve tasarımı yapılırken, test edilen en-
kesitteki çekme, basınç ve enine donatıların oranları, kullanılan donatıların
çapı ve yerleşim düzeni dikkate alınarak analizler yapılmıştır. TBDY (2018)’e
göre betonarme bağ kirişlerin akma ve maksimum kesme kapasite dayanımı
Denklem (1 ve 2) ile hesaplanmıştır.
!b=
𝑉X = @(
(1)
!b>
𝑉I = @(
(2)
Denklem 1 ve 2’de 𝑉X , 𝑀X , 𝑉I , 𝑀I ve 𝑙0 sırasıyla, akma kesme kapasite
dayanımı ve momenti, maksimum kesme kapasite dayanımı ve momenti ve
elemanın net açıklığıdır. Bu çalışmada Brena ve İhtiyar 2011, Erwin Lim ve
arkadaşları 2016 ve Abu Bakar Nabilah ve arkadaşlarının 2016 deneysel
çalışmalarında geleneksel donatılmış bağ kirişlerinin test sonuçları
kullanılmıştır. Deneysel çalışmalarda farklı en-kesit boyutları, beton sınıfı,
farklı çekme ve basınç donatısı ve enine donatı miktarına sahip 12 adet farklı
betonarme bağ kirişi modeli tasarlanmıştır. Betonarme bağ kirişlerinin
modellenmesinde Türkiye Bina Deprem Yönetmeliği (TBDY, 2018) ve
Betonarme Yapıların Tasarım ve Yapım Kuralları (TS500, 2000)’de verilen
hükümler dikkate alınmıştır. Kullanılan beton ve donatıların mekanik
özellikleri Tablo 1’de verilmiştir. Betonarme bağ kiriş kesitleri için SAP2000
programında malzeme modelleri tanımlanmıştır. SAP2000 programında
tanımlanan beton ve donatı çeliği için hesaplarda ve malzeme modellerinde
kullanılan parametreler Tablo 1’de özetlenmiştir. Betonarme bağ kirişlerde
kesme kuvveti çok fazla etkili olduğu için kesme donatısının etkisi çok
fazladır. Bundan dolayı analizlerde beton modeli olarak Mander sargılı ve
sargısız beton modeli (Mander, 1988) kullanılmıştır. Şekil 1’de; CB-1, CB-2,
CB-3 ve CB-4; Brena ve arkadaşları tarafından test edilen bağ kirişleridir.

CB30-C, CB40-C, CB20-2 ve CB10-2 olarak isimlendirilen bağ kirişleri
Erwin Lim ve arkadaşları tarafından test edilmiştir. B2.5-2, B2.5-3, B3.1-2ve
B3.1-3; Abu Bakar Nabilah ve arkadaşlarının test edilen elemanları ifade
etmektedir.
a- Bağ kirişlerinin en-kesitleri. [5].
b- Bağ kirişlerinin en-kesitleri [2], [3].
c- Bağ kirişlerinin en-kesitleri [4].

Şekil 1. Tasarlanan bağ kirişlerinin en-kesitleri.
Şekil 1’de verilen bağ kirişlerinin kapasite tasarımı yöntemine göre kesme
kapasite dayanımları hesaplanmıştır. Hesaplarda ve deneylerde kullanılan
malzeme özellikleri özet olarak Tablo 1, 2 ve 3’te verilmiştir. Brena ve değ
[5]’in deneysel çalışmasında kullanılan malzeme özellikleri Tablo 1’de,

Erwin Lim ve ark [2, 3]’un deneysel çalışmasında kullanılan malzeme
özellikleri Tablo 2’de ve Abu Bakar Nabilah ve ark [4]’ün deneysel
çalışmasında kullanılan malzeme özellikleri Tablo 3’te özetlenmiştir. Tablo
1, 2 ve 3’te; d: kiriş faydalı yüksekliğini, 𝑙0 : bağ kirişi net açıklığını, 𝐴.@ bağ
kirişlerin çekme veya basınç boyuna donatı alanını, 𝑓X@ boyuna donatıların
akma dayanımını, 𝜌.@ boyuna donatı oranını, 𝐴.^ enine donatı alanını, 𝑓X^
enine donatısının akma dayanımını, 𝜌.^ enine donatının oranını, 𝑓3 beton
basınç dayanımını, S enine donatıların aralığını ve ∅ donatı çapını
gösterilmektedir.
Tablo 1. Malzeme özellikleri [5]

Enine
Boyuna donatılar
Elema donatılar
d 𝒍 𝒇𝒄 𝑬𝒄
nın 𝒍
(m (m /𝒉 (MP
(MPa) 𝑨𝒔𝒍 𝒇𝒚𝒍 𝒇𝒚𝒍 𝑨𝒔𝒘 𝒇𝒚𝒘
Adı m) m) a)
𝝆𝒔𝒍 4 5 5 %(mm
(mm (MP 𝒇𝒄 (MP
2 2
) a) ) a)
34 1, 34296
CB-1 510 39 600 517 0.69 142 524
0 3 .2
34 102 2, 34296
CB-2 39 851 448 0.99 52 607
0 0 7 .2
27 1, 32095
CB-3 510 31 860 517 1.25 142 524
0 3 .2
34 102 2, 31801
CB-4 30 400 517 0.47 142 524
0 0 7 .0
Tablo 2. Malzeme özellikleri [2], [3]
Elema 𝒇𝒄 𝑬𝒄 Donatı çeliğin akma dayanımı (MPa) ∅𝐞 /𝐒

nın (MP (MPa)

𝒍 a) ∅1 ∅2 ∅13/1
∅13 ∅25 ∅29 ∅32 ∅36
Adı /𝒉 0 2 00
CB30- 47. 3649 47 ∅13/1

3 441 - - 465 470
C 9 3.2 5 00
CB40- 58. 3875 ∅13/1

4 - 486 - - 455 -
C 0 1.3 00
CB10- 36. 3352 468 485 439 ∅13/1

1
2 1 7.1 .4 .7 .6 00
CB20- 52. 3748 450 477 ∅13/7

2 502
2 2 1.1 .3 .8 0
Tablo 3. Malzeme özellikleri [4]

Boyuna donaı Enine donatı
Kiriş 𝒍 𝒍 𝒇𝒄 𝑬𝒄
∅ 𝒇𝒚𝒍 ∅ S 𝒇𝒚𝒘
adı (mm) /𝒉 (MPa) (MPa) N
o (mm (mm (mm
) (MPa) ) ) (MPa)
B3.1 102 3, 21,7 29150.

2 150
-2 0 1 3 0
B3.1 102 3, 25,5 30418.

3 85
-3 0 1 2 1 596, 425,
12 6
6 8
B2.5 2, 31,6 32284.
825 2 110
-2 5 5 0
B2.5 2, 26,5 30758.

825 3 60
-3 5 9 8
Betonarme bağ kirişlerinde kullanılan malzeme özellikleri Tablo 1, 2 ve 3’te

verilmiştir. Betonarme bağ kirişlerinin çatlamamış kesit rijitlikleri (𝐸𝐼) kesit
geometrisi (b ve h) ve betonun elastisite modülüne (Ec) göre Denklem 5 ile
hesaplanmıştır. Beton elastisite modülü (Ec) farklı beton sınıfları için TS-500,
2000’de verilen beton karakteristik basınç dayanımına (𝑓3: ) göre Denklem 3

ile hesaplanmıştır. Betonarme bağ kirişlerinin en-kesit brüt atalet momenti
Denklem 4’e göre hesaplanmıştır.
𝐸3 = 3250¯𝑓3: + 14000
(3)
_1 ?
𝐼= #!
(4)
Denklem 3 ve 4’te Ec ve 𝑓3: sırasıyla betonun elastisite modülü ve
karakteristik basınç dayanımıdır. 𝐼; Betonarme bağ kirişlerin brüt atalet
momentidir. Tasarlanmış betonarme bağ kirişlerinin moment eğrilik
ilişkisinin grafikleri SAP 2000 programı ile elde edilmiştir. Moment-eğrilik
ilişkisinin grafikleri Şekil 2’de verilmiştir.
120
100
CB-1
80
M (kN.m)
60
40
20
0
0 0,05 0,1 0,15 0,2 0,25 0,3 0,35
K (Rad/m)
160
140
120 CB-2
100
M (kN.m)
80
60
40
20
0
0 0,05 0,1 0,15 0,2 0,25 0,3 0,35
K (Rad/m)
160
140
120 CB-3
100
M (kN.m)
80
60
40
20
0
0 0,05 0,1 0,15 0,2 0,25 0,3 0,35
K (Rad/m)
80
70
CB-4
60
50
M (kN.m)
40
30
20
10
0
0 0,05 0,1 0,15 0,2 0,25 0,3 0,35
K (Rad/m)
a- Brena ve ark [5]’te test edilen bağ kirişlerinin moment eğrilik ilişkisinin
grafikleri
400
350
300 CB10-2
250
M (kN.m)
200
150
100
50
0
0 0,05 0,1 0,15 0,2 0,25 0,3
K (Rad/m)
600
500
CB20-2
400
M (kN.m)
300
200
100
0
0 0,05 0,1 0,15 0,2 0,25 0,3
K (Rad/m)
600
500
CB30-C
400
M (kN.m)
300
200
100
0
0 0,05 0,1 0,15 0,2 0,25 0,3
K (Rad/m)
800
700
600
CB40-C
500
M (kN.m)
400
300
200
100
0
0 0,05 0,1 0,15 0,2 0,25 0,3
K (Rad/m)
b- Erwin ve ark [2, 3]’ta test edilen bağ kirişlerin moment eğrilik ilişkisinin
grafikleri
45
40
35 B3.1-2
30
M (kN.m)
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 0,05 0,1 0,15 0,2 0,25 0,3 0,35
K (Rad/m)
70
60
50 B3.1-3
M (kN.m)
40
30
20
10
0
0 0,05 0,1 0,15 0,2 0,25 0,3 0,35
K (Rad/m)
45
40
35 B2.5-2
30
M (kN.m)
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 0,05 0,1 0,15 0,2 0,25 0,3 0,35
K (rad/m)
70
60
50 B2…
M (kN.m)
40
30
20
10
0
0 0,05 0,1 0,15 0,2 0,25 0,3 0,35
K (Rad/m)
c- Abu Bakar ve ark [4]’te test edilen bağ kirişlerin moment eğrilik ilişkisinin
grafikleri
Şekil 2. Bağ kirişlerin moment eğrilik ilişkisinin grafikleri.
Çatlamamış betonarme bağ kirişlerinin eğilme rijitliği Denklem 5 ve etkin

eğilme rijitliği Denklem 6’ya göre hesaplanmıştır. Denklem 5’te 𝐸3 beton
elastisite modülü ve 𝐸𝐼 çatlamamış kesitlerin eğilme rijitliğidir. Denklem 6’da
𝑀X bağ kirişlerinin akma anındaki kapasite momenti ve 𝑘X akma eğriliğidir.
𝐸𝐼 = 𝐸3 𝐼
(5)
b=
𝐸𝐼5 =
:=
(6)
Betonarme bağ kirişlerinin etkin rijitlik çarpanları (𝑘5 ); hesaplanan etkin
eğilme rijitliğinin çatlamamış kesitlerin eğilme rijitliklerine oranı olarak
tanımlanır. Betonarme bağ kirişlerinin etkin rijitlik çarpanları Denklem 7’e
göre hesaplanmıştır.
cS&
𝑘5 =
cS
(7)
Denklem 7’de 𝐸𝐼5 ve 𝐸𝐼 sırasıyla etkin eğilme rijitliği ve çatlamamış
kesitlerinin eğilme rijitliğidir. Plastik mafsal uzunluğu ve bağ kirişlerinin net
açıklığı sırasıyla Denklem 8 ve 9’e göre hesaplanmıştır.
𝑙" = 0,5𝑑
(8)
@@
𝑙0 = 𝑙 −
!
(9)
Denklem 8 ve 9’da; d bağ kirişlerinin faydalı yüksekliği, l bağ kirişlerinin
uzunluğu, 𝑙M bağ kirişlerde plastik mafsal uzunluğu ve 𝑙0 bağ kirişlerinin net
açıklığıdır.
Bağ kirişlerinin akma momentleri ve maksimum moment taşıma kapasiteleri
SAP 2000 programından elde edilen moment eğrilik ilişkisi sonuçlarından
elde edilerek Tablo 4’te verilmiştir. Bağ kirişlerinin akma ve maksimum
kesme taşıma kapasitesini elde etmek için bağ kirişlerinin plastik mafsal
uzunluğu ve net açıklığı Denklem 8 ve 9’e göre hesaplanmıştır. Betonarme
bağ kirişlerinin akma ve maksimum kesme taşıma kapasitesi Denklem 1 ve
2’ye göre hesaplanmıştır. Tüm elemanlarda hesaplanmış akma ve maksimum
kesme taşıma kapasite dayanımları Tablo 4’te verilmiştir.
Tablo 4. Bağ kirişlerinin moment-eğrilik ilişkilerinden elde edilen akma ve

maksimum moment ve kesme taşıma kapasiteleri
𝒍𝒏
Eleman 𝑴𝒚 𝑴𝒖 𝒍𝑷 =𝒍
Araştırm ın 𝒍 𝑽𝒚 𝑽𝒖
(kN.
= 𝟎, 𝟓𝒅 𝒍𝑷
acı (kN. (m) − (kN) (kN)
adı m) m) (m) 𝟐
(m)
110. 0.5 0.4

CB-1 93.3 0.17 438.9 518.4
2 1 3
112. 141. 1.0 0.9

CB-2 0.17 240.7 301.5
Brena 6 0 2 4
2011 106. 138. 0.5 0.4
CB-3 0.17 500.4 653.6
3 9 1 3
1.0 0.9
CB-4 60.9 73.4 0.17 130.3 157.0
2 4
462. 534. 1.5 1.3

CB30-C 0.22 616.1 712.9
1 6 0 9
568. 667. 2.0 1.8

CB40-C 0.22 568.8 667.5
Erwin 8 5 0 9
2016 302. 364. 0.5 0.3 1211. 1455.
CB10-2 0.22
8 0 0 9 0 9
452. 549. 1.0 0.8 1098.

CB20-2 0.22 904.4
2 5 0 9 9
1.0 0.9
B3.1-2 36.0 40.4 0.15 76.3 85.5
2 4
1.0 0.9
Abu Bekir B3.1-3 53.5 60.5 0.15 113.3 128.2
2 4
2016
0.8 0.7
B2.5-2 36.5 40.3 0.15 97.5 107.7
3 5
B2.5-3 53.2 60.5 0.8 0.15 0.7 142.1 161.5

3 5
Araştırma Bulguları ve Tartışma

Bağ kirişlerinin akma ve maksimum kesme taşıma kapasitelerinin analitik ve
deneysel sonuçlarının değerleri karşılaştırmalı olarak Tablo 5 ve Şekil 3’te
verilmiştir. Bağ kirişlerinin eğilme rijitliği, etkin (çatlamış) eğilme rijitliği ve
rijitlik çarpanları Denklem 5, 6, ve 7’ye göre hesaplanmıştır. Hesaplanan
çatlamamış eğilme rijitliği, etkin eğilme rijitliği ve rijitlik çarpanları
karşılaştırmalı olarak Tablo 5’te verilmiştir. Bağ kirişlerinin deneysel olarak
elde edilen akma ve maksimum duruma karşı gelen kesme taşıma kapasiteleri
moment eğrilik analizlerinden elde edilen sonuçlarla karşılaştırılarak Şekil
3’te verilmiştir. Şekil 3’te grafiklerde D indisi deneysel çalışmalardan elde
edilen sonuçları, S indisi sayısal çalışmalardan elde edilen sonuçları temsil
etmektedir.
Tablo 5. Analitik ve deneysel yöntemler ile elde edilen bağ kirişlerinin akma
ve maksimum kesme taşıma kapasitesi, eğilme rijitliği, etkin eğilme rijitliği
ve rijitlik çarpanları
Bağ kirişlerin eğilme

Elde edilmiş
Deneysel rijitliği, etkin eğilme
sayısal
sonuçları rijitliği ve rijitlik
Elemanı sonuçları
çarpanları.
n adı
𝐕𝐲 𝐕𝐮 𝐕𝐲 𝐕𝐮
𝑬𝑰 𝑬𝑰𝒆 𝒌𝒆
(kN) (kN) (kN) (kN)
414. 0.2
CB-1 438.9 518.4 478.0 39206.3 8968.3
0 3
226. 12085. 0.3

CB-2 240.7 301.5 275.0 39206.3
0 3 1
409. 0.2
CB-3 500.4 653.6 506.0 36690.2 9755.0
0 7
142. 0.1
CB-4 130.3 157.0 240.0 36353.8 6031.7
0 7
114041. 54104. 0.4

CB30-C 616.1 712.9 682.2
2 2 7
161463. 69445. 0.4

CB40-C 568.8 667.5 668.7
6 7 3
1211. 1455. 35285. 0.4

CB10-2 873.6 87310.1
0 9 5 0
1098. 1098. 117128. 54878. 0.4

CB20-2 904.4
9 0 5 6 7
0.1
B3.1-2 76.3 85.5 75.4 85.6 15713.5 2749.6
7
115. 0.2
B3.1-3 113.3 128.2 125.4 16397.0 3932.4
2 4
0.1
B2.5-2 97.5 107.7 90.0 111.1 17402.8 2810.8
6
144. 0.2
B2.5-3 142.1 161.5 164.3 16580.7 3943.7
2 4
600,0
500,0
400,0 CB-4-D
CB-4-S
CB-3-D
300,0
CB-3-S
CB-2-D
200,0
CB-2-S
100,0
CB-1-D
0,0 CB-1-S
BRENA Qy
700,0
600,0
500,0 CB-4-D
CB-4-S
400,0 CB-3-D
300,0 CB-3-S
CB-2-D
200,0 CB-2-S
100,0 CB-1-D
CB-1-S
0,0
BRENA Qu
a- Bağ kirişlerinin deneysel (Brena ve ark., 2011) ve sayısal olarak elde edilen
akma ve maksimum kesme taşıma kapasitelerinin karşılaştırılması
1400,0
1200,0
1000,0 CB20-2-D
800,0 CB20-2-S
CB10-2-D
600,0
CB10-2-S
400,0
CB30-C-D
200,0
CB30-C-S
0,0
ERWİN Qy
1600,0
1400,0
1200,0
1000,0 CB20-2-D
CB20-2-S
800,0 CB10-2-D
600,0 CB10-2-S
CB40-C-D
400,0 CB40-C-S
200,0 CB30-C-D
CB30-C-S
0,0
ERWİN Qu
b- Bağ kirişlerinin deneysel (Erwin ve ark., 2016) ve sayısal olarak elde edilen
akma ve maksimum kesme taşıma kapasitelerinin karşılaştırılması
160,0
140,0
120,0
B2.5-3-D
100,0
B2.5-3-S
80,0 B2.5-2-D
60,0 B2.5-2-S
B3.1-3-D
40,0 B3.1-3-S
20,0 B3.1-2-D
B3.1-2-S
0,0
ABU BAKİR Qy
180,0
160,0
140,0 B2.5-3-D
120,0 B2.5-3-S
100,0 B2.5-2-D
80,0 B2.5-2-S
60,0 B3.1-3-D
40,0 B3.1-3-S
B3.1-2-D
20,0
B3.1-2-S
0,0
ABU BAKİR Qu
c- Bağ kirişlerinin deneysel (Abu Bekir ve ark., 2016) ve sayısal olarak elde
edilen akma ve maksimum kesme taşıma kapasitelerinin karşılaştırılması
Şekil 3. Bağ kirişlerinin akma ve maksimum kesme taşıma kapasitelerin
karşılaştırması
Sonuç ve Öneriler
Betonarme bağ kirişleri için elde edilen sonuçlar aşağıdaki gibi özetlenmiştir.
Brena ve arkadaşları 2011 çalışmasında; CB-1 elemanında analitik olarak elde
edilen akma ve maksimum kesme taşıma kapasiteleri sırasıyla deneysel
çalışmanın sonuçlarından yaklaşık olarak %5.7 ve %7.8 daha fazla elde
edilmiştir. CB-2 elemanında elde edilen akma ve maksimum kesme taşıma
kapasitesi deneysel sonuçlarına göre yaklaşık olarak %6.1 ve %8.8 daha fazla
elde edilmiştir. CB-3 elemanında elde edilmiş akma ve maksimum kesme
taşıma kapasitesi deneysel sonuçlarına göre yaklaşık olarak %18.3 ve %22.6
daha fazla elde edilmiştir. CB-4 elemanın elde edilmiş akma ve maksimum
kesme kapasitesi deneysel sonuçlarından yaklaşık olarak %9 ve %52.9 daha
az elde edilmiştir. Brena ve arkadaşlarının deneysel çalışmasında elemanların
rijitlik çarpanları 0.17’ten 0.31’ye kadar değişmektedir.
Erwin ve arkadaşları 2016 çalışmasında; akma kesme kapasite dayanımının
deneysel sonuçlarında verilmemiştir. Sadece maksimum kesme taşıma
kapasitesi verilmiştir. CB30-C elemanın maksimum kesme kapasitesi
deneysel sonuçlarından yaklaşık olarak %4.3 fazla elde edilmiştir. CB40-C
elemanın maksimum kesme kapasitesi deneysel sonuçlara göre %0.2 daha az
elde edilmiştir. CB10-2 elemanın maksimum kesme kapasitesi deneysel
sonuçlarından elde edilmiş değerlerden %40 daha fazla elde edilmiştir. CB20-
2 elemanın maksimum kesme kapasitesi deneysel sonuçlardan elde edilmiş
değerlerden yaklaşık olarak %0.1 daha fazla elde edilmiştir. Erwin ve
arkadaşların 2016 bağ kiriş elemanlarında rijitlik çarpanları yaklaşık olarak
0.40-0.47 civarından elde edilmiştir.
Abu Bekir ve arkadaşları 2016 çalışmasında; B3.1-2 elemanın akma kesme
kapasitesi deneysel sonuçlara göre %1.2 fazla ve maksimum kesme kapasitesi
yaklaşık olarak %0.2 daha az elde edilmiştir. B3.1-3 bağ kirişi için akma ve
maksimum kesme kapasitesi deneysel sonuçlarına göre %1.7 az ve %2.2 daha
fazla elde edilmiştir. B2.5-2 bağ kirişi için akma ve maksimum kesme
kapasitesi dayanımı deneysel sonuçlarına göre %7.7 fazla ve %3.2 daha az
elde edilmiştir. B2.5-3 elemanında akma ve maksimum kesme kapasitesi
deneysel sonuçlarından elde edilmiş değerlerden %1.5 ve %1.8 daha az elde
edilmiştir. Abu Bekir ve arkadaşlarının elemanlarında rijitlik çarpanları 0.16-
0.24 civarında elde edilmiştir.
Kaynakça
[1] ASCE standard, ASCE/SEI 41-17, “Seismic rehabilitation of existing
buildings/ American Society of Civil Engineers”. Reston. Va, American
Society of Civil Engineers, 2017.
[2] L. Erwin, H. Yu. Chang and other. “An investigation on seismic
behavior of deep reinforced concrete coupling beams”. ACI Structural
journal, Title No 113-S20, 2016.
[3] L. Erwin, S. J. Hwang and other. “Cyclic tests of reinforced concrete
coupling beam with intermediate span-depth ratio”. ACI Structural journal,
Title No 113-S43, 2016.
[4] N. Abu Bakar and G. K. Chan, “Experimental Study of Intermediate
Length Coupling Beams subjected to Monotonic Load.” KSCE Journal of
Civil Engineering 21(7):2807-2813, 2017.
[5] S. F Breña, O. Ihtiyar, “Performance of conventionally reinforced

coupling beams subjected to cyclic loading”. J Struct Eng, 137:665–76, 2011.
[6] SAP2000 v20.2.0, “Structural Analysis Program, Computers and
Structures Inc.”, Berkeley, California, 2018.
[7] TBDY, 2018, “Türkiye Bina Deprem Yönetmeliği”, T.C. Bayındırlık
ve İskan Bakanlığı, Ankara.
[8] TS 500, 2000, “Betonarme Yapıların Tasarım ve Yapım Kuralları”,
Türk Standartları Enstitüsü, Ankara.
***
Kare En-Kesitli Betonarme Kolonlarda Enine Donatı

Aralıklarının ve Eksenel Yük Değişiminin Moment-
Eğrilik
Rohullah Jamal, S, Bahadır Yüksel*
Özet
Betonarme elemanların eğrilik sünekliğinin doğru tahmini, sismik yükler
altında binaların kapasitesinin güvenilir bir tahminini sağladığı için her zaman
çekici bir çalışma konusu olmuştur. Bu çalışmada; malzeme modelinin,
eksenel yükün ve sargı donatı oranının betonarme kolonların davranışı
üzerindeki etkisi analitik olarak araştırılmıştır. Kolonların tasarımında, beton
sınıfı C30 ve donatı sınıfı B420C olarak alınmıştır. Bu amaçla, 5 tip toplam
25 adet farklı parametrelere sahip olan kare en-kesitli betonarme kolon
tasarlanmıştır. Kolonların davranışı, malzemelerin doğrusal olmayan
davranışları göz önüne alınarak moment-eğrilik ilişkililerinden elde
edilmiştir. Kolon kesitlerinin tasarımında sargılı ve sargısız beton modeli
kullanılmıştır. Analiz sonuçları kullanılarak akma ve kırılma durumunda
moment-eğrilik değerleri, eğrilik sünekliği ve etkin rijitliği elde edilmiştir.
Analiz sonuçlarından farklı parametrelerden elde edilen verilerin sonuçları
Tablolar halinde sunulmuş ve sonuçlar değerlendirilmiştir. Kare kesitli
kolonların davranışı, eğrilik sünekliği, etkin rijitliği, akma ve kırılma
momentlerinin değerlerinden yararlanarak yorumlanmıştır. Tasarlanan
betonarme kolon kesitlerde, farklı parametrelerin moment eğrilik ilişkisi,
sünekliği ve etkin rijitlik üzerindeki etkisi hesaplanarak karşılaştırılmıştır.
Eksenel yükün ve sargı donatı oranının değişiminin, betonarme kolonların
moment-eğrilik davranışı üzerinde önemli bir etkiye sahip olduğunu
gözlemlenmiştir. Çatlamış kesitin etkin rijitliği sabit olmazsa da, sargı donatı
oranı ve kesit üzerine etki eden eksenel yük gibi parametrelere bağlı olarak
değişmektedir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Moment-Eğrilik, Akma Momenti, Kırılma Momenti,
Doğrusal Olmayan Davranışı, Sargısız Beton, Sargılı Beton, Eğrilik Sünekliği
Ve Etkin Rijitliği
* Konya Teknik Üniversitesi, Mühendislik ve Doğa Bilimleri Fakültesi, İnşaat Mühendisliği

Bölümü, Konya / Türkiye * jamal.rohullah@gmail.com , sbyuksel@ktun.edu.tr
Giriş
belirlemektedir. Kesit davranışı ise kesitte kullanılan malzeme, kesitin
belirlenebilir [1]. Kesitin rijitlik ve dayanımının nasıl değiştiği, kesit
davranışının süneklik durumu gibi olaylar yine moment-eğrilik ilişkisi
üzerinden izlenebilir [2]. Yapıların depreme karşı dayanıklı olabilmesi için,
yapı elemanlarının yeterli dayanımlarının yanında bu dayanımlarını
sürdürebilmeleri için elemanların sünek olmaları gerekmektedir. Betonarme
kolon davranışının kavranabilmesi, kesit davranışının iyi bilinmesi ile
mümkündür. Kesit davranışı ise, en sağlıklı biçimde moment-eğrilik ilişkisi
üzerinden elde edilir [3]. Genellikle, kırılgan kırılmayı önlemek ve özellikle
sismik koşullar altında yumuşak bir davranış sağlamak için yeterli eğrilik
süneklik kapasitesine sahip betonarme bir elemanın tasarlanması arzu edilir.
İlk olarak, lineer olmayan davranışların daha iyi anlaşılması için gerilme-şekil
değiştirme ilişkileri, sargılı ve sargısız beton modelleri, moment-eğrilik
ilişkisi hakkında bilgi verilmektedir [4].
Genel olarak süneklik, bir malzeme, kesit, yapısal eleman veya yapının yük
taşıma kapasitesinde büyük bir azalma olmadan aşırı plastik deformasyona
uğrama kapasitesi olarak tanımlanır [5]. Betonarme elemanların kritik en-
kesitlerinin moment-eğrilik ilişkileri, betonarme yapıların doğrusal olmayan
analizi için gereklidir. Gerçekçi moment-eğrilik ilişkileri ancak sargılı ve
sargısız beton için ve en-kesit moment eğrilik analizi sırasında donatı için
gerçek malzeme özelliklerin kullanılarak elde edilebilir [6].
Betonarme kolonların doğrusal olmayan davranışına etki eden faktörler;
boyuna donatı oranı, enine donatı çapı, aralığı ve betonun basınç dayanımıdır.
Kare en-kesitli betonarme kolonlarda enine donatı aralığının ve eksenel yük
miktarının moment-eğrilik ilişkisine olan etkisi araştırılmıştır. İncelenen
parametrelerin davranışa etkileri, akma ve kırılma durumunda moment ve
eğrilik değerleri, eğrilik sünekliği ve etkin rijitlik değerleri üzerinden
değerlendirilmiştir. Farklı parametrelerde tasarlanan kare en-kesitli
betonarme kolon modelleri için elde edilen moment-eğrilik eğrileri
karşılaştırarak yorumlanmıştır. Betonarme elemanların doğrusal olmayan
davranışları dikkate alınarak analizler SAP2000 (Ver.20.2.0) [7] programında
gerçekleştirilmiştir. Betonarme kolon kesit hesabı ve tasarımı yapılırken
dikkat edilmesi gereken en önemli husus, elde edilen kesitteki boyuna donatı
oranının, TS500’e göre %1 ile %4 arasında olmasını sağlamaktır. Bu koşul
yönetmeliklerce zorunlu olduğu için bu çalışmada TS500 (2000) [8]’de
verilen sınır değerler dikkate alınmıştır. Sabit boyuna donatı miktarı, beton
sınıfı ve enine donatı çapına sahip, farklı enine donatı aralığı ve eksenel basınç
kuvvetine maruz toplam 5 tip 25 adet betonarme kare en-kesitli kolon modeli
tasarlanmıştır.
Çalışmada betonarme kolon modellerinin tasarımında Türkiye Bina Deprem
Yönetmeliği (TBDY, 2018) [9] ve Betonarme Yapıların Tasarım ve Yapım
Kuralları (TS500, 2000) [8]’de verilen hükümler dikkate alınmıştır. Farklı
parametrelerde tasarlanan betonarme kolon modellerinde boyuna donatı
8Ф16mm, enine donatı çapı Ф8mm, beton sınıfı C30, boyuna ve enine donatı
sınıfı B420C olacak şekilde dikkate alınmıştır. İncelenen parametrelerin
davranışa etkileri, eğrilik sünekliği, etkin rijitliği ve kolon taşıma gücü
momentleri üzerinden değerlendirilmiş ve karşılaştırarak yorumlanmıştır.
Betonarme kolon kesitleri için SAP2000 programında malzeme modelleri
tanımlanmıştır. SAP2000 programında tanımlanan beton ve donatı çeliği için
hesaplarda ve malzeme modellerinde kullanılan parametreler Tablo (1)’de
özetlenmiştir. Kolonlarda eksenel yükün maksimum değeri TBDY2018’e
göre 𝑁KJ ≤ 0.4 × 𝐴3 × 𝑓3: olacak şekilde sınırlandırılmıştır. Betonarme
kolonların analizlerinde eksenel yükün değeri N=0, N=0.1Nd, N=0.2Nd,
N=0.3Nd ve N=0.4Nd olarak alınmıştır. Betonarme kolonlarda eksenel yük
önemli bir parametre olduğu için sargı donatısının etkisi çok önemlidir.
Bundan dolayı analizlerde beton modeli olarak Mander sargılı ve sargısız
beton modeli [10] kullanılmıştır.
Materyal ve Metot
Betonarme kesitlerin moment-eğrilik ilişkisini etkileyen ve tasarım
aşamasında birer parametre olacak şekilde düşünülen, beton basınç dayanımı,
boyuna donatı oranı ve enine donatı miktar ve aralığı gibi faktörlerin moment-
eğrilik ilişkisine olan etkisinin incelenmesi bu çalışmanın amacını
oluşturmaktadır. Bu amaçla kolon kesitlerinin moment-eğrilik ilişkisi
araştırılarak akma ve kırılma durumunda moment ve eğrilik değerleri, eğrilik
sünekliği ve etkin rijitlik değerleri elde edilmiştir. Elde edilen moment-eğrilik
ilişkileri farklı parametrelere göre karşılaştırmalı olarak grafikler halinde
sunulmuştur. Moment-eğrilik ilişkilerinden elde edilen değerler Tablolar
halinde karşılaştırmalı olarak özetlenmiştir. Kolon en-kesit boyutları ve
donatı yerleşim planı Şekil 1’de verilmiştir. Şekil 1’de 𝐴. ; boyuna donatı
alanı, 𝑏 𝑣𝑒 ℎ sırasıyla kolon en-kesit genişliği ve yüksekliğidir. Her
betonarme kolon modeli için beş farklı eksenel yük seviyesi ve beş farklı sargı
donatı aralığı (50mm, 75mm, 100mm, 125mm ve 150mm) kullanılmıştır.
Boyuna donatı miktarı (8F16mm) ve sargı donatı çapı (F8mm) sabit olarak
dikkate alınmıştır. Bu amaçla 5 tip halinde toplam 25 adet farklı parametrelere
sahip betonarme kolon modelinin moment-eğrilik analizi yapılmıştır.
Şekil 1. Tasarlanan kolon modellerinin en-kesit boyutları ve donatı yerleşim

planı
Bu çalışmada beton sınıfı, boyuna donatı oranı ve enine donatı çapı sabit
alınmış, enine donatı aralıkları ve uygulanan eksenel basınç kuvvetleri
değiştirilerek toplam 5 tip 25 adet kare en-kesitli kolon tasarlanmıştır.
Tasarlanan kolonların özellikleri Tablo (2)’de özetlenmiştir. Betonarme
kesitlerde süneklik, kesitin dayanımında önemli bir azalma olmadan
yapabileceği doğrusal ötesi deformasyon kapasitesi olarak tanımlanır. Sayısal
olarak ise eğrilik sünekliği (𝜇), eğrilik süneklik oranı (𝜇4 ) olacak şekilde
Denklem (1) ile ifade edilir. Eğrilik sünekliği, kesitin kırılma anında yaptığı
eğriliğin (𝑘I ), çekme donatısının aktığı anda kesitte oluşan eğriliğe (𝑘X ) oranı
olarak tanımlanmaktadır.
𝑘I
𝜇= , µk
𝑘X
µk-/
= (1)
µk-#
Denklem (1)’de µk , µk-/ , 𝑀X ve 𝑘X sırasıyla eksenel basınç kuvveti
olamayan (N=0) betonarme kolonların eğrilik sünekliği, dört farklı eksenel
basınç kuvvetine sahip olan kolonların (N=0.1Nd, N=0.2Nd, N=0.3Nd ve
N=0.4Nd) eğrilik sünekliği, akma momenti ve akma eğriliğidir. Güncel
yönetmeliklere göre yapıların deprem performanslarının belirlenmesinde
tasarım aşamasında betonarme taşıyıcı elemanlarda çatlamış kesite ait etkin
kesit rijitliklerinin kullanılması istenmektedir. Betonarme kesitlerde çatlamış
kesite ait etkin kesit rijitlikleri (𝐸𝐼5 ), moment-eğrilik ilişkileri göz önüne
alınarak, akma momenti (𝑀X ) ve akma eğriliğine (𝑘X ) karşılık gelen (𝑀X /k X )
oranı ile belirlenir. 𝐸𝐼5 sabit olmayıp ve kesitin boyutu, beton basınç dayanımı
ve kesite etkiyen eksenel kuvvet gibi parametrelere bağlıdır. Betonarme
kolonların brüt atalet momenti (𝐼) ve betonun elastisite modülü (Ec) değerleri
kullanılarak çatlamamış kesit rijitlikleri (𝐸𝐼) hesaplanmıştır. Beton sınıfları
için TS500’de [8] verilen beton karakteristik basınç dayanımlarına (𝑓3: ) göre
Ec değerleri hesaplanmıştır (𝐸3 = 3250 + ¯𝑓3: + 14000). Betonarme
taşıyıcı sistemlerin etkin kesit rijitliklerinin hesaplanmasında, gerçekçi
yollardan birisi de moment-eğrilik ilişkilerinin kullanılmasıdır. Betonarme
elemanların etkin rijitlik katsayısı; 𝑘5 = 𝐸𝐼5 /𝐸𝐼 olarak hesaplanmaktadır.
Hesaplanan etkin eğilme rijitliğe göre betonarme kolonların farklı
parametreler için etkin eğilme rijitlik oranları (𝐸𝐼k ) Denklem (2) ile
hesaplanmıştır. Denklem (2)’de 𝐸𝐼5-# ; eksenel basınç kuvveti olamayan
(N=0) betonarme kolonların etkin eğilme rijitliği değeri, 𝐸𝐼5-/ ; 4 farklı
eksenel basınç kuvvetine sahip olan kolonların etkin eğilme rijitliği
değerleridir.
𝐸𝐼k
𝐸𝐼5-/
= (2)
𝐸𝐼5-#
Betonarme kolon kesitlerinde moment-eğrilik ilişkilerinden elde edilen akma
ve kırılma durumları için moment (𝑀X , 𝑀I ) değerlerine göre farklı
parametrelere sahip kolon modelleri için 𝑀X/ /𝑀X# ve 𝑀I/ /𝑀I# değerleri
hesaplanmıştır. 𝑀X# ve 𝑀I# ; eksenel basınç kuvveti olmayan (N=0)
betonarme kolonların akma ve kırılma momentleridir. 𝑀X/ ve 𝑀I/ ; 4 farklı
eksenel basınç kuvvetine sahip olan kolonların akma ve kırılma
momentleridir.
Tablo 1. Malzeme modellerinde kullanılan parametreler (TBDY, 2018)
Sargısız betonun maksimum gerilmeye ulaştığı

0.002
birim şekil değiştirme değeri (εco)
Beton
Sınıfı: Sargısız betonun nihai birim şekil-değiştirmesi
0.0035
C30 (εcu)
Karakteristik beton basınç dayanımı (fck) 30MPa
Donatı Donatı çeliğinin akma birim şekil değiştirmesi (εsy) 0.0021

Çeliği: Donatı çeliğinin pekleşme birim şekil değiştirmesi
B420C 0.008
(εsp)
Donatı çeliğinin kopma birim şekil değiştirmesi

0.08
(εsu)
Donatı çeliğinin karakteristik akma dayanımı (fyk) 420MPa
Donatı çeliğinin karakteristik kopma dayanımı (fsu) 550MPa
Tablo 2. Tip-1, 2, 3, 4 ve 5 olarak tasarlanan kolon modellerine ait

parametreler.
𝑨𝒔 Eksenel
Kesit Kesit Beton Enine
basınç
Grubu No Sınıfı (𝒎𝒎𝟐 ) donatı
kuvvet
C1-0 0.0
C1-0.1 0.1Nd
Tip-1 C1-0.2 0.2Nd Ф8/50
C1-0.3 0.3Nd
C1-0.4 0.4Nd
C2-0 (8Φ16) 0.0

C30
C2-0.1 1608.5 0.1Nd
Tip-2 C2-0.2 0.2Nd Ф8/75
C2-0.3 0.3Nd
C2-0.4 0.4Nd
C3-0 0.0
Tip-3 Ф8/100
C3-0.1 0.1Nd
C3-0.2 0.2Nd
C3-0.3 0.3Nd
C3-0.4 0.4Nd
C4-0 0.0
C4-0.1 0.1Nd
Tip-4 C4-0.2 0.2Nd Ф8/125
C4-0.3 0.3Nd
C4-0.4 0.4Nd
C5-0 0.0
C5-0.1 0.1Nd
Tip-5 C5-0.2 0.2Nd Ф8/150
C5-0.3 0.3Nd
C5-0.4 0.4Nd
Analitik Çalışma
Betonarme kolonların doğrusal olmayan davranışının incelenerek bu
davranışı etkileyen parametrelerin araştırması yapılmıştır. Betonarme kolon
elemanlarının davranışı moment-eğrilik ilişkisinden incelenmiştir. Betonarme
kolon kesitlerinin moment-eğrilik ilişkileri gerçekçi malzeme modellerine
dayanan SAP2000 programı ile elde edilmiştir. Analitik çalışmanın
kapsamında 5 tip toplam 25 adet farklı parametrelere sahip betonarme kolon
modellerinin analiz ve hesaplamaları yapılarak moment-eğrilik ilişkisinin
grafikleri karşılaştırmalı olacak şekilde verilmiştir. Elde edilen sonuçlar
karşılaştırmalı olarak Tablolar halinde özetlenmiştir. Farklı parametrelere
göre incelenen kare en-kesitli kolon modelleri için analizlerden elde edilen
moment-eğrilik grafikleri Şekil 2’de verilmiştir.
300
Tip-1
250
200
M (kN.m)
150
C1-0.4
100
C1-0.3
C1-0.2
50 C1-0.1
C1-0
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
K (Radx1000/m)
300
Tip-2
250
200
M (kN.m)
150
100 C2-0.4
C2-0.3
C2-0.2
50 C2-0.1
C2-0
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
K (Radx1000/m)
300
Tip-3
250
200
M (kN.m)
150
100 C3-0.4
C3-0.3
C3-0.2
50
C3-0.1
C3-0
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
K (Radx1000/m)
300
Tip-4
250
200
M (kN.m)
150
100 C4-0.4
C4-0.3
C4-0.2
50
C4-0.1
C4-0
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
K (Radx1000/m)
300
Tip-5
250
200
M (kN.m)
150
100 C5-0.4
C5-0.3
C5-0.2
50 C5-0.1
C5-0
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
K (Radx1000/m)
Şekil 2. Tip-1, 2, 3, 4 ve 5 olarak tasarlanan kolon modellerine ait

karşılaştırmalı moment eğrilik grafikleri.
Betonarme kolon kesitlerinde akma ve maksimum durumları için moment

(𝑀X , 𝑀I ) ve eğrilik (𝐾X , 𝐾I ) değerleri, 𝑀X/ /𝑀X# oranları, 𝑀I/ /𝑀I# oranları,
etkin eğilme rijitlikleri (𝐸𝐼5 ), etkin eğilme rijitlik oranları (𝐸𝐼k ), eğrilik
sünekliği (µ) ve eğrilik süneklik oranları (µk ) Tablo (3-7)’de özetlenmiştir.
Betonarme kare en-kesitli kolonların çatlamamış eğilme rijitliğinin değerleri
Tablo 8’de verilmiştir. Tablolarda moment (𝑀X , 𝑀I ) değerleri; 𝑘𝑁𝑚, eğrilik
(𝐾X , 𝐾I ) değerleri 𝑅𝑎𝑑 × 10l /𝑚 ve etkin eğilme rijitliği (𝐸𝐼5 ); 𝑘𝑁𝑚! olarak
verilmiştir.
Tablo 3. Tip-1 olarak tasarlanan kolon modellerine ait analiz sonuçları.
Akma anında Kırılma anında

Kes
it 𝑀& 𝐾& 𝑀# 𝐾# 𝐸𝐼9 𝐸𝐼: µ µ:
𝑀&; 𝑀#;
No (kN, (rad/k /𝑀&< (kN, (rad/k /𝑀#<
m) m) m) m)
C1- 1.0 131.0 1.0 12180 1.0 41. 1.0

101.1 8.3 345.5
0 0 6 0 .7 0 6 0
C1- 1.6 188.1 1.4 16936 1.3 31. 0.7

166.0 9.8 310.9
0.1 4 3 4 .7 9 7 6
C1- 2.1 237.3 1.8 19083 1.5 22. 0.5

219.5 11.5 260.3
0.2 7 05 1 .5 7 6 4
C1- 2.5 266.8 2.0 20541 1.6 17. 0.4

260.9 12.7 225.6
0.3 8 2 4 .7 9 8 3
C1- 2.7 286.9 2.1 21161 1.7 15. 0.3

275.1 13.0 197.3
0.4 2 8 9 .5 4 2 6

Ke
sit 𝑀X 𝐾X 𝑀I 𝐾I µ µk
𝑀X/ 𝑀I/ 𝐸𝐼5 𝐸𝐼k
No (kN, (rad/k /𝑀X# (kN, (rad/k /𝑀I#
m) m) m) m)
C2- 100. 1.0 130.4 1.0 1229 1. 40 1.

8.2 335.4
0 8 0 56 0 8.0 00 .9 00
C2- 165. 1.6 187.1 1.4 1695 1. 28 0.

9.8 280.8
0.1 3 4 48 3 7.7 38 .8 70
C2- 218. 2.1 235.3 1.8 1908 1. 19 0.

11.5 220.5
0.2 6 7 59 0 8.5 55 .3 47
C2- 259. 2.5 263.3 2.0 2049 1. 13 0.

12.7 174.1
0.3 3 7 61 2 4.4 67 .8 34
C2- 274. 2.7 283.1 2.1 2118 1. 11 0.

13.0 145.9
0.4 3 2 37 7 3.6 72 .3 28

Ke
sit Mm Km Mo Ko 𝐸𝐼5 𝐸𝐼k µ µk
Mmn Mon
No (kN, (rad/k /Mm# (kN, (rad/k /Mo#
m) m) m) m)
C3- 100. 1.0 1.0 1236 1.0 40. 1.0

8.2 130 330.3
0 8 0 0 4.9 0 5 0
C3- 166. 1.6 186. 1.4 1711 1.3 25. 0.6

9.7 245.9
0.1 0 5 5 3 1.3 8 4 3
C3- 218. 2.1 234. 1.8 1919 1.5 15. 0.3

11.4 175.2
0.2 9 7 77 1 7.4 5 4 8
C3- 258. 2.5 2.0 2054 1.6 11. 0.2

12.6 263 142.6
0.3 9 7 2 8.4 6 3 8
C3- 273. 2.7 279. 2.1 2117 1.7 0.2

12.9 116.4 9.0
0.4 2 1 02 5 8.3 1 2

Ke
Mmn Mon
m) m) m) m)
C4- 100. 1.0 129.6 1.0 1243 1. 40 1.

8.1 327.2
0 7 0 8 0 2.1 00 .4 00
C4- 165. 1.6 1.4 1716 1. 23 0.

9.7 186 229.8
0.1 6 4 3 3.5 38 .8 59
C4- 218. 2.1 233.9 1.8 1924 1. 13 0.

11.4 150.3
0.2 5 7 9 0 9.3 55 .2 33
C4- 258. 2.5 261.2 2.0 2060 1. 10 0.

12.6 125.2
0.3 6 7 17 1 8.0 66 .0 25
C4- 272. 2.7 276.4 2.1 2123 1. 7. 0.

12.9 96.8
0.4 8 1 13 3 2.7 71 5 19

Ke
Mmn Mon
m) m) m) m)
C5- 100. 1.0 129.2 1.0 1250 1. 40 1.

8.1 324.1
0 7 0 9 0 4.3 00 .3 00
C5- 166. 1.6 185.3 1.4 1730 1. 21 0.

9.6 208.7
0.1 1 5 73 3 2.3 38 .7 54
C5- 218. 2.1 233.6 1.8 1936 1. 11 0.

11.3 132.5
0.2 8 7 4 1 0.2 55 .7 29
C5- 258. 2.5 260.7 2.0 2067 1. 8. 0.

12.5 111.7
0.3 4 7 29 2 2.0 65 9 22
C5- 272. 2.7 274.8 2.1 2127 1. 6. 0.

12.8 84.5
0.4 3 1 92 3 6.3 70 6 16
Tablo 8. Betonarme kolon elemanlarının çatlamamış eğilme rijitliği (𝐸𝐼).
Beton Ec b h I 𝐸𝐼
Sınıfı (MPa) (m) (m) (m4) (kN×m2)
30 31801 0.40 0.40 0.00213 67842

Araştırma Bulgular
Tasarlanan kare en-kesitli betonarme kolonlarının farklı parametrelere göre
analiz ve hesap sonuçlarından elde edilen değerler karşılaştırmalı olarak Şekil
3’te verilmiştir. Farklı parametrelere göre betonarme kolon modellerinde
moment-eğrilik analizlerinden elde edilen akma momenti değerleri, akma
eğrilik değerleri, maksimum momenti değerleri, maksimum eğrilik
değerlerinin grafikleri Şekil 3’te karşılaştırılmalı olarak verilmiştir.
Betonarme kolonların moment-eğrilik ilişikilerinden elde edilen 𝑘X ve 𝑘I
değerlerine göre betonarme kolonlarının eğrilik sünekliği (𝜇) karşılaştırmalı
grafiği Şekil 3’te verilmiştir. Çatlamamış kesitin eğilme rijitliklerine (𝐸𝐼) göre
hesaplanan etkin rijitlik çarpanları (𝑘5 ) karşılaştırmalı grafiği Şekil 3’te
verilmiştir.
280 14
250 13
ky(Rad/1000.m)
220 12
My(kN.m)
Tip-5
190 Tip-4 11
Tip-3
Tip-2 Tip-5
160 Tip-1 10 Tip-4
Tip-3
Tip-2
130 9 Tip-1
100 8
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4
N/Nmax N/Nmax
320 360
Tip-5
320 Tip-4
280 Tip-3
Tip-2
ku(Rad/1000.m)
280
Tip-1
Mu(kN.m)
240 240
200 200
Tip-5
Tip-4
Tip-3 160
160 Tip-2
Tip-1 120
120 80
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4
N/Nmax N/Nmax
0,33
45,0
Tip-5
Tip-4
Tip-3 0,29
35,0 Tip-2
Tip-1
0,25
ke
25,0
μ
Tip-5
Tip-4
15,0 0,21 Tip-3
Tip-2
Tip-1
5,0 0,17
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4
N/Nmax N/Nmax
Şekil 3. Tip 1, 2, 3, 4 ve 5 betonarme kolonların farklı parametrelere göre

hesaplanan 𝑀, 𝑘y, 𝑀u, 𝑘I , µ ve qX karşılaştırmalı grafikleri
Sonuç
Analizleri yapılan betonarme kare en-kesitli kolonların moment eğrilik
ilişkileri SAP2000 programı ile sargı donatısının oranı ve eksenel yük seviyesi
değiştirilerek elde edilmiştir. Analiz sonuçlarının incelemesinden, eksenel
yükün ve sargı donatısı aralıklarının betonarme kolonların moment-eğrilik
davranışı üzerinde önemli bir etkisi olduğu görülmektedir. Analiz sonuçlarına
göre, sargı donatı aralığı ve eksenel yük seviyesinin artışı betonarme kolon
elemanların akma ve kırılma durumunda moment ve eğrilik değerlerini
etkilemektedir.
Sabit beton basınç dayanımı, boyuna donatı oranı, enine donatı çapı ve
aralığına sahip betonarme kolonlarda eksenel yük seviyesinin artışı ile
aşağıdaki sonuçlar elde edilmiştir:
• Akma momenti 𝑀X ve akma momentine karşı gelen akma eğriliği 𝑘X
değerleri artmaktadır.
• Maksimum moment taşıma kapasitesi 𝑀I değerleri artmaktadır.
• Maksimum eğrilik (𝑘I ) ve eğrilik süneklik (𝜇) değerleri
azalmaktadır.
• Rijitlik çarpanları (𝑘5 ) değerleri artmaktadır.
• Eksenel yük seviyesindeki artış, genellikle kolonların moment
kapasitesini arttırmasına rağmen, maksimum eğrilik değerlerinin azalmasına
neden olmaktadır. Eksenel yükün en-kesit davranışları üzerindeki etkisi, sargı
donatı aralığının minimum olduğu kesitlerde daha belirgindir.
Sabit beton basınç dayanımı, boyuna donatı oranı, enine donatı çapı ve
uygulanan eksenel basınç kuvveti miktarına sahip betonarme kare en-kesitli
kolonlarda enine donatı aralıklarının artması durumunda aşağıdaki sonuçlar
elde edilmiştir:
• Akma momenti (𝑀X ) değerleri neredeyse sabit kalmaktadır.

• Akma eğriliği (𝑘X ) değerleri azalmaktadır.
• Maksimum moment (𝑀I ) değerleri azalmaktadır.
• Maksimum eğrilik (göçme öncesi eğrilik 𝑘I ) değerleri azalmaktadır.
• Eğrilik süneklik (𝜇) değerleri azalmaktadır.
• Betonarme kolonlarda rijitlik çarpanları (𝑘5 ) artmaktadır.
Betonarme kolonlara, uygulanan basınç kuvvetinin artması akma momentine,
akma eğriliğine, maksimum momente ve etkin rijitliğine etkili olduğunu
görülmüştür.
Betonarme kolonlarda enine donatı aralıklarının azalmasının akma
momentine, akma eğriliğine, maksimum eğriliğe ve eğrilik sünekliğine etkili
olduğunu gözlemlenmiştir. Hesaplanan etkin eğilme rijitliği ve çatlamamış
kesit eğilme rijitliklerinden hesaplanan etkin eğilme rijitlik katsayısı (𝑘5 );
eksenel yük seviyesi ve sargı donatı aralığının artması ile artmaktadır.
Kaynakça
[1] Canbay. E, Ersoy. U, Özcebe. G, Sucuoğlu. H, Wasti. S. T, “Binalar
İçin Deprem Mühendisliği Temel İlkeler”, ISBN: 9799789944070, ODTÜ,
Akademik Kitaplar Yayınevi, Ankara, 2010.
[2] Ersoy, U. ve Özcebe. G, “Betonarme 1” İSBN: 978-975-503-215-31,
Evrim Yayınevi ve Bilgisayar San. Tic. Ltd. Şti, İstanbul, 2012.
[3] Çağlar. N, Akkaya. A, Demir. A, Öztürk. H, “Farklı Kesit
Geometrilerine Sahip Betonarme Kolonların Davranışının İncelenmesi”
ISITES2014, p. 2095-2105, Karabük/Türkiye, 2004.
[4] Foroughi. S, Yüksel, S. B, “Moment Curvature Relationship of
Square Columns.” International Congress on Engineering and Architecture,
(ENAR), Alanya, Turkey, pp. 681-688, 2018.
[5] Arslan. G, Cihanli. E, “Curvature Ductility Prediction of Reinforced
High-Strength Concrete Beam Sections.” Journal of Civil Engineering and
Management, Vol. 16, No. 4, pp. 462–470, 2010.
[6] Bedirhanoglu. I, Ilki. A, “Theoretical Moment-Curvature
Relationships for Reinforced Concrete Members and Comparison with
Experimental Data.” Sixth International Congress on Advances in Civil
Engineering, 6-8 October 2004 Boğazici University, Istanbul, Turkey, pp.
231-240, 2004.
[7] SAP2000, “Structural Software for Analysis and Design, Computers
and Structures” Inc, Version 20.2.0.0 USA.
[8] TS500, 2000, “Betonarme Yapıların Tasarım ve Yapım Kuralları”
Türk Standartları Enstitüsü, TSE, Ankara.
[9] TBDY, 2018, “Türkiye Bina Deprem Yönetmeliği” T.C. Bayındırlık
ve İskân Bakanlığı, Ankara.
[10] Mander. J. B, Priestley. M. J. N, Park. R, “Theoretical stress-strain
model for confined concrete” Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol. 114,
No. 8, pp.1804-1826, 1988.
***
Sabit Çekme Donatı Oranı 𝝆𝒍 ve Farklı Basınç Donatısı

Oranına sahip Betonarme Kirişlerin Moment-Eğrilik
İlişkisinin Araştırılması
Özet
Bu çalışmada betonarme kirişlerde farklı parametre olarak beton sınıfı,
boyuna donatı olarak çekme ve basınç donatısı oranlarının moment-eğrilik
davranışına etkisi araştırılmıştır. Parametrelerin değerleri değiştirilerek
sayısal bir çalışma yapılmıştır. Bu amaçla, 66 adet farklı parametreye sahip
dikdörtgen en-kesitli betonarme kiriş tasarlanmıştır. Tasarlanan kirişlerin
davranışı, malzemelerin doğrusal olmayan davranışları göz önüne alınarak
moment-eğrilik ilişkisinin grafikleri çizilmiştir. Analizlerde betonarme kiriş
elemanların kesitlerinde beton için sargısız beton modeli kullanılmıştır.
Analiz sonuçları kullanılarak akma ve kırılma durumunda moment-eğrilik
değerleri, eğrilik sünekliği ve rijitlik oranları hesaplanarak elde edilmiştir.
Analiz sonuçlarından farklı parametrelerden elde edilen verilerin sonuçları
karşılaştırmalı olarak Tablolar halinde sunulmuştur. Elde edilen sonuçlar
değişen parametrelere göre değerlendirilmiştir. Dikdörtgen en-kesitli
betonarme kirişlerin davranışı, eğrilik sünekliği, rijitlik oranları, kirişlerin
akma ve maksimum momentlerinin değerlerinden yararlanarak
yorumlanmıştır. Elde edilmiş değerlere göre betonarme kiriş elemanlarında
basınç donatısı oranının artması ile akma momenti, kırılma momenti, eğilme
rijitliği ve eğrilik sünekliği artmakta, maksimum eğrilik değerleri sabit
kalmakta ve fakat akma eğriliğinin değerleri azalmaktadır.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Moment-Eğrilik, Akma Momenti, Kırılma Momenti,
Doğrusal Olmayan Davranış, Sargısız Beton, Eğrilik Sünekliği
Giriş
belirlemektedir. Kesit davranışı, kesitte kullanılan malzeme, kesitin
*
Bölümü, Konya / Türkiye jamal.rohullah@gmail.com
belirlenebilir [1]. Kesitin rijitlik ve dayanımının nasıl değiştiği, kesit

davranışının süneklik durumu gibi olaylar yine moment-eğrilik ilişkisi
üzerinden izlenebilir [3]. Yapıların depreme karşı dayanıklı olabilmesi için,
yapı elemanlarının yeterli dayanımlarının yanında bu dayanımlarını
sürdürebilmeleri için elemanların sünek olmaları gerekmektedir. Betonarme
kiriş davranışının kavranabilmesi, kesit davranışının iyi bilinmesi ile
mümkündür. Kesit davranışı ise, en sağlıklı biçimde moment-eğrilik ilişkisi
üzerinden elde edilir [2].
Betonarme kirişlerin doğrusal olmayan davranışına etki eden faktörler; çekme
ve basınç donatısı oranı, enine donatısının çapı ve aralığı ve kullanılmış
betonun basınç dayanımıdır. Farklı parametrelerde eşit en-kesit alanına sahip
dikdörtgen betonarme kiriş kesit modelleri tasarlanmış ve bu modellerin
davranışına; beton sınıfının, çekme ve basınç donatısı oranlarının moment-
eğrilik ilişkisine olan etkisi araştırılmıştır. İncelenen parametrelerin davranışa
etkileri, akma ve kırılma durumunda moment ve eğrilik değerleri, eğrilik
sünekliği ve rijitlik değerleri üzerinden değerlendirilmiştir. Farklı
parametrelerde tasarlanan dikdörtgen en-kesitli betonarme kiriş modelleri için
çizilen moment-eğrilik eğrileri karşılaştırarak yorumlanmıştır. Betonarme
elemanların doğrusal olmayan davranışları dikkate alınarak analizler
SAP2000 (Ver.20.2.0) programında gerçekleştirilmiştir. Betonarme kiriş kesit
hesabı ve tasarımı yapılırken dikkat edilmesi gereken en önemli husus, elde
edilen kesitteki donatı oranının, dengeli donatı oranından küçük olmasını
sağlamaktır. Bu çalışmada Ersoy ve Özcebe (2006) tarafından önerilen çekme
donatısı oranın 𝜌@ değerleri dikkate alınmıştır. TS500 (2000)’de betonarme
kirişlerde sünek davranışın sağlanabilmesi için, donatı oranı Denklem (2 ve
3) ile sınırlandırılmıştır.
$":
𝜌. = 𝜌@ = 0.235 $=:
(1)
𝜌 = 𝜌@
(2)
(𝜌 − 𝜌 8)
≤ 𝜌J%2 , 𝜌 ≤ 𝜌J%2 ; 0.02
(3)
Sabit geometride, farklı beton sınıfı, boyuna donatı olarak sabit çekme donatı
oranı (𝜌@ ), farklı basınç donatı oranlarına sahip toplam 66 adet betonarme kiriş
modeli tasarlanmıştır. Betonarme kiriş modellerinin tasarımında Türkiye Bina
Deprem Yönetmeliği TBDY 2018 [6] ve Betonarme Yapıların Tasarım ve
Yapım Kuralları TS500-2000 [7]’de verilen hükümler dikkate alınmıştır.
Farklı parametrelerde tasarlanan betonarme kiriş modellerinde çekme donatısı
oranı olarak; 𝜌 = 𝜌@ sabit ve basınç donatısı oranı olarak; (𝜌.8 = 0.0, 0.1𝜌@ ,
0.2𝜌@ , 0.3𝜌@ , 0.4𝜌@ , 0.5𝜌@ , 0.6𝜌@ , 0.7𝜌@ , 0.8𝜌@ , 0.9𝜌@ ve 𝜌@ ) değerleri dikkate
alınmıştır. Betonarme kiriş modellerinde C25, C30, C35, C40, C45 ve C50
olarak altı farklı beton sınıfı dikkate alınmıştır. Kiriş modellerinde her beton
sınıfı için çekme donatısı oranı 𝜌 = 𝜌@ olacak şekilde sabit tutulmuş basınç
donatısı oranları değiştirilerek kesitlerin moment-eğrilik ilişkisi
araştırılmıştır. İncelenen parametrelerin davranışa etkileri, eğrilik sünekliği,
rijitlik oranları ve kiriş taşıma gücü momentleri üzerinden değerlendirilmiş ve
karşılaştırarak yorumlanmıştır.
Betonarme kiriş kesitleri için SAP2000 programında malzeme modelleri
tanımlanmıştır. SAP2000 programında tanımlanan beton ve donatı çeliği için
hesaplarda ve malzeme modellerinde kullanılan parametreler Tablo 1’de
özetlenmiştir. TBDY, 2018’e göre kirişlerde eksenel yükün maksimum değeri
𝑁 = 0.10𝐴3 𝑓3 olacak şekilde sınırlandırılmıştır. Betonarme kirişlerin
analizlerinde eksenel yükün değeri N=0 olarak alınmıştır. Betonarme
kesitlerde eksenel yükün olmadığı durumlarda sargı donatısının etkisi
azalmaktadır. Bundan dolayı analizlerde beton modeli olarak Mander sargısız
beton modeli [Mander, 1988] kullanılmıştır.
Materyal ve Metot
Betonarme kesitlerin moment-eğrilik ilişkilerini etkileyen ve tasarım
aşamasında birer parametre olarak düşünülen, beton basınç dayanımı, çekme
donatısı oranı ve basınç donatısı oranı gibi faktörlerin moment-eğrilik
davranışına olan etkisinin incelenmesi bu çalışmanın amacını
oluşturmaktadır. Bu amaçla kiriş kesitlerinin moment-eğrilik ilişkisi
araştırılarak akma ve kırılma durumunda moment ve eğrilik değerleri, eğrilik
sünekliği ve rijitlik değerleri elde edilmiştir. Elde edilen moment-eğrilik
ilişkileri farklı parametrelere göre karşılaştırmalı olarak grafikler halinde
sunulmuştur. Moment-eğrilik ilişkilerinden elde edilen değerler Tablolar
halinde karşılaştırmalı olarak özetlenmiştir. Tasarım parametrelerinin
incelenmesi için analizlerde dikkate alınan kiriş kesiti 250mm×500mm
boyutlarında olup Şekil 1’de kesit geometrisi ve donatı yerleşim planı
verilmiştir. Şekil 1’de 𝐴. ; çekme donatısı alanını, 𝐴8. ; basınç donatısı alanını
ifade etmektedir. Beton basınç dayanımı ile bağımlı olarak incelenen
parametre; sabit çekme donatısı oranına göre basınç donatısı oranıdır. Bu
amaçla 66 adet farklı betonarme kiriş modelinin moment-eğrilik analizi
yapılmıştır.
Şekil 1. Tasarlanan kiriş modellerinin en-kesit detayları
Betonarme kiriş kesit hesabı ve tasarımı yapılırken dikkat edilmesi gereken

en önemli husus, elde edilen kesitteki donatı oranının, yönetmeliklerce
öngörülen maksimum donatı oranından küçük olmasını sağlamaktır. Bu koşul
yönetmeliklerce zorunlu olduğu için çalışmada Ersoy ve Özcebe (2006)
tarafından önerilen çekme donatısı oranı (𝜌@ ) Denklem (2 ve 3)’te verilen sınır
değerler dikkate alınmıştır. Bu çalışmada betonarme kirişlerin eğrilik
sünekliği gibi parametrelerinin araştırılması için sabit çekme donatısı oranı
dikkate alınmıştır. Hesaplarda çekme donatısı oranı (𝜌. = 𝜌@ ) tüm kiriş
modellerinde sabit alınmıştır. Betonarme kiriş modellerinde basınç donatısı
oranları (𝜌.8 = 0.0, 0.1𝜌@ , 0.2𝜌@ , 0.3𝜌@ , 0.4𝜌@ , 0.5𝜌@ , 0.6𝜌@ , 0.7𝜌@ , 0.8𝜌@ , 0.9𝜌@
ve 𝜌@ ) değiştirilerek kiriş elemanlarının moment-eğrilik ilişkileri
incelenmiştir. Beton basınç dayanımının kiriş davranışı üzerinde etkisini
araştırmak için farklı beton basınç dayanımları (C25, C30, C35, C40, C45,
C50) dikkate alınmıştır. Tablo 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 ve 7’den görüleceği gibi kirişlerde
sabit beton sınıfı ve çekme donatısı oranı için basınç donatısı oranı sıfırdan
𝜌@ ’ye kadar 11 farklı değer verilerek değiştirilmiştir.
Betonarme kesitlerde süneklik, kesitin dayanımında önemli bir azalma
olmadan yapabileceği doğrusal ötesi deformasyon kapasitesi olarak
tanımlanır. Sayısal olarak ise eğrilik sünekliği (𝜇), eğrilik süneklik oranı (𝜇4 )
olacak şekilde Denklem (4 ve 10) ile ifade edilir. Eğrilik süneklik katsayısı,
kesitin kırılma anında yaptığı eğriliğin (𝑘I ), çekme donatısının aktığı anda
kesitte oluşan eğriliğe (𝑘X ) oranıdır.
𝑘I
𝜇= (4)
𝑘X
Moment-eğrilik grafiğinde ilk doğrunun eğimi, çatlamış kesite ait etkin

eğilme rijitliğine (𝐸𝐼) karşılık gelmektedir [2]. Betonarme kirişlerin etkin
eğilme rijitliği Denklem (5) ile hesaplanmıştır. Denklem (5)’te 𝑀X ve
𝑘X sırasıyla akma momenti ve akma eğriliğidir.
𝐸𝐼5
𝑀X
= (5)
𝑘X
Betonarme kirişlerin kesit geometrisi (b ve h) ve betonun elastisite modülüne
(Ec) göre çatlamamış kesit rijitlikleri (𝐸𝐼) Denklem (6 ve 7) ile hesaplanmıştır.
Farklı beton sınıfları için (TS-500, 2000)’de verilen beton karakteristik basınç
dayanımlarına (𝑓3: ) göre beton elastisite modülleri (Ec) hesaplanmıştır. 𝐼;
betonarme kirişlerin brüt atalet momentidir ve kesit geometrisine göre (b; kiriş
genişliği ve h; kiriş yüksekliği) hesaplanmaktadır.
𝐸3 = 3250¯𝑓3: + 14000
(6)
𝑏ℎl
𝐼= (7)
12
Betonarme kirişlerin etkin rijitlik çarpanları (𝑘5 ) etkin eğilme rijitliği ve
çatlamamış en-kesit eğilme rijitliğinin oranı olarak tanımlanmaktadır.
Betonarme kirişlerin etkin rijitlik çarpanları Denklem (8)’e göre
hesaplanmıştır.
𝐸𝐼5
𝑘5 = (8)
𝐸𝐼
Betonarme kirişlerde moment-eğrilik ilişkilerinden akma ve kırılma
durumları için moment (𝑀X , 𝑀I ) ve eğrilik (𝐾X , 𝐾I ) değerleri, akma ve
kırılma eğriliklerinden eğrilik süneklikleri (𝜇), akma momentleri ve akma
eğriliklerinden etkin eğilme rijitlikleri (𝐸𝐼5 ) ve etkin rijitlik çarpanları (𝑘5 )
hesaplanmıştır.
Denklem (5) ile hesaplanan etkin eğilme rijitline göre betonarme kirişlerin
farklı parametreler (basınç donatı oranı ve beton basınç dayanımı) için etkin
eğilme rijitlik oranları (𝐸𝐼k ) Denklem (9)’a göre hesaplanmıştır.
𝐸𝐼5-# ; maksimum çekme donatısı oranına sahip basınç donatısı olmayan
betonarme kirişlerin (𝜌. = 𝜌@ , 𝜌.8 = 0.0) etkin eğilme rijitliği değeridir. 𝐸𝐼5-/ ;
maksimum çekme donatısı oranı (𝜌. = 𝜌@ ) ve farklı basınç donatısı oranına
sahip (𝜌.8 = 0.0, 0.1𝜌@ , 0.2𝜌@ , 0.3𝜌@ , 0.4𝜌@ , 0.5𝜌@ , 0.6𝜌@ , 0.7𝜌@ , 0.8𝜌@ , 0.9𝜌@
ve 𝜌@ ) 11 farklı kirişlerin etkin eğilme rijitliğinin değerleridir.
𝐸𝐼5-/
𝐸𝐼k = (9)
𝐸𝐼5-#
Denklem (4) ile hesaplanan eğrilik süneklik katsayısına göre betonarme
kirişlerin farklı parametreler (basınç donatı oranı ve beton basınç dayanımı)
için eğrilik süneklik oranları (µk ) Denklem (10)’a göre hesaplanmıştır. µk-# ;
maksimum çekme donatısı oranına sahip basınç donatısı olmayan betonarme
kirişlerin (𝜌. = 𝜌@ , 𝜌.8 = 0.0) eğrilik süneklik değeridir. µk-/ ; maksimum
çekme donatısı oranı (𝜌. = 𝜌@ ) ve farklı basınç donatısı oranına sahip (𝜌.8 =
0.0, 0.1𝜌@ , 0.2𝜌@ , 0.3𝜌@ , 0.4𝜌@ , 0.5𝜌@ , 0.6𝜌@ , 0.7𝜌@ , 0.8𝜌@ , 0.9𝜌@ ve 𝜌@ ) 11 farklı
kirişlerin eğrilik süneklik değerleridir.
µk-/
µk = (10)
µk-#
Betonarme kiriş kesitlerinde moment-eğrilik ilişkilerinden elde edilen akma
ve kırılma durumları için moment (𝑀X , 𝑀I ) değerlerine göre farklı
parametrelere sahip betonarme kirişler için 𝑀X/ /𝑀X# ve 𝑀I/ /𝑀I# oran
değerleri hesaplanmıştır. 𝑀X# ve 𝑀I# ; maksimum çekme donatısı oranına
sahip basınç donatısı olmayan betonarme kirişlerin (𝜌. = 𝜌@ , 𝜌.8 = 0.0) akma
ve kırılma momentleridir. 𝑀X/ ve 𝑀I/ ; sabit beton basınç dayanımı ve
maksimum çekme donatısı oranı (𝜌. = 𝜌@ ) ve farklı basınç donatısı oranına
sahip (𝜌.8 = 0.0, 0.1𝜌@ , 0.2𝜌@ , 0.3𝜌@ , 0.4𝜌@ , 0.5𝜌@ , 0.6𝜌@ , 0.7𝜌@ , 0.8𝜌@ , 0.9𝜌@
ve 𝜌@ ) 11 farklı kirişin akma ve kırılma momentleridir.
Tablo 1. Malzeme modellerinde kullanılan parametreler [6]
Sargısız betonun maksimum gerilmeye ulaştığı

0.002
birim şekil değiştirme değeri (εco)
Beton
Sınıfı: Sargısız betonun nihai birim şekil-değiştirmesi
0.0035
C25-C50 (εcu)
Karakteristik beton basınç dayanımı (fck) 25-50MPa
Donatı çeliğinin akma birim şekil değiştirmesi

Donatı 0.0021
(εsy)
Çeliği:
B420C Donatı çeliğinin pekleşme birim şekil
0.008
değiştirmesi (εsp)
Donatı çeliğinin kopma birim şekil

0.08
değiştirmesi (εsu)
Donatı çeliğinin karakteristik akma dayanımı

420MPa
(fyk)
Donatı çeliğinin karakteristik kopma dayanımı

550MPa
(fsu)
Tablo 2. Tip-1 olarak tasarlanan kiriş modellerine ait parametreler.
Beto
Kesit Kesi 𝑨𝒔 𝑨8𝒔
n 𝝆 − 𝝆8
Grub t (𝒎𝒎 𝟐
(𝒎𝒎 𝟐 𝝆𝒍 𝝆 𝝆8
Sınıf 𝝆𝒍
u No ) )
ı
B1- 0.000
0.0 1.0
0 0
B1- 0.001
120.6 0.9
1 1
B1- 0.002
241.3 0.8
2 1
B1- 0.003
361.9 0.7
3 2
B1- 1206. 0.010 0.010 0.004

Tip-1 C25 482.6 0.6
4 5 7 7 3
B1- 0.005
603.2 0.5
5 4
B1- 0.006
723.9 0.4
6 4
B1- 0.007
844.5 0.3
7 5
B1- 0.008
965.2 0.2
8 6
B1- 1085. 0.009

0.1
9 8 7
B1- 1206. 0.010

0.0
10 5 7
Beto
t
n 𝝆 − 𝝆8
Grub (𝒎𝒎 𝟐
Sınıf 𝝆𝒍
u No ) )
ı
B2- 0.000
0.0 1.0
0 0
B2- 0.001
144.8 0.9
1 3
B2- 0.002
289.6 0.8
2 6
B2- 0.003
434.3 0.7
3 9
B2- 0.005
579.1 0.6
4 1447. 0.012 0.012 1
Tip-2 C30
B2- 8 9 9 0.006
723.9 0.5
5 4
B2- 0.007
868.7 0.4
6 7
B2- 1013. 0.009

0.3
7 4 0
B2- 1158. 0.010

0.2
8 2 3
B2- 1303. 0.011

0.1
9 0 6
B2- 1447. 0.012

0.0
10 8 9
Beto
n 𝝆 − 𝝆8
Grub t (𝒎𝒎𝟐 (𝒎𝒎𝟐 𝝆𝒍 𝝆 𝝆8
Sınıf 𝝆𝒍
u No ) )
ı
B3- 0.000
0.0 1.0
0 0
B3- 0.001
168.9 0.9
1 5
B3- 0.003
337.8 0.8
2 0
B3- 0.004
506.7 0.7
3 5
B3- 0.006
675.6 0.6
4 0
B3- 1689. 0.015 0.015 0.007

Tip-3 C35 844.5 0.5
5 1 0 0 5
B3- 1013. 0.009

0.4
6 4 0
B3- 1182. 0.010

0.3
7 3 5
B3- 1351. 0.012

0.2
8 3 0
B3- 1520. 0.013

0.1
9 2 5
B3- 1689. 0.015

0.0
10 1 0
Beto
t
n 𝝆 − 𝝆8
Grub (𝒎𝒎 𝟐
Sınıf 𝝆𝒍
u No ) )
ı
B4- 0.000
0.0 1.0
0 0
B4- 0.001
193.0 0.9
1 7
B4- 0.003
386.1 0.8
2 4
B4- 0.005
579.1 0.7
3 1
B4- 0.006
772.1 0.6
4 9
B4- 1930. 0.017 0.017 0.008

Tip-4 C40 965.2 0.5
5 4 2 2 6
B4- 1158. 0.010

0.4
6 2 3
B4- 1351. 0.012

0.3
7 3 0
B4- 1544. 0.013

0.2
8 3 7
B4- 1737. 0.015

0.1
9 3 4
B4- 1930. 0.017

0.0
10 4 2
Beto
n 𝝆 − 𝝆8
Sınıf 𝝆𝒍
u No ) )
ı
B5- 0.000
0.0 1.0
0 0
B5- 0.001
217.2 0.9
1 9
B5- 0.003
434.3 0.8
2 9
B5- 0.005
651.5 0.7
3 8
B5- 0.007
868.7 0.6
4 7
B5- 2171. 1085. 0.019 0.019 0.009

Tip-5 C45 0.5
5 7 8 3 3 7
B5- 1303. 0.011

0.4
6 0 6
B5- 1520. 0.013

0.3
7 2 5
B5- 1737. 0.015

0.2
8 3 4
B5- 1954. 0.017

0.1
9 5 4
B5- 2171. 0.019

0.0
10 7 3
Beto
n 𝝆 − 𝝆8
Sınıf 𝝆𝒍
u No ) )
ı
B6- 0.000
0.0 1.0
0 0
B6- 0.002
241.3 0.9
1 1
B6- 0.004
482.6 0.8
2 3
B6- 0.006
723.9 0.7
3 4
B6- 0.008
965.2 0.6
4 6
B6- 2412. 1206. 0.021 0.021 0.010

Tip-6 C50 0.5
5 9 5 4 4 7
B6- 1447. 0.012

0.4
6 8 9
B6- 1689. 0.015

0.3
7 1 0
B6- 1930. 0.017

0.2
8 4 2
B6- 2171. 0.019

0.1
9 7 3
B6- 2412. 0.021

0.0
10 9 4
Analitik Çalışma
Betonarme kiriş elemanlarının doğrusal olmayan davranışları incelenerek bu
davranışı etkileyen parametrelerin araştırması yapılmıştır. Betonarme kiriş
elemanlarının davranışı moment-eğrilik ilişkisinden incelenmiştir. Betonarme
kiriş en-kesitlerinin moment-eğrilik ilişkileri gerçekçi malzeme modellerine
dayanan SAP2000 programı ile elde edilmiştir. Analitik çalışma kapsamında
66 adet farklı parametrelerde tasarlanan betonarme kiriş modelleri üzerinde
analizler ve hesaplamalar yapılarak moment-eğrilik grafikleri karşılaştırmalı
olarak verilmiştir. Elde edilen sonuçlar karşılaştırmalı olarak Tablolar halinde
özetlenmiştir. Farklı parametrelere göre incelenen kiriş modelleri için
analizlerden elde edilen moment-eğrilik grafikleri Şekil 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 ve 7’de
verilmiştir.
300
250
B1-
200 10
B1-9
M (kN.m)
B1-8
150
B1-7
100 B1-6
B1-5
50
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
K (Rad/km)
Şekil 2. Tip-1 olarak tasarlanan kiriş modellerine ait karşılaştırmalı moment
eğrilik grafikleri.
350
300
B2-
250
10
B2-9
M (kN.m)
200
B2-8
150 B2-7
100 B2-6
50
0
0 50 100
K (Rad/km)
150 200 250
400
350
300 B3-10
B3-9
250 B3-8
B3-7
M (kN.m)
B3-6
200 B3-5
B3-4
150 B3-3
B3-2
B3-1
100 B3-0
50
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
K (Rad/km)
450
400
350 B4-
10
300 B4-9
M (kN.m)
250 B4-8
200 B4-7
150 B4-6
100
50
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
K (Rad/km)

500
450
400
B5-
350 10
B5-9
300
M (kN.m)
B5-8
250
B5-7
200
B5-6
150
100
50
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
K (Rad/km)
550
500
450
B6-10
400 B6-9
B6-8
350 B6-7
B6-6
M (kN.m)
300 B6-5
B6-4
250 B6-3
200 B6-2
B6-1
150 B6-0
100
50
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
K (Rad/km)
Betonarme kiriş kesitlerinin moment-eğrilik ilişkilerinden kesitte oluşan hasar

bölgelerinin sınırları farklı parametreler için irdelenmiştir. Betonarme kiriş
kesitlerinde akma ve kırılma durumları için moment (𝑀X , 𝑀I ) ve eğrilik (𝐾X ,
𝐾I ) değerleri, 𝑀X/ /𝑀X# oranları, 𝑀I/ /𝑀I# oranları, etkin eğilme rijitlikleri
(𝐸𝐼5 ), etkin eğilme rijitlik oranları (𝐸𝐼k ), eğrilik sünekliği (µ) ve eğrilik
süneklik oranları (µk ) Tablo (8, 9, 10, 11, 12 ve 13)’te özetlenmiştir. Eğrilik
sünekliği (µ) Denklem (4), etkin eğilme rijitlikleri (𝐸𝐼5 ) Denklem (5), etkin
eğilme rijitlik oranları (𝐸𝐼k ) Denklem (9), ve eğrilik süneklik oranları (µk )
Denklem (10) ile hesaplanmıştır. Tablolarda moment (𝑀X , 𝑀I ) değerleri;
𝑘𝑁. 𝑚, eğrilik (𝐾X , 𝐾I ) değerleri 𝑅𝑎𝑑/𝑘𝑚 ve Etkin eğilme rijitliği (𝐸𝐼5 );
𝑘𝑁. 𝑚! olarak verilmiştir.
Tablo 8. Tip-1 olarak tasarlanan kiriş modellerine ait analiz sonuçları.

Ke
sit 𝑴𝒚 𝑲𝒚 µ µ𝑶
𝑴𝒚𝒊 𝑴𝒖 𝑲𝒖 𝑴𝒖𝒊 𝑬𝑰𝒆 𝑬𝑰𝑶
No (kN, (rad×10 /𝑴𝒚𝟏 (kN, (rad×10 /𝑴𝒖𝟏
3
m) 3
/m) m) /m)
B1- 197 1.0 243 1.0 2534 1.0 28. 1.0

7.77 219.6
0 .0 00 .2 00 6.4 00 3 0
B1- 197 1.0 244 1.0 2567 1.0 28. 1.0

7.68 219.6
1 .3 01 .9 07 0.9 13 6 1
B1- 197 1.0 246 1.0 2608 1.0 28. 1.0

7.59 219.6
2 .9 04 .5 14 0.2 29 9 2
B1- 198 1.0 248 1.0 2638 1.0 29. 1.0

7.52 219.6
3 .2 06 .2 20 0.5 41 2 3
B1- 198 1.0 249 1.0 2666 1.0 29. 1.0

7.44 219.6
4 .4 07 .8 27 7.7 52 5 4
B1- 198 1.0 251 1.0 2701 1.0 29. 1.0

7.36 219.6
5 .9 10 .5 34 3.4 66 8 6
B1- 198 1.0 253 1.0 2725 1.0 30. 1.0

7.30 219.6
6 .9 10 .2 41 0.1 75 1 6
B1- 199 1.0 254 1.0 2749 1.0 30. 1.0

7.25 219.6
7 .3 12 .9 48 3.3 85 3 7
B1- 199 1.0 256 1.0 2779 1.0 30. 1.0

7.18 219.6
8 .6 13 .5 55 2.0 96 6 8
B1- 199 1.0 258 1.0 2805 1.1 30. 1.0

7.12 219.6
9 .8 14 .3 62 7.7 07 8 9
B1- 200 1.0 260 1.0 2834 1.1 31. 1.1

7.07 219.6
10 .5 18 .0 69 0.3 18 0 0

Ke
3
m) 3
/m) m) /m)
B2- 234 1.0 291 1.0 3003 1.0 28. 1.0

7.82 219.6
0 .7 00 .9 00 1.3 00 1 0
B2- 236 1.0 293 1.0 3050 1.0 28. 1.0

7.74 219.6
1 .0 05 .8 07 2.8 16 4 1
B2- 236 1.0 295 1.0 3093 1.0 28. 1.0

7.64 219.6
2 .3 07 .8 13 8.4 30 8 2
B2- 236 1.0 297 1.0 3134 1.0 29. 1.0

7.56 219.6
3 .8 09 .8 20 0.8 44 1 3
B2- 237 1.0 299 1.0 3166 1.0 29. 1.0

7.49 219.6
4 .3 11 .7 27 9.4 55 3 4
B2- 237 1.0 301 1.0 3203 1.0 29. 1.0

7.41 219.6
5 .5 12 .8 34 2.5 67 6 5
B2- 238 1.0 303 1.0 3244 1.0 29. 1.0

7.34 219.6
6 .2 15 .8 41 5.0 80 9 6
B2- 238 1.0 305 1.0 3272 1.0 30. 1.0

7.29 219.6
7 .4 16 .8 48 0.9 90 1 7
B2- 238 1.0 307 1.0 3296 1.0 30. 1.0

7.24 219.6
8 .6 17 .9 55 9.4 98 3 8
B2- 238 1.0 309 1.0 3329 1.1 30. 1.0

7.17 219.6
9 .8 17 .8 62 5.4 09 6 9
B2- 240 1.0 311 1.0 3374 1.1 30. 1.1

7.12 219.6
10 .1 23 .9 69 3.4 24 9 0

Ke
3
m) 3
/m) m) /m)
B3- 272 1.0 340 1.0 3470 1.0 27. 1.0

7.86 219.6
0 .9 00 .4 00 1.0 00 9 0
B3- 274 1.0 342 1.0 3525 1.0 28. 1.0

7.77 219.6
1 .1 04 .7 07 3.2 16 2 1
B3- 274 1.0 345 1.0 3568 1.0 28. 1.0

7.70 219.6
2 .6 06 .0 13 1.8 28 5 2
B3- 275 1.0 347 1.0 3626 1.0 28. 1.0

7.60 219.6
3 .7 10 .3 20 6.9 45 9 3
B3- 275 1.0 349 1.0 3662 1.0 29. 1.0

7.53 219.6
4 .8 11 .6 27 9.0 56 2 4
B3- 276 1.0 352 1.0 3698 1.0 29. 1.0

7.47 219.6
5 .3 12 .0 34 6.0 66 4 5
B3- 276 1.0 354 1.0 3743 1.0 29. 1.0

7.39 219.6
6 .6 14 .3 41 9.2 79 7 6
B3- 277 1.0 356 1.0 3792 1.0 30. 1.0

7.33 219.6
7 .8 18 .7 48 1.0 93 0 7
B3- 278 1.0 359 1.0 3821 1.1 30. 1.0

7.27 219.6
8 .0 19 .1 55 7.7 01 2 8
B3- 278 1.0 361 1.0 3852 1.1 30. 1.0

7.22 219.6
9 .2 20 .5 62 8.9 10 4 9
B3- 279 1.0 363 1.0 3898 1.1 30. 1.1

7.16 219.6
10 .1 23 .8 69 8.3 24 7 0

Ke
3
m) 3
/m) m) /m)
B4- 311 1.0 389 1.0 3934 1.0 27. 1.0

7.92 219.6
0 .7 00 .1 00 6.7 00 7 0
B4- 312 1.0 391 1.0 3993 1.0 28. 1.0

7.82 219.6
1 .2 02 .7 07 5.0 15 1 1
B4- 313 1.0 394 1.0 4051 1.0 28. 1.0

7.74 219.6
2 .7 06 .3 13 7.9 30 4 2
B4- 313 1.0 396 1.0 4099 1.0 28. 1.0

7.65 219.6
3 .7 07 .9 20 9.9 42 7 4
B4- 314 1.0 399 1.0 4150 1.0 29. 1.0

7.57 219.6
4 .3 08 .6 27 8.2 55 0 5
B4- 315 1.0 402 1.0 4200 1.0 29. 1.0

7.51 219.6
5 .4 12 .2 34 4.9 68 2 6
B4- 315 1.0 404 1.0 4245 1.0 29. 1.0

7.44 219.6
6 .8 13 .9 41 8.6 79 5 6
B4- 316 1.0 407 1.0 4292 1.0 29. 1.0

7.37 219.6
7 .2 15 .6 48 3.1 91 8 8
B4- 316 1.0 410 1.0 4327 1.1 30. 1.0

7.31 219.6
8 .3 15 .4 55 0.5 00 0 8
B4- 318 1.0 413 1.0 4383 1.1 30. 1.0

7.26 219.6
9 .3 21 .1 62 0.7 14 2 9
B4- 318 1.0 415 1.0 4418 1.1 30. 1.1

7.20 219.6
10 .3 21 .9 69 9.3 23 5 0

Ke
3
m) 3
/m) m) /m)
B5- 350 1.0 437 1.0 4386 1.0 27. 1.0

7.98 219.6
0 .0 00 .9 00 7.8 00 5 0
B5- 351 1.0 440 1.0 4466 1.0 27. 1.0

7.87 219.6
1 .3 04 .6 06 0.5 18 9 1
B5- 351 1.0 443 1.0 4518 1.0 28. 1.0

7.78 219.6
2 .5 04 .6 13 0.4 30 2 3
B5- 352 1.0 446 1.0 4569 1.0 28. 1.0

7.71 219.6
3 .2 06 .5 20 2.7 42 5 3
B5- 353 1.0 449 1.0 4640 1.0 28. 1.0

7.62 219.6
4 .4 10 .4 26 3.9 58 8 5
B5- 354 1.0 452 1.0 4694 1.0 29. 1.0

7.54 219.6
5 .1 12 .4 33 3.4 70 1 6
B5- 354 1.0 455 1.0 4736 1.0 29. 1.0

7.49 219.6
6 .7 13 .4 40 8.1 80 3 7
B5- 354 1.0 458 1.0 4787 1.0 29. 1.0

7.41 219.6
7 .9 14 .4 47 8.0 91 6 8
B5- 356 1.0 461 1.0 4847 1.1 29. 1.0

7.35 219.6
8 .2 18 .5 54 5.9 05 9 9
B5- 356 1.0 464 1.0 4885 1.1 30. 1.0

7.29 219.6
9 .4 18 .6 61 5.5 14 1 9
B5- 358 1.0 467 1.0 4949 1.1 30. 1.1

7.25 219.6
10 .8 25 .8 68 0.7 28 3 0

Ke
3
m) 3
/m) m) /m)
B6- 387 1.0 486 1.0 4838 1.0 27. 1.0

8.02 219.6
0 .9 00 .6 00 3.9 00 4 0
B6- 388 1.0 489 1.0 4907 1.0 27. 1.0

7.92 219.6
1 .9 03 .5 06 4.9 14 7 1
B6- 389 1.0 492 1.0 4980 1.0 28. 1.0

7.82 219.6
2 .6 04 .7 13 6.3 29 1 2
B6- 391 1.0 496 1.0 5050 1.0 28. 1.0

7.75 219.6
3 .4 09 .0 19 9.2 44 3 3
B6- 391 1.0 499 1.0 5111 1.0 28. 1.0

7.67 219.6
4 .8 10 .3 26 2.2 56 6 5
B6- 391 1.0 502 1.0 5166 1.0 29. 1.0

7.58 219.6
5 .8 10 .6 33 7.5 68 0 6
B6- 393 1.0 505 1.0 5232 1.0 29. 1.0

7.52 219.6
6 .5 15 .9 40 5.8 81 2 7
B6- 393 1.0 509 1.0 5277 1.0 29. 1.0

7.46 219.6
7 .8 15 .3 47 7.7 91 4 7
B6- 394 1.0 512 1.0 5337 1.1 29. 1.0

7.39 219.6
8 .3 17 .6 54 4.4 03 7 9
B6- 395 1.0 516 1.0 5399 1.1 30. 1.0

7.33 219.6
9 .7 20 .2 61 5.6 16 0 9
B6- 396 1.0 519 1.0 5445 1.1 30. 1.1

7.28 219.6
10 .4 22 .7 68 5.1 25 2 0
Araştırma Sonuçları ve Tartışma

Tasarlanan betonarme kiriş kesitlerinin farklı parametrelere göre analiz ve
hesap sonuçlarından elde edilen değerler karşılaştırmalı olarak Tablo 14, 15,
16, 17, 18 ve 19’da verilmiştir. Farklı parametrelere göre betonarme kiriş
modellerinde moment-eğrilik analizlerinden elde edilen akma momenti
değerleri Tablo (14) ve akma eğrilik değerleri Tablo (15)’te karşılaştırılmalı
olarak verilmiştir. Farklı parametrelere göre betonarme kirişlerde moment-
eğrilik analizlerinden elde edilen maksimum momenti değerleri Tablo (16) ve
kırılma anındaki eğrilik değerleri Tablo (17)’de karşılaştırılmalı olarak
verilmiştir. Betonarme kirişlerin moment-eğrilik ilişiklilerinden elde edilen
𝑀X ve 𝑘X değerlerine göre kesitlerin etkin eğilme rijitlik oranları (𝐸𝐼4 ) Tablo
(18) ve betonarme kirişlerinin eğrilik süneklik oranları (𝜇4 ) Tablo (19)’da
karşılaştırmalı olarak verilmiştir. Betonarme kiriş elemanlarının kesit
geometrisi ve karakteristik basınç dayanımlarına göre Denklem (6 ve 7) ile
kesitlerin çatlamamış eğilme rijitlikleri (𝐸𝐼) hesaplanmış ve Tablo (20)’de
verilmiştir. Betonarme kirişlerin moment-eğrilik ilişkilerine göre Denklem (5)
ile etkin rijitlik (𝐸𝐼5 ) değerleri ve Denklem (6 ve 7) ile hesaplanan çatlamamış
kesitlerin eğilme rijitliklerine (𝐸𝐼) göre hesaplanan etkin rijitlik çarpanları
(𝑘5 ) Tablo (21)’de ve karşılaştırmalı grafiği Şekil (8)’de verilmiştir.
Tablo 14. Kiriş modellerinde analizlerden elde edilen akma momenti

değerlerinin karşılaştırılması.
Ke Ke Ke Ke Ke Ke
sit 𝐌𝐲 sit 𝑴𝒚 sit 𝑴𝒚 sit 𝑴𝒚 sit 𝑴𝒚 sit 𝑴𝒚
No No No No No No
B1- 197 B2- 234 B3- 272 B4- 311 B5- 350 B6- 387
0 .0 0 .7 0 .9 0 .7 0 .0 0 .9
B1- 197 B2- 236 B3- 274 B4- 312 B5- 351 B6- 388
1 .3 1 .0 1 .1 1 .2 1 .3 1 .9
B1- 197 B2- 236 B3- 274 B4- 313 B5- 351 B6- 389
2 .9 2 .3 2 .6 2 .7 2 .5 2 .6
B1- 198 B2- 236 B3- 275 B4- 313 B5- 352 B6- 391
3 .2 3 .8 3 .7 3 .7 3 .2 3 .4
B1- 198 B2- 237 B3- 275 B4- 314 B5- 353 B6- 391
4 .4 4 .3 4 .8 4 .3 4 .4 4 .8
B1- 198 B2- 237 B3- 276 B4- 315 B5- 354 B6- 391
5 .9 5 .5 5 .3 5 .4 5 .1 5 .8
B1- 198 B2- 238 B3- 276 B4- 315 B5- 354 B6- 393
6 .9 6 .2 6 .6 6 .8 6 .7 6 .5
B1- 199 B2- 238 B3- 277 B4- 316 B5- 354 B6- 393
7 .3 7 .4 7 .8 7 .2 7 .9 7 .8
B1- 199 B2- 238 B3- 278 B4- 316 B5- 356 B6- 394
8 .6 8 .6 8 .0 8 .3 8 .2 8 .3
B1- 199 B2- 238 B3- 278 B4- 318 B5- 356 B6- 395
9 .8 9 .8 9 .2 9 .3 9 .4 9 .7
B1- 200 B2- 240 B3- 279 B4- 318 B5- 358 B6- 396
10 .5 10 .1 10 .1 10 .3 10 .8 10 .4
Tablo 15. Kiriş modellerinde analizlerden elde edilen akma eğriliği

Kes Kes Kes Kes Kes Kes

it 𝑲𝒚 it 𝑲𝒚 it 𝑲𝒚 it 𝑲𝒚 it 𝑲𝒚 it 𝑲𝒚
No No No No No No
B1- 7.7 B2- 7.8 B3- 7.8 B4- 7.9 B5- 7.9 B6- 8.0
0 7 0 2 0 6 0 2 0 8 0 2
B1- 7.6 B2- 7.7 B3- 7.7 B4- 7.8 B5- 7.8 B6- 7.9
1 8 1 4 1 7 1 2 1 7 1 2
B1- 7.5 B2- 7.6 B3- 7.7 B4- 7.7 B5- 7.7 B6- 7.8
2 9 2 4 2 0 2 4 2 8 2 2
B1- 7.5 B2- 7.5 B3- 7.6 B4- 7.6 B5- 7.7 B6- 7.7
3 2 3 6 3 0 3 5 3 1 3 5
B1- 7.4 B2- 7.4 B3- 7.5 B4- 7.5 B5- 7.6 B6- 7.6
4 4 4 9 4 3 4 7 4 2 4 7
B1- 7.3 B2- 7.4 B3- 7.4 B4- 7.5 B5- 7.5 B6- 7.5
5 6 5 1 5 7 5 1 5 4 5 8
B1- 7.3 B2- 7.3 B3- 7.3 B4- 7.4 B5- 7.4 B6- 7.5
6 0 6 4 6 9 6 4 6 9 6 2
B1- 7.2 B2- 7.2 B3- 7.3 B4- 7.3 B5- 7.4 B6- 7.4
7 5 7 9 7 3 7 7 7 1 7 6
B1- 7.1 B2- 7.2 B3- 7.2 B4- 7.3 B5- 7.3 B6- 7.3
8 8 8 4 8 7 8 1 8 5 8 9
B1- 7.1 B2- 7.1 B3- 7.2 B4- 7.2 B5- 7.2 B6- 7.3
9 2 9 7 9 2 9 6 9 9 9 3
B1- 7.0 B2- 7.1 B3- 7.1 B4- 7.2 B5- 7.2 B6- 7.2
10 7 10 2 10 6 10 0 10 5 10 8
Tablo 16. Kiriş modelleri analizlerden elde edilen maksimum momenti

Ke Ke Ke Ke Ke Ke
sit 𝑴𝒖 sit 𝑴𝒖 sit 𝑴𝒖 sit 𝑴𝒖 sit 𝑴𝒖 sit 𝑴𝒖
No No No No No No
B1- 243 B2- 291 B3- 340 B4- 389 B5- 437 B6- 486
0 .2 0 .9 0 .4 0 .1 0 .9 0 .6
B1- 244 B2- 293 B3- 342 B4- 391 B5- 440 B6- 489
1 .9 1 .8 1 .7 1 .7 1 .6 1 .5
B1- 246 B2- 295 B3- 345 B4- 394 B5- 443 B6- 492
2 .5 2 .8 2 .0 2 .3 2 .6 2 .7
B1- 248 B2- 297 B3- 347 B4- 396 B5- 446 B6- 496
3 .2 3 .8 3 .3 3 .9 3 .5 3 .0
B1- 249 B2- 299 B3- 349 B4- 399 B5- 449 B6- 499
4 .8 4 .7 4 .6 4 .6 4 .4 4 .3
B1- 251 B2- 301 B3- 352 B4- 402 B5- 452 B6- 502
5 .5 5 .8 5 .0 5 .2 5 .4 5 .6
B1- 253 B2- 303 B3- 354 B4- 404 B5- 455 B6- 505
6 .2 6 .8 6 .3 6 .9 6 .4 6 .9
B1- 254 B2- 305 B3- 356 B4- 407 B5- 458 B6- 509
7 .9 7 .8 7 .7 7 .6 7 .4 7 .3
B1- 256 B2- 307 B3- 359 B4- 410 B5- 461 B6- 512
8 .5 8 .9 8 .1 8 .4 8 .5 8 .6
B1- 258 B2- 309 B3- 361 B4- 413 B5- 464 B6- 516
9 .3 9 .8 9 .5 9 .1 9 .6 9 .2
B1- 260 B2- 311 B3- 363 B4- 415 B5- 467 B6- 519
10 .0 10 .9 10 .8 10 .9 10 .8 10 .7
Tablo 17. Kiriş modelleri analizlerinden elde edilen maksimum eğrilik

Ke Ke Ke Ke Ke Ke
sit 𝑲𝒖 sit 𝑲𝒖 sit 𝑲𝒖 sit 𝑲𝒖 sit 𝑲𝒖 sit 𝑲𝒖
No No No No No No
B1- 219 B2- 219 B3- 219 B4- 219 B5- 219 B6- 219
0 .6 0 .6 0 .6 0 .6 0 .6 0 .6
B1- 219 B2- 219 B3- 219 B4- 219 B5- 219 B6- 219
1 .6 1 .6 1 .6 1 .6 1 .6 1 .6
B1- 219 B2- 219 B3- 219 B4- 219 B5- 219 B6- 219
2 .6 2 .6 2 .6 2 .6 2 .6 2 .6
B1- 219 B2- 219 B3- 219 B4- 219 B5- 219 B6- 219
3 .6 3 .6 3 .6 3 .6 3 .6 3 .6
B1- 219 B2- 219 B3- 219 B4- 219 B5- 219 B6- 219
4 .6 4 .6 4 .6 4 .6 4 .6 4 .6
B1- 219 B2- 219 B3- 219 B4- 219 B5- 219 B6- 219
5 .6 5 .6 5 .6 5 .6 5 .6 5 .6
B1- 219 B2- 219 B3- 219 B4- 219 B5- 219 B6- 219
6 .6 6 .6 6 .6 6 .6 6 .6 6 .6
B1- 219 B2- 219 B3- 219 B4- 219 B5- 219 B6- 219
7 .6 7 .6 7 .6 7 .6 7 .6 7 .6
B1- 219 B2- 219 B3- 219 B4- 219 B5- 219 B6- 219
8 .6 8 .6 8 .6 8 .6 8 .6 8 .6
B1- 219 B2- 219 B3- 219 B4- 219 B5- 219 B6- 219
9 .6 9 .6 9 .6 9 .6 9 .6 9 .6
B1- 219 B2- 219 B3- 219 B4- 219 B5- 219 B6- 219
10 .6 10 .6 10 .6 10 .6 10 .6 10 .6
Tablo 18. Kiriş modelleri analizlerinden elde edilen rijitlik oranlarının (EIv )
karşılaştırılması.
Kesi Kesi Kesi Kesi Kesi Kesi
t 𝑬𝑰𝒐 t 𝑬𝑰𝒐 t 𝑬𝑰𝒐 t 𝑬𝑰𝒐 t 𝑬𝑰𝒐 t 𝑬𝑰𝒐
No No No No No No
B1- 1.0 B2- 1.0 B3- 1.0 B4- 1.0 B5- 1.0 B6- 1.0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
B1- 1.0 B2- 1.0 B3- 1.0 B4- 1.0 B5- 1.0 B6- 1.0
1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2
B1- 1.0 B2- 1.0 B3- 1.0 B4- 1.0 B5- 1.0 B6- 1.0
2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3
B1- 1.0 B2- 1.0 B3- 1.0 B4- 1.0 B5- 1.0 B6- 1.0
3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4
B1- 1.0 B2- 1.0 B3- 1.0 B4- 1.0 B5- 1.0 B6- 1.0
4 5 4 5 4 5 4 5 4 6 4 6
B1- 1.0 B2- 1.0 B3- 1.0 B4- 1.0 B5- 1.0 B6- 1.0
5 7 5 7 5 7 5 7 5 7 5 7
B1- 1.0 B2- 1.0 B3- 1.0 B4- 1.0 B5- 1.0 B6- 1.0
6 8 6 8 6 8 6 8 6 8 6 8
B1- 1.0 B2- 1.0 B3- 1.0 B4- 1.0 B5- 1.0 B6- 1.0
7 8 7 9 7 9 7 9 7 9 7 9
B1- 1.1 B2- 1.1 B3- 1.1 B4- 1.1 B5- 1.1 B6- 1.1
8 0 8 0 8 0 8 0 8 1 8 1
B1- 1.1 B2- 1.1 B3- 1.1 B4- 1.1 B5- 1.1 B6- 1.1
9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1
B1- 1.1 B2- 1.1 B3- 1.1 B4- 1.1 B5- 1.1 B6- 1.1
10 2 10 2 10 2 10 2 10 2 10 2
Tablo 19. Kiriş modelleri analizlerinden elde edilen süneklik oranlarının (µv )
karşılaştırılması.
Kes Kes Kes Kes Kes Kes

it µ𝒐 it µ𝒐 it µ𝒐 it µ𝒐 it µ𝒐 it µ𝒐
No No No No No No
B1- 1.0 B2- 1.0 B3- 1.0 B4- 1.0 B5- 1.0 B6- 1.0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
B1- 1.0 B2- 1.0 B3- 1.0 B4- 1.0 B5- 1.0 B6- 1.0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
B1- 1.0 B2- 1.0 B3- 1.0 B4- 1.0 B5- 1.0 B6- 1.0
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
B1- 1.0 B2- 1.0 B3- 1.0 B4- 1.0 B5- 1.0 B6- 1.0
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
B1- 1.0 B2- 1.0 B3- 1.0 B4- 1.0 B5- 1.0 B6- 1.0
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
B1- 1.0 B2- 1.0 B3- 1.0 B4- 1.0 B5- 1.0 B6- 1.0
5 6 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
B1- 1.0 B2- 1.0 B3- 1.0 B4- 1.0 B5- 1.0 B6- 1.0
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
B1- 1.0 B2- 1.0 B3- 1.0 B4- 1.0 B5- 1.0 B6- 1.0
7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7
B1- 1.0 B2- 1.0 B3- 1.0 B4- 1.0 B5- 1.0 B6- 1.0
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
B1- 1.0 B2- 1.0 B3- 1.0 B4- 1.0 B5- 1.0 B6- 1.0
9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
B1- 1.1 B2- 1.1 B3- 1.1 B4- 1.1 B5- 1.1 B6- 1.1
10 0 10 0 10 0 10 0 10 0 10 0
Tablo 20. Betonarme kiriş elemanlarının çatlamamış eğilme rijitliği (𝐸𝐼).

Beton Ec b h I 𝑬𝑰
Sınıfı (MPa) (m) (m) (m4) (kNxm2)
25 30250.0 0.25 0.5 0.0026042 78776.0
30 31801.0 0.25 0.5 0.0026042 82815.1
35 33227.3 0.25 0.5 0.0026042 86529.3
40 34554.8 0.25 0.5 0.0026042 89986.5
45 35801.7 0.25 0.5 0.0026042 93233.5
50 36981.0 0.25 0.5 0.0026042 96304.6
Tablo 21. Betonarme kiriş elemanlarının etkin rijitlik katsayıları (𝑘5 ).
Ke Ke Ke Ke Ke Ke
𝝆8 sit 𝒌𝒆 sit 𝒌𝒆 sit 𝒌𝒆 sit 𝒌𝒆 sit 𝒌𝒆 sit 𝒌𝒆
No No No No No No
B1- 0.3 B2- 0.3 B3- 0.4 B4- 0.4 B5- 0.4 B6- 0.5
0
0 2 0 6 0 0 0 4 0 7 0 0
0, B1- 0.3 B2- 0.3 B3- 0.4 B4- 0.4 B5- 0.4 B6- 0.5
1 1 3 1 7 1 1 1 4 1 8 1 1
0, B1- 0.3 B2- 0.3 B3- 0.4 B4- 0.4 B5- 0.4 B6- 0.5
2 2 3 2 7 2 1 2 5 2 8 2 2
0, B1- 0.3 B2- 0.3 B3- 0.4 B4- 0.4 B5- 0.4 B6- 0.5
3 3 3 3 8 3 2 3 6 3 9 3 2
0, B1- 0.3 B2- 0.3 B3- 0.4 B4- 0.4 B5- 0.5 B6- 0.5
4 4 4 4 8 4 2 4 6 4 0 4 3
0, B1- 0.3 B2- 0.3 B3- 0.4 B4- 0.4 B5- 0.5 B6- 0.5
5 5 4 5 9 5 3 5 7 5 0 5 4
0, B1- 0.3 B2- 0.3 B3- 0.4 B4- 0.4 B5- 0.5 B6- 0.5
6 6 5 6 9 6 3 6 7 6 1 6 4
0, B1- 0.3 B2- 0.4 B3- 0.4 B4- 0.4 B5- 0.5 B6- 0.5
7 7 5 7 0 7 4 7 8 7 1 7 5
0, B1- 0.3 B2- 0.4 B3- 0.4 B4- 0.4 B5- 0.5 B6- 0.5
8 8 5 8 0 8 4 8 8 8 2 8 5
0, B1- 0.3 B2- 0.4 B3- 0.4 B4- 0.4 B5- 0.5 B6- 0.5
9 9 6 9 0 9 5 9 9 9 2 9 6
B1- 0.3 B2- 0.4 B3- 0.4 B4- 0.4 B5- 0.5 B6- 0.5
1
10 6 10 1 10 5 10 9 10 3 10 7
𝒌𝒆 ; Betonarme Taşıyıcı Sistem Elemanlarının Etkin Kesit Rijitlik Katsayısı
0,60 Tip-
1
0,55 Tip-
2
Tip-
0,50 3
Tip-
4
0,45
ke
0,40
0,35
0,30
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2
ρ'/ρ
Şekil 8. Betonarme kiriş elemanlarının farklı tip modellerine göre etkin
eğilme rijitlik çarpanlarının karşılaştırılmalı grafiği.
Sonuç
Araştırma sonuçları ve tartışma bölümünde özetlenen sonuçların ışığında
aşağıdaki sonuçlar elde edilmiştir.
• Betonarme kirişlerde sabit beton basınç dayanımı ve çekme donatısı oranı
için basınç donatısı oranının artması ile moment-eğrilik ilişkilerinden elde
edilen 𝑀X ve 𝑀I değerleri artmakta, maksimum eğrilik değeri (𝑘I ) sabit
kalmakta ve akma eğriliğinin (𝑘X ) değerleri azalmaktadır.
• Sabit basınç donatısı ve çekme donatısı oranına sahip betonarme

kirişlerde beton basınç dayanımının artması ile akma momenti (𝑀X ),
akma anında eğrilik miktarı (𝑘X ) ve elemanların maksimum moment
kapasitesinin (𝑀I ) değerleri artmakta, maksimum eğrilik (𝑘I ) değerleri
sabit kalmıştır.
için basınç donatısı oranının artması ile kesitlerin rijitlik oranı (𝐸𝐼4 )
artmaktadır.
kirişlerde beton basınç dayanımının artması ile hesaplanan eğilme rijitliği
oranı (𝐸𝐼4 ) değerleri sabit kalmıştır.
için basınç donatı oranının artması ile moment-eğrilik ilişkilerinden elde
edilen değerlere göre hesaplanan 𝜇4 değerleri artmaktadır.
kirişlerde beton basınç dayanımının artması ile 𝜇4 değerleri sabit
kalmıştır.
için, basınç donatı oranının artması ile 𝑘5 değerleri artmaktadır.
kirişlerde beton basınç dayanımının artması ile eğilme rijitliğinin çarpanı
(𝑘5 ) değerleri artmaktadır.
• Betonarme kirişlerinde basınç donatısı oranının, akma ve maksimum
moment taşıma kapasitesi, etkin eğilme rijitliği, eğrilik sünekliği ve
kesitlerin etkin eğilme rijitlileri üzerinde etkili olduğunu ispatlanmıştır.
Kaynakça
[1] Canbay. E, Ersoy. U, Özcebe. G, Sucuoğlu. H, Wasti. S. T, , “Binalar İçin
Deprem Mühendisliği Temel İlkeler” ISBN: 9799789944070, ODTÜ,
Akademik Kitaplar Yayınevi, Ankara, 2010.
[2] Çağlar. N, Akkaya. A, Demir. A, Öztürk. H, “Farklı Kesit Geometrilerine
Sahip Betonarme Kolonların Davranışının İncelenmesi”, ISITES 2014, p,
2095-2105, Karabük/Türkiye, 2014.
[3] Ersoy. U, ve Özcebe. G, “Betonarme 1”, İSBN: 978-975-503-215-31,
Evrim Yayınevi ve Bilgisayar San, Tic, Ltd, Şti, İstanbul, 2012.
[4] Mander. J. B, Priestley. M. J. N. and Park. R, “Theoretıcal stress-straın
model for confıned concrete“, Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol, 114,

No, 8, pp,1804-1826, 1988.
[5] SAP2000, Structural Software for Analysis and Design, Computers and
Structures, Inc, Version 20.2.0.0 USA.
[6] TBDY, 2018, Türkiye Bina Deprem Yönetmeliği, T,C, Bayındırlık ve
İskân Bakanlığı, Ankara.
[7] TS500, 2000, Betonarme Yapıların Tasarım ve Yapım Kuralları, Türk
Standardları Enstitüsü, TSE, Ankara.
***
FSI And Thermal Analysis of a single Piezofan in

Longitudinal Channel
Salim lbrahim Hasan*
Serhan Küçüka**
Mehmet Akif Ezan***
Abstract
The conventional cooling methods typically consist of air-cooling processes,
which involve various types of heat sinks in free and forced convection,
becomes inadequate to meet the cooling requirements with high performance,
compact size, and increased heat generation advanced electronic devices. The
main aims of this investigation are to analyze the flow and heat transfer of a
single horizontally oriented piezofan oscillating transversally to longitudinal
channel airflow, to show its applicable to achieve a successful thermal
management on a flat heated surface in compact electronics components. The
analysis was performed on a 2D-laminar flow model, by combining the
cantilever motion analysis with fluid flow and heat transfer using COMSOL
Multiphysics software. The model based on the finite element method (FEM)
is determined using an Arbitrarily Lagrange-Euler scheme (ALE) in Fluid-
Structure-Interaction (FSI) analysis. The cooling performance of piezofan is
computed by evaluating the average convective heat transfer coefficient at the
heated section of the channel surface with inlet flow velocity (uin=0.1m/s).
The results have shown the high performance of these fans compare without
piezofan flow condition, and the best performance was obtained at which the
moving tip of the fan at the middle of the heated surface.
Keywords: Piezoelectric Fan, Electronic Cooling, COMSOL Analysis, FSI
Method
*
Department of Mechanical Engineering Dokuz Eylül University, İzmir, Turkey. e-mail:
mediansalim@gmail.com, serhan.kucuka@deu.edu.tr, mehmet.ezan@deu.edu.tr, Department
of Mechanical Engineering Mosul University, Mosul, Iraq
**
mediansalim@gmail.com, serhan.kucuka@deu.edu.tr, mehmet.ezan@deu.edu.tr
***
mediansalim@gmail.com, serhan.kucuka@deu.edu.tr, mehmet.ezan@deu.edu.tr
List of Symbols
ṁ Mass flow rate of air leading edge (mm).
through channel (kg/s).
Ypz Piezofan displacement
NOMENCLATURE mpz Mass of piezofan (g). (mm) , Equ.(2).
Ac Cross section Area of piezofan Nu Nusselt number. ypz Piezofan amplitude (mm) ,
(m2). Equ.(4).
P pressure (Pa).
Cp specific heat at constant SUBSCRIPTS
q Heat transfer rate (W).
pressure (kJ/kg.K).
q ''
Heat flux (W/m ).2 a air.
Dh Hydraulic diameter of channel,
"#
Rem Reynolds number of c channel.
𝐷! = = 2 𝐻 = 16 𝑚𝑚.
$
mainstream channel flow, e enthalpy.
&' (
E Young’s modulus (Pa). 𝑅𝑒% = $% & .
) f fluid.
fr First resonant frequency (Hz).
T Temperature (K). h hydraulic.
G Relative vertical distance of
t Time (s). in channel inlet .
pizofan to the heated surface (mm).
th Piezofan thickness m mainstream flow.
H Channel height (cm) .
(mm).
h Convective heat transfer out channel outlet.
u Velocity of air in x-
coefficient(W/m2.K). pz piezofan.
direction (m/s).
I Second moment of area (m4), s heated surface.
upz Velocity of piezofan
(I=w*th3/12).
(m/s). GREEK SYMBOLS
ka Thermal conductivity of air
v Velocity of air in y- ∆ drop , change or difference
(W/m.K).
direction (m/s). .
Lc Length of channel (cm).
w Piezofan width (mm). β frequency coefficient
Lf Distance between the channel ,Equ.(3).
x,y Cartesian coordinates.
entrance and the heated surface
(cm). x Position on the σ Poissoin’s ratio.
horizontally oriented μ viscosity (kg/m.s).
Ls Length of heated surface (cm).
piezofan.
Lpz Length of piezofan (mm). ρ density (kg/m3).
xp Horizontal distance
between piezofan tip and the ψ dimensionless drive
heated surface coefficient.
Introduction
With the development of electronic units and packaging technologies, the
conventional cooling processes and heat dissipation technologies become
ineffective in meeting the allowable temperature requirement. Therefore, in
recent decades, the rapid development of modern electronic technology has
attracted the attention of scientists and engineers to research, introduce and
innovate new cooling techniques to meet the requirements and challenges in
these high heat generation and continued miniaturization electronic packages.
Air cooling is one of the simplest methods of thermal management that used
most widely in a variety range of portable and large electronic systems, due
to its low cost and ease of use. Cantilever fan driven by the piezoelectricity
phenomenon is a novel method to increase heat transfer in the air domain.
Piezofans (also known as piezoelectric fans or piezoceramic fans) developed

in the 1970 and received some attention over the past few decades in cooling
applications. Since the pioneer works of Toda's ([1] and [2]), piezofan
technology has been developed over 25 years in analytical and experimental
work, and has issued many patents for its applications. Tseng et.al [3]
explained the operation principle and characteristics of piezofans by inverse
piezoelectric effect and their available applications in electronic cooling.
Different techniques have been studied theoretically and experimentally to
investigate the effects of piezofans on the thermal characteristics and
performance of electronic components. Most of these studies investigate the
influences of the geometry, orientation and oscillation parameters on thermo-
fluid properties and cooling performance . They have reached distinctive
conclusions that have already entered in many electronics applications as a
major or complementary components of the cooling process.
The works that deal with flow in a channel have been conducted to analyze
the characteristics of fluid flow and/or to investigate the methods of the
convective heat transfer from heated surfaces. In general, the heat transfer
from the internal surfaces of the longitudinal channels increases with
increasing the flow rate. However, a turbulence increase occurred at a certain
region increases also heat transfer[4]. "But what if the turbulence increase
occurred at a certain point in the flow field?". This introduces a largely
unexplored subject area that uses piezofans to induce a turbulence at specific
point [4]. The importance of these type of analyses and its summaries will be
useful to achieve a successful and advanced thermal management for meeting
a variety of cooling needs in compact portable and small-scale electronic
devices, as well as in larger scale thermal systems and power electronics
components. Florio and Harnoy (2007) [5], introduced a 2D model to
investigate the transverse oscillation of piezofan in a vertical channel. They
obtained up to 52% increase in the local heat transfer coefficient relative to
standard natural convection. Jeng and Liu (2015) [6] conducted experiments
to discuss the influence of transverse and axial piezofan oscillation to channel
airflow to enhance the heat transfer of different constructions heat sinks. They
concluded that the square pin–fin heat sink achieved the best heat transfer
enhancement, and the transverse oscillation promoted slightly more
enhancement than the axial oscillation. Li et al. (2017) [7] proved that in the
presence of cross-flow with piezofan oscillation, the convective heat transfer
coefficient increased by 56% compared with pure piezofan oscillation
condition. This enhancement is reduced to 46.4% with increasing the cross-
flow velocity from 0.94 to 1.56 m/s. They also confirmed an improvement in
heat transfer when the oscillating piezofan tip to the heated surface gap is
small (i.e.3mm).
As there is very few research that has reported piezofan oscillations transverse
to channel airflow, there is an important developmental aspect that is still quite
incomplete in this topic and the possibility of developing their distinctive
applications. Accordingly, the main objective of our current study is to
propose an effective Multiphysics method by COMSOL software to analyze
the cooling effects (convective heat transfer) of the air flow generated by
oscillations of a single piezofan transverse to channel airflow, to show its
capability to improve the heat dissipation from a flat heated surface compare
with the flow inside the channels without this fan.
Definition of the Problem
For addressing issue of this study, a horizontal 2D channel model has been set
up, which is heated by constant heat flux from below at a specific part, and a
cantilever fan placed above it. Then combining the cantilever motion analysis
with fluid flow and heat transfer in fluid-structure analysis and non-isothermal
flow multiphysics. This simulation was done using a moving mesh scheme by
defining the function of motion using variable displacement in a time-
dependent study. In the results, three main parameters have been investigated;
air inlet velocity (mainstream flow Reynolds number Rem), the horizontal
position of piezofan to the heated surface leading edge (∆xp), and its relative
vertical position to the heated surface (G). The average mean convective heat
transfer coefficient (ℎÉ) and Nusselt number (𝑁𝑢 ÉÉÉÉ) on the heated surface are
analyzed with details, and a prominent enhancement of heat transfer was
shown.
In this problem, a heater with a length of Ls is placed at the bottom wall of a
channel and is exposed to the forced convection. Fig.1 shows the model with
its coordinates and the boundary conditions. The distance between the channel
entrance and the leading edge of the heater is Lf. A constant heat flux of
q''=1000 W/m2 is applied to the heater. A piezofan is horizontally placed above
the heated surface to enhance the heat transfer between the heater and the
flowing fluid. The spacing between the piezofan and the heater is varied from
G = 7 mm to G = 20 mm.
Figure 1. The 2D channel model with horizontally oriented piezofan.

The piezofan has a structure of a uniform cantilever beam, which is fixed on
one end, and the other end is allowed to move freely. It is oriented
horizontally above the surface to be cooled, as illustrated in Fig. 2 The tip of

the piezofan is placed with a distance of Δxp from the heated surface.
Figure 2. Piezofan dimensions and the alignment with the heated surface.
The piezofan specifications have been selected according to the literature
review data [4] and experimental data in ref. [8].
The solution of stable and uniform free beam oscillations can be found in
many textbooks of mechanics and some piezofan reviews [4,9,10,11]. The
piezofan oscillation frequency and amplitude are governed by its geometrical
and material properties in Table 1. It has been investigated in several previous
studies [12,13]. As a widely followed method, the oscillation frequency is
defined as the first mode of the resonant frequency of the blade, which is
simplified by Yoo et al. [14] in Eq. (1) as
)&'
𝑓! = !.#$
%(
. %*(.+ (1)
&' &' .(*-.( )
where α is constant for different resonance modes, according to [14]

theoretically, it is equal to π/8. Accordingly, the resonant frequency is
calculated as fr = 20 Hz. Eq. (2) represents the equation of motion as a
function of position (x) along the piezofan length (Lpz), which is plotted in
Fig.3 .
𝑌M• (𝑥) = 𝜓. 𝐴3 . [(𝑠𝑖𝑛…𝛽. 𝐿M• ‰ − 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ(𝛽. 𝐿M• )) . (𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛽. 𝑥) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ(𝛽. 𝑥)) +
(𝑐𝑜𝑠…𝛽. 𝐿M• ‰ − 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ(𝛽. 𝐿M• )) . (𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛽. 𝑥) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ(𝛽. 𝑥))]
(2)
Where Ac is the cross-section area of piezofan beam, and β is the frequency
coefficient and defined as
1 "#.%0 .&&'
𝛽=% (3)
' &' .(.)&'
Although the general equation that describing the cantilever motion of
piezofan (Eq. 2 and 4) depends on different operational and geometric factors,
the displacement (Ypz) and frequency (fr) represent the main factors affecting
the motion. Many previous experiments and theoretical works have
demonstrated the relationship between the drive input power (applied voltage)
and piezofan tip amplitude; for example, Tseng et al. [3] proved the direct
relationship between them. Therefore, it is possible to adjust the amplitude
without affecting the other characteristics, which is theoretically defined by
dimensionless drive coefficient ψ [4]. Then the piezofan blade tip ampulitude
is drawn in Fig.4 for (20Hz) frequency.
𝑦AB (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝜓. 𝑌AB (𝑥). 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜋. 𝑓C . 𝑡 )
(4)
Then the piezofan blade tip amplitude are drawn in Fig.4 for (20Hz) frequency
and ψ=1.826.
4.5
displacement
Ypz(x) (mm)
4
3.5
Piezofan
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Position along piezofan x

(mm)
5
Amplitude ypz (mm)
3
Piezofan tip
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Time (s)
Figure 3 . Piezofan displacement. Figure 4. Piezofan tip amplitude.

Mathematical Model And Meshing
Setting Of Initial And Boundary Conditions
Through our follow-up of different numerical and simulation models in the
literature, we have found several flow and related numerical assumptions that
must consider setting up the piezofan models. Using the assumptions of the
boundary and initial conditions as inputs, which specified as follows; inlet
conditions defined as inlet velocity to satisfy incompressible laminar flow
conditions (Rem <2300), while the outlet defined as pressure boundary. Both
top and bottom boundaries are considered as insulated walls no-slip condition
except the heated surface location. The ambient air temperature is set to
(293.15K), and uniform heat flux of (q''=1000 W/m2) has been applied on the
heated surface. To satisfy other general solution, buoyancy and radiative

effects are neglected. All these assumptions are conducted in the time-
dependent study to combine airflow and heat transfer with solid mechanics
using a moving boundary option to calculate the deformation in the fluid
domain due to the induced forces from the cantilever motion of piezofan
simultaneously. Moving boundary conditions have been created as an
automatic remeshing option by using the ALE (Arbitrary Lagrangian-
Eulerian) method to reduce the computational time required for large-
displacement in fluid-structure interactions analysis (FSI).
So the summery of the initial and boundary conditions defined as:
- x=0 : u=uin , v=0, T=Tin (Normal uniform inflow condition).
‚I
- x=Lc :
‚2
= 0, v=0 (Normal flow without suppressing backflow
condition).
- y=0 and at y=H : u = v = 0 ( Non-slip conditions on the channel
walls).
Governing Equations
The specified fluid flow physic in COMSOL includes the general Navier-
Stokes governing Eqs. 6 to 9 ;
DE D D
Continuity: +𝜌 (𝑢 ) +𝜌 (𝑣) =0
DF DG DH
(6)
D D D DI
Momentum : 𝜌 DF (𝑢 ) + 𝜌𝑢 DG (𝑢) + 𝜌𝑣 DH (𝑢) = − DG +
Dƒ J Dƒ J
𝜇( + ) (7)
DG ƒ DH ƒ
D D D DI
𝜌 DF (𝑣) + 𝜌𝑢 DG (𝑣) + 𝜌𝑣 DH (𝑣 ) = − DH +
Dƒ K Dƒ K
𝜇(DGƒ + DHƒ ) (8)
DL DL DL Dƒ L Dƒ L
Energy : 𝜌𝑐A DF + 𝜌𝑐A 𝑢 DG + 𝜌𝑐A 𝑣 DH = 𝑘 ;DGƒ< + 𝑘 ;DHƒ <
(9)
Where ρ is the fluid density, P is the pressure in the fluid , Cp specific heat of
air at constant pressure and k is thermal conductivity. The average convective
> ) and average Nusselt number (𝑁𝑢
heat transfer coefficient (ℎ >>>>), defined as
follows:
M„„
ℎ> = (10)
(LN… OL† )
P . R… N
>>>>
𝑁𝑢 = (11)
S†
ka (thermal conductivity of air) is calculated at film air temperature (Tf);
ˆˆˆˆ
𝑇𝑠 +𝑇𝑎
𝑇$ = !
(12)
Results And Discussion
In order to analyze the flow characteristics through this simulation, the
influences of conventional factors are highlighted in a topic that was not
extensively covered in previous studies of the flow field within longitudinal
channels in the presence of turbulence at a specific point resulting from the
cantilever motion of piezofan.
Verification
In order to verify the results obtained from this simulation, we applied the
same characteristics, boundary and initial conditions that were used by
Acikalin & Garimella (2009) [15,16] study. As shown in Fig. 5 for
temperature and convective heat transfer coefficient at a specific point on the
heated surface, the comparison error bars show a good agreement with
maximum deviation not exceed 1.6 %.
313
312.5 72.5
Temperature (K)
312 70
Convective heat
67.5
311.5
coefficent
(W/m^2.K)
transfer
65
311
62.5
310.5 60
310 57.5
55
309.5
52.5
309
50
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 0.016 0.018
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02
Y-position (m) Y-position (m)
(a) Temperature comparison. (b) convective heat transfer comparison

.
Figure 5 . comparison of temperature and heat transfer coefficient predicted on the
heated surface with Acikalin & Garimella (2009) [11].
Flow Considerations
In flow field characteristic analysis, although the unsteady mainstream flow
under the effect of the oscillation piezofan is a complex flow mechanism, the
simulation model introduces a practical approach to achieve an accurate
solution. As we mentioned above, this is clarified by fluid-structure

interaction during piezofan operation.
Fig. 6 shows the largest velocity of air movement at the piezofan tip directed
to the heated surface to be cooled (2.12 m/s), while Fig. 7 shows its effect on
main flow the stream lines compare with flow without piezofan.
Figure 6 . Velocity profile of air movement at piezofan tip.

Figure 7 . Effects of piezofan motion on main stream flow at different instants (0.1
,1, 2.5 and 5 s).
Thermal Considerations
The variation of temperature with time during the operation of piezofan is
showed in Fig.8 the temperature reached to steady state at (1.5s), so the period
of simulation is selected according to this as minimum computation time.
Figure 8 . Variation of Temperature over time for different point on the heated surface
.
The Influence of the piezofan position the average heated surface
Temperature (𝑇 AV ) and convective heat transfer coefficient (ℎ>) is illustrated in
Fig.9 with different positions of heated surface according to tip of piezofan
(∆xp= 10 , 0 , -10 , -20, -30 , -40 and -50 mm) at (uin=0.1m/s ,G=10mm,
fr=20Hz). The best case of the heated surface position is (∆xp =-20mm), which
show the minimum surface temperature and maximum convective heat

transfer coefficient . Therefore, this case is regarded as the optimal in
analyzing the other geometrical and physical factors.
transfer coefficent (W/m^2.K)

500 20
without PZ with PZ
with PZ ∆Xp=-20mm
450 18 ∆Xp=-10mm with PZ
Average convective heat

with PZ ∆Xp=-30mm
Averege heated surface
with PZ with PZ with PZ ∆Xp=-50mm with PZ

400 ∆Xp=10mm ∆Xp=0mm with PZ with PZ with PZ 16
∆Xp=-40mm ∆Xp=0mm
Temperature (K)
∆Xp=-10mm∆Xp=-20mm ∆Xp=-30mm with PZ

350 14 with PZ ∆Xp=-40mm
∆Xp=10mm
300 12
with PZ
∆Xp=-50mm
250 10
200 8
without PZ
150 6
100 4
50 2
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
(a) Average heated surface Temperature. (b) Average convective heat transfer
coefficient.
Figure 9. The average heated surface Temperature and convective heat transfer
coefficient with different positions of heated surface.
Conclusions
In this study, using of piezofans to increase heat dissipation from hot spot flat
surfaces inside longitudinal channels was investigated, to prove the ability of
these smart piezoelectric materials to cool small compact electronic devices
and replace high-noise, high-power consumption and large-size conventional
fans . The analysis results show that, these fans have a good performance
compared to the natural flow under the same conditions. There are various
factors that can improve the performance of these fans, but the vertical and
horizontal positions to the heated surface are the most influential factors. The
piezofan positions (xp=-20mm) and (G=7mm) were selected as optimal
positions, which showed high average convective heat transfer coefficient (ℎ >)
and average Nusselt number (>>>>
𝑁𝑢). The research will continue to analyze
another structure inside the channel, for example: adding baffles beside the
heated surface and changing the piezofan orientations to get the best
turbulence, or embedding the piezofan between a finned heated surface .
References
[1] M. Toda, “Voltage-induced Large Amplitude Bending Device PVF2
Bimorph – Its Properties and Applications,” Ferroelectrics, vol. 32, pp. 127-
133, 1981.
[2] M. Toda, “Theory of Air Flow Generation by a Resonant Type PVF2
Bimorph Cantilever Vibrator,” Ferroelectrics, vol. 22, pp. 911-918, 1979.
[3] Tseng, K. H., Mochizuki, M., Mashiko, K., Kosakabe, T., Takenaka,
E., Yamamoto, K., & Kikutake, R. (2010). Piezo fan for thermal management
of electronics. In Proc. 2nd Int. Forum Heat Transfer (pp. 1-4).
[4] Hales, A., & Jiang, X. (2018). A review of piezoelectric fans for low
energy cooling of power electronics. Applied Energy, 215, 321-337.
[5] Florio, L. A., & Harnoy, A. (2007). Use of a vibrating plate to enhance
natural convection cooling of a discrete heat source in a vertical
channel. Applied thermal engineering, 27(13), 2276-2293.
[6] Jeng, T. M., & Liu, C. H. (2015). Moving-orientation and position
effects of the piezoelectric fan on thermal characteristics of the heat sink
partially filled in a channel with axial flow. International Journal of Heat and
Mass Transfer, 85, 950-964.
[7] Li, X. J., Zhang, J. Z., & Tan, X. M. (2017). Convective heat transfer
on a flat surface induced by a vertically-oriented piezoelectric fan in the
presence of cross flow. Heat and Mass Transfer, 53(9), 2745-2768.
[8] Acikalin, T., Wait, S. M., Garimella, S. V., & Raman, A. (2004).
Experimental investigation of the thermal performance of piezoelectric
fans. Heat Transfer Engineering, 25(1), 4-14.
[9] Maaspuro, M. (2016). Piezoelectric oscillating cantilever fan for
thermal management of electronics and LEDs—A review. Microelectronics
Reliability, 63, 342-353.
[10] Gere, J. M. (1984). Timoshenko SP. Mechanics of Materials. Brooks
Cole, Monterey, CA..
[11] Meirovitch, L. (1967). Analytical methods in vibrations.
[12] Kimber, M., & Garimella, S. V. (2009). Measurement and prediction
of the cooling characteristics of a generalized vibrating piezoelectric
fan. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 52(19-20), 4470-4478.
[13] Lin, C. N., Jang, J. Y., & Leu, J. S. (2016). A study of an effective
heat-dissipating piezoelectric fan for high heat density
devices. Energies, 9(8), 610.
[14] Yoo, J. H., Hong, J. I., & Cao, W. (2000). Piezoelectric ceramic
bimorph coupled to thin metal plate as cooling fan for electronic
devices. Sensors and Actuators A: Physical, 79(1), 8-12.
[15] Acikalin, T. (2007). Thermal and fluidic characterization of
piezoelectric fans (Doctoral dissertation, Purdue University).
[16] Acikalin, T., & Garimella, S. V. (2009). Analysis and prediction of
the thermal performance of piezoelectrically actuated fans. Heat transfer
engineering, 30(6), 487-498.
Thermal Analysis By Comsol Of a Hotspot Cooling in

Longitudinal Channel Using Single Piezofan
Salim lbrahim Hasan *
Serhan Küçüka**
Abstract
Most surveys and conclusions in the past have clearly shown that more than
55% of electronic devices failures are related to the inability to fully control
high generated heat in hotspots. Although many thermal management
techniques have been applied, they are no longer able to work adequately in
the current types of increased heat generated with compact size and high
performance advanced demanding applications. Conventional cooling
methods, which typically consist of air cooling processes, involve various
types of heat sinks in free and forced convection, are increasingly inadequate
in meeting the cooling requirements of these high power electronic devices.
The main aims of this investigation are to analyze the flow and heat transfer
to cool a hotspot inside longitudinal channel, using single piezoelectric fan to
show its applicable to achieve a successful thermal management in compact
electronics components. The analysis was performed by combined the
cantilever motion analysis (Time-dependent study) in solid mechanics with
fluid flow and heat transfer using comsol multiphysics software. The
analytical of simulation results showed a high performance of vertical and
horizontal orientation cooling of the piezofan compare with free flow. Also
showed a good agreement in the results with the available studies in the
literature.
Keywords: Electronic Cooling, Heat Sink, Piezoelectric Fan, Cantilever
Motion, Longitudinal Channels.
Introduction
With the development of electronic units and packaging technologies, the
conventional cooling processes and heat dissipation technologies can't meet
*Department of Mechanical Engineering Mosul University, Mosul, Iraq. e-mail:

mediansalim@gmail.com, serhan.kucuka@deu.edu.tr, Department of Mechanical Engineering
Dokuz Eylül University, İzmir, Turkey.
**
Department of Mechanical Engineering Dokuz Eylül University, İzmir, Turkey.
the allowable temperature requirement. Therefore, in recent decades, the rapid

development of modern electronic technology has attracted the attention of
scientists and engineers to research, introduce and innovate new cooling
techniques to meet the requirements and challenges of high heat generation in
these continued miniaturization electronic parts.
Air cooling is one of the simplest methods of thermal management that used
most widely in a variety range of portable and large electronic systems, due
to its availability and ease of use. In air cooling the heat is dissipated from
hotspots via thermal management components by passive or active novels.
One of the smart materials that correspond to electronic intelligence world is
the phenomenon of piezoelectricity. Piezoelectricity, derived from the Greek
roots, means pressure and electricity, substances that produce an electric
charge from dimensional changes, and vice versa, as shown in Fig.1 [1].
Figure 27 . Piezoelectric effect.

Piezoelectric materials are either ceramic or polymeric electromechanical
transducers, its’ reversibility effect make it act as both sensors and actuators.
Piezofans (also known as piezoelectric fans or piezoceramic fans) developed
in the 1970’s, and received some attention over the past few decades in
cooling applications. Since the beginning of Toda's work ([2] and [3]), it has
been developed over 25 years in analytical and experimental work, and has
issued many patents for its applications. Fig.2 shows the simple structure of
piezoelectic fan with its’ cantilever motion to generate airflow .
Figure 28 . Piezoelectric fan [4].
Literature Review
In modern heat transfer, the challenge is how to cool, manufacture, reduce
costs and optimize the performance. In order to solve these problems, in recent
years, the use of piezoelectric fans to enhance dissipated heat transfer has
become one of the interesting topics. Several new techniques have been
studied theoretically and experimentally to investigate the effects of
piezoelectric fans on the thermal characteristics and performance of the heat
sinks. From our follow-up to previeos researches, since the invention of a
piezoelectric fan in late 1970s, we have found that at least hundreds of
scientific papers have been published on them; Some studies have carried out
experimental observations and numerical simulations on the air flow
characteristics generated by piezoelectric fans. Others discussed the effect of
the airflow generated by these fans on the heat transfer of the flat plate or
pinfin heat sinks. Wherase anothers have developed a cooling technique that
combines a piezoelectric fan with a finned heat sink. , It was explained
chronologically as follows
• Reaserches that include various experimental investigations and
numerical models on single piezofans. Involving materials and manufacturing
processes, geometric parameters, orientation and characteristics, shapes and
structures, airflow visualization and its effects on active thermal
characteristics and performance ranging from{1978 - 2010}. It have reached
distinctive conclusions that have already entered in many electronics
applications as a major or complementary components of the cooling process.
For example; S. Liu et.al (2009) [5], presented an experimental work to study
the thermal performance of piezofans with various blade geometries and
positions. They found that the performance for vertical arrangement shows a
symmetrical distribution and peaks at the center region whereas the horizontal
arrangement possesses an asymmetrical distribution .
• Researchers focused on how to move air to replace high noise, high
power consumption and large size conventional fans, including comparisons
with piezofan cooling characteristics {1990 - 2012}.
• Recently reaserches that include the effects of multi-piezofans on
thermal characteristics and heat sinks performance. Most of these studies
involved the use of dual piezofans instead of a single piezofan. This included
studying the effects of different new parameters, such as the orientation and
oscillation phases on flow field and heat transfer characteristics {2004 –
2018}. S.F. Sufian et. Al. (2013) [6] studied the influences of different
geometrical parameters of dual-vibrating fans on flow and thermal fields
numericaly and experimentaly to enhance heat transfer from the
microelectronic components. In the results, they showed that the heat transfer
performance of a single fan enhanced within approximately 2.3 times on
heated surface. In contrast, the out-of-phase dual-fans vibrations (Φ=180°)
within approximately 2.9 , while for in-phase vibrations (Φ = 0°) it is (3.1).
• Few studies have included embedded piezoelectric fans. Most of them

have been investigated to create new designs to find the optimal position for
a single piezofan between heatsink fins {2008 — 2018}. They noticed that the
best beam location was as close as possible to the heat sink base surfaces .
This idea is extended to use multifan structures to enhance piezofan cooling,
J. Petroski et.al. (2008) [7] tested embedded piezofans and heat sinks . They
demonstrated in the results that this cooling scheme has a volume coefficient
of performance (COPv) of five times of a typical natural convection solution.
K. H. Tseng (2010) [8] experimented a fan with multiple beams. They found
that embedded piezofan system is capable of dissipating five times of heat
compare with natural convection.
• few reaserches have reported piezofan oscillations that are transverse
to channel airflow. This introduces a largely unexplored subject area that uses
piezofans to induce a turbulence at specific point . T.Jeng and C. Liu (2015)
[9] conducted an experiments to discuss the influence of the reciprocating
motion of piezoelectric fan on the axial airflow in the channel to enhance the
heat transfer of different constructions heat sinks . They concluded that the
square pin–fin heat sink achieved the best heat transfer enhancement, and the
transverse oscillation promoted slightly more enhancement than the axial
oscillation.
While most researchers focused on the use of single piezofan in electronic
cooling applications, the biggest limitation is that the small air volume it
generates. However, there is an important developmental aspect is still quite
incomplete in studing of airflow cooling for a single piezofan oscillations in
transverse channel and the possibility of developing their distinctive
applications. Accordingly, the main objective of our current study is to
propose an effective multiphysics method by COMSOL to analyze the cooling
effects of the air flow generated by a single piezofan to show its capability to
cool a hot spots in the longitudinal transverse channel. The importance of
these analyses and its summaries will be useful to achieve a successful and
advanced thermal management for meeting a variety of cooling needs in
compact portable and small-scale electronic devices, as well as in larger scale
thermal systems and power electronics components.
Simulation Modeling Analysis
Today, the popularity of CFD simulation tools makes it possible to study air
flows easier and easier and more accurately than ever before. The 3D
simulation is numerically heavy, but often a 2D simulation often reveal the
most important characteristics of air flow.
Using the main parameters data available in literature, the 2D analysis have
been done by COMSOL MULTIPHYSICS (Fig. 3) with generated fine mesh,
using assumptions of the boundary and initial conditions as inputs, and

conducted it in time dependent study to combine airflow and heat transfer with
solid mechanics and moving boundary to obtain the results of the cooling or
heat transfer enhancment. Moving boundary conditions have been created as
automatic remeshing using ALE (Arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian) method to
reduces the computational time required for large-displacement in fluid
structure interactions.
Figure 29 . The 2D comsol longitudinal channel model and used mesh.

The piezofan structure is an oscillation of a uniform cantilever beam, which
is fixed on the end and another end is allowed to free movment . The solution
of stable and uniform free oscillation beam can be found in many textbooks
of mechanics [10]. Equ. (1) and (2) horizontal and vertical orientation motion
respectively, it is drawn as a function in the model Fig.4.
𝑌'= (𝑥) = 𝐴. [(sin(𝛽. 𝑙) − sinh(𝛽. 𝑙)) . (sin(𝛽. 𝑥) − sinh(𝛽. 𝑥)) + (cos(𝛽. 𝑙) −
cosh(𝛽. 𝑙)) . (cos(𝛽. 𝑥) − cosh(𝛽. 𝑥))] (1)
𝑋'= (𝑦) = 𝐴. [(sin(𝛽. 𝑙) − sinh(𝛽. 𝑙)). (sin(𝛽. 𝑦) − sinh(𝛽. 𝑦)) + (cos(𝛽. 𝑙) −
cosh(𝛽. 𝑙)). (cos(𝛽. 𝑦) − cosh(𝛽. 𝑦))] (2)
Figure 30 . Horizontal and vertical orientation of piezofan cantilever motion.

β: frequency coefficient defined by :
B 2𝜋. 𝑓 . 𝑚
G
𝛽=Ë (3)
𝑙. 𝐼. 𝐸
Although the general equation that describing the cantilever motion of
piezofan (equ.4&5 horizontal and vertical orientation, respectively) depends
on different operational and geometric factors, the amplitude (A) and the first
resonant frequency (fr) represent the main factors affecting motion , which
will be explained in the results.
𝑦AB (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑌AB (𝑥 ). sin(2𝜋. 𝑓C . 𝑡) (4)
𝑥AB (𝑦, 𝑡) = 𝑋AB (𝑦). sin(2𝜋. 𝑓C . 𝑡) (5)

Through our follow-up of different numerical and simulation models in the
literature we have found several flow and numerical related assumptions must
consider to set up the piezofan models. In order to obtain the cantilever motion
of a piezofan in the 2D model geometry, after defending all input parameters,
variables, functions, domains, equations and materials we need to combine
solid mechanics physics’ sections with the moving mesh characteristics and
other physics by connecting functions of motion with the moving
displacements, amplitude frequency and the time.
The specified fluid flow physics in COMSOL include the general Navier-
Stokes governing equations, which is simplified by fluid dynamics initial and
boundary conditions assumptions, which involve; incompressible laminar
flow, buoyancy and radiative effects is neglected . The initial condition have
been seted by definding inlet velociy Vin, hydraulic diameter Dh to find
Reynolds number equ.(6), whereas the exit domain is considered as pressure
domain,
𝜌𝑉/0 𝐷1 4𝐴3
𝑅𝑒 = , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐷1 = (6)
𝜇 𝑝
To solve this model we have to combine fluid flow physics with solid
mechanics physic using FSI (fluid-structure analysis), and combining the
laminar flow with heat transfer physic using No-isothermal flow and
combining all above physics in time-dependent study using automatic re-
meshing solver ,which regenerate the mesh with each step of time. Finally ,
the model took about 32 hours to get the first results in Intel (R) core i7-
6700HQ CPU @ 2.60GHz (8 CPUs), ͠ 2.6GHz 16GB RAM PC laptop.
Results and discussion
In the analysis, we compared three different models with the same initial and
boundary conditions. The comparison includes vertical, horizontal piezofan
orientation (as illsurtated in Fig.6) and free flow without piezofan to achieve
a good heat dissipation in electronic devices using low noise, low power
consumption ,small size space smart materials . The piezofan charicteristic,
physical parameters, with other boundary conditions that is used in the model
have been selected from the literature review data [11] . Piezofan operation
have been shown in Fig.7 by velocity profile, which shows the maximum
velocity of air movement at the fan tip directed on the hot spot to be cooled.
Figure 6 . piezo fan charactaristic (L=46mm , t=0.4mm , W=12mm) , heated surface

(S=20mm , th=2mm), Positions (δ=6mm, A=4.25mm ), resonant frequency fr=35 Hz,
Vin=0.03 m/s, Tair =20 oC, Tsur.=100 oC).
a. Horizontal orientation
b. Vertical orientation
Figure 7 . Velocity profile during piezofan operation.
Fig.8 shows the temperature distributions and temperature profile on heated

surface of the three cases above. Obviously, the vertical position of the fan
gives better heat dissipation compared to other conditions, due to the uniform
distribution of air movement near the hot spot surface during piezofan
operation.
The convective heat transfer coefficient (h) and Nusselt number (Nu) during
the piezofan operation have been calculated according to Incropira [12] for
flow in channels, which mean low amount of heat generated on hot spot
surface for vertical position during piezofan operation compare with
horizontal position and free flow as illustrated in Fig.9.
Figure 8 . Temperature distribution and temperature profile on hot spot surface for
the three cases (a - free flow without piezofan , b - horizontal orientation , c -vertical
orientation).
Figure 9 . convective heat transfer coefficient and Nusselt number during 0.5s of
piezofan operation for the three cases.
Conclusions
In this study, using of piezofans to increase heat dissipation from hot spot
surfaces inside longitudinal channels has been investigated, to demonstrate
the ability of these smart materials to cool small compact electronic devices
and replace high-noise, high-power consumption and large-size conventional
fans . The analysis results show that these fans have a good performance
compared to the natural flow under the same conditions. There are various
factors that can improve the performance of these fans, but orientations ,
amplitude and frequency are the most influential factors.
References
[1] Piezoelectric Fans And Their Application In Electronics Cooling ,
Qpedia Thermal Magazine 411_V3_lorez. Aprile 211 Vol.3 .
[2] M. Toda, “Voltage-induced Large Amplitude Bending Device PVF2
Bimorph – Its Properties and Applications,” Ferroelectrics, vol. 32, pp. 127-
133, 1981.
[3] M. Toda, “Theory of Air Flow Generation by a Resonant Type PVF2
Bimorph Cantilever Vibrator,” Ferroelectrics, vol. 22, pp. 911-918, 1979.
[4] Tseng, K. H., Mochizuki, M., Mashiko, K., Kosakabe, T., Takenaka,
E., Yamamoto, K., & Kikutake, R. (2010). Piezo fan for thermal management
of electronics. In Proc. 2nd Int. Forum Heat Transfer (pp. 1-4).
[5] Liu, S. F., Huang, R. T., Sheu, W. J., & Wang, C. C. (2009). Heat
transfer by a piezoelectric fan on a flat surface subject to the influence of
horizontal/vertical arrangement. International Journal of Heat and Mass
Transfer, 52(11-12), 2565-2570.
[6] Sufian, S. F., Abdullah, M. Z., & Mohamed, J. J. (2013). Effect of
synchronized piezoelectric fans on microelectronic cooling
performance. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer, 43,
81-89.
[7] Petroski, J., Arik, M., & Gursoy, M. (2008, January). Piezoelectric
fans: Heat transfer enhancements for electronics cooling. In Proc. Conf.
ASME-JSME Thermal Eng. Summer Heat Transfer(pp. 671-677).
[8] K.H. Tseng, M. Mochizuki, K. Mashiko, T. Kosakabe, E. Takenaka,
K. Yamamoto, R. Kikutake, Piezo fan for thermal management of electronics,
Fujikura Technical Review 2010, pp. 39–43.
[9] Jeng, T. M., & Liu, C. H. (2015). Moving-orientation and position
effects of the piezoelectric fan on thermal characteristics of the heat sink
partially filled in a channel with axial flow. International Journal of Heat and
Mass Transfer, 85, 950-964.
[10] Maaspuro, M. (2016). Piezoelectric oscillating cantilever fan for
thermal management of electronics and LEDs—A review. Microelectronics
Reliability, 63, 342-353.
[11] Hales, A., & Jiang, X. (2018). A review of piezoelectric fans for low
energy cooling of power electronics. Applied Energy, 215, 321-337.
[12] Incropera, F. P., Lavine, A. S., Bergman, T. L., & DeWitt, D. P.
(2007). Fundamentals of heat and mass transfer. Wiley.
***
Comparative Assessment of PID and Fuzzy Logic

Controller for Speed Control of Variable Load DC
Motor
Umair Younas*
Ahmet Afşin Kulaksız**
Abstract
The automatic control system plays an important role in the modern science
and industrial engineering. The deployment of Direct Current (DC) motor is
a common practice in industrial engineering due to its high torque, low
volume and constant speed applications. The large fluctuating loads in modern
industries demand for the efficient speed controllers of the DC motors. In this
paper, the comparative analysis between Proportional Integral Derivative
(PID) controller and Fuzzy Logic Controller (FLC) is performed to control
the speed of DC motor. In the proposed model, auto tuning feature of
MATLAB is utilized for the tuning of PID controller. While, Rule based FLC
is used that has two inputs and single output; the speed error, change in the
speed error, and the output voltage respectively. The MATLAB/Simulink tool
is used for the simulation and comparative analysis between FLC and PID
controller. PID controller requires a mathematical model for the proposed
system, while fuzzy logic controller is capable to deal with the system using
rule-based knowledge. In addition, the complexity of Fuzzy control increases
with number of rules while, it offers robust and advance suitable control to
satisfy the non-linear characteristics of DC motor. The simulation results
show that the FLC approach has minimum overshoot, minimum transient and
steady state error, which show more effectiveness and efficiency of FLC than
conventional PID controller.
Keywords: DC motor, Fuzzy Logic Controller, PID Controller, Industrial
Control
*
Konya Teknik Üniversitesi, Elektrik-Elektronik Mühendisliği Bölümü, Selçuklu, Konya,
umair.ciitatd@gmail.com
**
Konya Teknik Üniversitesi, Elektrik-Elektronik Mühendisliği Bölümü, Selçuklu, Konya,
aakulaksiz@ktun.edu.tr
Introduction
Despite the advancement in power electronic conversion technologies, Direct
Current (DC) motor still have wide range of applications in automobile and
manufacturing industries etc. The high starting torque speed ratio, easy
design, simple and linear control model further strengthen the applications of
DC motors. The speed control of a DC motor is an important aspect in the
industrial process and control. In literature, various non-linear, optimal, and
adaptive control techniques have been adopted to control the speed of the DC
motor. The commonly used controllers are based on; PID Controller [1], [2],
Fuzzy Logic Controller (FLC) [3], [4], PID-Particle Swarm Optimization
(PSO) [5], Neural Networks (NN) [6], PID-Genetic Algorithm (GA) [7], and
the optimal FLC with different strategy [8]. The authors in [9] used the DC-
DC buck converter model for speed control in DC motors. The other control
technologies used for the speed control of DC motor are reviewed in [10]. The
research is still ongoing to improve the performance and steady state response
of the speed controllers.
In this research, the comparative analysis is performed between widely used
speed controllers which are; PID and FLC. The speed control response of both
the controllers is analysed and comparative analysis is performed based on the
transient and steady state response using Simulink. This paper proceeds with
the detailed description of working, model design and characteristics of DC
motor. Moreover, FLC-based model design, its structure and implementation
are demonstrated. In addition, the implementation of PID controller is
accomplished. The comparative analysis of FLC and PID is performed for
speed control of DC motor. The simulation results are achieved using
Simulink/MATLAB. Rest of the paper is organized as follows; after
introductory part, mathematical model and parameter identification of DC
motor is performed in section II. The working principle of the FLC and PID
is given in section III. Section IV presents the simulation results for the
comparative analysis of the FLC and PID. Finally, the conclusion of the paper
is followed by the references.
DC Motor Model Design and Control

The ‘electric motor’ is the device used to convert electrical energy into
mechanical work. Electric motor is comprised of; AC (Alternating Current)
motor, and DC (Direct Current) motor. For the mathematical model design of
DC motor, torque, speed, current, and voltage are the main parameters to be
considered. The physical parameters of DC motor are as follows [11]; The J
(kg. m) is the rotor’s moment of inertia, b (Nm. s) is the damping of the
mechanical system, K (Nm/A) is constant of back electromotive force , R
(Ohm) is the electrical resistance, L (H) is the electrical inductance, T(Nm) is

motor torque, and w (1/S) is the angular velocity. DC motor use electric
source and magnetic field to generate rotating torque. DC motor offers
effective speed control for high torque load industrial applications. In modern
renewable energy integrated grids, DC motors are most likely to be preferred
with solar photovoltaics cells and battery storage systems [12]. As, the current
is directly related to the torque of the motor as shown in (1). The voltage
generated by the torque is proportional to the angular velocity and related with
a torque constant as presented in (2).
T
=Ki (1)
e = K w"
= K dŠ ⁄d‹ (2)
The equation of DC motor got with the help of Newton’s law and these are
combined using Kirchhoff’s law as shown in (3) and (4).
d!Š dŠ
J !
+b
dt d‹
= Ki (3)
dn
L + Ri
d‹
=V
dŠ
− (4)
d‹
The transfer function from the input voltage V(s), to the output angle 𝜃 is
demonstrated in the (5). This helps to model
φ(s)
G(s) =
V(s)
k
= (5)
S[(R + Ls)(Js + b) + k ! ]
The applied voltage to the DC motor describes the speed of motor, while
current in the armature windings deals with the rotating torque. Generally, it
can be said that applied voltage affects the speed and current to control the
torque of the motor [13]. DC motor also used in green energy grids, electric
trains, electric cars, elevators, robotics, and various complex industrial
process where torque cannot be compromised [14]. There are several types of
DC motor but most common are brushed DC motor, brushless DC motor,
stepper motor, and servo motor. These DC motors have three winding
techniques such as shunt DC motor, series DC motor, and compound DC
motor. In this paper, we are dealing with the speed control of the motor.
Hence, the key objective is to control the applied voltage on the motor, which
indirectly control the speed of the DC motor.
The PID controller is a general feedback control mechanism that is widely
used in industrial control systems. PID controller calculates an error value as
the difference between the measured process variable (PV) and the desired
setpoint (SP). The controller then minimizes the error by adjusting the process
control input values. The values of these three variables (P, I, D) can be
interpreted as; P depends on the current error, I depends on the accumulation
of past errors, and D is a prediction of future errors. In DC motors, by
adjusting these three parameters, speed of the DC motor is controlled. The
controller's response can be explained in terms of the controller's response to
an error, the degree of controller overshoot, and the degree of system
oscillation. The proposed speed control simulink model using PID is shown
in Figure 1.
Figure 31: Simulink Model of Speed Control of DC motor using PID

The PID measurement depends upon three parameters which are called
proportional (P), the integral (I) and derivative (D) part. For the P part, it
determines the reaction to current error. I part determines reaction to the sum
of recently appeared errors. Then D determines the reaction according to the
rate of error changing. As the derivative action is sensitive to the noise and
produces disturbances so mostly the controllers are PI controller rather than
PID. Integral part helps the system to reach onto its target value while P part
increases overshoot. The simulation results of dc motor speed control based
on PID is depicted in Figure 2.
Figure 32: Speed Control of DC Motor using PID

Fuzzy Logic Controller Design and Implementation
The concept of fuzzy logic was first introduced by Lutfi Zadeh [15] to deal
with approximate perception rather than the precise reasoning. Fuzzy logic
can simply be defined as; ‘the controller which performs control actions in
words, sentences, or rules instead of mathematical equations.’ Fuzzy uses
simple logic based comprehensive rules to solve the complex problems [16].
It is the practical approach for the development of various industrial control
process.
Figure 33: Simulink model of DC motor speed control using Fuzzy Logic
Controller
Most importantly, fuzzy controllers have robustness and low cost compared
to traditional controllers. The fuzzy controller is relatively simple,
economical, and capable of dealing with the complex system without having
a mathematical model [17]. FLC based simulation model for DC motor speed
control is shown in Figure 3. Fuzzy logic is categorised in two forms;
Mamdani fuzzy inference and Sugeno fuzzy inference system. In this paper,
we are dealing with the Mamdani Fuzzy controller which was first introduced
by Professor Ebrahim Mamdani of London University to control a steam
engine and boiler combination. The structure of Fuzzy Mamdani system is
composed of four major steps including; fuzzification of the inputs, rule
evaluation, aggregation of the rules, and defuzzification which are
sequentially explained in this section. The Fuzzy Logic Toolbox of Simulink
/ MATLAB based model of fuzzy controller is shown in Figure 4.
Figure 34: Fuzzy Toolbox based model of Fuzzy Controller

Fuzzy Inputs
In fuzzy controller design process, the first step is to decide the state variable
which are considered as the inputs of the controller. Fuzzy logic uses linguistic
variables instead of numerical variables. The process of converting a
numerical variable (real number or crisp variables) into a linguistic variable
(fuzzy number) is called fuzzification. In the proposed model, motor speed
error (E) and change in motor speed error having range (CE) are the inputs
and both have the same range from -1 to +1 as demonstrated in Figure 5 and
Figure 6.
Figure 35: Error input of the proposed Fuzzy Controller

The voltage is the only output of the proposed system that ranges from -30 to
+30 that control the speed of the motor as shown in Figure 7. Triangular
fuzzifier is used for both the inputs and output of the system.
Figure 36: Change in error input of the proposed Fuzzy Controller

Rule Base
The fuzzy rule is "If-Then" based decision-making logic that manipulates net
inputs using human decisions and controls desired output actions accordingly.
The "If" side is called a condition and "Then" side is the resulting side. The
controller executes the rules and generates a control signal according error
between the output speed and the set point. The error variation is the input to
the fuzzy controller and control function as the output which is the armature
voltage. To implement the rule base logic, no expert knowledge is required,
and its implementation is easy as compared to the advance nonlinear
controllers.
Figure 37: Voltage Output of the Proposed Fuzzy Controller

Inference Engine
Inference engine is a computer coded information processing system which
systematically uses inference steps like the human brain. Inference engine
uses a series of inference steps such as deduction, attribution, recognition, and
decision making to solve a logical problem. Commonly used methods are;
max-min and max-product method. In this paper, max min is incorporated in
the inference engine.
Defuzzification
Defuzzification is the reverse process of fuzzification. The fuzzy controller
produces the output signal in the form of a linguistic variable. According to
industrial requirements, linguistic variables is converted to crisp output. In
this article, the Center of Gravity (COG) method is used for fuzzification. The
simulation result of FLC based DC motor speed control is shown in Figure 8.
Figure 38: Fuzzy Logic Based DC Motor Speed Control

The comparative analysis between Fuzzy Logic Controller and PID control
for DC motor speed control is presented in Figure 9. It is cleared from the
results that Fuzzy controller provide fast response, less overshoot for speed
control which is the intense need of the industry. In the proposed research,
FLC shows less overshoot, low transients, and less setting time. Hence, the
deployment of FLC is suggested because of its good steady state response
with less oscillations.
Figure 39: Comparative Analysis of PID and Fuzzy Controller for DC Motor
Speed Control
Conclusion
The comparative analysis between PID and FLC is performed for speed
control of DC motor. Although various adaptive and nonlinear control
technologies are presented in the literature, the PID and FLC are the most
widely used DC motor speed controllers worldwide. The design and
implementation of PID controller is easy but the the selection of its P, I, and
D parameters is quite tough job. While FLC is complex, it does not require
expert’s knowledge for defining its rules. In addition, FLC offers less
overshoot, low transients, and settling time is quite low. Considering the
steady state performance of both controllers, this research encourages the
deployment of FLC for the speed control of DC motors in automobile and
other related process control industries.
References
[1] G. Huang and S. Lee, “PC-based PID speed control in DC motor,” in
2008 International Conference on Audio, Language and Image Processing,
2008, pp. 400–407.
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tracking control using self-tuning fuzzy PID control and model reference
adaptive control,” Ain Shams Eng. J., vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 341–352, 2018.
[5] H. E. A. Ibrahim, F. N. Hassan, and A. O. Shomer, “Optimal PID
control of a brushless DC motor using PSO and BF techniques,” Ain Shams
Eng. J., vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 391–398, 2014.
[6] G. MadhusudhanaRao and B. V SankerRam, “A neural network
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Dri Syst ISSN, vol. 2088, no. 8694, p. 8694, 2019.
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and G. A. Vokas, “Brushed DC Motor Drives for Industrial and Automobile
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comparative analysis of modelling of simscape physical plant system design
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Conference of Russian Young Researchers in Electrical and Electronic
Engineering (EIConRus), 2017, pp. 998–1002.
[12] L. Zi-Yi, W. Sew-Kin, P. Wai-Leong, and O. Chee-Pun, “The design
of DC motor driver for solar tracking applications,” in 2012 10th IEEE
international conference on semiconductor electronics (ICSE), 2012, pp.
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[13] A. Hughes and B. Drury, “Electric motors and drives: fundamentals,
types and applications, 4th edn. Newnes.” Oxford, 2013.
[14] P. Waide and C. U. Brunner, “Energy-efficiency policy opportunities
for electric motor-driven systems,” 2011.
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42. Citeseer, 1998.
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and new directions, Springer, 2017, p. 684.
***
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Future Aspects of Jute Fiber in Terms of Eco-Friendly

technological advancement would lead to reincarnation of jute in near future.

properties for a particular application, it is important to know how the material

c) A number of different industries worldwide use jute to make several

[1] S. Roy, "Application of Natural Fibre (Jute) Products," in Renewable

[2] "The Indian textile journal," [Online]. Available:

[3] A. Asrat, "EFFECT OF JUTE FIBER ON THE STRENGTH OF C-30

[4] "Our common future," Oxford University, Oxford, U.K , 11987.

[5] "Policy options and possible actions to expedite implementation: energy

[6] N. Sirohi, "Eco friendly fibres," http://www.homesciencejournal.com/ ,

[7] M. M. &. I. M. M. Khan, "Materials and manufac-turing environmental

[8] M. J. John and R. D. Anandjiwala, “Recent developments in chemical

composites,” Polym. Compos., vol. 29, no. 2, pp. 187–207, 2008.

[9] M. A. M. S. K. S. Taj, "Natural Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites,"

[10] L. Y. Mwaikambo, "Review of the History, Properties and Application

[11] B. A. Acha, M. M. Reboredo, and N. E. Marcovich, “Creep and dynamic

[12] C. Alves et al., “Ecodesign of automotive components making use of

[13] S. P. Mishra, A Textbook Of Fibre Science And Technology, New Delhi

[14] A. K. Rana, B. C. Mitra, and A. N. Banerjee, “Short jute fiber-reinforced

[15] Y. Yang, T. Ota, T. Morii, and H. Hamada, “Mechanical property and

[16] S. A. C. A. A. Shaikh, "To Study the Characteristics of Jute Polyester

[17] B. Suresha, B. N. Ramesh, K. M. Subbaya, and G. Chandramohan,

[18] H. M. S. J. A. D. Kelkar, "Axial and Flexural Fatigue Behavior of Woven

Composite Materials , Beijing,china , 2001.

[19] A. M. S. R. Sahoo, "Fracture Characterization of Plain Woven Fabric

[20] H. S. S. Aljibori, "Energy Systems and Crushing Behavior of Fiber

[21] G. M. A. Khan, M. Terano, M. A. Gafur, and M. S. Alam, “Studies on

[22] S. T. A. Patnaik, "Mechanical and Visco-Elastic Analysis of Viscose

[23] C. N. T. F. R. Silva FA, “Tensile behavior of high performance natural

[24] A. E. O. K. N. S. O. A. N. H. Hirogaki T, “Basic study on molding and

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4, no. 6 , pp. 22-29, 2003.

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Comparison of Analysis and design of G+5 commercial

Height should agree for standard and since it is a commercial building it

Fig 1. Plan for building

Modeling and Analysis of 3D building using ETABS

Fig 2. A model of building from ETABS

Fig -3: Analyses of all members

Fig 4. Moment 3-3 or max moment diagram

Fig 5. The max stress diagrams

Fig 6. Bending moment diagram and shear force

ly/lx=5.5/5=1.1<2, ∴it's two-way slab

Fig 7. Section of the slab and detailing

Fig 8. Section and detailing of Beam

Fig 9. Section and detailing of Column

Fig 10. The plan of Footing

Fig 11. Section and detailing of Footing

Fig 12. section and detailing of Staircase

Engineering and Technology, 8(4). PP.2098-2103.

Remote Rural Electrification of Innovative Systems

this Electricity Home System, there are no expenses of transportation, as

Figure 1-Basic DC Solar system

Array size and Total Panel Requirements Calculation: