Calculus I – 2413

pg1
2.1 Intro to Limits

In this handout we will introduce the idea of a limit and how to find them.

Q1: Suppose that a rock is thrown upward and that its position is given by the equation: 𝑠(𝑡) = −16𝑡 2 + 96𝑡.

Where 𝒕 is given in seconds after the rock is thrown upward. Use the formula:

𝑠(𝑏) − 𝑠(𝑎)
𝑣(𝑡) =
𝑏−𝑎

to find the average velocity of the rock between each pair of times:
a. 𝑡 = 1 and 𝑡 = 3

b. 𝑡 = 1 and 𝑡 = 2

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c. 𝑡 = 1 and 𝑡 = 1.1

d. 𝑡 = 1 and 𝑡 = 1.01

e. 𝑡 = 1 and 𝑡 = 1.001

f. 𝑡 = 1 and 𝑡 = 1 + ℎ

pg3
Q2: Estimate the velocity when the value is exactly 𝑡 = 1.

Q3: For the following functions, make a table of average velocities and conjecture about the instantaneous
velocity at the indicated time.

a. 𝑠(𝑡) = −16𝑡 2 + 80𝑡 + 60 at 𝑡 = 3

pg4
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b. 𝑠(𝑡) = 𝑡+1 at 𝑡 = 0

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2.2 Definition of Limits

This handout deals with the idea of a limit.

A limit of a function is the 𝑦-value as we approach any 𝑥-value.

We write limits with the notation:

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎

A limit can be one-sided from the left, one-sided from the right or two-sided. To calculate a limit, we will start on
that value on the 𝑥-axis and then locate that value on the graph and then slide horizontally to find the 𝑦-value.

Q1: Find the following limits using the graph below:

a. lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→1

b. lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→2

c. lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→3

d. lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→6

Q2: Repeat using the graph below:

a. lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→1

b. lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→2

c. lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→3

d. 𝑓(1)

e. 𝑓(2)

f. 𝑓(3)

pg6
When discussing limits, the following should be noted:

The notation: lim 𝑓(𝑥) examines the limit as we approach 𝑥 from the left.
𝑥→𝑎−

The notation: lim 𝑓(𝑥) examines the limit as we approach from the right.
𝑥→𝑎+

The notation: lim 𝑓(𝑥) examines a limit from both sides.

𝑥→𝑎

Q3: Use the following table to guess the value of lim 𝑓(𝑥).
𝑥→2

𝑥 1 1.5 1.9 1.99 2 2.01 2.1 2.5 3

𝑓(𝑥) 2 2.5 2.9 2.99 undefined 5.01 5.1 5.5 6

a. lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→2−

b. lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→2+

c. lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→2

Q4: Find the following limits:

a. lim 𝑓(𝑥) f. lim 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→−2− 𝑥→0+

b. lim 𝑓(𝑥) g. lim 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→−2+ 𝑥→0

c. lim 𝑓(𝑥) h. 𝑓(0)

𝑥→−2

d. 𝑓(−2)

e. lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→0−

Q5: Use a table to evaluate the following limit:

√𝑥 − 1
lim
𝑥→1 𝑥 − 1

𝑥 0.9 0.99 0.999 0.9999 1 1.0001 1.001 1.01 1.1

𝑓(𝑥)

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Q6: Find the following:

a. lim 𝑓(𝑥) g. 𝑓(1)

𝑥→0−

b. lim 𝑓(𝑥) h. lim 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→3−
𝑥→0+

c. 𝑓(0) i. lim 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→3+

d. lim 𝑓(𝑥) j. lim 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→1− 𝑥→3

e. lim 𝑓(𝑥) k. 𝑓(3)

𝑥→1+

f. lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→1

Q7: Sketch a possible graph of a function that satisfies the given conditions:

𝑓(0) = 0; lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −2; lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 1

𝑥→0− 𝑥→0+

𝑓(3) = 2; lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 4; lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 4

𝑥→3− 𝑥→3+

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2.3 Computing Limits

In this handout we will examine rules to calculate limits.

Limit Laws:

Sum:
lim (𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) + lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

Difference:
lim (𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) − lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

Constant multiple:
lim (𝑐𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑐 lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

Product:
lim (𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)) = (lim 𝑓(𝑥)) (lim 𝑔(𝑥))
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

Quotient:
𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑓(𝑥)
lim ( ) = 𝑥→𝑎
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎

Power:
𝑛 𝑛
lim (𝑓(𝑥)) = (lim 𝑓(𝑥))
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

Q1: Suppose that lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 4, lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 5 and lim ℎ(𝑥) = 8. Use the above limit laws to compute each limit.
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2
Justify every step.
a. lim (𝑓(𝑥) + ℎ(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥))
𝑥→2

𝑓(𝑥)−𝑔(𝑥)
b. lim ℎ(𝑥)
𝑥→2

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 3
c. lim (𝑔(𝑥))
𝑥→2

d. lim (6𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)ℎ(𝑥))
𝑥→2

Q2: Repeat for:

a. lim (𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 6)
𝑥→3

3𝑥 2 +4𝑥+1
b. lim
𝑥→−1 9𝑥−1

pg10
Q3: For the following piece-wise function, calculate the values of the limits, or state why they do not exist:

−2𝑥 + 4, 𝑥≤1
𝑓(𝑥) = { }
√𝑥 − 1, 𝑥>1
a. lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→1−

b. lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→1+

c. lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→1

Q4: Repeat for the following:

0, 𝑥 ≤ −5
𝑓(𝑥) = { √25 − 𝑥 2 , − 5 < 𝑥 < 5}
3𝑥, 𝑥≥5
a. lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→−5−

b. lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→−5+

c. lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→−5

d. lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→5−

e. lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→5+

f. lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→5

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Q5: Factor, multiply by the conjugate or combine like terms to evaluate the following limits:
𝑥 2 −6𝑥+8
a. lim
𝑥→2 𝑥 2 −4

(5+ℎ)2 −25
b. lim ℎ
ℎ→0

pg12
 5
c. lim
ℎ→0 √81+7ℎ+3

1 1
−
d. lim 𝑥−4
𝑥 4
𝑥→4

pg13
 (𝑥−𝑏)20 −4𝑥+4𝑏
e. lim 𝑥−𝑏
𝑥→𝑏

√16+ℎ−4
f. lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

pg14
Q6: Find the constant 𝑎 such that the limit is equal to the function:

𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6
𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑥 − 3 , 𝑥 ≠ 3}
𝑎, 𝑥=3

Q7: Repeat for:

3𝑥 + 𝑏, 𝑥≤2
𝑓(𝑥) = { }
𝑥 − 2, 𝑥>2

pg15
2.4/2.5 Infinite Limits and Limits at Infinity

In this handout we will discuss limits as they approach infinity.

Q1: Consider the following graph:

a. As the graph goes to the left, we say:

b. As the graph goes to the right, we say:

c. As the graph goes up, we say:

d. As the graph goes down, we say:

pg16
Q2: Use the given graphs to find the following limits:

a. lim 𝑓(𝑥) e. lim 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→−∞ 𝑥→−2

b. lim 𝑓(𝑥) f. lim 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→∞ 𝑥→2−

c. lim 𝑓(𝑥) g. lim 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→−2− 𝑥→2+

d. lim 𝑓(𝑥) h. lim 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→−2+ 𝑥→2

Q3: Use a table to evaluate the following limits:

1
a. lim 𝑥−2
𝑥→2+

1
b. lim
𝑥→2− 𝑥−2

pg17
 1
c. lim
𝑥→2 𝑥−2
𝑥 2 −5𝑥−6
d. lim 𝑥−1
𝑥→1+

Q4: Sketch a possible graph of a function that satisfies the given conditions:
𝑓(1) = 0

𝑓(3) is undefined

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 1
𝑥→5

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞
𝑥→−1+

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞
𝑥→3

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞
𝑥→7−

pg18
Q5: Find all vertical asymptotes 𝑥 = 𝑎 for each of the following functions. For each value of 𝑎, evaluate the
limits from the left, the right and both.
𝑥 3 − 9𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = 2
𝑥 + 2𝑥

pg19
To evaluate limits that involve the graph approaching infinity (𝑥 → ∞ and/or 𝑥 → −∞), we shall take 𝑥 to go to larger
and larger values. If this limit is a finite value, then this value is called a horizontal asymptote.

To evaluate limits that approach infinity, consider the following cases:

1. If we have a polynomial: 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0

a. If the highest power is even, then lim 𝑥 𝑛 = ∞

𝑥→±∞

b. If the highest power is odd, then lim 𝑥 𝑛 = ∞ and lim 𝑥 𝑛 = −∞.

𝑥→∞ 𝑥→−∞

1
c. Lastly, lim = 0.
𝑥→±∞ 𝑛
𝑥

2. If we have an exponential function: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥

a. lim 𝑒 𝑥 = ∞
𝑥→∞

b. lim 𝑒 𝑥 = 0
𝑥→−∞

3. To evaluate anything else, we can build a table and plug in larger and larger 𝑥-values.

Q5: Explain the meaning of:

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 4
𝑥→∞

Q6: Evaluate the following limits:

3 2
a. lim ( 2 + + 4)
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥

pg20
b. lim (2𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 2 − 5)
𝑥→−∞

c. lim 3𝑥 25
𝑥→−∞

5𝑥 3 −4𝑥
d. lim ( 2𝑥 5 +3 )
𝑥→∞

5𝑥 3 −4𝑥
e. lim ( 2𝑥 5 +3 )
𝑥→−∞

pg21
 4𝑥−2
f. lim ( )
𝑥→∞ 3𝑥 2 −5𝑥+2

5𝑥−2
g. lim ( )
𝑥→∞ √4𝑥 2 +1

Q7: Evaluate the limits as 𝒙 → ∞ and/or 𝒙 → −∞, and identify any horizontal asymptotes.
2𝑥 3 −7𝑥+1
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 3 −8𝑥

pg22
 12𝑥 7 +4𝑥 2
b. 𝑓(𝑥) =
15𝑥 6 −2𝑥

c. 𝑓(𝑥) = −3𝑒 𝑥

pg23
Q7: Sketch a possible graph for the given conditions below:

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞
𝑥→0+

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞
𝑥→0−

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 1
𝑥→∞

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −2
𝑥→−∞

pg24
2.6 Continuity

In this handout we will discuss the topic of continuity.

Continuity of a function essentially means that a function has no breaks in it. Mathematically speaking, for a function
to be continuous, three conditions must hold:

𝑓(𝑎) must be defined for some value, lim 𝑓(𝑥) must exist and lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

Q1: Determine the intervals of continuity for the following function:

Q2: Identify the values of 𝑥 for which the graph below is discontinuous. Explain why.

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There are three types of discontinuities:

Jump discontinuity – this occurs when the left limit and the right limit of a graph are defined but are not the same.

Infinite discontinuity – this occurs when the limit of a graph approaches infinity or negative infinity.

Removable discontinuity – this occurs when the function and the limit are not the same.

Q3: Are the following functions continuous at the given value of 𝑥? Justify each answer using the checklist
above.
3𝑥 2 +2𝑥+1
a. 𝑎(𝑥) = 𝑥−1
at 𝑎 =1

3𝑥 2 +2𝑥+1
b. 𝑏(𝑥) = ; 𝑎=2
𝑥−1

pg26
 4𝑥−3
c. 𝑐(𝑥) = ; 𝑎=3
𝑥 2 −7𝑥+12

d. 𝑑(𝑥) = √𝑥 − 2 at 𝑎 = 1

pg27
 𝑥 2 −1
, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 1
e. 𝑒(𝑥) = { 𝑥−1 } at 𝑎 = 1
3, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 1

𝑥 2 −4𝑥+3
, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 3
f. 𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑥−3 } at 𝑎 = 3
2, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 3

pg28
Q4: Determine the interval(s) of continuity for the following functions:
a. 𝑝(𝑥) = 4𝑥 5 − 3𝑥 2 + 1

3𝑥 2 −6𝑥+7
b. 𝑞(𝑥) =
𝑥 2 +𝑥+1

𝑥 2 −4𝑥+3
c. 𝑟(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 −1

pg29
 2𝑥, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 1
d. 𝑠(𝑥) = { }
𝑥 2 + 3𝑥, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 1

Q5: Evaluate the following limits:

5(cos(𝑥) − 1)
lim
𝑥→0 sin2 (𝑥)

pg30
Q6: Determine the value of 𝒂 for which the function is continuous:

3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 2
𝑓(𝑥) = {𝑎, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 2}
−7𝑥 + 5, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 2

a. From the left of 𝑥 = 2.

b. From the right of 𝑥 = 2.

c. Is there a value of 𝑎 for which the function is continuous at 𝑥 = 2?

pg31
3.1 Introducing the Derivative

In this handout we will begin to examine derivatives and slopes and how they relate to each other.

A secant line is a line that crosses a graph through two points and uses the average rate of change for slope.

The formula for average rate of change is given by:

𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑏−𝑎

A tangent line is a line that touches the graph at one point and uses the instantaneous rate of change for slope.

Therefore, the formula for the slope of the tangent line is given by:

𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑎) 𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑎)

𝑚 = lim = lim
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎 ℎ→0 ℎ

Lastly, the equation of the tangent line is given by:

𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )

pg32
Q1: The following limit represents the slope of a curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at the point (𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)). Determine a function
𝑓(𝑥) and the point, and then calculate the limit.

√14 + ℎ − √14
lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

pg33
Q2: Find the value of the derivative of the function at the given point:

𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥; (−1, 5)

Q3: Use the definition of the derivative to find the equation of the tangent line.
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 at (3, 9)

pg34
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 at 𝑥 = 1.

3 3
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = at (2, )
𝑥 2

pg35
 1
d. 𝑓(𝑥) = at (1, 1)
√𝑥

pg36
 9
e. 𝑓(𝑥) = at 𝑥 =3
2𝑥+1

pg37
Q4: A projectile is fired vertically upward into the air; its position (in feet) above the ground after 𝑡 seconds
is given by the function 𝑠(𝑡) shown below. Use limits to determine the instantaneous velocity of the
projectile.
𝑠(𝑡) = −16𝑡 2 + 76𝑡; 𝑎 = 1

pg38
3.2 The Derivative as a Function

In this handout we will examine how to find the derivative from a function graphically.

The derivative of a function is itself another function that gives the slope at any point of the original function. The
notation for a derivative is given by the notation: 𝑓′(𝑥).

Q1: Sketch the derivative for the following functions in the graph provided:
a.

b.

c.

pg39
Q2: Use the graph below to answer the following questions:

a. At which point(s) is the slope of the curve negative?

b. At which point(s) is the slope of the curve positive?

Q3: Sketch a graph of the derivative:

pg40
In order for a function to be continuous it must not have any breaks in it. On the other hand, for a function to be
differentiable, it must be both continuous and “smooth”.

For example, the following are examples of functions that do not have a derivative (or slope) at a point:

Q4: Use the following graph to find the following:

a. The point(s) where the graph is not continuous.
b. The point(s) where the graph is not differentiable.

pg41
To find a derivative, we will use the following formula:

𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

Q5: Find both the derivative and the equation of the tangent line at the given point.
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 + 2 at 𝑎 = 3.

pg42
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 2 at 𝑎 = 1.

pg43
 1
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = at 𝑎 = 2.
2𝑥+1

pg44
d. 𝑓(𝑥) = √3𝑥 + 1 at (1, 2).

pg45
3.3 Rules for Differentiation

In this handout we will examine how to take the derivative of functions.

Rule #1: The derivative of a constant function:

Rule #2: The derivative of a variable:

Rule #3: The derivative of a constant multiplying to a function:

Rule #4: The derivative of the sum or difference of two functions:

Q1: Find the following derivatives. Factor completely and make sure not to leave the answer with negative
exponents or complex fractions:
a. 𝑎(𝑥) = 𝑥

b. 𝑏(𝑥) = 𝑥 2

c. 𝑐(𝑥) = 𝑥 3

pg46
d. 𝑑(𝑥) = 𝑥 5 − 4𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 − 7

e. 𝑒(𝑡) = −2𝑡 −1

4
f. 𝑓(𝑠) = 𝑠2

−9
g. 𝑔(𝑥) = 4
√𝑥 3

𝑥3 1 2
h. ℎ(𝑥) = 3
+ 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥

pg47
i. 𝑖(𝑥) = (2𝑥 + 7)(5𝑥 2 + 1)

j. 𝑗(𝑥) = (3𝑥 + 5)2

𝑥 2 +5𝑥−1
k. 𝑘(𝑥) = 𝑥

1 3
l. 𝑙(𝑥) = + √𝑥 2
√𝑥

pg48
 𝑑2 𝑓
The second derivative of a function is simply just the derivative of the derivative and the notation is 𝑓′′(𝑥) or 𝑑𝑥 2.
The third derivative is the derivative of the second derivative and the notation is 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥).
To find higher order derivatives, continue taking derivatives.

Q2: Find the following higher-order derivatives:

a. 𝑓′′(𝑥) for 𝑓(𝑥) = 10𝑥 3 − 16𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 + 9

b. 𝑓 4 (𝑥) for 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 5 − 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 1

c. 𝑓 3 (𝑥) for 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 9

pg49
 3
d. 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) for 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥2

Q3: Suppose 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 27𝑥 + 5. Find the values of 𝒙 for which the slope of the curve is:
a. Zero.

pg50
b. 21.

pg51
Q4: Find the equation of the tangent line at the given point:

𝑦 = 𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 + 4; 𝑎 = 2

pg52
3.4 The Product and Quotient Rules

In this handout we will examine how to take the derivatives of multiplying and dividing functions.

Rule #5: The Product Rule:

Rule #6: The Quotient Rule:

Q1: Find the following derivatives. Factor completely and make sure not to leave the answer with negative
exponents or complex fractions:
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1)

b. 𝑓(𝑥) = (3𝑥 − 4)(2𝑥 + 1)2

pg53
 2𝑥+4
c. 𝑓(𝑥) =
3𝑥−5

𝑥 2 −1
d. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 +𝑥−2

4−𝑥 2
e. 𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑥+2

pg54
Q2: Find the following derivatives:
5
a. 𝑓′′(𝑥) for 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥−3

b. 𝑓′′(𝑥) for 𝑓(𝑥) = (3𝑥 2 + 4)(2𝑥 − 3)

pg55
 𝑥 2 +1
c. 𝑓′′(𝑥) for 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥+5

pg56
d. Find the value(s) for which the slope is zero for the function: 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 2 − 1)(𝑥 + 3)

pg57
3.5 Derivatives of Trig Functions

In this handout we will examine how to take the derivatives of trig functions.

We will begin with two limits:

sin(𝑥)
lim =
𝑥→0 𝑥

And:
cos(𝑥) − 1
lim =
𝑥→0 𝑥

Q1: Using the limits from above, evaluate the following limits:
sin(2𝑥)
a. lim 2𝑥
𝑥→0

cos(2𝑥)−1
b. lim 𝑥
𝑥→0

tan(3𝑥)
c. lim
𝑥→0 sin(5𝑥)

sin(6𝑥)
d. lim sin(4𝑥)
𝑥→0

pg58
Q2: Use the two limits above to generate the derivatives of all six trig functions:

pg59
Thus:
𝑑 𝑑
sin(𝑥) = cos(𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑
𝑑𝑥
tan(𝑥) = 𝑑𝑥
sec(𝑥) =

𝑑 𝑑
csc(𝑥) = cot(𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Q3: Find the derivative for the following functions:

a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑥 2 + cos(𝑥)

b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑥 2 sin(𝑥)

sec2(𝑥)
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = csc(𝑥)

d. 𝑓(𝑥) = tan(𝑥) sin(𝑥)

pg60
e. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 sin(𝑥) cos(𝑥)

tan(𝑥)
f. 𝑓(𝑥) = 1+tan(𝑥)

pg61
Q4: Find the second derivative for 𝑓(𝑥) = csc(𝑥) and for 𝑔(𝑥) = sec(𝑥).

𝜋
Q5: Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve 𝑦 = 4 sin(𝑥) cos(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 3 .

pg62
3.6 Derivatives as rates of change

In this handout we will tackle word problems concerning derivatives and rates of change.

If the position of an object in two-dimensional space is given by the function: 𝑠 = 𝑓(𝑡)

Then the velocity of the function is given by the first derivative: 𝑣 = 𝑠 ′ = 𝑓′(𝑡)

And the acceleration is given by the second derivative: 𝑎 = 𝑣 ′ = 𝑠 ′′ = 𝑓′′(𝑡)

Q1: Suppose that the position of an object moving along the coordinate axis after 𝑡 seconds is given by:

𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑡 2 − 4𝑡, 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 5
where 𝑠 is measured in feet.
a. Graph the position function.

b. Find and graph the velocity function. When is this object stationary, moving to the left and/or moving to the
right?

c. Determine the velocity and acceleration of the object at 𝑡 = 1.

pg63
 d. Determine the acceleration of the object when its’ velocity is zero.

Q2: Suppose that a stone is thrown upward vertically from the edge of the cliff with an initial velocity of 64
ft/s from a height of 32 feet above the ground. The height of the stone above the ground after 𝑡 seconds is
given by the equation:
𝑠 = −16𝑡 2 + 64𝑡 + 32

a. Determine the velocity of the stone after 𝑡 seconds.

b. When does the stone reach its’ highest point?

c. What is the height of the stone at its highest point?

pg64
 d. When does the stone strike the ground?

e. With what velocity does the stone strikes the ground?

Q3: The population of a state (in thousands) is given by the equation: 𝑝(𝑡) = −0.27𝑡 2 + 101𝑡 + 7055, where
𝑡 = 0 corresponds to 1995.
a. Determine the average growth rate from 1995 to 2005.

b. What was the growth rate in 2005?

100𝑡
Q4: The position of a marble (in meters) from the starting point is given by 𝑠 = 𝑡+1
, where 𝑡 is measured in
seconds and 𝑠 = 0 is the starting point.
a. Graph the position function.

pg65
b. Find and graph the velocity function of the marble.

c. At what time is the marble 80 m from its starting point?

pg66
d. At what time is the velocity 50 m/s?

pg67
3.7 The Chain Rule

In this handout we will examine the chain rule for derivatives.

Q1: Take the derivative of 𝑦 = (2𝑥 + 1)2 = 4𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1.

If they are the same, then why the discrepancy?

If a function is composed of two (or more) functions, then the derivative is found by using the Chain Rule.

Rule #7: The Chain Rule:

Q1: Use the Chain Rule to find the following derivatives:

a. 𝑦 = (2𝑥 + 1)3

b. 𝑦 = cos(3𝑥 − 2)

c. 𝑦 = (5𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1)4

pg68
d. 𝑦 = (sin(𝑥 2 ))3

e. 𝑦 = (2𝑥 − 1)3 (3𝑥 − 4)5

pg69
f. 𝑦 = sin(4𝑥 4 + 7𝑥 + 8)

g. 𝑦 = csc(2𝑥 + 1)

h. 𝑦 = tan(𝑒 𝑥 )

i. 𝑦 = (csc(𝜃) + cot(𝜃))16

pg70
j. 𝑦 = cos(6 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥))

k. 𝑦 = √1 + tan2 (𝑥)

l. 𝑦 = tan(3𝑥𝑒 𝑥 )

pg71
Q2: Let ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) and 𝑘(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑔(𝑥)). Use the table below to find the following derivatives:

𝑥 1 2 3 4 5
𝑓′(𝑥) −6 −3 8 7 2
𝑔(𝑥) 4 1 5 2 3
𝑔′(𝑥) 9 7 3 −1 −5

a. ℎ′ (1)

b. ℎ′ (2)

c. 𝑘 ′ (3)

d. 𝑘 ′ (1)

pg72
 𝑑2 𝑦
Q3: Find for 𝑦 = 𝑥 cos(𝑥 2 ).
𝑑𝑥 2

Q4: Repeat for 𝑦 = √𝑥 2 + 5.

pg73
 1
Q5: Find the equation of the tangent line to 𝑦 = 𝑒 4𝑥 at 𝑥 = ln(3).
4

pg74
3.8 Implicit Differentiation

In this handout we examine implicit differentiation.

Implicit differentiation is a method taking the derivative when it is difficult or impossible to solve for the
dependent variable.

For example, consider the curve:

cos(𝑦) + 𝑦 2 = 10𝑥

It is impossible to take the derivative of this function from what we have learned as this function cannot be solved
for 𝑦; thus, we will have to use implicit differentiation, the process for which is as follows:

1. Take the derivative of both sides using the rules already established. If we take the derivative of the variable
𝑑𝑦
𝑦 at any time, we must multiply by a factor of 𝑑𝑥 or 𝑦′.

𝑑𝑦
2. Move over all terms that contain 𝑑𝑥 (or 𝑦′) to the left and everything else to the right side.

3. Lastly, solve for 𝑦′.

Q1: Take the derivatives of the following using implicit differentiation:

a. 𝑦

b. 𝑦 2

c. 𝑦 3

d. cos(𝑦)

e. sin(𝑦)

f. 𝑒𝑦
pg75
Q2: Take derivatives of the following using implicit differentiation:
a. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 16

b. 𝑥 3 − 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 = 18

c. 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 − 3𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 9

pg76
d. sin(3𝑥 − 2𝑦) = 𝑥 2

e. (2𝑥𝑦 + 1)3 = 𝑥 − 𝑦 2

3 3
f. √𝑥 + √𝑦 4 = 2

pg77
g. 𝑒 3𝑥𝑦 = 7𝑦

h. 9 sin(𝑥𝑦) = 8𝑥 + 5𝑦

pg78
Q3: Find the equation of the tangent line for the following function at the given point:
a. 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 = 9 at the point (−1, 3)

pg79
b. 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 3𝑦 2 = 9 at the point (1, −2)

pg80
Q4: Find the second derivative of:
6𝑥 + 3𝑦 = sin(𝑦)

pg81
3.9 Derivatives of Log and Exp Functions

In this handout we will examine how to take derivatives of exponential and logarithmic functions.

Rule #8: The derivative of an exponential function is given by:

Rule #9: The derivative of a logarithmic function is given by:

Q1: Find the following derivatives using the rules above:

a. 𝑦 = 11𝑥

b. 𝑦 = 2𝑥−1

c. 𝑦 = 610(1.709)𝑡

2
d. 𝑦 = 4𝑥

pg82
 2 +5𝑥−1
e. 𝑦 = 𝑒 3𝑥

f. 𝑦 = 𝑥 4 (3.5)𝑥

g. 𝑦 = log 2 (𝑥 − 1)

h. 𝑦 = log 4 (𝑥 2 + 1)

pg83
i. 𝑦 = ln(3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 1)

j. 𝑦 = log 5 (3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 1)

k. 𝑦 = (ln(𝑥))4

l. 𝑦 = [log 2 (3𝑥 − 4)]4

pg84
m. 𝑦 = ln(𝑥) 𝑒 −𝑥

1+ln(𝑥)
n. 𝑦 = 𝑥

(5𝑥+4)(𝑥+8)6
o. 𝑦 = ln ( (1−5𝑥)2
)

pg85
Logarithmic differentiation is a technique used to take the derivatives of functions where the independent variable
shows up in both the base and the exponent.

To use logarithmic differentiation, we will set the function equal to 𝑦 and then take the log of both sides, after
which we will use the chain rule to take the derivative.

Q2: Use logarithmic differentiation to find the following derivatives:

a. 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑥

b. 𝑦 = (cos(𝑥))𝑥

pg86
Q3: Find the equation of the tangent line to the following equation at 𝑥 = 1:

𝑦 = 𝑥 sin(𝑥)

pg87
3.10 Derivatives of Inverse Trig Functions

In this handout we will examine how to take derivatives of inverse trig functions.

Q1: Use implicit differentiation to find the derivative of 𝑦 = sin−1(𝑥).

sin−1(𝑥) ′ = cos−1(𝑥)′ = tan−1 (𝑥) ′ =

csc −1 (𝑥) ′ = sec −1(𝑥) ′ = cot −1 (𝑥) ′ =

pg88
Q2: Find the derivative for the following functions:
a. 𝑦 = sin−1(1 − 𝑡)

b. 𝑦 = cos −1 (𝑡 2 )

c. 𝑦 = tan−1 (3𝑥 + 4)

pg89
d. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − tan−1(𝑥 2 )

e. 𝑦 = 3 tan−1 (𝑒 11𝑥 )

f. 𝑦 = 2 cos(sin−1 (2𝑥))

pg90
g. 𝑦 = sin−1(𝑒 3 sin(𝑥) )

h. 𝑦 = sec −1(3 ln(4𝑥))

1
i. 𝑦 = cot −1 (2𝑥)

pg91
j. 𝑦 = (cos −1 (𝑡))12

k. 𝑦 = ln(tan−1 (5𝑥 3 ))

pg92
Q2: Find the equation of the tangent line for the following at the given point:
1
a. 𝑦 = 3 sin−1(𝑥) at 𝑥 =
2

1
b. 𝑦 = 2 tan−1 (3𝑥) at 𝑥 = 3

pg93
 2
c. 𝑦 = sec −1(𝑥) at 𝑥 =
√3

pg94
3.11 Related Rates

This handout will examine how a function changes over time.

A related rate is a derivative that involves two (or more) variables with respect to time. To take a derivative using
related rates, we will derive a function with respect to the variable 𝑡.

Q1: The edges of a cube are increasing at a rate of 2 cm/s. How fast is the volume of the cube changing when
the length of each edge is 50 cm?

pg95
Q2: A cube’s surface area is increasing at a rate of 𝟕𝟐 𝒊𝒏𝟐 /𝒔𝒆𝒄. At what rate is the cube’s volume changing
when the edge length is 3 inches?

pg96
Q3: A ladder is 10 feet long and leaning against a wall. The bottom is sliding out away from the wall at a rate
of 4 ft/sec.
a. Find the rate at which the top of the ladder is moving down the wall when the bottom is 8 feet from the wall.

b. Find the rate at which the area formed by the ladder, wall and ground is changing.

pg97
Q4: A hot air balloon is rising from a level field. An observer is on the field, 500 m from the lift-off point. At
𝜋
the moment in time when the angle of elevation (from the field) is 4 , the angle is increasing at a rate of 0.14
rad/min. How fast is the balloon rising at this moment?

pg98
Q5: A water tank has the shape of an inverted circular cone with base radius of 2 meters and a height of 4
meters. If the water is being pumped into the tank at a rate of 2 𝑚3 /𝑚𝑖𝑛, find the rate at which the water
1
level is rising when the water is 3 meters deep? (Hint: The formula for the volume of cone is 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ).
3

pg99
Q6: A person 6 feet tall is watching a street light 18 feet high while walking toward it at a speed of 5 ft/sec.
a. At what rate is the angle of elevation of the person’s line of sight changing with respect to time when the
person is 9 feet from the base of the light?

b. At what rate is the length of his shadow moving when he is 9 feet from the base of the light?

pg100
4.1 Maxima and Minima

In this handout we will examine how the first and second derivative relate to maximums and minimums.

Q1: Consider the following example. Identify the:

a. Maximums

b. Minimums

Strictly speaking:

If 𝑓(𝑐) ≥ 𝑓(𝑥) for all values of 𝑥 in the domain, then 𝑐 is an absolute maximum.
If 𝑓(𝑐) ≥ 𝑓(𝑥) for all values of 𝑥 in an interval, then 𝑐 is a local or relative maximum.

If 𝑓(𝑐) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) for all values of 𝑥 in the domain, then 𝑐 is an absolute minimum.
If 𝑓(𝑐) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) for all values of 𝑥 in an interval, then 𝑐 is a local or relative minimum.

To determine where a function has maxima, take the derivative and set it equal to zero (𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0). These values
are termed critical points. Plug these values and any endpoints into the original function to classify maxima.

Q2: Determine the absolute and local maxima for the given functions:
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = −6𝑥 − 4 on the interval [−3, 5]

pg101
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 8 on the interval [0, 3]

c. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 + 4 on the interval [−2, 3]

pg102
d. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2/3 − 𝑥 on the interval [0, 27]

e. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 𝑒 −2𝑥 on the interval [−1, 4]

pg103
 𝜋 𝜋
f. 𝑓(𝑥) = sec(𝑥) on the interval [− 4 , 4 ]

𝑥
g. 𝑓(𝑥) = on the interval [−3, 3]
𝑥 2 +1

pg104
h. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 √𝑥 + 1 on the interval [−1, 2]

𝜋 𝜋
i. 𝑓(𝑥) = sin(3𝑥) on the interval [− 4 , 3 ]

pg105
j. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + arccos(𝑥) on the interval [−1, 1]

pg106
Q3: Graph a possible function with the given characteristics:

𝑓 ′ (2) = 0
local maximum at 𝑥 = 1
absolute maximum at 𝑥 = 3
local minimum at 𝑥 = 2
absolute minimum at 𝑥 = 4

pg107
4.2 The Mean Value Theorem

In this handout we will examine what the Mean Value Theorem is.

Rolle’s Theorem
Suppose that a function 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at every point on a closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏] and differentiable at every point
in the open interval (𝑎, 𝑏). If 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏), then there must be a value 𝑐 such that 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0.

Q1: Determine whether Rolle’s Theorem applies to the function on the given interval. If so, find the point(s) that
are guaranteed to exist by Rolle’s Thm.
𝜋
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = sin(2𝑥) on the interval [0, 2 ]

b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 6 on the interval [−1, 3]

pg108
Suppose that a function is defined as before. Then, according to the Mean Value Theorem, there must exist a value
𝑐 such that:
𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑓 ′ (𝑐) =
𝑏−𝑎

It should be noted that Rolle’s Theorem is a special case of the Mean Value Theorem.

Q2: Repeat Q1 for the following functions:

a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2 on the interval [−2, 3]

b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 on the interval [−1, 2]

pg109
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 + 1 on the interval [−2, −1]

d. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2/3 on the interval [0, 1]

pg110
e. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2/3 on the interval [−1, 8]

1
f. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−1 on the interval [−3, 3]

pg111
4.3 What derivatives tell us

In this handout we will examine graphs of derivatives and how they relate to the original function.

Test for Increasing and Decreasing

If 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) > 0, then 𝑓(𝑥) is increasing; if 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) < 0, then 𝑓(𝑥) is decreasing.

Q1: Find the intervals for which the function is increasing/decreasing and the critical numbers if the graph
provided is:
a. 𝑓(𝑥):

b. 𝑓′(𝑥)

pg112
Q2: Determine the critical numbers of 𝑓(𝑥), intervals of increasing and decreasing, and any local maxima:
a. 𝑓′(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2)

1
b. 𝑓′(𝑥) = 𝑥 −2 (𝑥 − 3)

pg113
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = −𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2

d. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 √5 − 𝑥

pg114
Furthermore, if the first derivative tells us increasing /decreasing of a function, then the second derivative tells us
concavity for a function.

An interval that is concave up looks like:

And an interval that is concave down looks like:

To determine intervals of concavity for a function, set the second derivative equal to zero (𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 0). Critical
values for the second derivative are now termed inflection points.

Lastly, if a critical point has positive concavity, then it is a minimum, and if a critical point has negative concavity,
then it is a maximum.

Q3: Determine intervals of concavity and all inflection points for the following functions:
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 12

pg115
 𝑥
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥

pg116
Q4: Assume the graph below is the second derivative.

a. On what intervals is the function concave up?

b. On what intervals is the function concave down?

c. At which 𝑥-values does the function have an inflection point?

Q5: Sketch a graph of a function that is continuous everywhere and has the following properties:

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) > 0 and 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) > 0 on (−∞, 0)

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) > 0 and 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) < 0 on (0, ∞)

pg117
4.4 Graphing Functions

In this handout we will learn how to graph functions.

In order to graph functions, we will gather as much information as we can about a function, namely:
1. The domain and range
2. Intercepts (both 𝑥 and 𝑦)
3. Asymptotes (if any)
4. Intervals of increasing and decreasing
5. Intervals of concavity

Q1: Graph a function with the following properties:

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) > 0 and 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) > 0 for 𝑥 < −3

𝑓′ (𝑥)
> 0 and 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) < 0 for −3 < 𝑥 < 0
𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
< 0 and 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) < 0 for 𝑥 > 0

pg118
Q2: Graph the following functions:
1
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2
3

Domain:

Range:

𝑥-intercepts:

𝑦-intercepts:

Horizontal asymptotes:

Vertical asymptotes:

Increasing:

Decreasing:

Concave up:

Concave down:

pg119
 b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 6𝑥 2

Domain:

Range:

𝑥-intercepts:

𝑦-intercepts:

Horizontal asymptotes:

Vertical asymptotes:

Increasing:

Decreasing:

Concave up:

Concave down:

pg120
 𝑥 2 −1
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 +1

Domain:

Range:

𝑥-intercepts:

𝑦-intercepts:

Horizontal asymptotes:

Vertical asymptotes:

Increasing:

Decreasing:

Concave up:

Concave down:

pg121
 d. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 3𝑥 2/3

Domain:

Range:

𝑥-intercepts:

𝑦-intercepts:

Horizontal asymptotes:

Vertical asymptotes:

Increasing:

Decreasing:

Concave up:

Concave down:

pg122
 2𝑥
e. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 −36

Domain:

Range:

𝑥-intercepts:

𝑦-intercepts:

Horizontal asymptotes:

Vertical asymptotes:

Increasing:

Decreasing:

Concave up:

Concave down:

pg123
 f. 𝑓(𝑥) = − sin(𝑥) − 𝑥 on [0, 2𝜋]

Domain:

Range:

𝑥-intercepts:

𝑦-intercepts:

Horizontal asymptotes:

Vertical asymptotes:

Increasing:

Decreasing:

Concave up:

Concave down:

pg124
4.5 Optimization Problems

In this handout we will discuss how calculus can be used to solve max and min problems.

Q1: If two numbers sum to ten, what is the maximum product for these two numbers?

𝑥 𝑦 = 10 − 𝑥 𝑥∗𝑦
0

10

Although it is feasible to use a chart to solve this problem, we should learn how to use calculus as it will be needed
for future questions.

To solve a word problem that involves finding the max or min values for a situation, find two functions: the
constraint and objective.

1. Constraint Function – the function that limits the variables. This function is equal to some constant value.

2. Objective Function – the function that we are trying to maximize (or minimize). This is the function that we
will be taking the derivative of and is not equal to anything.

To solve a max or min scenario, we will solve for one variable in the constraint function and then plug that into the
objective one. Making sure that all variables are the same, take the derivative with respect to that variable and set
it equal to zero. If you obtain multiple values, disregard any that are extraneous ones. You may obtain weird
answers.

pg125
Q2: Repeat Q1 by using calculus.

Constraint Function:

Objective Function:

Q3: Find positive numbers 𝑥 and 𝑦 satisfying the equation 𝑥𝑦 = 12 such that 2𝑥 + 𝑦 is as small as possible.

pg126
Q4: A rancher has 400 ft of fence for constructing a rectangular corral. One side of the corral will be formed
by a barn and requires no fence.
a. If the corral is to contain just one stall as in the picture below, what are the dimensions that will maximize
the area of the corral? And what will the area be?

b. If the corral is to contain three exterior fences and two interior ones as shown below, what are the
dimensions that will maximize the enclosed area? And what will the area be?

pg127
Q5: You are designing a rectangular poster to contain fifty square inches with four-inch margins at the top
and bottom and two-inch margins at each side. What are the dimensions that will minimize the amount of
paper used?

pg128
Q6: A boat on the ocean is 4 miles from the nearest point along the shoreline that point is 6 miles from a
restaurant on the shore. A woman plans to row the boat straight to a point on the shore and then walk along
the shore to the restaurant. If she walks at 3 miles/hr and rows at 2 miles/hr, at which point on the shore
should she land to minimize the total travel time?

pg129
Q7: An open box will be made by cutting a square from each corner of a 3 by 8 foot piece of cardboard and
then folding up the sides. What square size should be cut from each corner in order to produce a box of
maximum volume?

pg130
Q8: Suppose an airline policy states that all baggage must be box-shaped with a sum of length, width and
height not exceeding 64 in. What are the dimensions and volume of a square-based box with the greatest
volume under these conditions?

pg131
Q9: Find the radius and height of a cylindrical soda can with a volume of 1000 cubic centimeters that
minimize the surface area.

pg132
Q10: A water storage tank in a small community is built in the shape of a right circular cylinder with a
capacity of 32,000 𝒇𝒕𝟑 . The interior wall and floor of the tank must be cleaned and treated annually. Labor
costs for cleaning the wall are twice as high per square foot as the cost to clean the floor. Find the radius and
height of the tank that minimizes the cleaning cost.

pg133
4.6 Linear Approximations

In this handout we will examine how linear approximations help us estimate values for functions.

Linearization is the process of using a tangent line to approximate a function. It can be used to estimate values of a
function that are “close” to a particular value. The formula for linearization at a given value of 𝑥 = 𝑎 is:

𝐿(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓′(𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑎)

Q1: For each of the following, find the linearization, use it to estimate the value and then find the percent
error at 𝑥 = 𝑎. To find the percent error, use the formula:

|𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥 − 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡|
100 ∗
|𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡|
𝑥
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥+1 at the value of 𝑎 = 1.0 to estimate 𝑓(1.1)

pg134
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 ; estimate 𝑒 0.02

c. 𝑓(𝑥) = sin(𝑥) − 𝑥; estimate 𝑓(0.01)

pg135
 𝑥
d. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥+1; estimate 𝑓(1.1)

Q2: Use a linearization to estimate the following values:

a. 2.12

pg136
 1
b. 1.14

c. ln(1.05)

pg137
d. √51

3
e. √28

pg138
f. cos(32°)

g. sin−1(0.55)

pg139
4.7 L’Hopitals Rule

This handout will examine how to find limits of functions with the use of calculus.

sin(𝑥)
Q1: We have already seen that lim = 1. Examine the following:
𝑥→0 𝑥

sin(𝑥) − 𝑥
lim =
𝑥→0 𝑥3

Since algebraic techniques such as factoring, foiling, common denominator, etc., will not work for examples such as
this, we will develop another method to evaluate these limits.

If we have a limit that results in unique outcome, like:

0 ∞
or ∞ or 0 ∗ ∞
0
Then the we can take the derivative of the numerator and the derivative of the denominator simultaneously and then
re-evaluate the limit, as follows:
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓′(𝑥)
lim = lim
𝑥→𝑐 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑐 𝑔′(𝑥)

This is called L’Hopitals Rule. If the resulting limit also gives us the same results, we can repeat L’Hopitals’ Rule
again. Note that L’Hopitals’ is not the same as the quotient rule.

Q1: Evaluate the following limits, using L’Hopital’s Rule when appropriate:
sin(5𝑥)
a. lim
𝑥→0 𝑥

1−cos(𝑥)
b. lim 𝑥2
𝑥→0

pg140
 𝑥 3 −1
c. lim 4𝑥 3 −𝑥−3
𝑥→1

3𝑥 −1
d. lim
𝑥→0 2𝑥 −1

√9𝑥 4 +2
e. lim
𝑥→∞ 5𝑥 2 −3

pg141
 sin(𝑥)−𝑥
f. lim 𝑥3
𝑥→0

g. lim 𝑥 ln(𝑥)
𝑥→0+

h. lim (csc(𝑥) − cot(𝑥))

𝑥→0

pg142
i. lim (𝑥 − √𝑥 2 + 1)
𝑥→∞

pg143
 2 𝑥
j. lim (1 − 𝑥)
𝑥→∞

pg144
k. lim 𝑥 1/ ln(𝑥)
𝑥→∞

pg145
4.9 Antiderivatives

In this handout we will learn how to find antiderivatives.

The derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 is 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2𝑥, so we say that the antiderivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 is 𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 𝐶. Notice
that we will add a constant at the end of each antiderivative.

Q1: Complete the table below of antiderivatives:

Function Antiderivative Function Antiderivative

𝑥𝑛 csc(𝑘𝑥) cot(𝑘𝑥)

1
tan(𝑘𝑥)
𝑥

sin(𝑘𝑥) 𝑒 𝑘𝑥

1
cos(𝑘𝑥)
√1 − 𝑥 2

1
sec(𝑘𝑥) tan(𝑘𝑥)
1 + 𝑥2

1
sec 2 (𝑘𝑥)
𝑥√𝑥 2 − 1

csc 2(𝑘𝑥)

Q2: Find the general antiderivative for the following functions:

a. 𝑎(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 5

pg146
b. 𝑏(𝑥) = 2𝑥 5 − 8𝑥 3 + 3𝑥

5
c. 𝑐(𝑥) = 𝑥

1
d. 𝑑(𝑥) =
𝑥2

3 3 8
e. 𝑒(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4

f. 𝑓(𝑥) = sin(2𝑥)

g. 𝑔(𝑥) = −3 cos(3𝑥)

h. ℎ(𝑥) = 3 sin(𝑥) + 6 sin(5𝑥) + cos(𝑥)

pg147
 1
i. 𝑖(𝑥) = tan ( 𝑥)
2

j. 𝑗(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥/2

3
k. 𝑘(𝑥) =
1+𝑥 2

The integral sign is another way of asking for the antiderivative for a function. The symbol for an integral sign is:

∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

Q3: Find the following integrals:

1
a. ∫ (2 𝑡 2 + 4𝑡 3 ) 𝑑𝑡

1
b. ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥

pg148
 c. ∫ √𝑦 𝑑𝑦

𝑡 2 +2𝑡−1
d. ∫ 𝑡
𝑑𝑡

e. ∫(2𝑒 𝑥 − 3𝑒 −2𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥

f. ∫(2 cos(2𝑥) − csc(𝑥) cot(𝑥)) 𝑑𝑥

Q4: Use the initial values to solve the following antiderivatives:

a. 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 9𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 5; 𝑓(−1) = 0

pg149
 𝜋
b. 𝑦 ′ (𝑡) = 8𝑡 + csc 2 (𝑡) ; 𝑦 ( ) = −7
2

2
c. 𝑟 ′′ (𝑡) = ; 𝑟 ′ (𝑡) = 1; 𝑟(4) = 3
𝑡3

pg150
d. 𝑦′(𝑥) = 3√𝑥; 𝑦(9) = 4

pg151
5.1 Areas under curves

This chapter deals with the idea of area under a function and how this relates to antiderivatives.

We begin with the idea of sigma notation.

Sigma notation is shorthand notation for writing a sum, and is represented with the symbol:

∑ 𝑓(𝑛) = 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓(𝑎 + 1) + 𝑓(𝑎 + 2) + ⋯ + 𝑓(𝑏 − 1) + 𝑓(𝑏)

𝑛=𝑎

The letter 𝑛 is called the index, the number 𝑎 tells us where to start and the number 𝑏 is the end value.

Consider the following examples:

10

1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + 9 + 10 = ∑ 𝑖 = 55
𝑖=1

5 + 7 + 9 + 11 = ∑(2𝑛 + 1) = 32
𝑛=2

Q1: Express the following sums using sigma notation:

a. 9 + 11 + 13 + 15 + ⋯ + 99

b. 6 + 13 + 20 + ⋯ + 90

1 1 1
c. 1∗7
+ 2∗8 + ⋯ + 49∗55

pg152
Q2: Evaluate the following expressions:
a. ∑13
𝑘=3 𝑘

3𝑚+3
b. ∑4𝑚=1 ( 5
)

c. ∑7𝑛=3(𝑛2 − 2)

Geometric Representation of an Integral

Imagine a car travelling down the highway with a velocity function equal to 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑡 2 , and suppose we wish to
estimate the amount of distance that that car has traveled in the first eight seconds. Remembering that distance is
equal to rate * time, it is here that we begin to establish a geometric foundation for the area under the curve.

Notice how if we divide the interval into more and more rectangles with smaller and smaller width, the answer
approaches the correct answer of the area under the curve. Thus, to evaluate the area under a curve, we will employ
the use of rectangles similar to the above example, except now we will call them Riemann sums.

pg153
If we divide up the region [𝑎, 𝑏] into 𝑛 subintervals, each with a width of ∆𝑥, then the sum:

𝑓(𝑥1 )∆𝑥 + 𝑓(𝑥2 )∆𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑓(𝑥𝑛 )∆𝑥

represents a Riemann sum that is an approximation to the actual area under the curve. There are left-hand, right-
hand and midpoint Riemann sums.

Q3: Suppose the interval [−3, −1] is partitioned into four subintervals. What is the subinterval length of ∆𝑥?
List the grid points 𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , 𝑥4 . Which points are used for the left, right and midpoint Riemann sums?

pg154
Q4: Use the figures below to calculate the left and right Riemann sums for the function on the given interval.

Q5: Approximate the area of the region under the curve by dividing the interval [𝟐, 𝟔] into four sub-intervals.
Use both left and right Riemann sums.

pg155
Q6: Approximate the area under the function:

2
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥

On the interval [1, 6]. Use midpoint Riemann sums with five subintervals.

pg156
Q7: Approximate the area under the region 𝑓(𝑥) = 3√𝑥 between 𝑥 = 4 and 𝑥 = 16 using 𝑛 = 6 subintervals
with:
a. Left Riemann sums

b. Right Riemann sums

c. Midpoint Riemann sums

pg157
Q8: The velocity of an object is given by the function:

𝑣(𝑡) = 2𝑡 + 1 𝑚/𝑠 for 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 8

Approximate the displacement of the object on this interval by subdividing into two and four subintervals.
Use the left endpoint for each subinterval.

pg158
5.2 Definite Integrals

In this handout we discuss definite integrals.

We have already seen that if we wish to estimate the area under a function between two endpoints, taking more and
more rectangles will result in a better and better approximation.

As we increase the number of rectangles, the width ∆𝑥 of each one decreases to zero. We cannot find the area of a
rectangle that has zero width, but we can take the limit as it goes to zero, and this is where we get the idea of a
definite integral.

The definite integral represents the complete area under the curve 𝑓(𝑥) from a lower value of 𝑥 = 𝑎 to an upper
value 𝑥 = 𝑏.

Furthermore, areas above the 𝑥-axis represent positive sums and areas below the 𝑥-axis represent negative sums.
The net area is sum of both positive and negative areas.

pg159
Q1: Express the following as a definite integral:
a. lim ∑𝑛𝑘=1 𝑥𝑘∗ tan2 (𝑥𝑘∗ ) ∆𝑥𝑘 ; [2, 3]
∆→0

2
b. lim ∑𝑛𝑘=1(𝑥𝑘∗ + 1)∆𝑥𝑘 ; [0, 2]
∆→0

Q2: Use geometry (not Riemann sums) to evaluate the definite integral:
1
a. ∫−5(2𝑥 + 6) 𝑑𝑥

8
b. ∫0 √64 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

pg160
Q3: Evaluate the following integral, given the figure below:
𝑐
a. ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

3𝜋/2
b. ∫𝜋/2 𝑥 sin(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

Q4: Suppose that each integral is as follows:

4 7 7

∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 4; ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 6; ∫ 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 5

2 2 2

Evaluate each of the following:

2
a. ∫2 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

2
b. ∫7 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

7
c. ∫2 5𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

7
d. ∫2 [𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥

7
e. ∫2 [3𝑓(𝑥) + 2𝑔(𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥
pg161
Lastly, if we wish to evaluate definite integrals without using geometry, we will need to define a few properties:

𝒃 𝒃−𝒂
∫𝒂 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒅𝒙 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ∑𝒏𝒌=𝟏 𝒇(𝒂 + 𝒌∆𝒙)∆ 𝒙, where ∆𝒙 = 𝒏
𝒏→∞

And

Q5: Use the definition of the definite integral to evaluate the following:
2
a. ∫0 (2𝑥 + 1) 𝑑𝑥

pg162
 8
b. ∫0 (𝑥 2 − 1) 𝑑𝑥

pg163
 7
c. ∫2 (𝑥 2 − 4) 𝑑𝑥

pg164
 2
d. ∫0 (𝑥 3 + 1) 𝑑𝑥

pg165
5.3 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

In this handout we discuss the relationship between areas and integration.

To summarize chapter 5, we will now state the fundamental theorem of calculus:

Let 𝐹(𝑥) be the antiderivative of a function 𝑓(𝑥). Then the net area under the curve over the interval [𝑎, 𝑏] is:

∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎)

𝑎

𝑥 𝑥
Q1: The graph of 𝑓(𝑡) is shown below. Let 𝐴(𝑥) = ∫−2 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 and 𝐹(𝑥) = ∫4 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡. Evaluate the following:

a. 𝐴(−2) c. 𝐴(4)

b. 𝐹(8) d. 𝐹(4)

pg166
Q2: Evaluate the following definite integrals using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus:
26
a. ∫1 𝑡 𝑑𝑡

11
b. ∫7 (7 − 𝑥)(𝑥 − 11) 𝑑𝑥

3 𝑥 2 +3𝑥
c. ∫1 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

4
d. ∫1 (3𝑥 + √𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

pg167
 𝜋
e. ∫𝜋 sin(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
2

2 1
f. ∫1 (6 − 𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
2

1
g. ∫−3 𝑥(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 1) 𝑑𝑥

pg168
The second part of the Fundamental Theorem states that the integral and the derivative are inverses of each
other. Simply put:
𝑥
𝑑
∫ 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑎
Another version states:

ℎ(𝑥)
𝑑
∫ 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑓(ℎ(𝑥))ℎ′ (𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥))𝑔′(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑔(𝑥)

Q3: Use the second part of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus to evaluate the following:
𝑑 𝑥
a. 𝑑𝑥 ∫3 (𝑡 2 + 𝑡 + 1) 𝑑𝑡

𝑑 6
b. ∫ √𝑡 2 + 3 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝑥

𝑑 𝑥2
c. ∫ (3𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
+ 5) 𝑑𝑡 =

pg169
5.5 Substitution Rule

In this handout we will learn how to use a substitution to take antiderivatives much easier.

Q1: Rate the following antiderivatives in terms of difficulty:

a. ∫ 2𝑥(𝑥 2 + 1)5 𝑑𝑥

b. ∫ 𝑢5 𝑑𝑢

c. ∫(5𝑥 4 + 3 cos(𝑥))(𝑥 5 + 3 sin(𝑥))5 𝑑𝑥

A substitution is used in mathematics to make a complicated problem look easier so that we can solve it.
To use a substitution, we will need to find an appropriate one for our function. Usually the best choice is to let the
substitution be the inside of the more complicated function. Remember that if a substitution does not work, try
something different.

Q2: Find the following antiderivatives:

a. ∫ 2𝑥(𝑥 2 + 1)3 𝑑𝑥

𝑢=

𝑑𝑢 =

b. ∫ 8𝑥 cos(4𝑥 2 + 3) 𝑑𝑥

𝑢=

𝑑𝑢 =

pg170
c. ∫ sin4 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑢=

𝑑𝑢 =

d. ∫ 𝑒 3𝑥+1 𝑑𝑥

𝑢=

𝑑𝑢 =

pg171
e. ∫ 4𝑥 3 (𝑥 4 − 1)2 𝑑𝑥

𝑢=

𝑑𝑢 =

f. ∫ 5𝑥 3 (𝑥 4 − 1)2 𝑑𝑥

𝑢=

𝑑𝑢 =

pg172
 4𝑦
g. ∫ 𝑑𝑦
√2𝑦 2 +1

𝑢=

𝑑𝑢 =

𝑒 √𝑥
h. ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥

𝑢=

𝑑𝑢 =

pg173
i. ∫ cos(𝑥) ∗ 2sin(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

𝑢=

𝑑𝑢 =

ln(𝑡)
j. ∫ 𝑡
𝑑𝑥

𝑢=

𝑑𝑢 =

pg174
 3
(1+√𝑥)
k. ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥

𝑢=

𝑑𝑢 =

10𝑥−3
l. ∫ 10𝑥2 −6𝑥+3 𝑑𝑥

𝑢=

𝑑𝑢 =

pg175
 𝑥
m. ∫ 3 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥+4

𝑢=

𝑑𝑢 =

n. ∫ cos5 (𝑥) sin(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

𝑢=

𝑑𝑢 =

pg176
 √tan−1 (𝑥)
o. ∫ 𝑑𝑥
1+𝑥 2

𝑢=

𝑑𝑢 =

5
p. ∫(𝑥 3/2 + 8) √𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑢=

𝑑𝑢 =

pg177
 𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥
q. ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥

pg178