Unesco-UNEP International Environmental Education Programme Environmental 2 3 Education Series GUIDELINES FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF NON-FORMAL ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION Prepared at: ‘Gwent College of Higher Education, Caerieon, Gwent, Wales, United Kingdom, by: AJ. Young MJ. McEihone a It Division of Science, Technical and Environmental Education“The oicion mresead nhs publication donot necessary {Breie wih ay fil awe 0! Uneeo. The dosgneton ‘sodanate rescritonctthe rai hatin coral he ‘xgrauon of any pen watsove’ on he pat of Uae orci lel dats tony couney ct tsauhors ot ‘Sncaing te deimtans ot he tordrs ay eouney or ‘ror (© Unesco, 1986,PREFACE ‘The environmental szation of formal and nonformal education beings relevance to teaching/learning at all levels and types of education. Nonformal Gnuirontental education with its wide scope and large target audience is a fertile and promising field for fulfilling the purpose of inculeeting awarenese, knowledge, skills, commitments and actions on the part of individuals end groupe in the general Dublie’for the protection and improvement of the enwirorment and ite quality for the present and future generations. The development of nonformal environmental education requires the incorpora— tion of enviromental education ebject ives, concepts, teaching methods snd evaluation techniqes into all procestes of nonforsal education. In oreer to facilitate the eveloment of nonfornal envitemental education, it has been considered essential Eo develop sone guidelines to serve ao 9 ciscussion guide in a series of regional and suoregional training serinere in which Key personnel chall Focus on the task of how to envitennentalize their nonforsal education systens at the national and local Jevols., Inte docutent has besn prepared in the context of activities of Unesco-UNEP International Environmental Ediestion Programme (ICEP) to serve the above purpose by spurring and guiding discusetone on this fundamental topic The content of this document focuses on the concept of environmental education (GE); environmental problens and their resolution; methods, materials, training of personnel and evaluation in nonfornal ££; environmental ethics; and coordination and legislation in nonformal EE. Throughout the docunent exenples are given a3 concrete experiences at rational level fren certain countries.” These guidelines Sand examples may De specified and/or increased when the developrent of nonfornal EC'is conceived in the context of a specific educational syster by interested ational educational institutions. LUnesca ie appreciative of the collaboration of Dr. 8.2. Young and br. 1.3. NeELhone in the preparation of this document done under a contract with Unesed at Gwent College of Higher Education, Caerleon, Gwent, Wales, United Kingdon. Conents on this docunent to be considered in its revision may be sent to IEEP, Division of Seienee, Technical and Enviromental Ecucstion, Unesco, T Place Ge Fartenoy, 75700 Paris, France. Opinions expressed in this docunent do not necessarily coincide with official views of Unesco, The designations exployed and the presentation of the materials herein do not inply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of Unesco concerning the legal status of any countty, of of its authorities, of concerning the delimitation of the frontiers of ary country of territory. © wvesco 1986an TABLE OF conreNrs cea mrt Int. 8. w Preface Introduction Environmental Eéueation Environsental Probless and their Resolution Eavironsental Probl Population meray Resource Deptetion Deforestation, extinction of pects ecosystem degradation, urban explosion Resolving Environtental Problens community partictpation Environsental pressure groups in the developes world Developeent of alternatives Environsental implication in the Taied World Methods, materials, training of personnel and evaluation in non-formal Environmental. Eéveation The variety of non-formal Environaental Eaueation ‘The Methodology of non-fermel Environtental Esueation ‘The talk or lecture as pert of an extended progranne ‘The clase environsent, ‘The technical competence of the speaker ‘The class discussion Problen solving ‘The use of drama/popular theatre E.E. and existing non-formal education progranmes Suggested Training Programmes for teachers ine. Guidelines for a training programe for teachera/extenaion workers in noneforea] Environsental Baveation Page 46 16 v 19 20 28 » 32 3 3 oe a 38Guy Suggested Training Programme 7 Evaluation ” ‘The media and non-formal Environmental Eduention 3 Fasio o Television 6 Guidelines on the use of media in non-formal Be 66 ‘The multi-vedia approach ° v Enviromental Ethics 70 “ Co-ordination sn non-formal Environmental Béueation 76 International conordiration and conoperation 76 Nen-fornai Environmental Esucation at national levels 1” asta 8 Ateiea vo Arab States a carsppean 82 Latin America «2 0.8.8. wu vss.8, a5 Czechoslovakia 86 Portugal “7 Fanlane 87 Legistation We un Conclusions 90 vitt ——@dbtiograpty 92Introduction The objectives in produaing the guidelines for the developnent of rorefornal environsental education are threefold; (1) to define the concert and elaborate the importance, needs land tanget: groups, (2) outline the says of developing non-formal enviromental education (3) enhance the exchange of information. In this paper, the importance of environmental education is reviewed along with its objectives of promoting avareness, knowledge, attitudes, ‘skii1s and levels of partictpation. Baphasis 1s placed upon the need to cater for all ages and social groups from a variety of sccteties Living in developed and developing countries. Tt may be necessary to ‘hellenge more traditional approaches of environmental use and develop res ways of thirkcing and increased participation in the solving of ‘environmental problers. ‘The need for enviromental education is anply illustrated in the review (of envirormental problews. Population pressures, rising energy ‘consumption, resource depletion, pollution, ecosystem degradation and urban popuation explosions are ali indicative of the need to alter man's exploitative attitude tovands the enviranment. The role of non formal enviromental education and a process through which it can be developed 1s considered here. The strength of non-formal education liesfn the fact that it does not operate within a given set of rules with strict structure, currieulun and examination procedures. on-forra cnvinonpental education, theoretically at least, 1s more capable of responding to lecal environmental issues which have more social eeantng and lusefuiness to the conmnity and is less dominated by academic requirenents. One of the major problens envisaged concerning the effective inplenentation of non-formal environmental education is the diversity of the tanget groups and their nesis. Other problens include the lack of Finance ‘and structure through which environmental education concepts can be developed. For discussion, we have presented a conprehensive Chapter on ethods, matertais, training of persomel and evaluation of non-forma? environmental education. Key personnel Likely to be involved are iSentified and how the environmental dinension of their training can be facilitated and improved. A review of the need for the development of environsental ethics is given. Although, attitutes tovards the environment may vary from culture to culture, it is imerstive that people foster and develop an envircemental ethic which is prudent and conducive to a harmonious development with nature maintaining stability and sustainability Lastly, @ review of the development of formal education at national land international levels ‘2 given with particular enphasis on the role of cowordination and co-operation in increasing the efficiency snd effectiveness of non-formal environsental edueation.1. Environmental Eavestion ‘Te Ae nearly eight years since the Intergovermental Conference fon Environmental Eiusation (E.£.) took place in Tbilisi, U.5.5.R., five years ago, a World Conservation Strategy to promote development that is enviromertally sound and also sustainable ‘was launched in over one hundred countries. And yet, today, acproxinately twenty eight aillion (28a) people in Africa are suffering trom lack of food and water and are in an extrenely eritical state, India has recently experienced the worst ‘environmental accident in living menory and sary scientists in the Federal Republic of West Germany believe that they are nonitoring the death of the Elack Forest by acid deposition, ‘These exanples, alorg with nary others which could be cited, Andsoate that the magnitude and urgency of solving environmental problens, whether local or glotal, are rot diminishing. Mtlst At Ss difficult, Af not impossible, to assess shether world wide, the extent of such problens is inereasing or decreasing, the idea of progress envisaged by Turgot is becoming increasingly nore Gifticut to sustain "ss,anners are gradually softened, the human atnd is ‘eniigitened, separate nations draw nearer to each other, comerce and policy connect at last every part of the globe, fanz the total mass of the hunan race, by alternating betwee) ‘calm and agitation, good and bad, marches always, however ‘slowly, tovards greater perfection". Quoted" py Buzzati-Traverson in Trends in Environmental Baueation UNESCO, 1977. For many environmentalists, the concept of the globe marching slowly towards perfection is untenable, the mre cynical aight suggest that a nore accurate metaphor would portray the world running quickly tn the opposite direction. But the way aheadhas been signposted for many years. In 1972, the Deslaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment held in Stockholm stated that ".....to defend and improve the enviroment for the present and future generations has become an imperative goal for mankind", United Nations Conference on the Human Enviroment, Stockholm 1972, ‘he Stockholm Conference was an early milestone in the developnent, of E.8. Tt called upon the Secretary General to plan and organise world-wide programs of E.8., ot simly for the Formal sectors of education, but for all sections of the comunity. As a result of the reccemerdation 96 of the Stockholm Conference, UNESCO and U.N.E.P. estarlished the UNESOO-UNEP International, Environmental Education Programe (I.£.£.P.) which organised the International Workshop on E.B. in Belgrade in Ootober 1975. A revised form of the papers presented at the workshop have been published, Trends in Enviromental Béucation, UNESCO 1977, and they (ustrate the soneshat euphoric optimisn felt by many of ‘the participants from sixty-five nations. The need to thine and fact in new ways in order to resoive enviromental problems was ‘2 unifying theme of the workshop and one of the identifies goals of BAB. was i= "To develop a world population that is aware of, and concerned stout, the environment and ite ascocsstes probiens, and which has the knowledge, skills, attitudes, otivations and conmitaent to work individually ani Collectively touard solutions of current problens and the prevention of new ones". The Belgrade Charter + A Glotal Pranewori for Bwirermental Baestier; produces ‘ane aE the Tnvartatioral EnvViromentl wonicanop at Belgrade, Yugoslavia, October 1975.‘The objectives of £.E, were also summarised as : ™. pwareneas : to help individuals and social groups acquire fan svareness of and sensitivity to the total environment ani its allied problens. 2. Knowledge : to help individuals and social groups acquire basic understanding of the total enviroment, 1ts Ascosiated problens and humanity's eritically Fesponsibie Presence and rote in it. 3. Abtitude + to help individuals and social groups acquire social values, strong feelings of concern for the environment, and the sotivation for actively participating in its Protection and improvenent. 4. Skis : to help individuals and soctal groups acquire the SKIS for solving environmental problews . 5. Evaluation ability : to help individuals and social groups evaluate enviromental measures ard education programmes in terms of ecological, political, economic, social, aesthetic and educational factors: 6. Participation : to help individuals and social groups Gevelop a sense of responsibility and urgency regarding fenvironmental problens 20 as to enure anpropriate action to solve these’ problens". The Belgrade Charter op. cit. ‘The worksnop recognised that most people in the word consider ‘that eduestion Le @ potent foree for bringing about change and evelopment and thus 6.6, wes of paramount importance in Geveloping an enviromental ethic based on ecological talance, ban's quality of Life and the needs of future generations. As stated previously, optimism ran high ".....decause environvental ‘eduoation is for everyone, a great variety of individuals and institutions have rallied to the cause. There is a growing omentur acconpanied by the kind of healthy excitenent. and controversy that oceurs with any such reformation". Schneider, Allen, The nature and philosophy of environmental education + goals and objectives, Trends in Envirensental Education op. eft. ‘The Belgrade workshop and the resulting Qharter was important in that the nature and philosophy of E.E, was exanined and thefundamental aims of such an education for differing groups within society such as teachers, agulte and out-of-school youth, were identified. In adaition, there was a clear acceptance of the tact that the relevance and efficiency of teaching programmes desling with environmental issues depend on their being specifically adapted to the differing socio-economic conditions within each country. ‘This thene was further developed in a series of meetings onganised by UNESCO-INEP International Environental Education programe (1.8.8.7) and algo in the Intergovernmental Congerence on Enviromental education, organised by UNESCO in co-operation with WEP, sich took place in I9TT in the city of Tbilisi, Georgia, U.S.S.R, The Conference was a landnark in that St Sdentifsed, in great detail, the role, objectives ant guiding principles of F.E. land also recomended to menber states courses of action which would lead to the realisation of such goals, The deliberations of the Conference were crystallised in forty one (41) recommendations, the most important of these being that E.£. involves the developaent of feriticai thinking about integrated environmental problens and that they can be resloved by participation at the community Level (reasas 1977). ‘An examination of the INESCD Literature produced since the Thiltat Conference indicates that a great deal has already been achieved; ‘every three months, for example, specific programmes from mary ‘countries are highlighted in CONNECT. But mich more remains to be done and it must be accepted that, in many parts of‘the world, the goal of producing an environmental ethic within society {2 a long way from being realised. Consequently, if We are to resolve our environmental problens then we mist, ‘continue to learn and thirk and act in new ways. The svecessfUl managenent of the environment depends upon the co-operation of various governmental agencies, industry and concerned, informed citizens acting elther individually or ‘through elected officials. Whilst it could be anmued that the latter group 1s the most important. influence on the environment, the problens of producing an Informed citizenry must not be underrated, Intelligent and effective citizen participation in ‘enviromental conservation requires knowledge from the solemes, social seienes and humanities. Tt further requires the development, of practical skills which assist people to Live in a samer wnich enhances environmental quality and reduced enviromental degradation. The most significant problem in environmental education today 1s, hhow to translate, in simple terms, such concepts as interdepentence, Limitation of Finite resoruces, huran population grovth and energy low. In addition the econontc advantages of carrying out simple ‘measures associated with the conservation of renewable resources, the planning of land use and the prevention of pollution mist also be highlighted. These are not easy tasks. Firstly we must eritically exanine existing educational practice, we often Aisregard the extent to which form education may be a cause of four problens. Many educators today can be accused of using olassical elitist approaches which are old fashioned and irrelevant to the vast majority of school children. Many children throughout the world should be receiving an education which uses the richness fof the enviroment to develop a wide range of cognitive skills rather than focussing on disciplines and specialisation for selection purposes.A further problen 13 that environmental education often requires teachers to adopt new techniques in their elassrooa teaching. ‘Tus an enviromental studies approach to teaching should involve the children in such things as working outside the classroom; enquiring, exploring, comparing, contrasting and raking decisions an’ value Judgenents. Tt should be based on seientifie enquiry wilst not gsoring th emotional response that oan cove from the chia being closely involved with the Biotic features of his enviroment. But for many teachers, adopting the above approach would entail & complete rejection of existing practice and philosop! they have not. been trained to think or set in this manner. ‘Te traditional approach to education is also challenged by the process of environmental probien solving. The complexity of most, if pot all, environmental issues means that they do not fit within the boundaries of any one discipline but are trans disciplinary in nature. (nce again teachers are expected to deal with situation which Je radioally different from their own experience and training, It is rot surprising, therefore, that, worlduide, the response of the formal education sector to the enviromental challenge has been slow and piecemeal. Tt has to be accepted that the educational system, Like the rest of scctety, has not been able to adapt quickly enough to rapidly changing environsertal conditions. This situation 1s unlikely to change dramatically in the next decade and the world cannot wait for a new geveration of politicians and decisionnakers to energe. Tt nay be necessary to develop an educational strategy that {s prepared to challenge existing economic principles and practice, which questions ‘traditional social and political goals and also eritically exanines the personal ethics that are considered the noms of mary societies.To achieve this in target groups other than pre-primary, primary, secomiary and tertiary level students, it is necessary to develop sn effective nonformal enviromental education process. Bwiromental education mist be envisaged as a lifelong process and consequently nonformal education is of the utmost importance in creating a society whose citizens are knowledgeeble enough to make a valid contribution to the decision making process. ‘111 countries in the world should consider how they can extend the ‘educations! opportunities for all nenbers of their society; people smiot learn that the enviroment determines and shapes their 1ife styles, their expectations ard future hopes. Such an insight ean only ead to a more concerned and accountable populace for one becomes espensible for what one koows.mm. mn. a. a0 1. Bavirormental probisag and their resolutson. Enviromental problese On a global seale profections concerning the environsent, population growth and levels of pollution are pessinistic. If present trends continue the world in 2000 will be more crowded, sore polluted, less stable eeolegically and more wulnerable to disruption than the world we now Live in. Bamey (1982) predicts that for hundreds of millions of the desperately poor the outlook for food and the necessities of Life will be no better in the year 2000. This assunes, of course that there is no change in public policies, Anstitutions or rates of technological change. The major issues and problens confronting man include population, energy, resource depletion, pollution, deforestation, desertification, extinction of species and ecosystem degradation. Population ‘The planet 4s being called upon to support about 175,000 extra people per day ~ 1.2 million per week. This means that the earth's population 1s doubling every 20-25 years. The United Nations estimates that about one thind or one half of those alone are hungry or malnourished; three quarters of then co not have either adequate housing or safe water supply. The great majority of humen beings in the world today have to Live on $100 per year (iiier and armstrong 1982) and many spend east of their waking hours and 60-95% of their incomes Just trying to get enough food ‘for thenselves and their children to prevent starvation or debilitating diseasesn No eonpletely technological solution to this complex problen exists. However, food supplies oan increase by putting more Land under cultivation, cultivating freshwater and oceans and raising yields by using new seeds, increased irrigation, use of fertiliser ete, Hosever it 1s necessary to develop integrated plans for redueing world population birth rates, controlling agricultural pollution and sounting a massive attack on global poverty. Boerey ‘Tre world energy consungtion ts rising steeply, increasing almost 600% between 1900 and 1965. The denand for eneray is doubling every 1H years, and nost of the enerzy {8 consuned by industrial rations; whilst they only have 30h of the world's population, they use 80K of the world enersy (uitier and Armstrong 1982). Many forms of agriculture today are dependect, upon substantial energy subsidies 1.e. the addition of fossil fuel eneray ‘to supplenert the input of eneray through photosynthesis to agricultural systens. Mary enviromental problems have arisen due to huge energy consumption, particularly that of pollution. Concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atnosphere have ensued and may possibly lead to a warming of the earth's climate. Tnereased levels of sulghur and nitrogen oxides lead to the formation of acid rain and the loss of trees and aninais in forests ant axes. fin increasing level of radiation in the enviroment due to accidents associated with nuclear pover; muciear fasion is potentially the mst hazardous of all sources of enersy. Alternative non-polluting energy sources such as hydroelectric, wind, ‘tidal power, geothermal solar energy etc. must be explored for other use.2 Bioenergy Bioenergy can play an Iaportant role in providing for future energy needs. Biomass (plant material) is a widely available resource that can be produced renevably and inmany situations at low costs. Not only does it reduce epentence on costly of] imports, but its low sulphur, low ash and high oxygen content makes biomass clean and easy to convert to high quality synthetic fuels (Willians 1985). ‘The development of Biogas in India and Chira has set with varying degrees of ‘success (Youlik 1985). china in particular is very committed to continued pronation of Biogas and it has been declared a principal alternative to cope with the fuel crisis of rural Ohinese villages, however there is some apprehen= ston conserning the future of Biogas, due to the threat of modernisation. Many developing countries are forced to pay a large proportion of their foreign exchange earnings to secure of1, hence slowing don development. A large proportion of the oil is used in transport. One feasible substitute for ofl is ‘ethanol which is made free carbohydrate producing crops. In countries such as Brazil, Zimbabwe and Kenya ethanol has been used for petroleum substitutes or exteniers. Tn Brazil, the development of a National Fthyl-Aleshol Program has resulted in savings of $1.15 billion pen yean in petroluen imports (approximately 30%) (Goldenburg, Moreira, dos Santos and Serra 1985).8 Resource depletion Resources may be classifiel ss renewable and non-renewable. Renevable resources are those which can maintain thenaelves and can be replenished by crops, forests, wildlife, air uater and soil. Other resources such as oil, suturel gas, coals, phosphates and metal ores are non-renewable. However, the usefulness of certain resources ‘charges with our technological progress e.g. increase in synthetics vo. ron-synthetics such as rubber. A substance beccnes of remains @ resource because technology makes it available for a reasonable cost. The Techno ‘sentric view 12 that sone technological wonder Will save us regardless ff what we do. Beocentricisteutit view things differently and they Would hope to conserve resources for future generations and adopt alternstive "soft technological techniques in order to develop sustainable world Polutton Pollution occurs when excessive amounts of waste accumulate in the ‘environment and affect humans and plants or animils in an undesirable way, usually by causing environmental stress, Pollutants ean range ‘rom those producing high enviromental stress such as heavy metals, solider radio active wastes to those raising a lower level of stress ‘such a8 Litter, noise and low Levels of carbon monoxide. It is very important to understand how a pollutant behaves within the enviroment, especially at what concentration it is stressful. The level or threshold at winich a pollutant can harm varies widely between pollutant and with different organisns. Pollutants may combine and have a more severe effect than the sun of the two acting separately Gyesisn1 Pollutants such as DOT and heavy metals (e.8. Mercury) may be concentrated 4n food chains (Biological Magnification). It can be appreciated that problens of pollution may be global (e.g. carbon dioxide build-up in the atmosphere) and warrant Intergovernmental regulation, Nations) (e.g. toxic waste) or local or regional (river pollution land fi21). Deforastation, extinction of species, ecosysten degradation One of the most rapidly vanishing Living natural resourees the tropical rain forest is disappearing at a rate of 7.3 million hectares a yaar (iyres 1984). He]f the world's plants and aninal genetic diversity is, concentrated on only 60% of the land surface, mostly in the tropical rain forests. If present trends are not reversed, mankind may witness the elimination of one million of the planet's 5-10 million plant and Janina speotes by the end of the century. Tarough their genetic resources, these species provide essential saterials for agriculture, edicine and intustry and other eccnonis uses. Most of the loss is ‘occurring in the hunid forests of Africa, Asi and South éneries. Deforestation ant misnaragenent of the land (e.g. poor soil conservation land badly planned irrigation sohenes) have a very esgnificant effect on water availability. Urban explosion From 1900 to 1975 the number of inhabitants in ities with porulations lover one mitlion has inereased tenfold and that of cities with over Five million inhabitants multiplied by twenty. During the same tine, the population of the twenty five largest eities is more than qusdrupled15 and will be increased eight to ten tines by the year 2000, increasing their average size from tuo to sixteen million inhabitants. Before the year 2000 the world will have more toun deLlera than country dvellers (UNESCO Courter Naren 1985). In the metropolitan areas of the developed countries with low growth for falling pollution, the problen today 4s one of reviving activity, preserving the cultural heritage, preventing the depreciation of certain districts before they are transformed into ghettos and making the best possible use of existing infrastructures. The netropolitan areas of developing countries, on the other hand are seeking to control ‘mein denographic grewth, to organise urban extensions, to make good their lack of facilities and services and sake productive use of the available labour force. In order to reduce sone of the scefal and environmental problens in the cities, green belts can be mintained to halt blanket urbanisation: lurean renewal {8 an easentiad factor in iaproved integration of Anbapttants; planning must be sealer tn scale and better adapted for ‘the urban environment ard inplesented after community participations ceneray conservation techniques must be developed. ALL these developments have to be appropriate to local technical, administrative and financtal contexts. ‘ALL environmental problens differ in their extent, diversity and complexity. Procedures for ixplenenting changes vary from country to ‘country and location to location; hence it is essential that participation fof citizens in environsental issues and planning procedures is advocated in order to produce the best chance of success for the projects.16 TDi. _RosOL. NG ENVIRONMENTAL PRORLEMS Cofaunity partietpation ean be either defensive mitigating against change or developeental in shich the participants attempt to alter the situation. ‘The type of participation depends upon the nature of the probien and 1t is often a mixture of both defensive or developmental participation. One aim of participation ould be to broaden the base of participants, for instance increasing the social activity of wenen for {itterates. Groups may be cleanly recogniced and have a fim structure or less clearly recognised ani ineidental (e.g. local ecrmunity faction groups). Mich depends upon the permanence of the protien. In community participation projects, decisions are made in the best interest of the groups end not individuals; however euch depends upon the political franeork, in sone countries defensive groups are treated ith deep suspicion ant intolerance. In countries operating a democratic parliasentary system, aany enviromental protest groups have sade an ‘mpact on the power structure by directly lobbying menbers of parlianent,, in sone cases, due to insensivity of governments the sane groups have concentrated on more direct action or publicised thelr protests by attracting extensive media coverage (2.2. Greenpeace) . In developing countries, ccemuntty participation has been inportant in ‘their development. This idea was incorporated into the Internationa Develonment: Strategy for the United Nations Second Development: Decade ‘dopted in October 1970. Harrison (1980) susaeste that: partict pation An smplanenting projects reduees their cost by mobilising umised local resources and free human energy. Participation in decision-naking Provides plansers with much better information on peoples' wants and Gislikes. Tt helps to avoid disastrous errors which my result if the supposed beneficiaries are not congulted. It can boost morale, increase productivity and reduce negative and destructive conflicts betweenv managers and the managed. Tn mary cases, the poor live in a state of passive inertia because of their total powerlessness in the face of entrenched elites. Prinarily, partictpation 1s an educative process. 1 produces confidence in the participants especially in their ability to control cireusstances instead of being controlied ty then. It can also increase political stability by reducing sectional snterest. Increased participation will mean a considerable measure of self help but the necessary technical skills, materials and finance have to be provided so assisted self help is required. Enviromental pressure groups in the developed world ‘Te development of aiareness and participation of adults forming an ‘eovirormental pressure group and their influences on the course of ‘events leading to the prosecution of a factory for illegal contanination of the enviroment can be seen in figure 1. The groups are composed of fatrly well eiucates , avare citizens. Generally the group has a imininal budget and fs self financing (mainly from individual contributions). ‘There are several stages in the development of enviromental awareness, participation and action, ‘Te siting of a factory resulted in an air pollution which caused the ocal comunity to ve expesed to sucke, steam, dirt and most, controversially incompletely burnt toxins. This was initially perceived ty the Local residents as a nuisance, they then formed @ anal comunity protest group which discussed the probes collected and clarified information. They published their activities by holding meetings in schools ani developed a publicity drive, which involved contact with local radio, television, produoing posters and onganisirg denonstrations.18 Fercestion of a kt ronmental beeen Industrial [probien by residents| [F:8,20e, swell deveiopeent. = Individual action Formation of groups Managenent. policy developeent resident Trtemational wvolvennt Wiiational (goverrsental) Figure 1 shows some of the spheres of interest and involvement influenced by the formatica of environmental pressure groups.‘This resulted in enhanced public avareness and greater support. The monentun of the protest increased and involved the concern of ocal politicians, and administration including the local environmental and health departments. The issue developed political weight and there was a call for a public enquiry, which resulted in national avareness narifested as national T.V. and radio and nevspaper coverage. [Although a public enquiry was not held, the local goverment authority subsequently atteepted to prosecute the Factory under existing egisiation. ‘Me formation of # local enviromental pressure group resulted in the development of awareness by providing information, mutual support and motivation which was relevant, significant and interesting. Development of altematives ‘Te above exanple illustrated haw the existing aysten in the developed world accomodates environmental concern. It might be argued that by smintaining the existing industrial or socio econonic system, problens Will always arise. So it is rot surprising that there has been @ stall but qualitatively important search for alternative technologies more appropriate for development . ‘The development of alternative technologies (AT) or soft technologies hich are characterised ty ecological self sufficiency, snaliness (particularly in hard ware and soft ware) and suited to the economic conditions in developing countries. The aim of alternative (or appropriate) technology 8 to make the mst economical use of a country's natural resources and its capital, labour and skills thatEd further national and social goals; the objective is to foster the right choice of technology. In developing countries, the appropriate technology should create ae nny Jobs as possible and enable and inprove income, Te must use scarce ‘capital wisely, using sinple machinery and produce goods suited to the local market. Baviromentally, the technology should be hygiente, ‘conservational end non polluting; using renewable sources of energy and row materials with thenaxinun re-use of infustrial and hunan wastes, land farm residues. Alternative technology should satisfy baste needs land involve popular participation. Tt mist be technically sound, econenie to users and custoners in comparison with the alternatives and be sosfally acceptable in the Light of loca? eultures and traditions. ‘he auto rickshaw is an ingenious adaptation of @ clever piece of vwestern technology adapted to an eastern need (liarrison 1980). Solar energy has a big future in the tropics. Alternatives to large convent ional energy plants, which are of Little use to the poor who cannot afford domestic connections are solar energy and planting of ast growing fuel wood plantations such as eucalyptus. Another appropriate fuel with considerable potential 1e methane ga from the fermentation of aninal ant hunan waste. Unfortunately research into appropriate technology 4s minimal hile that in developing new technology is far greater.a Regolution of enviromental problems : A Case study ‘The Mountain Ash Project and Research Centre is located in South Wales land was initially sponsored by the local plaming departzert In this area there has been a general run down of industry and many mines have been closed which formerly enployed vast numbers of the local people. The Centre which provides advice on consumer and welfare problens also acts as a focus for voluntary groups whose ain {9 the identification and initiation of enviromental isprovenent schenes. The original conception as to allow young people to be involved in thetr oun environment and Sdeally therefore, to give then ownership. The latter was difficult to achieve and work on the projects disappeared as the mney did. Initially, the centre set up @ managenent group which attenpted to use local knowledge to identify groups and individuals who wanted to be Anvolved. 8 working group was subsequently fomed which provided a source of local knowledge and allowed 2 separate identity fron the planning Gepartmert. Their aim vas to raise funds and sponsor schenes on their on behalf. The working group, at first, found dt difficult to adapt to the additional responsibility of freedon but was able to gain sufficient runing to develop, along with volunteer assistance fron professionals and the local primary school, an urban environental work programe involving planting ‘Flowers, urban regeneration and the painting of murals. After considerable effort the working party Were able to achieve and ensure contSnuation after grant aids ended and develop nto @ company with charit~ able status, which under British law implies tax exemption. They were then able to tap into further trust ald funds and set up workshops and fund ‘activities all in the local comunity.2 Environmental Implications in the Third Worls Distilling the environmental significance of the non-formal educational ‘experiences of the Third World countries investigated oan only be satisfactorily undertaken within the context of the political Philosophies which inform those experiences. Any environmental ethic ‘therefore is also 4 political ethie with implications for man-nan as Well as man-environment relations. ‘Environmental implications! as a concept must therefore be broadened to include the human or social ‘environment - at least sone aspects of it! Thus, in China during the period of the GPCR (Great Proletantan Cultural Revolution) dating from 1966, the noral-political element in education noted ty Price (1970) could be considered ac @ form of ‘social environmental ethic! [nanating then from this broadened social and physical environment. concept are @ number of environmental consequences; of these the nore significant have to do with 2 (4) evironsental understanding : It 4s suggested that the concern with out-of-school or non-formal education as exanined above is Likely to promote a deeper understanding of the environment. as fa Living, integrated and interastive systen, Sone quantitative reasure of this concern in Guba can be gauged from the fact that students in ESBEC schools (Secondary Schools tn the Countryside), currently cultivating approxinately 300,000nectares of agricultural Land, equivalent to seven per cent of the total cultivated area in the country, contributed 194,000 man-years of work during 1975-76 or 6.7 per cent of the country's total Labour input in that year. Paraphrasing José Mart (1853-1895), ‘the Cuban uniter and patriot, yourg Cubans must lear to handle,(ta) Pas that 1s to understand and manage, the forces with which they Will struggle through Life (see Gelman, 1981). Students in ESGEC schools spend three hours of each school day in agricultural pursuits; this can be seen as 2 mst direct way of operationalising Marts 's belie? and amore particularly developing in Young Cubans at a relatively early age what is hoped will be cumulative inovledge about that part of the environment with hich mst schoolchildren, after leaving school, WiLL be most intimately concemed. environmental conservation and devetopeent, : One outcome anticipated from conbining intellectual endeavour with manual work 4s to lay the basis for a more rational approach to the Use of the enviroment in general and the mode of development lof its resources in particular. This would help to conserve tnd find the best use for resources or establish the best means to exploit than, whilet at the sane tine minimising negative femirormental inpacts, Chinese agricultural developrent is 2 case in point. With a population, officially recognised as having surpassed one billion by 1982, China nevertheless is regionally self-reliant for nearly all its food, even though the average area of agricultural land held is a nere 0.1 hectares per head (2elg, 196,22). Moreover, Orina achieves ‘this from only 12.5 per cent of its total land area, whilst ensuring a gross grain availability per head per day of 800 ‘grames, 9 substantially superior position compared with the Ampoverished nations of Asia (Timmer et al 1979926).Gi) Gan 2 There Ls a further aspect of this particular envirormental implication which highlights the political nature of environ mental ethics. Particularly in the cases of China and cuba for example, non-formal educational practice places emphasis fon training students as producers first and as consuners ‘second. Enphasis on productive work it is anticipated wilt counteract the emergence of 2 consumer mentality anongst. future generations of Cuban citizens. In the long-term, holding doun the level of production of consuner goods and tens of conspicuous consumption should reduce the degrees of ‘environmental despoliation and degradation which have attended the history of the hignly competitive, isissez-faire eccneates of western developed nations in vnich the enviroment has itsel? bbeen considered as a consuner good and sold to the highest bidder = nore often than not for industrial or manafacturing purposest rural an! urban environments; the rural focus of development, in China, Cuba and Tanzania, and the nature of the noneformal ‘edueationa} process subsuned within it has very positive implications at both ends of the rural-urban continuum. ‘Thus, improving social and econonic conditions in the country ‘aide, by making then more attractive places In uhich to Live and work, would help to reduce flows of migrants fren the relatively inpovertshed rural areas to the more attractive and richer cities but which already have over-burdened soctel end ccoronic infrastructural facilities. Rectifying infrastructural Jmbalances between town ant country would 1n the tong term relieve some of the pressure of migration from cities and wouléav) 2s Amprove the cocromic viability of rural economies by reducing rates of sbandontent of small properties, at the same tine providing better access for small farmers to facilities such fas credit and rural extension. In thie way they would be better able to sustain their smali-scale agricultural economies sniist fat the sane tine eaking a more significant contritution to the Larger national economy. Both rural and urban environments would thus, through tine, become more productive than otherwise : urban places, because their economies would have to support fever ‘dependent urban rigrants; and rural places, because by retaining more people in the countryside with better supsorting service back-up 2 sore rational and more extended pattern of agricultural land use could be anticipated. community and environment, : both the Chinese and Tanzanian ‘approaches to (non-foreal) education and develoment: denonatrate the importance of = grass-roots, community-focused, approach to the education and development process and the (quantifiable) benefits which can accrue from it. In China the foundstion- stone of rural social organisation in the period since 1949 nas been the production team, comprising between twenty and sixty households shich have traditionally undertaken certain agricultural tasks in comon and as a sootal unit resiee as, for as part of a village conmnity (see Open University, 1983). In Tanzania also, the wana village and subsequently the villages established during the villagisation programe were to provide the structure through which rural developennt was to be promoted.o 6 In China certainty the rural environmental benefits were substantial. Not only did the productivity of the rural environment rise quite phenoaenally (see Maxwell, 1979 for precise figures on increases in grain production for exanple) during the Tachai campaign, but also, as a consequence of a sore rational use of local resources, land and water, a significant overall improvenent in the living environments of rural inhabitants was achieved. All this was possible initially without recourse to outside professional help- surely a lasting ttbute to the rural inhabitants thenselves and to the potential of development, as a ncans of non-formal education when st is projected from within the comunity rather than externally vopon it tthe hunan factor and the sveial environment : there is little doubt that in the context of non-formal education and development, the examples discussed in this paper inplicitty or explicitiy acknowledge the grasual domination of the environment by nan. Wat then distinguishes the Thint Horld countries exantned here from many western developed nations? Simply stated it is in tthe purposes served by the doninion exerted by nan over nature. ‘The concentrated urban- indistrial developsent characteristic of modern western nations has given rise to conflictual rather ‘than harmonious social and econanse relations; these are manifest for example in the antagonistic dichotomies between urban and rural places and between industry and agriculturea {In contrast, the non-formal education and development processes in Cuba, China and Tanzania have been concerned to establish more even, rurally= foriented development patterns. Wot only is this intended to focus development in the Third World upon those who are most often overlooked but does so in ways which encourage rural people thenselves to participate 4n the process rather than to be merely spectators of it, The non-formal educational meano by which this is achieved ought not to be underenpnasised panely principles such as combining intellectual with manual work, bringing together students and rural workers and trafning students as producers first and as consumers second. In coabination the nature of the Gevelopeent processes and the means by which they have been carried Uhrough, in China for example, have avoided creating the grographical dichotomies of developed and undeveloped places and, amongst the population, the antagonisos which have attended noderntsation in the west.a wv Nethods. oater: ‘sonnel ans evaluation in nor 2, brats Enviromental Bsusation 4.1 The variety of non-formal EE. ‘The planning, organieation and methodology of non-formal E.=. varies enormously fron one country to anctner. In Nepal, for exancile, Radio Nepal broadcasts a regular weakly programe on ecology with an emphasis on the preservation of forests, a particular protlen in Nepal, Tne Iraqui Enviromental Preteaticn Socisty hae confined Sto activities to the production of publications ainad at stimulating public awareness. ‘The Sahel-Vert operation, which was conducted in Senegal, was a practical exercise in cut-of-sehos] E.E. involving nesrly tao thousand ‘young people in a tree planting precranne covering almest 709 hectares of the Sahel Desert. The Nature Frotection League sf Poland, in co-operation with various youth and adult groups, has set up schoo! hnature camps and envirorsental research centres for youn caturat ists Miso many regional nature museuns and gardens have special eiuentionsl roons for E.E. In Indones ‘the Governmont accepted that a ron fForeal £.8, programe was needed to enhance public avsrenses of ‘environmental problens. Consequently a tear of non-formal educators, based ite eanpaign on Lecat environmental issues ‘The public is reached through a regular series of lectures to yo ‘snd womens’ organisations and these are augented by an input fros the, fnass media — radio, T.¥. and the press where the particular target group is children outside the formal education systar. Th Wales, the2» Prince of Wales' Comittee, a charitable organisation, 1s resjonsitie for the supervision of a large nunber of envircnrental inprovanent projects, often using the Latour of the young unemployed. The Financing fof sush projects is provides by Government sponsored agencies such ae the Mangower Services Connission and the Nelsh Development Agency: ‘Te above examples, along with many others which could have been cited, AMlustrate the variety, complexity ans versatility of educational and practical sctivit: olen could be alassiried as non-formal £8. ‘Thus many programes are obviously Governmental inspired and controlled, others are sponsored ny nan-cor imental erganisations (NGO's) wi1ist ‘:008 are a combination of both. Even within the Government organises progranses, ministries ot than that for Giueation are often involved ue. Rericulture, Snploynent and Enviroment. This Flexibility of approach 18 an important Feature of non-formal E.E. and ie advantazcous because there 1s a need to vary the apsroash to meet the nests of aiffering target groups and their speaific situations. Great “lexi iLity also brings problems however. Tt ray result An the fragenting of effort at Goverment level and a coherent stratesy for non-formal £.E. ay also be lacking snongst the NGO's. 4.2. The methodology of noneformal E.E. In general terms the type of non-formal £.£. may be classified as either participatory or non-participatory. The latter are those in nich target group menbers are merely passive receivers and would inolude radio and T.v. broadcasts, press articles, visite to institutions such 25 museums, 2008, aquaria ete., and also Listening to the occasional30 Lecture at 2 ioeal club. These nenaparticipatory forms of non-fo-msl ELE. are very prevalent througout the world, particularly so in the Geveloped countries. During the last decade, the increased incidence of T.V. programes dasiine with environmental problens such as conservation, pollution, famine ete., 18 a measure of the concern felt by the general public for these important issues. Tk do disricuit to assess the value and effectiveness of the lestiine situation in these non-partletpatory activities necause Aittie research has been undertaken, The research that has been accomplished clearly illustrates that learning can, and dows, take place. If ue consider visite to 200s and pusouns then Wright (1980), Borun and Miller (1989) fan! Rosenfals (1984) have datonrtrated that both adults and school children ean benefit educstio 1y from such visits and the abitity to grasp certain concepts is eshasced. The impact of T.V. progranees on ‘the developeent of an environmental ethic has not been studied tut st would appear that such programmes have been instrunental in creatine 3 groundswell of public opinion that has manifested itself in such N20" s ‘as Greenpeace and Friends of the Earth. The goal of these, and sintlar organisations throughout the world, is to sensitive the general public to envirormental issues, to raise the level of envirormental auareness fad understanding and also to encourage active participation ia environmental problen solving. In West Germany the "Greens" (die Grunen) have been able to give a political dimension to this enviromental ‘concern and were able to win a nunber of seats in the elected parlianenta It appears, therefore, that ron-rarticipatory proerannes in E.£. are widespread and conton theousnout the world and although the main concern ‘of these programmes 1s to entertain the viewing ausience, they are alas Instrumental in bringing about attitudinal changes in a large number of the world's population. Tt As interesting to recort that in a regional conference on "Environmental Education in ASEAN Universities and ite Transfert held in the Universiti Partanian, Yalaysia in 1981, educatore, researchers and officiale fren ‘the ASEAN ccurtries (Indonesia, Malaysia, Pnilippines, Singapore and ‘atlang) reccnmenied that ".....the mass media should be encourage! to educate afd not merely to disseninate information of enviromental concern" (Connect. Vol. VIT No. 2, 1082). Put this is precisely the Lieama faced by the mass medias If programmes are too atucative then they often cease to he entertaining te @ lange majority of the populatisn and their value is lost. Tf such programmes are only entertaining then ‘the enviromental message is not clearly transmitted. & further rrecosmendation frm the SSEM conference states ".....2lthousn the mos Inesia have proved to be an effective instrument for public E.E., jersonal contact, too, mst be augmented for the substantive transfer of envirormental education, taking into account the culture and educational levels of the tanget group" (Connect op. ett). ‘This aumentation of nonepartieipstory £.E, programmes with those that are more structured, educative and interactive, is mst important. for those countries in which environmental issues are imediate and relevant to the day-to-day lives (or deaths) of the people. In euch countries the formal education systen is often disadvantaged by lack of resources, high dropout rates and insufficient placements at secondary school and32 subsequently the non-formal £., programes of a participatory nature asoune an increased significance, Each region of the world offers numerous examples of such programes and it would be salutary to examine sone of the more common pethods of snstruction used in non-formal E.£. with particular referene to the various target groups. The tank or lecture as part of an extended progr: ‘This type of teaching involves one person (the teacher, the cextenaiion worker, the comunity worker etc.) talking to an audience on a particular subject. The technique requires Little active participation by the audience and is, therefore, probably the least significant in helping the learning process. Tt 18 also the teaching technique which nest closely sirrors that used in formal education; it highlignts the distinction between teacher and taught and this could be disadvantageous if the audience has high percentage of individuals who have not experienced succes in the formal sector e.g. school drop outs land carly school leavers. Paradoxically, it may be a good technique for a class of adults who are experiencing a traditional clasarooe situation for the first tine, Whatever the audience however, there are certain features of the technique which should be borne in mind ty all educators.3 ‘The clase environment \hherever possible the classroom should be adequately ventilated, ell Lighted and be at a reasonable teeperature, Students should be confortable tut not pampered. The seating arrangenent, ‘WAIL depend upon the size of the class but it should be such that all the class can see the face of the speaker The technical competence of the speaker ‘The speaker mist be auare of those features of the talk that ‘encourage the audience to continue Listening and avoid those hich do the opposite i.e. send then to sleep. The most comon fault is that the speaker talks too quickly. This is often because too mich 1s being attempted; most non-formal classes cean only cope with a snall nusber of ideas at any one tine. Adult audiences in particular, need time to consider and under stand shat they are hearing snd often the sane point or idea needs to be repeated in a variety of ways. Another common fault Se that the speaker reads from a prepared text in a boring sonotone. The soporifie effect of such a delivery can be counteracted by the speaker consciously Antrodueing variation in volune and pitch and also pausing at significant places during the lecture. In general it mist be appreciated that the span of attention for most classes in non formal E.£. 1s very Limited, probably some ten to fifteen rnimtes. After this period of time, involuntary breaks in4.24 3a attention become increasingly comen when Little of what is heard 4s comprehended. The speaker mist not confuse interest with understanding. Many of the environmental isauee which need to be considered by non-formal classes are very relevant end of tenediate concern to the audience and thus motivation may be high. But ouch issues my also be very complicated and the process of Adentsfying and understanding an errironmental problen and exploring alternative strategies of solving it, may be @ long, slow and often Frustrating experience ‘The speaker, therefore, when planing a talie should ensure that rot too auch Js attenpted uith the significant points being made early in the talk. Frequent recepitulations should be mage in a variety of ways and the end of the talk should contain an effective and stimulating sumeary. ‘Ihe clase discuseion ‘The term ‘discussion’ can be used to describe @ great variety of verbal exchanges between people. In the context of this paper At 19 used to desonibe ".....a group seeking to put together ‘thelr knowledge, ideas and opinions about one subject in a co-operative endeavour to learn from each other, to learn fron feach other, and by working together to reach a little nearer to the truth or to the solution of the problen....." (Legge 1971)33 This form of teaching is obviously nore participatory than the talk or lecture and is, therefore, potentially a more effective teaching and learning strategy. It is ales a technique which is particularly suitable for nonsformal £.E. because many adults can learn best ina social context. Participation in a group Gtsoussion can often boost the confidence of students, an important factor in self developgent. It would be irresponsible, however, to suggest that discussion as a teaching technique has po drawbacks. Very often discussion session in a non-formal class provides the opportunity for people to express firmly nels prejudices or irrational arguments end Little, if any, dialogue cecurs. Similarly the discussion my be monopolised by a few vootferous class menbers which may accentuate or produce a feeling of inferiority in other renbers of the class. Tt is ‘most inportant that the teacher or group leader, in particular, does not assine a dontnant rele in discussion sessions, a tendency all too apparent in many noneformal classes. Discussion, as a teaching strategy, is not appropriate where Practical skills are being acquired such as the use of unknown agricultural inplenents e.g. crop hand sprayers or the application and use of sinsie enviromental monitoring equipment. Under these etrounstances, clear, unambiguous instructions need to be understood by the class and a discussion on the relative merits of one machine versus ancther may be counterproductive. Discussion, per se, is also inappropriate shen there are a large rmunber of people in the class. Tt would appear that good Aiscussion practice becones very difficult when class numbers exceed twenty five with an optinun runber between ten and fifteen.36 Probably the greatest difficulty with this teaching technique 4s the fact that, on many eceasions, either the seabers of the class have nothing to contribute or they are incapable of adequately expressing thenselves tn a group situation. In such cctreunstances the discussion session must be seen as part of a total teaching strategy. In Sotevans, for exanple, the Ministry ‘of Education initiated Tketleetse, a multinedia, inter-departmental ‘extension project ained at: dissentnating information and stipulating action anongst the rursl poor. Te was hoped that the Project would supply information about services and institutions concemed with mural development provide the kowledge and skills to help cormunity menbers use resources to improve their health, welfare and standard of Living and that it would provide support for local extension workers by developing a systen of communication in renote areas. Tn the teaching of the target grouse both distance teaching methods (radio and printed material) and face-to-face approaches were creloyed. As part of the latter eonponent Tketleetse employed ‘a group discussion method wnich followed a set agenda vie = Asten to the cassette progranne = look at the Mip chart pictures discuss the questions = complete the report forms and = decide upon action (Byron and Garforth 1979). ‘us the discussion session followed on fron one An whieh Uinited information was presented in a variety of ways. Tk was possible therefore, to confine class coments to the particular37 4issue under consideration. Used in this way, discussion can be 1a most effective teaching atratesy although it tenis to be time consuming and slow in echievenent of educational objectives. As a teaching technique it 4s best used as part of a problem solving approach in which varied opinions and interests, all of hich are relevant, need to be considered before planning aopropriste action. Most, ££ not all, environmental probiens fall into this category. Problem solving, ‘The concept of ‘problem solving’ as a teaching technique is @ recurring thene in much of the Literature on E.E, It is ‘frequently referred to in the report on the Toi2ist Conference land subsequently in other UNESCO/UNEP publications ".....since the TeELisi conference, enviromental eduestion hes been considered easentially as education for discovery and action. This ixplies = a teaching rethotology that gives equal importance to the analytical and theoretical-approach of the scientific methed as Well a9 to the more aynthetie and pragatic problen-solving approact" (Connect Vol. VIE Ho. 3. Septenber 1983). The appeal of snts teohalaue 1s noe difficult to understand for problen- solving not only provides a basis for a relevant and aenninefth curriculum, ir is also highly participatory and allows individuals to develop critical thinking skiiis which are transferable to many other situations, Furthermore success in a problen-soiving situation, no matter how small and insignificant, can lead to a ‘much improved self imge. People begin to realise chat they3 ‘can bocone change agents for the kenefit of thenselves and their society. ‘ut the persistence of mary environmental preblens indicates that there fare a Limited unter of people who are trained to identity and effectively solve complex enviromental problens. It also indicates that problen solving is a difficult process and, Furthermore, using problem solving as a teaching technique equally arduous. Some of the latter difficuities arise from constraints within existing fomal systens and may be overcome by developing problen solving programtes in the non-formal systen. For example, learners can be encouraged to deal with controversial issues and develop interpersonal comunisations sills and values witch ald the handling of complex issues. Teachers and leaders who are not. well versed tn the art of problen solving can be made avare of how controversy may spark learning if handled effectively. Many educational programes come be designed around a problem solving format and imelve an integrated or intendisoiplinary study rather than acsdenie subjects involving competency testing. A more Flexible Einepertod, rather than easily adnintstered tine blocks, may facilitate a problen solving approsch (see Cowan, Denzer, Deutsch et al 1984). Briefly, participants in the problen solving exereise mst +9 (1) Resognise and define the problem (2) Coltect, organise and analyse the information (3) Generate, evaluate and select alternatives (4) Develop, amplenent and evaluate a plan of action (5) Evaluate the process. (Stapp and Cox 1981). ‘The first two stages rely on the experience and perception of the tanget group, for example, the problens of overpopulation may rot be a suitable topic for young school drop-outs. ‘The second stage calls for the develonment and application of reference skills whilst stage 3 danands certain analytical and comparative skills. Stage 4 and 5 require the group to be self eriticsl and recognise Factors causing most enviromental icoues. In all the sbove stages the ability to Listen with comprehension and communicate effectively is essential, furthermore, each menber of the group must be prepared to understand and be prepared to accept alternative views to their ovn, Tne methodology assoclated with environmental problem solving will, of necessity, vary according to the target group and with the size and complexity of the problan. There are guidelines, however, which should be standard practice in ali situations. Firstly the role of the teacher/group leader is critical. Problem solving, perhaps more 90 than any other method in £.E, should be the one that Anvolves the esxtmua participation, Tisch (1971) suggests that "....m0st earning is not the result of instruction. Tt is rather the result of lunhanpered participation in a meaningful setting". The teacher's role is to gulde, clarity, co-ordinate, encourage and if possible, determine the boundaries of the problem study. The latter is inportant because the ‘group should expertence sane degree of success in its project .40 Secondly the lection of the particular enviromental problen to be ‘exanined should cone fron discussions within the target. study group. ‘The teacher or group leader may wish to suggest alternative problers to be considered, ensuring that such alternatives are of © practical, ragnatic nature and capable of belng solved, but in the final analysis high levels of motivation can only be maintained if the group determines the problens to be investigsted. Thindly, the teacher/grcup leader should ensure that the maxima use is made of the knowledge, expertise and experience possessed by menbers of the group. The problen to ve exanined will be of a local nature and this will require local knowledge and local experiense. As indicated previcusly the teacher should ensure tnat contributions fron the local officials of various Goverment. Agencies e.g. Health, Water, Agricultural Extensfon Officer, Wildlife Ranger ete., are received and understood by the target group but the fund of relevant Anformation collectively possessed by group menbers should ever be underestinated. Problem solving in Ghanaian children : a cage study, Knaniller and Obeg Asamoah (1979) found that primary school chi léren in rural areas possessed a great wealth of environmental knowledge that could be used and developed in a variety of learning situations. For example, they discerned that children in the village of akrokerri, hans :- (a) have a great deal of knowledge about local water resources, Where the best quality drinking water can be found at any tne of the Gay and in whatever season of the year.a (©) Knew a trenendous ancunt. about Firewood, the local varieties, burning qualities, who gathers it, where to get it, how auch you can sell it for, its use in local industries sush as charcoal making. (e) Have a great deal of inside information about locsl, small-seale industries. Many of their fanilies engage in these. (4) tad a lot of experience with infants, particularly 1-5 year olds. They carry then, play with them, tollet, then, cook for them and feed then. (e) Hed experience in growing food crops. Mony of then had their own gardens and worked closely with their parents on the family farm and vegetable plot. They also knew many food crop pests, both animals and weeds, and often participated in local attenpts to contrel then including the indiseriminate use of chentcal deterrents. On the basis of this information and particularly that ascooiated with the toca water supply, Knamller and Cbeng-Asanoah were able to involve the children in a problen solving exereise. They noted that. ro one was collecting water from the local stand pipes and were able to discover from the children, the number of stand pipes in the area, hhow long they had not been working, the nane of the man responsible for their meintenance and the advantages of using piped water. The children inwew that the pump for craving water from the bore-hole to the main vater tark was broken and they suspected that there Hae ro soney available to purchase a replacenent part for the pump.42 ‘The teaching /learning potential in this situation was now explosted and this involved the ontléren in nechanies - how did the pune work? economics = sho paid for the water? and civics - what government agency as responsible for mintaining the water systen? Tt was also suggested ‘that the class find out if the conmunity perceived tne problen and if, in fact, they wanted the system working again, Thus the ais of this problem solving exercise was to gather information about the water system, assess the attitude of the community regarding the problem and suggest a schene to get the system working again. Although the above exanple is concerned with children in the formal education sector, it cannot be considered as a typical programe and illustrates a cunber of points which are of great significance to non formal edueation* (1) The starting points for acquiring knowledge and learning skills cane from the children's own out-of-school experience and knowledge. (2) If children of prinary school age had acquired such a fund of local knowledge then it is highly Likely that considerably more information and expertise would be possessed by parents and older siblings. (3) The procedures adopted in study are very relevant for all target groups in non-formal E.E. ‘mus Knamtler (loc. cit.) Lists the object vee of "environmental ‘education for development" as helping people to (1) become critically avare of issues and problens in their oxn community; to question why things are as they are, (2) develop an ability to consciously make decisions; to take a stand on local issues and problems, (3) explore alternatives for social action; to consider possible ways ‘of solving local community protlens. Furthermore Knariiler suggests a following curriculum model for the study of local environsental issues.os Environtental Lesue/protlen e.g. “kre chemical herbicides and pesticides used indiscriatnately 4 Koeal hones and gardens?") Inquiry into "iat Sethe current situation" gathering factual Sntormation analysing infornat: fen Inquiry into “shat ought to| ee gathering information about] attitudes and beliers analysing information evaluating information evaluating infomation Decision-Making (ves, there 19 a problen" or 5, there ia not problen") Deciding on Social Aetion + Adentitying alternatives = ordering alternatives + considering consequences Thus a problen solving approach in E.E, can rake individuals aware of those Features in their enviroment which are detrinental to dndividual and collective well-being. It can alto teach then how to analyse the causes of sich problens and take appropriate counter measures. Hopefully it also shows that by vorking together conmintties do have tue ability to plan for sustainable develomment within the context of Living resource conservation.4.26 The use of drana/popular theatre ‘The use of popular theatre as a comunteation medium for development projects has long history. In the late 40's, teans of field workers toured villages in Giana using arena ‘and denonstration to educate and involve people sn campaigns for such topics as family planning, child care, cocea disease ‘eradication ete. Thus At has long been recognised that theatre canbe an effective tool for non-formal education beosuse: "(a) as entertaiment it can engage and hold the interest of Tage munbers of people, mary of whom have bean alsensted by traditional approaches to adult. education and development (b) 28 an oral nedium in local langunges it can involve many people uo are left out of development activities ecause of their Literacy or lack of understanding of the official national, Language (e.g. English or French or Fortuguese) (o) 9.4 seane of cultural expression uhich everyone in the ‘community 4s capable of it ean be Hept within the control and use of the local people (4) as a public or social activity ttbrings » coomnity together and creates the context of co-operative thinking and action (Kidd, R. 1979) ‘The early use of popular theatre as part of a mss education programe was characterised by the fact that the progrannes Were mainly designed to impart information and skills. ‘They were planned and prepared by headquarters staff of various goverment: departments such as agriculture, and health ant4s Little, <£ any, consultation cocurred with the runal clientele, ‘uch proranes have been criticised because they Were "ese. ‘conceived primarily as a way of putting across information in a one-tay fashion about topics chosen by centraldectsion makers rather than as a way of ergaging the villagers in authentic ‘esalogue about their oun priorsty problems" (Kidd lee. ott). During the last decade there has been an increasing use of popular theatre ae part of a two-way coneuinieation process. The purpose of such progrannes {s not simply to inpart information but alss to develop ‘critical evareness and generate a comitaent to collective action. ‘An evanple of this new approach is illustrated by the Laedza Batanant (hake up = lets get together and work together!) festivals in Botsvana. Started in 1974 by extension workers in Worthern Botswana, ‘the festival 1s a mixture of sccio-drama and group discussion and provides a forun for the expression of feelings snd an analysis of the major problene faced ty a comunity. Each year local comunity leaders and extension Workers meet in 2 workshop situation to chcose the issues to be examined and planthe'festivel. Such issues have included agriqultural production, nutrition, the effects of migrant labour and various health protlens. ‘he criteria for selecting issues could include: popularsty the perceived severity of the problem the scale of the task ‘the seasonal nature of the problen.a6 A sealer group then prepares songs, dances, perhaps puppetry and a drama production and this ie performed by the extension workers in the main villages of the area. After the perfomance there is an organised Aiseussion in which the villagers consider the protien presented and decide on a plan of action. The perfomers in the festival i.e. the ‘local extension workers and comunity leaders, then provide the organisational support ant technieal advice to support the plan of action. The success of Laedza Batanani has led to other groups in Botswana adopting this approach and in Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia land Malawi the University Theatre Departments also organise tours through village districts as 2 reane of developing a onttical avareness ‘among the murs] poor. As a result of these, and other experiences in popular theatre it ts possible to offer,the follouing gudelines for consideration ty those planning prograsnes of non-formal 8.6. (1) popular theatre can be very effective in increasing public awareness of envircnmental issues such as health and mutrition, agricultural production and aaragenent of fuel reserves (2) popular theatre should be organised on a local basis with the ‘aim of involving ali aspecta of the loca) society in @ meaningful dialogue. (3) Te must de expected that sometimes the issues raised may be beyond the understanding and/or competence of lool government workers. This can lead to incorrect: information being transnitted ‘and inappropriste action being taken.a 6) © 43 a ‘The Sstues to be examined should be carefully chosen; an Anereased social ausreness and social consotence with no resulting action ean lead to frustration and sostal unrest . Sonetines the exoitenent and enjoyment of participating in the performance say be such distraction that the intended eseage 19 not transmitted. Popular theatre is at its most effective when the resulting motivation and enthussaan can be harnessed to an exieting organisational franeuork, This ie particularly true if the Sesues raised and the work undertaken ean be integrated into that already being undertaken by extension workers. E.E, and existing ron-fomal education programmes Many of the techniques indiested atove are currentiy practised by sone programmes of ron-fomal education. The scale and range of existing programes in the non-formal sector of education are enormous and offer a great opportunity for the spread of £.5, For exanple, many countries throughout the world are attenpting to deal with the problen of illiteracy by mounting adult, functional literacy projects. Such projects are fertile ground For introdueing those environmental issues which are of innediate concern and relevance to the participants. ‘This must. go beyond the obvious teaching ploy of ensuring that readers, flashcards, pooklets ete. deal with everyday features of adult Life and work.ny ‘The subject matter under discussion mist De such that it ends itself to the introduction of an elenent of evaluation land concern. The acquisition of adult Literacy 1s enhanced by the participants considering enviromental probless that. affect the lives of thenselves and their families. ‘Thus an exanination of how to inprove the anenities of a vellage such as a constant water supply and adequate sanitation arrargenents, oF how to improve the economy of fan area by increased agriculturel yields and better marketing, Would appear to be idea topies for an adult literacy class. Dut there is a need to Introduce @ nore penetrating holistic view to such topics, for example excessive use of pesticides and fertilisers nay give short term crop yields but what are dong term costa? in ecologically balanced view must be given and this may pose probless on two fronts, Firstly it 1s more difficult (tut rot impossible!) to produce simple reading materials on complex enviromentsl issues and, secondly, the teschers may not understand the concepts underlying such issues. A broadly-based envirormental approach is also needed in other Programmes of non-formal education such as agriculture and hheatth studies, In these areas, in particular, t 4s imperative that an enviromental perspective is not perceived as an esoteric, abstract notion, counterproauctive in some way to local Gevelopmertal strategies.9 Tt rust be explained, simply and clearly, how enviromental objectives can contribute, both in the lorg- and short-term to such development Programes. Once again this presurpeses that the teachers or extension Workers engaged in such programes have a background in E.E. which enables then to give this broader viev. In order that this is achieved, ‘2 more radical approach to the training of adult education personel 4s needed. Instead of being trained to teach courses which may be narrowly conceived e.g. use of fertilisers, prevention of specific ‘diseases, cre- and ante-natal care; all adult education tutors should be trained in the broader perspective of EE. ‘Suggested Training Programe for Teachers in E.E. In onder to devise effective training programmes for potential teachers of E.E. in the non-formal sector, it 1s essential to identity the heeds and requirenents of the different target groups and thus plan the aporopriate training programmes. Whilst it may be argued that ‘the aain goal of £.8. As coemon to all eituations 4.e. a sophisticated understanding of how the environsent functions, the "..... failure to break down the "general public into identifiable target populations, with a number of defined conton deroninators from the educational view, ‘may be one of the reasons for the inadequacy of enviromental education for adults" (Belin 1977). Thus any schedule for training personnel Anvolved in non-formal education should inelude tens which are of significance to the particular target group. For exemple, any programe comerned with teaching E.E, to young school drop-outs should t1lustrate hhow features of the local enviroment ean be used to develop the