applied
sciences
Article
An Investigation of the Influence of Temperature and Technical
Condition on the Hydraulic Shock Absorber Characteristics
Zdzisław Hryciów
Citation: Hryciów, Z. An
Investigation of the Influence of
Temperature and Technical Condition
on the Hydraulic Shock Absorber
Characteristics. Appl. Sci. 2022, 12,
12765. https://doi.org/10.3390/
app122412765
Academic Editor: César M. A.
Vasques
Received: 14 November 2022
Accepted: 9 December 2022
Published: 12 December 2022
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4.0/).
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 12765. https://doi.org/10.3390/app122412765
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Military University of Technology, gen. Sylwestra Kaliskiego Street 2,
00-908 Warsaw, Poland; zdzislaw.hryciow@wat.edu.pl
Abstract: The paper presents issues related to the operation of hydraulic shock absorbers. The
primary objective was to determine the influence of temperature and the technical condition on the
damping properties of a twin-tube hydraulic shock absorber. Three units (one new and two used) of
the same type of a shock absorber were used for testing. During the tests, the shock absorber was
subjected to sinusoidal excitation at fixed values of frequency and displacement amplitudes. There
are few low-temperature tests of shock absorbers available in the literature; thus, great emphasis
was placed on this aspect of the study. The characteristics of the shock absorbers were determined
from a temperature of −30 ◦ C until a steady-state temperature was reached at a given excitation. The
resistance force at this temperature is about 2.5 times higher than at 20 ◦ C. The study shows that such
high forces can lead to the failure of shock absorber components (especially the valves). The amount
of energy dissipated in a single operating cycle of a shock absorber decreases non-linearly with the
increase of the temperature. Understanding the temperature dependence of the shock absorber in
combination with the cooling curve allows for the steady-state temperature to be estimated at a
given excitation. The study also shows that the installation of used shock absorbers in vehicles is not
acceptable. Although there are no external signs of wear, their characteristics can differ significantly
from those of new shock absorbers.
Keywords: hydraulic shock absorber; damping characteristics; damping coefficient; temperature;
dissipation energy
1. Introduction
In order to achieve an adequate level of driving comfort and safe-vehicle handling,
the vibrations induced in the vehicle structure must be dampened. The basic mechanisms
for the dissipation of vibration energy in vehicles include dry friction (which occurs at the
interface between interacting components) and viscous resistance forces (in fluids). Dry
friction damping is mainly used in vehicles with multi-leaf spring suspension. However,
in the course of vehicle operation, the conditions of interaction between the leaf spring
plates change; thus, the coefficient of friction [1] changes significantly. It then affects the
dynamics of the car body and, for example, changes the exposure of people to vibrations
in vehicles [2]. For this reason, modern vehicles usually use hydraulic shock absorbers,
selected to interact with the spring elements of the suspension. Obviously, vibration damp-
ing methods are still being developed. These are mainly related to the active control of
the damping force and its adaptation to actual requirements. Mostly, they are oriented to-
wards magnetorheological fluids, although electromagnetic shock absorbers are also being
increasingly used. In this case, an important aspect is the possibility of recovering energy
from vibration motion [3]. Damping force adjustment is also possible in modern friction
damper solutions [4]. In addition, advanced materials and their composites characterised
by high dissipation properties and ageing resistance can be applied to the construction of
viscoelastic dampers [5].
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 12765 2 of 11

Typical automotive shock absorbers are characterised by different resistance forces

being evident at the compression stroke (bringing the wheel closer to the car body) and
the expansion stroke (rebound). The value of the resistance forces is a function of the
parameters of the working fluid (hydraulic oil) and the valves throttling fluid flow between
the shock absorber chambers. The shock absorber converts the mechanical energy of
movement into the thermal energy produced by pumping the fluid through the throttle
valves. It is then transmitted to the external environment.
Important requirements for hydraulic shock absorbers include the invariability of the
damping characteristics throughout their lifetime, low sensitivity to environmental factors
(e.g., temperature, humidity), as well as high mechanical strength and shock resistance.
The permissible operating temperature ranges of shock absorbers, as specified by their
manufacturers, mostly lie between −40 and 130 ◦ C [6]; however, in specific applications
(e.g., all-terrain vehicles), the highest allowable temperature may be as high as 180 ◦ C. This
property depends, among other things, on the kind of oils, type of sealing system, and
their thermal resilience. The temperature also influences changes of oil viscosity; therefore,
it changes the characteristics of the shock absorber itself. In extreme cases, decreasing
oil viscosity with increasing temperatures can result in leaks, performance degradation,
or damage.
Mineral oils are most commonly used in passenger car shock absorbers. More heavily
loaded shock absorbers use synthetic oils, which have greater resistance and less viscosity
variation along with the temperature. On one hand, the high oil viscosity can lead to undue
resistance forces at low ambient temperatures. However, its low value increases the suscep-
tibility to oil foaming, reduces damper resistance, and degrades lubricating properties.
A simple linear relationship to changes in viscosity is often assumed for minor changes
in temperature values. However, this approach is inappropriate for the entire range of
temperature changes assumed by manufacturers.
Issues related to stand and numerical testing of shock absorbers are presented in a
number of scientific papers. These are mainly associated with the identification of damper
characteristics, car vibration studies [7], or mathematical modelling issues. For example,
in [8], the modelling of the vibration damper (mainly its valves) is discussed. Numerical
simulations were validated on the basis of results of the experiment.
The results of tests on shock absorbers with respect to temperature aspects can be found
in literature [9–12], as well as their influence on the driving comfort [13]. The paper [14]
presents tests on shock absorbers filled with different fluids. Heating characteristics were
performed for them at constant sinusoidal excitation parameters. Such tests make it possible
to determine the magnitude of the heat transfer between the damper and the ambient air.
This is important in terms of preventing shock absorbers from overheating and adversely
altering their damping characteristics.
The evaluation of the technical condition of dampers installed in a vehicle was made
on the basis of their temperature changes throughout the movement of the vehicle [15]. In
the paper [16], the authors attempted to use the Eusama method to determine the effect
of temperature on the damping properties. Research was conducted for temperatures
−5 ◦ C and 20 ◦ C for various kinds of cars. Tests performed at a diagnostic station showed
a reduction in shock absorber effectiveness of between 5 and 25% for the warmer shock
absorbers. The principles of the Eusama method and its modifications are presented in
the paper [17]. In [18], the authors presented the results of tests on a truck shock absorber
over a wide range of temperatures (between −40 ◦ C and 100 ◦ C). A significant effect of the
temperature on the damping forces was demonstrated. However, the tests were performed
for a limited range of shock absorber piston velocities (up to approximately 60 mm/s).
Changes in characteristics caused by temperature changes are also being analysed in shock
absorbers used in aviation technology. In the paper [19], the changes in the damping
characteristics of the shock absorber and the viscosity of the aviation hydraulic oil were
presented (at temperature range from −25 ◦ C to 50 ◦ C). In the positive temperature range,
a near-linearity decrease in viscosity along with the temperature was observed. At sub-zero
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 12765 3 of 11

temperatures, viscosity increased rapidly. This directly affects the damping coefficient of
the shock absorber.
The impact of temperature is also assessed for dampers with adjustable damping
characteristics. Paper [20] describes the influence of temperature on the characteristics
of a damper with a magnetorheological fluid. Heating up the shock absorber changes
the viscosity of the oil; however, it also changes the resistance of the control coils. These
two factors change the values of the shock absorber resistance forces. Corresponding
results were reported by the authors in [21]. The presented test results were obtained for
temperatures ranging from 25 ◦ C to 70 ◦ C.
The literature includes analytical papers [22–24]. In [23], the authors presented a
thermodynamic model of a shock absorber. The model allows determination of the steady-
state temperatures and heat transfer to the environment. The simulation results were
compared with experimental results. Similar considerations are presented in paper [22].
The effects of the heating of a shock absorber during its operation have been correlated
to the durability of the seals and their resistance to elevated temperatures. There are also
studies in which simulations are conducted with the application of sophisticated software,
fluids flowing through valves, and their effect on resistance forces. For example, in [24],
numerical investigation of the orifice nearfield flow development in oleo-pneumatic shock
absorbers was presented.
In most publications, the results of tests on hydraulic shock absorbers are mainly
related to the determination of their characteristics at temperatures around 20 ◦ C, or the
change in their damping abilities at higher temperatures, resulting mainly from their
warming up during intensive operation. This is, naturally, due to typical vehicle operating
conditions. However, in the available literature, there is a lack of publications related to tests
at low temperatures, which are, after all, encountered during winter in many countries (for
example, Scandinavian countries or mountainous regions). Shock absorber manufacturers
declare the correct operating range as low as approx. −40–30 ◦ C, and the damping forces
can change significantly under these conditions. For this reason, the primary objective
of this study was to determine the effect of a wide-range temperature variation on the
damping force value of a hydraulic shock absorber. An additional objective was to analyse
the ability of a shock absorber to dissipate heat, which is directly related to its warming
during the operation.

2. Materials and Methods

A MONROE OESpectrum 376082SP twin-tube shock absorber used, among other
things, in the rear suspension of a Volkswagen Passat B6, was applied to determine the
condition of the hydraulic shock absorbers and their operating temperature on the damp-
ing characteristics. The total shock absorber stroke was 230 mm. This shock absorber
utilises high specification semi-synthetic oil with significantly greater chemical stability
between −40 ◦ C and 120 ◦ C, for more consistent and stable rebound and compression
under all conditions.
Three shock absorbers were used in the study. The first brand new (1); the second
in a working condition and removed from a vehicle (2); and the third used, purchased
on an online auction, described by the seller as working (3). No signs of oil leaks were
observed on any of the shock absorbers. In the case of specimen 3, corrosion was present
on the cylinder and discolouration was also noted on the centre section of the piston rod.
The used shock absorber (2) was removed from the vehicle after approximately 60,000 km.
Before dismantling the shock absorber, it was tested using the Eusama method. During the
test, the Eusama indicator value was E = 58%. The technical condition of specimen 3 was
unknown. A view of the tested shock absorbers is shown in Figure 1.
Testing was conducted on a hydraulically driven stand. This apparatus allows for the
testing of shock absorbers with a stroke of up to 300 mm. The maximum movement speed
is 0.6 m/s and the incorporated force sensor allows forces of up to 20 kN to be measured.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 12

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 12765 Testing was conducted on a hydraulically driven stand. This apparatus allows for4 the
of 11
testing of shock absorbers with a stroke of up to 300 mm. The maximum movement speed
is 0.6 m/s and the incorporated force sensor allows forces of up to 20 kN to be measured.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure1.1.Testing
Testingstand:
stand:(a)(a)
view of of
view thethe
tested shock
tested absorbers;
shock (b) shock
absorbers; absorber
(b) shock mounted
absorber on the
mounted on
stand.
the stand.

The
Thetesting
testingprogramme
programmeincluded:
included:
−- determining
determining the dampingcharacteristics
the damping characteristicsof
ofthe
theshock
shockabsorbers;
absorbers;
−- determining
determiningthe theheating
heatingand
andcooling
coolingcharacteristics
characteristicsof
ofthe
theshock
shockabsorbers;
absorbers;
−- determining
determiningthe theinfluence
influence of temperature
temperature onon the
thedamping
dampingforce
forceofofthe
theshock
shockabsorbers.
absorb-
ers.
All the tests were conducted for sinusoidal excitation. The detailed conditions (ampli-
tudeAll
and frequency)
the tests werewere given infor
conducted thesinusoidal
description of the testThe
excitation. results.
detailed conditions (am-
plitudeIn and
order to determine
frequency) were the giveneffect of description
in the temperatureofon thethe
testcharacteristics
results. of the shock
absorber, it was
In order to cooled to −30
determine the◦ Ceffect
beforeofthe test. The shock
temperature absorber
on the was placed
characteristics of in a cooling
the shock
chamber and left there for 12 h to allow the temperature to stabilise throughout
absorber, it was cooled to −30 °C before the test. The shock absorber was placed in a cool- the volume.
Once
ing the shock
chamber andabsorber
left there wasformounted on thethe
12 h to allow test bench, its testing
temperature beganthroughout
to stabilise immediately. the
volume.TheOnce
temperature
the shockmeasurement
absorber waswas taken on the test
mounted outer surface
bench, its of the shock
testing beganabsorber
imme-
cylinder, in its central part. A K-type thermocouple was used for this purpose. It was not
diately.
possible to measure the
The temperature oil temperature
measurement because
was taken the outer
on the shocksurface
absorber hadshock
of the to be absorber
unsealed
cylinder, in its central part. A K-type thermocouple was used for this purpose. It wasevery
(thus, not possible to test a brand-new unit). In addition, thermal images were taken not
60 s to determine
possible to measure thethe
heating pattern andbecause
oil temperature temperature distribution
the shock absorberonhad the to
shock absorber
be unsealed
surface.
(thus, notApossible
FLIR E53 camera
to test was employed
a brand-new unit). for this purpose.
In addition, During
thermal imagesthe were
tests,taken
the ambient
every
temperature was 26 ◦ C.
60 s to determine the heating pattern and temperature distribution on the shock absorber
surface. A FLIR E53 camera was employed for this purpose. During the tests, the ambient
3. Results
temperature was 26 °C.
3.1. New Shock Absorber Characteristics
During the first step of the research, the basic characteristics of a brand-new shock
3. Results
absorber were determined. For a fixed displacement amplitude of 80 mm, the frequency
3.1. New Shock Absorber Characteristics
was varied from 0.1 to 1 Hz. The characteristics were determined at a constant temperature
of 26During the 2first
◦ C. Figure showsstepthe
ofdamping
the research, the basic obtained.
characteristics characteristics
They of a brand-new
present shock
three operating
absorber were determined. For a fixed displacement amplitude of 80 mm, the
ranges. A breakdown of the characteristics is observed for speeds of approx. 0.05 m/s. This frequency
was varied
is the resultfrom
of the0.1opening
to 1 Hz.ofThe characteristics
a check valve. were determined at a constant tempera-
ture ofFor low velocity values (in the range of −0.05 to 0.05obtained.
26 °C. Figure 2 shows the damping characteristics m/s), theThey present
average three
damping
operating
coefficientranges.
was 6.8AkN breakdown of the characteristics
·s/m. The asymmetry coefficient is observed
(the relativefor speedsofofbump
amounts approx.
and
0.05 m/s. This
rebound is the result
damping) for theofshock
the opening
absorberof under
a checkconsideration
valve. was approximately 64%.
The values of the damping coefficients in each operating range are summarised in Table 1.
These are taken as reference values in further considerations.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 12765 5 of 11
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 12

(a)

(b)
Figure
Figure 2.
2.Characteristics
Characteristicsofofthe
theshock absorber:
shock (a)(a)
absorber: force–displacement; (b) force–velocity.
force–displacement; (b) force–velocity.

TableFor low velocity

1. Damping valuesof
coefficient (inthe
the range
new of −0.05
shock to 0.05 m/s), the average damping coef-
absorber.
ficient was 6.8 kN·s/m. The asymmetry coefficient (the relative amounts of bump and re-
bound damping)Velocity [m/s] absorber under consideration
for the shock Damping ·s/m]The
Coefficient c [N64%.
was approximately
values of the damping
−0.5 ÷ coefficients
−0.05 in each operating range are summarised
500 in Table 1.
These are taken as−reference
0.05 ÷ 0.05values in further considerations. 6800
0.05 ÷ 0.5 2300
Table 1. Damping coefficient of the new shock absorber.

In the next step,

Velocity [m/s]the damping characteristics
Damping forCoefficient
the remaining shock absorbers were
c [N·s/m]
determined. −0.5 ÷ −0.05
For shock absorber 2, an additional characteristic
500 (2a) measurement was taken
−0.05 ÷ 0.05
due to damage to the check valve that occurred during the
6800 tests when it became frozen.
Figure 3 summarises
0.05 ÷ 0.5 the characteristics obtained during2300 the tests at 1 Hz.
The used shock absorber is in working condition; however, it has a reduced damping
coefficient of approximately
In the next step, the damping24%characteristics
in the reboundfor range. Larger shock
the remaining differences were
absorbers seen to
were
occur duringFor
determined. theshock
compression.
absorber The
2, ancheck valve characteristic
additional was found to(2a)already open at awas
measurement force of
around
taken 100toNdamage
due and thetodamping
the checkratio reduces
valve to around
that occurred during ·s/m.
225 Nthe When
tests whenthe check valve
it became
failed, the
frozen. damping
Figure practically
3 summarises remains constant
the characteristics (around
obtained 280 the
during N-s/m)—a
tests at 1slight
Hz. increase is
visible only for speeds above 0.25 m/s. After testing the defective shock absorber (3), the
cause of its malfunction was checked. A lack of pressure in the gas section was noted and
also, a broken ring within the check valve was found. The extent of its damage was greater
than in shock absorber 2 (Figure 4). In addition, traces of overheating of the shock absorber
(black burnt oil), as well as contamination in the lower part of the shock absorber (around
the valve) were found. This type of damage was most likely caused by exhaustion of the
shock absorber stroke and the piston hitting the valve.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 12765 6 of 11
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 12

Figure 3. Characteristics of the shock absorber: 1—new, 2—used functional, 2a—used defective, 3—
defective.

The used shock absorber is in working condition; however, it has a reduced damping
coefficient of approximately 24% in the rebound range. Larger differences were seen to
occur during the compression. The check valve was found to already open at a force of
around 100 N and the damping ratio reduces to around 225 N·s/m. When the check valve
failed, the damping practically remains constant (around 280 N-s/m)—a slight increase is
visible only for speeds above 0.25 m/s. After testing the defective shock absorber (3), the
cause of its malfunction was checked. A lack of pressure in the gas section was noted and
also, a broken ring within the check valve was found. The extent of its damage was greater
than in shock absorber 2 (Figure 4). In addition, traces of overheating of the shock absorber
(black burnt oil), as well as contamination in the lower part of the shock absorber (around
Figure
the
Figure 3.3.Characteristics
valve) Characteristics
were found. of of the
thetype
This shock
ofabsorber:
shock damage1—new,
absorber: 2—used
was most
1—new, functional,
likely
2—used caused by2a—used
functional, defective,
exhaustion
2a—used 3—
of the
defective,
defective.
shock absorber stroke and the piston hitting the valve.
3—defective.

The used shock absorber is in working condition; however, it has a reduced damping
coefficient of approximately 24% in the rebound range. Larger differences were seen to
occur during the compression. The check valve was found to already open at a force of
around 100 N and the damping ratio reduces to around 225 N·s/m. When the check valve
failed, the damping practically remains constant (around 280 N-s/m)—a slight increase is
visible only for speeds above 0.25 m/s. After testing the defective shock absorber (3), the
cause of its malfunction was checked. A lack of pressure in the gas section was noted and
also, a broken ring within the check valve was found. The extent of its damage was greater
than in shock absorber 2 (Figure 4). In addition, traces of overheating of the shock absorber
(black4.
Figure
Figure 4.burnt oil),check
Defective
Defective as well
check as contamination in the lower part of the shock absorber (around
valves.
valves.
the valve) were found. This type of damage was most likely caused by exhaustion of the
3.2. Shock
shock Absorberstroke
absorber Heating
and the piston hitting the valve.
Figure 5 shows the distributions on the surface of the new shock absorber as it heats
up. These were obtained during a test for which the displacement amplitude was 80 mm
and the frequency
and the frequency waswas 11Hz.
Hz.Within
Within8 8min
minofoftesting,
testing,
thethe temperature
temperature increased
increased from
from 25
25
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW to over 130 ◦ C. For tests conducted at lower speeds (lower amplitude or frequency 7 ofof
12
to over 130 °C. For tests conducted at lower speeds (lower amplitude or frequency of dis-
displacement), smaller differences in temperature distributions
placement), smaller differences in temperature distributions were noted.were noted.

Figure 4. Defective check valves.

3.2. Shock Absorber Heating

Figure 5 shows the distributions on the surface of the new shock absorber as it heats
up. These were obtained during a test for which the displacement amplitude was 80 mm
and the frequency was 1 Hz. Within 8 min of testing, the temperature increased from 25
to over 130 °C. For tests conducted at lower speeds (lower amplitude or frequency of dis-
placement), smaller differences in temperature distributions were noted.

Figure5.5.Temperature
Figure Temperaturedistributions
distributionson
onthe
thesurface
surfaceofofthe
theshock
shockabsorber
absorber(temperature
(temperatureinin(◦(°C)).
C)).

In order to observe the differences more closely, a temperature graph was drawn up
along the shock absorber cylinder (in its axis). It is shown in Figure 6.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 12765 7 of 11

Figure 5. Temperature distributions on the surface of the shock absorber (temperature in (°C)).

In order to observe the differences more closely, a temperature graph was drawn up
In order to observe the differences more closely, a temperature graph was drawn up
along the shock absorber cylinder (in its axis). It is shown in Figure 6.
along the shock absorber cylinder (in its axis). It is shown in Figure 6.

Figure
Figure 6.
6. Temperature
Temperature changes
changes at
at the
the surface
surface (along
(along the
the shock
shock absorber axis).
absorber axis).

During
During the
the initial
initial period
period of
of operation,
operation, more
more heating
heating is is observed
observed in in the
the lower
lower part
part of
of
the shock absorber. This is the result of the warm oil flowing from the inner
the shock absorber. This is the result of the warm oil flowing from the inner chamber to chamber to
the
the outer
outer chamber.
chamber. Then,
Then, due
due to
to the
the friction
friction of
of the
the piston
piston rodrod against
against the
the seal,
seal, the
the upper
upper
section
section of the shock
shock absorber
absorbercylinder
cylinderalsoalsoheats
heatsup.
up.The
Thegreatest
greatest differences
differences in tempera-
in temperature
distribution
ture were
distribution observed
were observedbetween
between minute 2 and
minute 2 and3. 3.They
Theyexceed
exceedby 13◦°C
by13 C (the coldest
coldest
being the
being the middle
middle part
part of
of the
the cylinder).
cylinder).

3.3. Shock
3.3. Shock Absorber
Absorber Cooling
Cooling
The shock
The shockabsorber’s
absorber’sability
abilitytotodissipate
dissipate vibration
vibration energy
energy depends,
depends, among
among otherother
is-
issues,
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW on its ability to dissipate heat. If it is too small, this leads to excessive heating
sues, on its ability to dissipate heat. If it is too small, this leads to excessive heating of the 8 of
of the
12
shock absorber
shock absorber andand increases
increases the
the likelihood
likelihood of of damage
damage (mainly
(mainly toto the
the seals,
seals, which
which lead
lead toto
unsealing of the chambers). The ability to dissipate heat depends on the
unsealing of the chambers). The ability to dissipate heat depends on the geometry and thegeometry and the
type of
type of materials
materials used
used (including
(including paintwork),
paintwork), but but also
also on
on the
the purity
purity of
of the
the surface.
surface. This
This
can be defined by determining the cooling curve of the shock absorber
can be defined by determining the cooling curve of the shock absorber (Figure 7). (Figure 7).

Figure
Figure 7.
7. Shock
Shockabsorber
absorbercooling
coolingcurve.
curve.

The heat exchange can be determined by Newton’s law of cooling. The temperature
change is defined by relation (1) [25]:
T(t)/dt = -k·(To − Ta), (1)
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 12765 8 of 11

The heat exchange can be determined by Newton’s law of cooling. The temperature
change is defined by relation (1) [25]:

T(t)/dt = −k·(To − Ta ), (1)

where:
Ta —ambient temperature (◦ C),
To —initial temperature (◦ C),
t—time (s),
κ—cooling constant (1/s).
After the integration of the equation (1), we obtain an expression that can be written
in the form (2):
T(t) = Ta − (To − Ta )·exp(−κ t) (2)
Using the results shown in Figure 7, the value of κ equals 0.00071 s−1 . The cooling
constant κ may also be defined by the Equation (3):

κ = (λ·A)/(m·c), (3)

where:
λ—equivalent heat transfer coefficient (W/(m2 ·K)),
A—heat exchange surface area (m2 ),
m—mass (kg),
c—specific heat (J/(kg·K)).
Assuming that the quantities shown above do not change along with the temperature,
it is possible to determine the steady-state operating temperature for other ambient temper-
atures. This is conducted by using the equilibrium conditions between external work and
dissipated energy (heat flux) (4).

Q = Ed /tc = A·λ·(T − Ta ), (4)

where:
Q—heat flux (W),
Ed —energy dissipated during one cycle (J),
tc —duration of one operating cycle (s).
The lack of a linear relationship between the energy dissipated during one cycle (at a
constant value of amplitude and frequency of movement) and the temperature requires an
iterative solution using the relationship shown in Figure 9.

3.4. An Investigation of the Influence of Temperature on Damping Characteristics

In the last stage, the influence of the temperature on the ability of the damper to
dissipate vibration energy was specified. For this purpose, a test was conducted from the
initial temperature until the steady-state value temperature was established at a given
excitation. The tests were conducted for an amplitude of 60 mm and a frequency of 1 Hz
(from a temperature of 27 ◦ C), and a frequency of 0.5 Hz for an initial temperature of −30 ◦ C.
The reduction in excitation parameters compared to previous tests was due to a reduction
in the probability of shock absorber failure. In the test performed for shock absorber 2 at an
amplitude of 80 mm and a frequency of 1 Hz, the valve failed at its initial stage (after forty
cycles). This manifested itself in a sharp reduction in resistance forces. Figure 8 summarises
the force–displacement characteristics obtained when the shock absorber was heated.
The most rapid changes in resistance forces are observed for negative operating
temperatures. Due to the rapid increase in viscosity of the oil at negative temperatures, the
force obtained at −30 ◦ C is 2.5 times greater than for 20 ◦ C. In comparison, a temperature
change from 30 ◦ C to 130 ◦ C reduces the maximum resistance force by only about 11%.
 stage (after forty cycles). This manifested itself in a sharp reduction in resistance forces.
Figure 8 summarises the force–displacement characteristics obtained when the shock ab-
sorber was heated.
The most rapid changes in resistance forces are observed for negative operating tem-
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 12765
peratures. Due to the rapid increase in viscosity of the oil at negative temperatures, the
9 of 11
force obtained at −30 °C is 2.5 times greater than for 20 °C. In comparison, a temperature
change from 30 °C to 130 °C reduces the maximum resistance force by only about 11%.

(a) (b)
Figure 8. The influence of temperature on shock absorber force–displacement characteristics: (a) A
Figure 8. The influence of temperature on shock absorber force–displacement characteristics:
= 60 mm, f = 1 Hz; (b) A = 60 mm, f = 0.5 Hz.
(a) A = 60 mm, f = 1 Hz; (b) A = 60 mm, f = 0.5 Hz.

Based on
Based on the
the recorded
recordedforce–displacement
force–displacementcharacteristics,
characteristics,the
theamount
amountofofenergy
energydissi-
dis-
sipated to the environment Ed during each duty cycle was calculated [16]:
pated to the environment Ed during each duty cycle was calculated [16]:
EdI=∮Fdx (4)
Ed = Fdx (5)
The results are shown in Figure 9. For a frequency of 0.5 Hz, thermodynamic equi-
librium (equilibrium between the work of the external force and the heat dissipated to the
The results are shown in Figure 9. For a frequency of 0.5 Hz, thermodynamic equi-
environment) was reached at 68 °C (dissipating approximately 106 J per cycle). For a fre-
librium (equilibrium between the work of the external force and the heat dissipated to
quency of 1 Hz, the values of 136 °C and 158 J were obtained, respectively. It can be con-
the environment) was reached at 68 ◦ C (dissipating approximately 106 J per cycle). For
acluded that the
frequency of 1amount
Hz, the of dissipated
values of 136 energy
◦ C and is practically
158 independent
J were obtained, of the frequency
respectively. It can be
concluded that the amount of dissipated energy is practically independent of thedependent
of the displacement of the shock absorber piston. This is because it is primarily frequency
onthe
of thedisplacement
rate of changeofofthe
oilshock
viscosity. The values
absorber piston. of energy
This dissipation
is because rates depending
it is primarily dependent on
the
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW
temperature are shown in Table 2.
on the rate of change of oil viscosity. The values of energy dissipation rates depending on12
10 of
the temperature are shown in Table 2.

Figure9.9.Energy
Figure Energydissipated
dissipatedininone
onecycle.
cycle.

Table 2. Temperature dependence of the energy dissipation rate.

Table 2. Temperature dependence of the energy dissipation rate.
Temperature [°C] ◦ Energy Dissipation Rates [J/°C] ◦
Temperature [ C] Energy Dissipation Rates [J/ C]
−20 −2.14
−20 −2.14
0 0
−0.564
−0.564
20 20 −0.325
−0.325
60 60 −0.192
−0.192
100 100 −0.122
−0.122
130 −0.091
130 −0.091

The amount of energy dissipated per cycle decreases non-linearly with the tempera-
ture. The fastest changes are again observed for low temperatures. For temperatures
above 20 °C, a linear change at a rate of approximately −0.2 J/°C can be assumed.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 12765 10 of 11

The amount of energy dissipated per cycle decreases non-linearly with the temperature.
The fastest changes are again observed for low temperatures. For temperatures above 20 ◦ C,
a linear change at a rate of approximately −0.2 J/◦ C can be assumed.

4. Discussion
The paper presents issues related to the influence of the technical condition and the
temperature on shock absorber damping characteristics. For a used shock absorber, for
which the Eusama indicator value was E = 58%., the determined value of the damping
coefficient in the rebound range was approximately 24% lower compared to a new shock
absorber. Shock absorber 3, sold as a used shock absorber in a working condition, was
found to be serviceless. It is important to be aware that the performance of a shock absorber
has a direct impact on the driving safety. Regulations in many countries prohibit the
reinstallation of safety-relevant parts; thus, the use of second-hand shock absorbers is
not permitted.
During its intensive use, a shock absorber heats up rapidly. A contaminated outer
surface can impede proper heat dissipation, leading to overheating of the shock absorber.
The lower part of the shock absorber is the one heating up the fastest.
The dissipation of heat to the environment (reduction of the temperature of the shock
absorber) is well described by Newton’s cooling law. For the shock absorber tested, the
cooling constant was 0.00071 1/s.
The change in temperature has a direct effect on the change in viscosity of the oil and
thus, on the resistance forces of the shock absorber. The greatest impact is observed for
negative temperatures. For the tested shock absorber, the force obtained at −30 ◦ C was
approximately 2.5 higher than at 20 ◦ C. The intense operation at low temperatures can
result in the failure of the damper valves. At sub-zero temperatures, the displacement of
the piston relative to the cylinder even at low speeds rapidly generates high-resistance
forces. Excessively high damping forces increase the forces transmitted to the vehicle body
and also, increase the possibility of the wheels pulling away from the road surface.
A limitation for the tests conducted was the method of measuring the temperature at
the surface of the shock absorber. In further research, it might be important to additionally
monitor the oil temperature in both the inner and outer chambers. This would enable the
process of heat transfer to the environment to be analysed.
In addition, tests with different excitation parameters at low, stabilised temperatures
could provide valuable results. However, such tests require the use of a climate chamber.

Funding: This work was financed by Military University of Technology under research project UGB
879/2021.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

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