Gravity-Driven Infiltration and Subsidence Phenomena

in Posidonia oceanica Residues

Giorgio Baiamonte 1; Francesco D’Asaro 2; and Roberta Calvo, Ph.D. 3

Abstract: A simplified infiltration model for highly permeable porous media was introduced, assuming the matric potential gradient as
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Nottingham Trent University on 04/08/19. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

negligible compared to the gravitational gradient. This model enabled us to determine the delay time, i.e., the time that the water front takes
(from the beginning of rainfall) to reach the bottom of the highly permeable layer. Posidonia oceanica (Linnaeus) Delile residues were used
as a porous media, in order to study the infiltration process that provides salt leaching under natural rainfall when these residues are
arranged in a storage area, before reusing. By using a laboratory rainfall simulator, delay times were measured to verify the applicability
of the aforementioned infiltration model. Application of the infiltration model revealed that compaction and subsidence phenomena
occurred in such highly permeable porous media. Derivation of an extended formulation was then required to take into account two
calibration constants with a clear physical meaning, evidencing the occurrence of a minimum delay time. The calibration procedure enabled
a good fit between observed and estimated delay times. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)HE.1943-5584.0001791. © 2019 American Society of Civil
Engineers.
Author keywords: Posidonia oceanica residues; Infiltration delay time; Gravity-driven infiltration.

Introduction when using extremely sophisticated approaches. Sivapalan (2003,

The runoff generation process on a porous media surface is con-
sidered as Hortonian-type when rainfall intensity exceeds infiltra-
tion capacity (Baiamonte and Singh 2016a, 2017). This condition
does not occur in highly permeable porous media, where runoff
(called saturation excess) only arises if a lower horizon with much
lower permeability than the upper one occurs. In this case, delay
time was denoted as the time needed for the wetting front to reach
the bottom of the upper highly permeable layer (Dunne 1978).
Many studies using various different approaches have been car-
ried out regarding the processes governing infiltration and runoff
generation. For the derivation of hillslope response, one approach
uses the well-known Richards (1931) equation (in a distributed
form) and differential equations of unsteady overland flow (specifi-
cally developed at the hydrodynamic scale) in order to account for
the spatial heterogeneity of soil characteristics, topography, rough-
ness, and vegetation cover on the hillslope (Agnese et al. 2007,
2011; Baiamonte et al. 2015; Baiamonte and Singh 2016b;
Baiamonte et al. 2017).
This approach seemingly mimics the complete hydraulics of
flow. However, the highly complex patterns generated by spatial
heterogeneity can cause considerable uncertainty in the prediction
of hillslope response (Sivapalan 2003; Blöschl et al. 2013), even
1 gible compared to the gravitational gradient, and also took additional
Associate Professor, Dept. of Agricultural, Food and Forest Sciences,
Univ. of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 4, Palermo 90128, Italy
(corresponding author). ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7092-1177.
Email: giorgio.baiamonte@unipa.it; giorgio.baiamonte@gmail.com
2
Full Professor, Dept. of Agricultural, Food and Forest Sciences, Univ.
of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 4, Palermo 90128, Italy.
3
Dept. of Agricultural, Food and Forest Sciences, Univ. of Palermo,
Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 4, Palermo 90128, Italy. ORCID: https://
orcid.org/0000-0002-5275-1055
Note. This manuscript was submitted on June 12, 2018; approved on
January 1, 2019; published online on March 30, 2019. Discussion period
open until August 30, 2019; separate discussions must be submitted for
individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Hydrologic Engi-
neering, © ASCE, ISSN 1084-0699.
p. 3164) stated that, “the root cause of the difficulties is the tremen-
dous heterogeneity of the land surface condition, soils, vegetation,
land use, etc., and the space–time variability of climatic inputs,
occurring over a wide range of space and time scales. The hetero-
geneity is pervasive, and never seems to disappear at whatever scale
we observe, ranging from large scale geological formations, the soil
catena at hillslope and basin scales, down to the macropores that are
ubiquitous at the plot scale.” Sivapalan (2003) also emphasized that
theory development will advance only if we can develop simple
models (which may be mere caricatures of the basin system), pro-
vided that they can be proved with large-scale patterns extracted
from observed data. As theory advances, simple models will give
way to the development and testing of more complex ones that
capture more of the essential characteristics of real hillslopes and
basins.
In agreement with this line of thinking, the infiltration process
was previously modeled using a vertical flow in unsaturated media
following a simple piston displacement model and subsequent par-
allel flow in saturated media based on the classic linear storage
model (Beven 1982b, a; Baiamonte and Agnese 2016). For homo-
geneous highly permeable porous media, a simplified analytical
solution of the flow differential equation was introduced (Baiamonte
2016). This model assumed the matric potential gradient as negli-
delay due to interception loss (typical of highly permeable soils) into
consideration.
Note that the previously mentioned approach fits among the
familiar gravity-dominated models that have proved powerful for
unsteady flows in the upper most soils (i.e., agricultural) (Severino
et al. 2005), as well as for steady state conditions (Severino and
Santini 2005). More specifically, in order to obtain the mean value
of the effective saturation at field-scale (adopting the assumption of
gravitational regime), Severino et al. (2005) combined the solution
valid at the local scale with the column model of Dagan and Bresler
(1979). By assuming that the saturated hydraulic conductivity is the
only random variable, Severino et al. (2005) solved the drainage

© ASCE 04019016-1 J. Hydrol. Eng.

J. Hydrol. Eng., 2019, 24(6): 04019016

 flow by means of analytical tools and expressed the mean satura-
tion via a single quadrature.
The gravity-dominated flow model has also been successfully
applied at the farm-scale to model pesticide transport occurring in
the rooting zone in the case of solute propagation (Severino and
Indelman 2004; Severino et al. 2006), and in the case of solute
propagation process such as salt leaching (Severino et al. 2010),
both of which were not considered in this study. In conclusion, the
gravity-driven models have been well explored, and from a purely
experimental point of view their validity was assessed by means
of very precise field-scale experiments (Severino et al. 2003;
Comegna et al. 2010). In a certain sense, the previously mentioned
studies support the approach put forward in this paper.
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Nottingham Trent University on 04/08/19. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
The temporal scale of the infiltration process derived according
to the described approach is particularly important in the study of
Posidonia oceanica (Linneo) Delile residues and salt leaching
under natural rainfall conditions. The process occurs when residues
are stored in designated areas, thus permitting their subsequent
use as fertilizers, soil amendments, or soil improvers in agriculture
and/or bioengineering.
A recent study was made to determine the physical and hydro-
logic characteristics of P. oceanica residues (Baiamonte et al.
2018). For the purposes of this study, residues were stored in a des-
ignated area in order to reduce salinity through natural rainfall, and
therefore enable reuse. Simulated rainfalls were applied to the top
of P. oceanica samples prepared in the laboratory so as to repro-
duce the physical characteristics previously determined and estab-
lish delay times.
P. oceanica is an endemic seagrass found in the Mediterranean
Sea; it forms extensive meadows in the marine infralittoral zone
(Duarte 1991). It is the most common seagrass in Sicily, covering
a surface of approx. 76,000 ha and growing at a depth of 0 to
50 m. In particular, along the western coasts of Sicily P. oceanica
meadows form dense and extensive beds that are characterized by
thick coverage and high primary production values (Calvo et al.
2010).
In this study, the previously mentioned model was applied to
delay time measurements obtained for P. oceanica (characterized
by high porosity) in order to derive a framework useful for the
evaluation of the effects of salt leaching under simulated rainfall.
Application of the original model suggested the need to take into
consideration a number of physical processes linked to subsidence
phenomena that occurs during each run (neglected in the origi-
nal model).
Finally, a calibration procedure was derived that allowed a
good fit of estimated delay times as a function of two calibration
constants with a clear physical meaning.
Original Infiltration Model
For saturation overland flow conditions, the associated delay time
can be simply defined as the time necessary for the wetting front to
reach the impervious soil, i.e., the bottom of the pervious soil
(Baiamonte 2016)
td ¼ minfðt − tI Þ∶zðtÞ ¼ H0 g ð1Þ
where zðtÞ is the position, with respect to ground level, of the wet-
ting front at time t; and H 0 is the height of the permeable layer.
Assuming that the matric potential gradient is negligible com-
pared to the gravitational potential gradient this implies
∂ ∂h dh dθ
ðz þ hÞ ≅ 1 ⇒ ≡ ≪1 ð2Þ
∂z ∂z dθ dz
© ASCE 04019016-2
J. Hydrol. Eng., 2019, 24(6): 04019016
where h = soil matric potential (m); and θ = volumetric soil water
content (cm3 cm−3 ). Because the distribution of water content
along the vertical may generate lower/larger humidity gradients,
it is clear that when adopting a gravity-dominated model the key
assumption is that the slope dh=dθ of the retention curve, hðθÞ, is
gentle enough (irrespective of the order of magnitude of ∂θ=∂z). As
a consequence, neglect of the matric gradient (compared with that
of the gravitational one) is a purely retention property and, there-
fore, it has no relation with the permeability.
For homogeneous soils with uniform antecedent moisture
content vertical profiles, and under the previous assumptions the
water flow modeling leads to the simple piston displacement model
(Beven 1982b, a). In particular, the rate of advance of the wetting
front along the depth derives from the mass balance along the
vertical direction, z
dz v − q0
¼ ð3Þ
dt ΔθðΘðzÞ − Θ0 ðzÞÞ
where ν = infiltration rate corresponding to the actual normalized
water content; Θ ¼ ðθ − θr Þ=Δθ, with θ and θr as the actual and the
residual volumetric water content, Δθ as the effective porosity,
and where q0 is the initial flux corresponding to the antecedent nor-
malized water content; and Θ0 ¼ ðθ0 − θr Þ=Δθ, with θ0 as the ante-
cedent volumetric water content. The Brooks and Corey (1964)
hydraulic conductivity function, widely applied due to its simplic-
ity, can be assumed
KðΘÞ ¼ K s;0 Θ1=c ð4Þ
where K s;0 = saturated hydraulic conductivity; and the pore-
connectivity index, c ¼ λ=ð2 þ 3λÞ. This latter is as a function
of the pore size distribution index, λ; both indices are well-known
characteristics of soil hydraulic functions (Assouline 2005).
For very structured and highly permeable soil, it is assumed that
the matric potential gradient compared to the gravitational potential
gradient is insignificant; therefore, the actual infiltration rate, ν, can
be expressed as
v ≅ K s;0 Θ1=c ð5Þ
In order to express Θ and q0 , Baiamonte (2016) used Eq. (5)
twice, which was substituted into the mass balance equation
[Eq. (3)]. Furthermore, it was assumed that the infiltration rate was
equal to rainfall intensity, i. Because the stationary condition does
not require a transition step, the following first-order ordinary differ-
ential equation that governs the infiltration process can be obtained:

 c 
Δθ i
dt ¼ − Θ0 dz ð6Þ
i − Θ1=c
0 Ks
Ks
To the best of our knowledge at this point, it is important to
highlight the fact that, based on Eq. (6), the higher the normalized
antecedent water content, Θ0 , the less the time required for the
infinitesimal wet front to advance, dz.
To derive the delay time, i.e., the maximum travel time required
for the water particle to cross the permeable soil layer H0, the def-
inition of a temporal scale for the infiltration process was consid-
ered useful
ΔθH0
ω¼ ð7Þ
K s;0
where ω represents the maximum travel time required for the water
particle to cross the saturated soil layer H0, under saturated and
J. Hydrol. Eng.
 steady state conditions. By integrating Eq. (6) from 0 to delay time,
td and from z ¼ 0 to z ¼ H0 , assuming that residual water content,
θr , was negligible, and denoting the normalized rainfall intensity as
ρ ¼ i=K s;0 (ρ < 1), Eq. (6) gives the delay time, td
   c 
θs;0 H0 ρc − Θ0 ρ − Θ0
td ¼ ¼ω ρ<1 ð8Þ
K s;0 ρ − Θ1=c
0 ρ − Θ1=c
0

where θs;0 (cm3 =cm3 ) is the volumetric water content at soil satu-
ration. Eq. (8) shows the important effects of rainfall intensity, ρ, of
the shape parameter of the hydraulic conductivity function and of
the antecedent moisture conditions on delay times as well as the
scaling role of the ω parameter. It is assumed in this paper that
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Nottingham Trent University on 04/08/19. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

the pore-connectivity index, c, is a function of the pore-size distri-

bution index, λ, both of which are characteristics of soil hydraulic
functions (Assouline 2005). In the next section, the simple model
summarized previously was applied and compared to experimental
measurements recorded for P. oceanica.
Fig. 1. (a) Sample of P. oceanica residues in the metal ring; (b) rainfall
simulator; and (c) relationship between the hydraulic head and the rain-
fall intensity. The latter also illustrates the rainfall intensity values con-
sidered in the experimental runs. (Adapted from Baiamonte et al. 2018,
Quaderni di Idronomia Montana, EdiBios, with permission.)

Experimental Delay Times and Comparison with the

Original Infiltration Model
Baiamonte et al. (2018) collected P. oceanica residues from a ban-
quette on the Custonaci Coast, Trapani (Sicily). The banquette was
2 to 3 m high and extended for hundreds of meters along the rocky
coast below Monte Cofano. P. oceanica residues were mechani-
cally removed and deposited in a storage area in the nearby Portella
del Cerriolo urban park (Custonaci). P. oceanica samples were
sampled following 13 months of rinsing action under natural rain-
fall. The experimental results are described as follows.
The experimental framework was set up in order to modify the
initial moisture condition of the sample gradually, without incur-
ring any physical features change to the samples through repeated
sample preparation. The P. oceanica residue sample was prepared
in the laboratory with a dry bulk density, ρb , equal to that measured
in the undisturbed sample at the storage site (Table 1). P. oceanica
was put into a metal ring (diameter, D ¼ 200 mm; height, H 0 ¼
200 mm) with lined with a nontextile, metal mesh support under-
neath and free drainage.
Saturated hydraulic conductivity, K s , was measured in triplicate
using samples (85 mm in diameter × 100 mm in height) that were
smaller than those considered in delay time observations (200 ×
200 mm). The common constant-head method was used, which
allowed water to move through the material under a steady-state
flow condition, while the volume of water flowing through the per-
meable layer was measured over time. Thus, a constant hydraulic
head was established within the infiltration ring, and flow rate
into the soil was monitored. Particle density measurements of
P. oceanica residue, ρs , were determined by pycnometer; this pro-
vided the average value, recorded in Table 1, together with other
physical characteristics (where saturated volumetric water content,
Table 1. Main physical characteristics of P. oceanica residues
Parameter Symbol Value
3
Absolute density (g=cm ) ρs 1.200
Dry bulk density (g=cm3 ) ρb;0 0.130
Saturated hydraulic conductivity (mm=h) K s;0 1,440
Saturated volumetric water content (cm3 cm−3 ) θs;0 0.892
Characteristic temporal scale of the ω 0.124
infiltration process (h)
Pore size distribution index λ 1.96
Pore connectivity index c 0.249
θs ¼ 1 − ρb =ρs , was assumed to be P. oceanica porosity). As ex-
pected, results showed high saturated hydraulic conductivity values
and saturated volumetric water levels (K s;0 ¼ 1,440 mm=h, θs;0 ¼
0.892 cm3 cm−3 ).
Once the primary physical characteristics of the P. oceanica
sample had been determined, drained quantities (following the ap-
plication of rainfall to the top of the sample) (200 × 200 mm) were
collected on a hopper-shaped base and the sample was weighed at
the end of each run. Tests were conducted using a small rainfall
simulator comprising 48 dispersion needles. The rainfall simulator
was connected by a Mariotte bottle, enabling linear variable rainfall
intensity, i, with hydraulic head, h, as illustrated in Fig. 1(c). The
tests were performed with a constant rainfall intensity of approx-
imately 50.2 mm=h [Fig. 1(c)], which corresponded to hydraulic
head on the needle terminal section, h ¼ 43.3 cm.
In order to study the effect of antecedent moisture content on
delay times, td , and to avoid variability in the physical character-
istics of the material as a result of repeated sample preparation in
the laboratory, tests in sequence on the same sample were per-
formed. For each test, a rainfall volume V r ¼ 13.9 mm correspond-
ing to 500 ml was applied. In this way, a different antecedent
moisture condition can be obtained using the same sample because
Θ0 is expected to increase. For each test, the following quantities
were measured:
1. Delay time, td , of the first drip at the bottom of the sample from
the start of rainfall;
2. Drainage volume at the end of rainfall, V d;FR ;
3. Overall drainage volume, measured at the end of dripping,
V d (V d > V d;FR );
4. Antecedent water content, Θ0 , from sample original weight,
P0 (g), based on Θ0 ¼ ðP0 − Ps Þ=ðρw AH0 ), where Ps is the dry
weight (g); A is the sample cross-sectional area (mm2 ), ρw ¼
0.001 is the density of water (g mm−3 ); and H0 is the sample
height (mm); and
5. Antecedent water content also obtained using the drainage vo-
lume (DV); this was done by adding the water content, ΔΘ,
(obtained by calculating the difference between rainfall volume
applied and drainage volume collected in the previous i − 1 run:
Θ0;DV ¼ Θ0;i−1 þ ΔΘ) to the antecedent water content of the
previous test.
Comparison between the antecedent moisture conditions, Θ0 ,
and those derived by the drainage water volume, Θ0;DV , calculated
according to Points 4 and 5, are illustrated in Fig. 2(a), showing that

© ASCE 04019016-3 J. Hydrol. Eng.

J. Hydrol. Eng., 2019, 24(6): 04019016

Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Nottingham Trent University on 04/08/19. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

Fig. 2. (a) Comparison between the antecedent moisture condition obtained by the sample weight during the 22 runs, Θ0 , with that derived by the
water volume balance, Θ0;DV , obtained by considering the drainage volume, DV; and (b) relationship between Θ0 versus the time, t, during the
22 runs. (Adapted from Baiamonte et al. 2018, Quaderni di Idronomia Montana, EdiBios, with permission.)

discrepancies between Θ0 and Θ0;DV increased with increases in
antecedent moisture content. These were likely due to the process
of evaporation, which determined an overestimation of Θ0;DV com-
pared to Θ0 . The evaporation rate, although limited by the fact that
the top was closed with a metal plate, was due to test length [up to
30 days, Fig. 2(b)]. This prolonged period was dictated by the need
to wait for the dripping process between two consecutive runs to
end (approximately two rainfall events per day were applied to the
sample).
Fig. 2(a) shows that during initial tests, after applying four to
five rainfall volumes (64–80 mm), no differences were found be-
tween Θ0 and Θ0;DV values. However, as rainfall volumes contin-
ued to be applied, Θ0;DV (which was not affected by the evaporation
process) overestimated actual Θ0 . As a consequence, Θ0 was used
directly as the actual antecedent water condition, as deemed more
representative than Θ0;DV .
In Fig. 2(b) the relationship between Θ0 and elapsed time for
performing 22 tests is illustrated. The figure shows that under these
specific experimental conditions Θ0 increased in time. The figure
also illustrates how Θ0 variations were initially greater, and they
then decreased until near-equilibrium condition between input rain-
fall volume and output drainage volume was ultimately achieved,
thus preventing further increases in Θ0 . This was confirmed by the
overall drained volume at the test end, which was found to be close
to rainfall volume.
This experimental technique made it possible to study the effect
of increases in Θ0 on td (using the same sample). As shown in
Fig. 3(a), the drained volume up to the end of rainfall, V d;FR , showed
progressive diminutions in delay time, td . In the same figure, the
line illustrating rainfall volume (V r ¼ 15.9 mm) is shown for
comparison; this obviously lies above V d;FR values.
In Fig. 3(b), the effect of antecedent moisture content on delay
time is illustrated. In particular, td measurements, although dis-
persed, evidenced that td increased slightly with increases in Θ0 ;
this was in contrast with observations regarding theoretical Eq. (6).
In fact, by applying Eq. (8), using H0 ¼ 200 mm and λ ¼ 1.96
(c ¼ 0.249) [which is typical of highly permeable soils, such as
sandy soils (Matlan et al. 2014)] and based on the physical char-
acteristics of P. oceanica (Table 1), the td [Fig. 3(b)] decreased with
increasing Θ0 . Moreover, theoretical td values were found to be
higher by one order of magnitude than experimental ones, espe-
cially for low Θ0 values. Note that the selected high-λ value agrees
with the assumption made in Eq. (2), linked to the gravity driven
model. Indeed, for such value, the slope dh=dθ of the retention
curve is almost gentle compared with the usual range for soils of
different texture (0.150–0.694) (e.g., Rawls et al. 1982); this would
seem to validate the corresponding assumption.
The explanation for such an inconsistency stems from the sim-
plified hypotheses required by Eq. (8), i.e., a uniform antecedent
moisture content profile, homogeneity and isotropy of the per-
meable porous media, and differences between the morphological
structure of P. oceanica and that of the soils. Finally, yet impor-
tantly, differences between empirical and theoretical results could
also result from possible sample compaction and subsidence

Fig. 3. (a) Relationship between the drainage volume measured at the end of the rainfall, V d;FR , and the delay time, td ; and (b) relationship between
the delay time, td , and the antecedent moisture condition, Θ0 . Fig. 4(b) also plots the theoretical td versus Θ0 relationship corresponding to the original
infiltration model [Eq. (7)]. (Adapted from Baiamonte et al. 2018, Quaderni di Idronomia Montana, EdiBios, with permission.)

© ASCE 04019016-4 J. Hydrol. Eng.

J. Hydrol. Eng., 2019, 24(6): 04019016

 phenomena due to the material’s high porosity. None of these Table 2. Parameters of Eqs. (13) and (14)
factors are taken into account by Eq. (8). It is reasonable to assume Parameter Symbol Value
that subsidence processes could determine substantial changes in
Antecedent moisture condition at the equilibrium Θ0;eq 0.21
hydrological characteristics during repeated rainfall applications. [Eqs. (8) and (11)]
This could be due to increases in the sample weight as a result Antecedent moisture condition index decay k 83.8
of applied rainfall volume (determining increases in Θ0 ), and to [Eqs. (8) and (11)]
a lesser extent the rainfall kinetic energy action. Saturated hydraulic conductivity constant decay α 0.338
[Eq. (11)] (mm−1 )
Effective porosity fraction [Eq. (11)] β 0.05
Measuring Material Subsidence and Modifying the αH 0 parameter [Eq. (11)] αH 0 67.7
Original Infiltration Model

A new series of 22 runs was carried out on a new P. oceanica sam-

Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Nottingham Trent University on 04/08/19. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

The exponential law reported in the following fitted the exper-

ple prepared in the same way described in Baiamonte et al. (2018)
imental results well:
in order to measure and check the occurrence of subsidence proc-
esses. As previously noted, during subsequent rainfall applications
Θ0;η ¼ Θ0;eq ð1 − e−kη Þ ð9Þ
to the sample, material compaction might have determined reduc-
tions in K s and θs , and increases in ρb .
Rainfall intensity in this new series of runs was lower (i ¼ where Θ0;eq reported in Table 2 is the value of Θ0 at the equilibrium
(close to the experimental one); and k is a parameter describing
40.2 mm=h) than that considered in the first run described in
antecedent moisture condition decay, so that variations in k corre-
Baiamonte et al. (2018) (i ¼ 50.2 mm=h), although the hydraulic
spond to different Θ0 variation rates.
head was kept unchanged. This was probably due to a lower water
Bulk density, ρb;η , was calculated based on sample height Hη ,
temperature used in simulating the rainfall events, which reason-
observed before each test, according to
ably affected the laminar water flow through the needles.
Subsidence process was monitored before applying each rainfall Ps
event by means of a horizontal paper disk laid on the top of the ρb;η ¼ ð10Þ
SH 0;η
sample, and was measured before each run the distance between
the paper disk and the up edge of the metal ring containing the
where S is the cross-sectional area of the sample (S ¼ 314.16 cm2 ).
sample [Fig. 1(a)]. Material subsidence was defined as η ¼ 1 −
Modifications in dry bulk density also determined reductions in
H=H0 where H is the sample height measured before each run.
porosity according to
Thus, at the beginning of each run, the sample height was
H η ¼ ð1 − ηÞH0 . ρb;η Ps θ −η
Fig. 4 shows the empirical relationship between antecedent θs;η ¼ 1 − ¼1− ¼ s;0 ð11Þ
ρs SH 0;η ρs 1−η
moisture content Θ0 and sample subsidence, η, evidencing that fol-
lowing the second rainfall application increases in Θ0 determined
an increase in η. Similar to results in Fig. 2(b), Θ0 would appear to where θs;0 = volumetric water content at saturation for η ¼ 0
reach an equilibrium condition in as much as further applications (H0 ¼ 200) (Table 1). To take into account variability in saturated
of rainfall events, at increasing η, did not lead to increases in Θ0 , conductivity, K s , because it was not possible to measure it directly
i.e., input rainfall volume was equal to the output volume. from the actual sample during each test, an exponential relationship
of K s versus η was assumed. This latter was used by Beven
(1982b), who summarized results from a number of field studies
describing the way in which saturated hydraulic conductivity varied
with the depth of the permeable layer. Application of the exponen-
tial law to yields

K s;η ¼ K s;0 e−αH0 η ð12Þ

where K s;0 = saturated water conductivity, corresponding to initial

conditions (η ¼ 0, H0 ¼ 200 mm) (Table 1); K s;η = saturated hy-
draulic conductivity corresponding to η; and α is a decay constant
(mm−1 ) to be determined by calibration that, similar to k, accounts
for different rates of change in K s;η .
Note that the rain simulator’s 48 needles wet the sample in a
concentrated manner at the corresponding rainfall drop impact.
It is reasonable to suppose that the previously mentioned discrep-
ancies of around one order of magnitude [illustrated in Fig. 3(b)]
were a result of the fact that only a fraction of the sample surface
was involved in the infiltration process. Thus, a second physical
calibration parameter β was introduced, consisting in a reduction
factor of sample porosity θs.
Fig. 4. Relationship between Θ0 versus the experimental subsidence,
By introducing the β factor in Eq. (8), and by substituting
η, and the corresponding exponential fitting curve. The figure also plots
Eqs. (11) and (12) into it, the following relationship regarding delay
the saturated hydraulic conductivity, K s;η , versus η, according to an
time can be derived, dependent on all the variables of interest,
exponential law, for α calibrated parameter equal to 0.338 mm h−1 .
which included parameters α and β:

© ASCE 04019016-5 J. Hydrol. Eng.

J. Hydrol. Eng., 2019, 24(6): 04019016

  0 1
ρb;η  c As mentioned previously, the parameters α and β of Eq. (15)
1− ρs H
i
K s;0 expð−αH 0 ηÞ − Θ0
td ¼ β @ A ð13Þ were calibrated by matching observed and calculated τ d values.
K s;0 expð−αH 0 ηÞ i
K s;0 expð−αH 0 ηÞ − Θ1=c
0 Calibration results (also reported in Table 2) provided α ¼
0.338 mm−1 and β ¼ 0.05.
By using Eqs. (11) and (13) this can be rearranged in a dimen- A comparison between observed td values and those calculated
sionless form, by maintaining the same physical meaning of the by using Eq. (15) was plotted in Fig. 5. The figure shows an almost
temporal scale of the infiltration process, ω, introduced in Eq. (8) good agreement between measured and theoretical td values
  c obtained from the extended formulation, with a standard error of
td K s;0 td θs − 1 ρ − Θ0;η e−cαH0 η the estimate, SEE ¼ 1.6, indicating that accounting for variations
τd ¼ ¼ ¼ ð14Þ
βH0 θs;0 βω θs e−cαH0 η ρ − Θ1=c0;η e
−αH 0 η in the hydrological characteristics of the sample (which can be
ascribed to the occurrence of sample subsidence processes) im-
where ρ is the ratio between rainfall intensity, i, and saturated hy- proves td predictability.
draulic conductivity of the initial conditions, K s;0 , and θs ¼ θs =η. Once the α parameter is determined, one can illustrate the rela-
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Nottingham Trent University on 04/08/19. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

If Θ0;η expressed by Eq. (9) is also substituted into Eq. (14), a τ d tionship between saturated hydraulic conductivity and sample sub-
relationship dependent on all the involved parameters, characteriz- sidence (reported in Fig. 4, where initial saturated conductivity,
ing rainfall, ρ, infiltration and subsidence processes (c, θs;η ¼ K s;0 , is also evidenced). The figure shows that due to soil compac-
θs;η =η, Θ0;eq , α, k) can also be derived tion and to subsidence phenomena, which increased with increases
in antecedent moisture content, K s;η decreased over the 22 runs.
td K s;0 t Clearly, the calibration procedure encompasses (in parameters α
τd ¼ ¼ d
βH0 θs;0 βω and β) all of the other assumptions on which the simple original
  model was based. Interestingly, the β value corresponded to a value
c ðρc ecαH0 η þ Θ0;eq ðe−kη − 1ÞÞðθs;0 − 1Þ
¼ 1þ ð15Þ very close to that derived from its physical meaning previously
Bη ρθs;0 described. In particular, β value is close to that obtained as the ratio
between the influence area of each needle dispenser (corresponding
where the quantity Bη has the following expression:
to a diameter of approximately 7 mm) and the cross-sectional area
  of the sample with diameter D ¼ 200 mm, 48ðd=DÞ2 ¼ 5.88%.
eα H 0 η ρ
Bη ¼ c −1 ð16Þ In Fig. 6(a), for different ρ values [which for fixed K s;0 ¼
f Θ0;eq ½1 − Cosh ðk ηÞ þ Sinh ðk ηÞ g1=c
1,440 mm=h (Table 1) correspond to i ¼ 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, and
50 mm=h] τ d expressed by Eq. (14) is plotted versus Θ0 . In the
same figure, empirical pairs (Θ0 , τ d ) are also reported; although
somewhat dispersed, they were found to be near to the curve that
corresponded to normalized rainfall intensity from the experiments
(i ¼ 40.2 mm=h, ρ ≅ 0.0278). Similar considerations are valid for
Fig. 6(b), where the normalized delay time is plotted versus the
subsidence parameter, η. Delay time in its dimensionless form
[illustrated in Figs. 6(a and b)] was not affected by the β calibration
parameter.
We wish to discuss the role of Θ0 , η, and ρ in normalized delay
time, τ d . According to the original formulation [Eq. (8)], at increas-
ing Θ0 [Fig. 6(a)], when subsidence phenomena are still negligible,
τ d decreases. Further increases in Θ0 determine substantial in-
creases in η (Fig. 4) and decreases in K s , which in turn determines
an increase in the delay time; therefore, subsidence phenomena
play a dominant role compared to Θ0 [Fig. 6(b)]. In other words,
Fig. 5. Comparison between the observed td values and the theoretical a Θ0 and a η value (Θ0;min and ηmin , respectively) for which the
ones obtained by the extended formulation [Eqs. (12)–(14)]. The figure minimum delay time τ d;min occurs was able to be defined. This
also plots the line of best agreement. τ d nonmonotonic behaviour appears more evident for low ρ values

Fig. 6. Relationship between the normalized delay time, τ d : (a) versus the antecedent moisture condition, Θ0 ; and (b) versus the subsidence, η, with
the normalized rainfall intensity, ρ, as a parameter. Both figures plot the corresponding experimental values obtained for ρ ¼ 0.0278 (i ¼ 40 mm=h).

© ASCE 04019016-6 J. Hydrol. Eng.

J. Hydrol. Eng., 2019, 24(6): 04019016

 than for high ρ values, when it becomes negligible. This was the
case for the experimental ρ value (ρ ¼ 0.0278) considered where
for η < ηmin a slight decrease in τ d was observed. From a practical
point of view, τ < τ d;min could correspond to preferable field con-
ditions for removing the salinity of the P. oceanica by means of
natural rainfall, indicating that the effects of subsidence phenomena
are not yet predominant with respect to that of Θ0 , therefore a
temporal decrease in τ d still occurs.
eηmin kþc α H0 η ρc ðc α H 0 η ðθs; − 1ÞðBη;min − 1Þ − Bη;min Þ þ ðeηmin k − 1Þ Θ0;eq ðc α H0 η ðθs; − 1Þ þ Bη;min Þ
ηmin ¼
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Nottingham Trent University on 04/08/19. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
k ðð1 þ Bη;min Þ Θ0;eq − e
where Bη;min is the value of B [Eq. (16)] for which η ¼ ηmin .
Eq. (15) with ηmin expressed by Eq. (18) is plotted in Fig. 6(b),
validating Eq. (18), which clearly for η ¼ 0 provides τ d ¼ 1,
i.e., the extended formulation approaches the original one.
Parameters k and α (mm−1 ) account for the rate of change in Θ0
and in K s , respectively, thus they are considered intrinsic character-
istics of the highly permeable layer. In particular, the higher k and α
are found to be, the more the media is considered sensitive to Θ0
and K s variations due to subsidence phenomena (i.e., η). The in-
fluence of k and α in τ d;min is shown in Fig. 7, where Eq. (15) with
ηmin expressed by Eq. (18) is plotted. As can be observed, for fixed
α, increases in k determined decreases in τ d;min , whereas for fixed
k, increases in α determined increases in τ d;min as a consequence of
greater susceptibility of the porous media to subsidence phenom-
ena, and therefore to reductions in permeability. Interestingly, for
any η, and for k ∼ 0 and k ∼ ∞, Eq. (9) degenerates to horizontal
lines, Θ0 ¼ 0 and Θ0 ¼ Θ0;eq , respectively, meaning that the
media, independent of subsidence phenomena, maintains these ex-
treme antecedent moisture content values and that the delay times
match those calculated according to the original model [Eq. (8)].
Clearly, these conditions are meaningless from a practical point of
view. We can easily verify that, referring to the case of Fig. 7
(ρ ¼ 0.0278), these values correspond to τ d ¼ τ d;min ¼ 14.7 and
7.7, respectively. These two latter limiting conditions can be
observed in the shaded areas in Fig. 7. Fig. 7 also shows the
Fig. 7. 3D plot of τ d;min versus the decay parameters k and α of the Θ0
and K s;η relationships versus η. The figure also plots the τ d;min value
corresponding to P. oceanica (k ¼ 83.84, α ¼ 0.34 mm−1 ).
© ASCE 04019016-7
J. Hydrol. Eng., 2019, 24(6): 04019016
In order to detect τ d;min , the derivative of Eq. (15) with respect to
η was performed
dτ d
ηmin ¼ ð17Þ
dη
After simple but long algebra, by putting Eq. (17) equal to zero,
the following implicit relationship, allowing us to detect ηmin , was
derived
ð18Þ
ηmin kþc α H0 η ρc
eηmin k −1
Þ ðθs; − 1Þ
theoretical value τ d;min ¼ 13.1 [Fig. 6(b)], which corresponds to
the experimental conditions (k ¼ 83.8 and α ¼ 0.34 mm−1 ).
In order to highlight the different behaviour of the original for-
mulation [Eq. (8)] compared to that of the extended formulation
(for ρ ¼ 0.0278), and by assuming the same reduction factor of
total porosity (β ¼ 0.05), Fig. 8 illustrates normalized delay time
versus Θ0 for both formulations, i.e., for the case in which the
porous media is susceptible to subsidence phenomena and for
the case that it is not (dotted line). Clearly, the extended formulation
matches the original formulation by putting α ¼ 0 in Eq. (15).
Moreover, the experimental pairs (Θ0 , τ d ) that lie in proximity
to Eq. (14) with α ¼ 0.34 are also reported, better evidencing the
suitability of the presented approach. In Fig. 8, it can be observed
that if α ¼ 0 is assumed, the delay time decreases with increasing
Θ0 , and that the contrary occurs if α > 0 is considered.
The normalized delay time τ d , expressed by Eq. (15), could be
used to predict delay times, even for geometries that differ from
those considered in the experimental runs. Moreover, Eq. (18)
could allow us to determine the field conditions required by
P. oceanica residues to favor salt leaching when arranged in storage
areas. Thus, the extended formulation could also be used when
parameters describing the characteristics of the soil layer, and in
particular α, k, Θ0;eq ; c, and K s;0 , differ from those considered
in this study.
Fig. 8. Comparison between the τ d versus Θ0 relationship obtained for
ρ ¼ 0.0278, for the original infiltration model [Eq. (7) or Eqs. (13) and
(14) with α ¼ 0] and for the extended formulation (k ¼ 83.84,
α ¼ 0.34 mm−1 ) [Eqs. (13)–(14)]. The figure also graphs the corre-
sponding experimental values.
J. Hydrol. Eng.
 However, the use of Eq. (15) should be given careful consider-
ation, given that it is reasonable to suppose that compaction has an
effect on hydrological characteristics, for rainfall values different
than that considered in this study (40 mm=h). At this stage, the
effect of the rainfall intensity in the studied process is entrusted to
the model theory developed. In consideration of this, further inves-
tigation using different experimental conditions than those exam-
ined in this paper would be of interested.
Conclusions
For highly permeable porous media, the delay time was defined as
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Nottingham Trent University on 04/08/19. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
the time that the water front takes to reach the bottom of the highly
permeable layer. This temporal scale relating to the infiltration pro-
cess is particularly important in the study of salt leaching under the
effect of natural rainfall (of relevance for P. oceanica residues when
accumulated in storage sites). P. oceanica residues are hence char-
acterized by high porosity and saturated hydraulic conductivity
values. In this paper, a simplified model to predict delay times
was applied to P. oceanica residues. In a previous study, a number
of physical characteristics regarding P. oceanica residues were
determined in the laboratory, thus enabling us to derive all the
parameters that the original simple model required. Experimental
measurements of delay times under simulated rainfall on P. oce-
anica samples were performed. In the experimental set up, repeti-
tive rainfall applications were applied to the same sample in order
to avoid the introduction of variability in physical characteristics
due to sample preparation. This determined an increase in the ante-
cedent moisture content of each run, which was also monitored and
analyzed. The first series of measurements performed in a previous
experiment revealed a contrasting theoretical decreasing trend in
delay times versus antecedent moisture content compared to em-
pirical delay times (which were found to increase with increases
in antecedent moisture content). Reasons for this contrast were
sought in compacting and sample subsidence phenomena, which
occurred during the application of rainfall volumes, and conse-
quently determined modifications in the hydrologic characteristics
of the media. Thus, a new series of runs was performed and sample
height was measured before each run. Height was found to decrease
in time due to the abovementioned phenomena. An extended for-
mulation of the original model was then developed, taking into con-
sideration variability in sample physical characteristics over the
course of the runs and two calibration parameters with a clear
physical meaning, ensuring a good fit with the experimental delay
times. Application of the extended formulation showed that a mini-
mum delay time value occurred, dependent on the two calibration
parameters and on rainfall intensity. Results evidenced that this
analysis could be applied in order to quantify the effect of natural
rainfall under different climatic conditions on salinity removal re-
garding this kind of material, before applying it as a fertilizer, as a
soil amendment, or as a soil improver in farming and bioengineer-
ing works.
Acknowledgments
Research was supported by PRIN 2015 project granted by MIUR
(Italian Ministry for University and Research) No. 2015AKR4HX.
The contribution to the manuscript has to be shared between
authors as follows: derivations and applications of the proposed
procedure were carried out by the first author; all the authors made
the experimental measurements, analyzed the results, and wrote the
text. The authors wish to thank the anonymous reviewers for the
helpful comments and suggestions made during the revision stage.
© ASCE 04019016-8
J. Hydrol. Eng., 2019, 24(6): 04019016
References
Agnese, C., V. Bagarello, G. Baiamonte, and M. Iovino. 2011. “Comparing
physical quality of forest and pasture soils in a Sicilian watershed.” Soil
Sci. Soc. Am. J. 75 (5): 1958–1970. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2011
.0044.
Agnese, C., G. Baiamonte, and C. Corrao. 2007. “Overland flow generation
on hillslopes of complex topography: Analytical solutions.” Hydrol.
Process. 21 (10): 1308–1317. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.6354.
Assouline, S. 2005. “On the relationships between the pore size distribution
index and characteristics of the soil hydraulic functions.” Water Resour.
Res. 41 (7): 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1029/2004WR003511.
Baiamonte, G. 2016. “Simplified model to predict runoff generation time
for well-drained and vegetated soils.” J. Irrig. Drain. Eng. 142 (11):
04016047. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)IR.1943-4774.0001072.
Baiamonte, G., and C. Agnese. 2016. “Quick and slow components of the
hydrologic response at the hillslope scale.” J. Irrig. Drain. Eng. 142 (10):
04016038. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)IR.1943-4774.0001053.
Baiamonte, G., V. Bagarello, F. D’Asaro, and V. Palmeri. 2017. “Factors
influencing point measurement of near-surface saturated soil hydraulic
conductivity in a small Sicilian basin.” Land Degrad. Dev. 28 (3):
970–982. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.2674.
Baiamonte, G., R. Calvo, and F. D’Asaro. 2018. “Processi di infiltrazione
in un mezzo altamente poroso: Misure sperimentali e impiego di un
modello semplificato a base fisica.” In Proc., “Attualità dell’idraulica
Agraria e delle Sistemazioni Idraulico-Forestali al cambiare dei
tempi.” Palermo, Italy: Dipartimento di Scienze Agrarie e Forestali.
Baiamonte, G., F. D’Asaro, and G. Grillone. 2015. “Simplified
probabilistic-topologic model for reproducing hillslope rill network sur-
face runoff.” J. Irrig. Drain. Eng. 141 (7): 04014080. https://doi.org/10
.1061/(ASCE)IR.1943-4774.0000854.
Baiamonte, G., and V. P. Singh. 2016a. “Analytical solutions of kinematic
wave time of concentration for overland flow under green-ampt infil-
tration.” J. Hydrol. Eng. 21 (3): 04015072. https://doi.org/10.1061
/(ASCE)HE.1943-5584.0001266.
Baiamonte, G., and V. P. Singh. 2016b. “Overland flow times of con-
centration for hillslopes of complex topography.” J. Irrig. Drain.
Eng. 142 (3): 04015059. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)IR.1943
-4774.0000984.
Baiamonte, G., and V. P. Singh. 2017. “Modelling the probability distribu-
tion of peak discharge for infiltrating hillslopes.” Water Resour. Res.
53 (7): 6018–6032. https://doi.org/10.1002/2016WR020109.
Beven, K. J. 1982a. “On subsurface storm flow: Predictions with simple
kinematic theory for saturated and unsaturated flows.” Water Resour.
Res. 18 (6): 1627–1633. https://doi.org/10.1029/WR018i006p01627.
Beven, K. J. 1982b. “On subsurface stormflow: An analysis of response
times.” Hydrol. Sci. J. 27 (4): 505–521. https://doi.org/10.1080
/02626668209491129.
Blöschl, G., M. Sivapalan, T. Wagener, A. Viglione, and H. Savenije. 2013.
Runoff prediction in ungauged basins: Synthesis across processes,
places and scales. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Brooks, R., and A. Corey. 1964. Hydraulic properties of porous media.
Hydrology Paper No. 3. Fort Collins, CO: Colorado State Univ.
Calvo, S., et al. 2010. “Seagrasses along the Sicilian coasts.” Supplement,
Chem. Ecol. 26 (S1): 249–266. https://doi.org/10.1080/0275754100
3636374.
Comegna, A., A. Coppola, V. Comegna, G. Severino, A. Sommella, and
C. Vitale. 2010. “State-space approach to evaluate spatial variability of
field measured soil water status along a line transect in a volcanic-
Vesuvian soil.” Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 14 (12): 2455–2463. https://doi
.org/10.5194/hess-14-2455-2010.
Dagan, G., and E. Bresler. 1979. “Solute dispersion in unsaturated hetero-
geneous soil at field scale: Theory.” Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 43 (3): 461–467.
https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1979.03615995004300030008x.
Duarte, C. M. 1991. “Seagrass depth limits.” Aquat Bot. 40 (4): 363–377.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-3770(91)90081-F.
Dunne, T. 1978. “Field studies of hillslope processes.” In Hillslope hydrology,
edited by M. J. Kirkby, 227–293. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Matlan, S. J., M. Mukhlisin, and M. R. Taha. 2014. “Performance
evaluation of four-parameter models of the soil-water characteristic
J. Hydrol. Eng.
 curve.” Sci. World J. 2014: 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014
/569851.
Rawls, W. J., D. L. Brakensiek, and K. E. Saxton. 1982. “Estimation of soil
water properties.” Trans. ASAE 25 (5): 1316–1320. https://doi.org/10
.13031/2013.33720.
Richards, R. 1931. “Capillary conduction of liquid through porous media.”
Physics 1 (5): 318–333. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1745010.
Severino, G., A. Comegna, A. Coppola, A. Sommella, and A. Santini.
2010. “Stochastic analysis of a field-scale unsaturated transport experi-
ment.” Adv. Water Resour. 33 (10): 1188–1198. https://doi.org/10.1016
/j.advwatres.2010.09.004.
Severino, G., A. Comegna, and A. Sommella. 2005. “Analytical model for
gravity-driven drainage.” In Reactive transport in soil and ground-
water: Processes and models, edited by N. Gunnar, V. Paolo, and
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Nottingham Trent University on 04/08/19. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
A. Per, 209–217. Berlin: Springer.
Severino, G., and P. Indelman. 2004. “Analytical solutions for reactive
transport under an infiltration-redistribution cycle.” J. Contam.
© ASCE 04019016-9
J. Hydrol. Eng., 2019, 24(6): 04019016
Hydrol. 70 (1–2): 89–115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jconhyd.2003
.08.007.
Severino, G., V. Monetti, A. Santini, and G. Toraldo. 2006. “Unsaturated
transport with linear kinetic sorption under unsteady vertical flow.”
Transp. Porous Media 63 (1): 147–174. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11242
-005-4424-0.
Severino, G., and A. Santini. 2005. “On the effective hydraulic con-
ductivity in mean vertical unsaturated steady flows.” Adv. Water
Resour. 28 (9): 964–974. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.advwatres.2005
.03.003.
Severino, G., A. Santini, and A. Sommella. 2003. “Determining the soil
hydraulic conductivity by means of a field scale internal drainage.”
J. Hydrol. 273 (1–4): 234–248. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1694
(02)00390-6.
Sivapalan, M. 2003. “Prediction in ungauged basins: A grand challenge for
theoretical hydrology.” Hydrol. Process. 17 (15): 3163–3170. https://
doi.org/10.1002/hyp.5155.
J. Hydrol. Eng.