ENGINEERING GEOLOGY REVIEWER

Topic 1: SLOPE STABILITY AND LANDSLIDES

 SLOPE- slope gradient is the angle of incline or decline, expressed in the percent
of rise or fall of the soil surface from horizontal over a distance of 100 feet. Soil
slope affects the flow of water that can erode the soil.

 SLOPE STABILITY- refers to the ability of a slope or hillside to resist the

downward movement or collapse of soil and rock materials.

 LANDSLIDES- known as landslips, are several forms of mass wasting that may
include a wide range of ground movements, such as rockfalls, shallow or deep-
seated slope failures, mudflows, and debris flows.

SLOPE STABILITY- is dependent on the following:

o Material involved
o Geometry of material
o Slope angle
o Weight distribution
o Water content
o Vegetation
o External impulsive forces

CAUSES OF SLOPE FAILURE

1. GEOLOGY AND SOIL PROPERTIES
- The type and properties of soil and rock underlying the scope such as weak or
weathered rocks and soils.
2. HYDROLOGICAL CONDITIONS
- Water is a significant factor in slope stability. Excessive rainfall or flooding.
3. SLOPE GEOMETRY
- The angle of the slope and its height can also contribute to its instability.
4. SEISMIC ACTIVITY
- Earthquakes and other seismic activities can trigger landslides by altering the
stability of slopes.
5. HUMAN ACTIVITIES
- Human activities such as excavation, construction, mining, or logging.
6. VEGETATION
- Removal of vegetation reduces soil cohesion and increases water flow.
7. CLIMATE CHANGE
- Phenomena like heavy rainfall, droughts and changes in temperature.
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF LANDSLIDES
1. ROTATIONAL LANDSLIDE
- The surface of rupture is curved concavely upward (spoon shaped), and the slide
movement is more or less rotational.
2. TRANSLATIONAL LANDSLIDE
- The mass of soil and rock moves out or down and outward with little rotational
movement or backward tilting. Material of landslide may range from loose,
unconsolidated soils to extensive slabs of rock and may progress over great
distances.

LATERAL SPREADS
- Often occur on very gentle slopes and result in nearly horizontal movement of earth
materials. Lateral spreads are usually caused by liquefaction, where saturated
sediments are transformed from a solid into a solid into a liquefied state, usually
triggered by an earthquake.
TOPPLE
- Topple failures involve the forward rotation and movement of a mass of rock, earth or
debris out of a slope. This kind of slope failure generally occurs around an axis (or
point) at or near the base of the block of rock.
SOLIFLUCTION
- is a mixture of creep and flow, which forms distinctive sheets, terraces and lobes of
debris and boulders. Solifluction sheets and lobes are found on steeper slopes
where the process has moved loosened boulders and soil downslope.
CREEP
- is the slow downslope movement of material under gravity. It generally occurs over
large areas. Three types of creep occur: seasonal movement or creep within the soil
– due to seasonal changes in soil moisture and temperature, e.g. frost heave
processes.
SLUMP
- A landslide consisting of a mass of material moving downslope as a unit, usually
along a curved plane of failure. The removed mass of soil and rock leave an abrupt
drop-off at the top of the landslide known as a scarp.

ROCKSLIDES
- Are caused by rock failure in which part of the bedding plane of failure passes
through compacted rock and material collapses end masse and not in individual
blocks. A rockslide occurs only when solid rocks are transported down slope. The
 rocks tumble downhill, loosening other rocks on their way and smashing everything
in their path.
ROCKFALLS
- is a type of fast-moving landslide that happens when rock or earth falls, bounces, or
rolls from a cliff or down a very steep slope. Rockfalls start from high outcrops of
hard, erosion-resistant rock that become unstable for a variety of reasons.

LANDSLIDE CLASSIFICATION
Following factors have been used to classify landslides.
o Material (rock and soil type, their structure as well as geotechnical properties)
o Water (wet, dry, saturated)
o Climate (tropical, template, cold, arid)
o Geomorphic attributes (slope forms, weathering, topographic profile)
o Landslide morphology (size, depth, length, height)
o Type of movement (fall, slide, flow etc.)
o Triggering mechanism (rainfall, earthquake, human activities etc.)
o Speed of movement (slow, high etc.)

GENERAL POTENTIAL CAUSES OF LANDSLIDES

1. GEOLOGICAL ISSUES
o Weak material
o Sensitive material
o Weathered material
o Sheared material
o Jointed and fissured material
o Adversely oriented mass discontinuity
o Adversely oriented structural discontinuity
o Contrast in permeability
o Contrast in stiffness
2. MORPHOLOGICAL ISSUES
o Tectonic or volcanic uplift
o Glacial rebound
o Wave erosion of slope toe
o Fluvial erosion of slope toe
o Glacial erosion of slope toe
o Erosion of lateral margins
o Subterranean erosion
o Deposition of load on the slope or its crest
o Vegetation removal
3. PHYSICAL CAUSES
o Intense rainfall
o Prolonged exceptional precipitation
 o Rapid snowmelt
o Rapid drawdown of floods and tides
o Thawing
o Freeze-and-thaw weathering
o Earthquake
o Volcanic eruption
o Shrink and swell weathering
4. HUMAN CAUSES
o Excavation of the slope or its toe
o Deposition of load on the slope or its crest
o Drawdown
o Deforestation
o Irrigation
o Mining
o Artificial vibration
o Water leakage from utilities

Topic 2: PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF ROCK

Rock Material
- is an aggregate of mineral particles. The physical and mechanical properties of rock
materials determine the rock's performance under specific conditions.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
- maybe known as Index Properties, which describes the rock material and helps in
classifying them.
1. LUSTER- is a physical property that describes how a rock's or mineral's surface
and structure interact with light; luster describes how a rock or mineral reflects
and refracts light.
2 Main Categories of Luster
 METALLIC LUSTER- is for minerals that are opaque and reflective
and have the look of polished metal. Some common examples are
different pyrites, which are used to make coins, gold nuggets, and
copper.
 NON-METALLIC LUSTER- refers to the luster of rocks or minerals
that do not appear metallic. Non-metallic rocks don't look like metals,
but it interacts and refract with light.
2. TEXTURE- the visual and tactile (how it feels) quality of a surface. Rocks have
many different textures. Layered sandstone produces a gritty texture, whereas
coquina may be rough with cemented shells occasionally producing a sharp
edge.

3. SHAPE- Specific forms of a rock. Rocks, usually made from minerals, have no
definite shape and can come in many colors. Rocks can be round, angular,
rectangular, square, triangular, heart shaped, or irregularly shaped.
 Round
  Oval
 Diamond
 Square
 Rectangle
4. SIZE- the visual and tactile (how it feels) quality of a surface.

5. WEIGHT- the amount or quantity of heaviness or mass.

6. COLOR- The quality of an object or substance with respect to light reflected off
the object. Rock colors are determined by the minerals that make up the rock.
Minerals get their color from the different chemical elements they are composed
of. Generally, red-colored rock has a lot of iron in its composition. Light-colored
rocks are mostly made of light minerals like quartz, plagioclase, or calcite.

7. POROSITY- Porosity identifies the relative proportion of solids and voids. The
porosity of a rock sample is defined as a ratio of the volume of voids to the total
volume of the sample. Porosity depends upon the shape of mineral grains, their
grading orientation and the degree of compaction and cementation. Porosity
generally decreases with the age of rock. It decreases with the depth also.

8. DENSITY - Density is defined as the mass per unit volume of the rock.
Depending upon a requirement, the density may be expressed as dry density,
bulk density or saturated density.
 DRY DENSITY refers to mass per unit volume when the rock mass is
completely dry, void contain only air.
 BULK DENSITY refers to mass per unit volume in normal condition,
which means that the rock mass may contain some liquid and some air in
its pores.
 SATURATED DENSITY refers to mass per unit volume when the rock is
fully saturated.

9. MOISTURE CONTENT- The moisture content of a rock sample is defined as the

ratio of weight of water in the voids to the weight of dry solids in the sample

10. DEGREE OF SATURATION- Degree of saturation is defined as the volume of

water in the void to the total volume of voids in the rock sample.

11. PERMEABILITY- Permeability refers to the ability of a porous material to allow a

liquid to pass through its pores. Since the pores are connected with each other,
the flow of a liquid takes place through the pores if there is difference in head at
the two ends of the sample.

12. ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES- Electrical properties are of interest mostly in

geological prospecting where electrical resistivity methods are used. Most of the
 rocks are dielectrics and hence measurements of dielectric constants are done
for interpretation of the data.

o This property is also of importance in prospecting for ground water

resources because due to the presence of water in the pores of the rock,
the dielectric properties of the rocks change sharply and hence
interpretation of the data is done for the location of ground water
reservoirs.

13. THERMAL PROPERTIES- Thermal properties are of importance to the

engineers, especially for tunnels and other underground openings such as
underground power houses etc. increase in temperature of the rock or a frequent
change in the rock temperature makes it weaker due to the formation of cracks in
the rock mass. Hence, a knowledge on thermal conductivity and coefficient of
thermal expansion and contraction of rock mass is essential.
o Temperature changes induce thermal stresses causing thermal strains in
the rock mass. Increase in length due to a change in temperature can be
known if the coefficient of thermal expansion is known for different types
of rocks. Change in length and volume can be known with known values
of coefficient of linear thermal expansion and volumetric expansion.

14. SWELLING- Swelling in general is defined as an increase in volume of mass due

to suction of water or due to contact of water for a longer time. With increasing
value of unconfined compressive strength, the tendency of swelling reduces.

15. ANISOTROPY- Due to sequence in formation, a rock mass may not be isotropic.
It may be anisotropic due to existence of bedding planes. An isotropic material
has the same property into three axes like concrete or steel. But anisotropic
material has some weakness in a particular direction or axis. Specially in
sedimentary rocks, degree of anisotropy is more.

o Due to anisotropy, a rock mass has different properties along the plane of
weakness. Hence, it is necessary to know the plane of weakness. This
can be done by taking samples from a rock mass in all the three
perpendicular directions. Thus, there will be three sets of discs for three
different axes. Now discs of each set are kept separately and tested
under a compression testing machine under two points loads. An average
value of three sets is calculated, if a rock mass is having anisotropy, one
set of the discs will be having less strength, and the axes of weakness,
thus can be known.

16. DURABILITY- Durability may be defined as a resistance to destruction. If a rock

mass is more durable, it will last for a longer period when put to a use. Durability
or rock mass will depend on the nature of environment against which it is going
to be used.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
 - maybe known as Strength Properties as they give the information about the
performance of rock materials when subjected to a particular loading system.
1. STRENGTH- Strength is the ability pf a material to resist an externally applied load.
In rock mechanics, strength may be defined as the for per unit area required to bring
about rupture in a rock mass at given environmental conditions. Environment is very
important in considering the strength of a rock mass.
In addition to the environment, rock strength depends on the following factors
also.
o Size of the rock specimen
o Type of test
o Duration of test
o Loading condition
o Cycle of loading
o Confining pressure
o Degree of saturation
2. DEFORMABILITY- Deformability of a rock means the capacity of the rock to strain
under applied loads, or in response to a removal of load, in case of excavation.
3. ELASTICITY- Elasticity is the property of the material to recover the deformation. If
an external force, producing deformation does not exceed a certain limit, the
deformation disappears with the removal of the force.
o The limit of deformation up to which the material is elastic is known as an
elastic limit. The linear relation between the stress and deformation is strain,
strain is known as Hooke’s law.

4. PLASTICITY- Plasticity is defined as a property of the solid material to deform

continuously and permanently without rupture under a stress exceeding the yield
value of the material.

5. HARDNESS- Hardness of rock is defined as its resistance is abrasion. This property

helps in estimating rock decay when put to odd conditions. It also gives an idea of
strength criterian of rocks. Hardness of rocks depends upon the strength of chemical
bonds.

EFFECTS ON ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS

- The behavior and mechanical properties of rocks depend on a number of
environmental conditions. (1) Confining pressure increases the elasticity, strength
(e.g., yield point and ultimate fracture stress), and ductility.
- (2) Internal pore-fluid pressure reduces the effective stress acting on the sample,
thus reducing the strength and ductility. The effective, or net, confining pressure is
the external hydrostatic pressure minus the internal pore-fluid pressure. (3)
Temperature lowers the strength, enhances ductility, and may enhance
recrystallization.
- Rocks, which are typically brittle at the Earth’s surface, can undergo ductile
deformation when buried and subjected to increased confining pressure and
temperature for long periods of time. If stress exceeds their strength or if they are not
 sufficiently ductile, they will fail by fracture—as a crystal, within a bed or rock, on an
earthquake fault zone, and so on—whereas with ductility they can flow and fold.

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES
o The magnetic properties of rocks arise from the magnetic properties of the
constituent mineral grains and crystals. Typically, only a small fraction of the
rock consists of magnetic minerals.

o It is this small portion of grains that determines the magnetic properties and
magnetization of the rock as a whole, with two results: (1) the magnetic
properties of a given rock may vary widely within a given rock body or
structure, depending on chemical inhomogeneities, depositional or
crystallization conditions, and what happens to the rock after formation;
and

o (2) rocks that share the same lithology (type and name) need not
necessarily share the same magnetic characteristics. Lithologic
classifications are usually based on the abundance of dominant silicate
minerals, but the magnetization is determined by the minor fraction of such
magnetic mineral grains as iron oxides. The major rock-forming magnetic
minerals are iron oxides and sulfides.
Topic 3: ACTIVE TECTONICS (Understanding Plate Tectonic Theory)
o TECTONIC PLATES- Tectonic plates, large slabs of rock that divide Earth’s crust, move
constantly to reshape the Earth’s landscape. The system of ideas behind plate
tectonics theory suggests that Earth's outer shell (lithosphere) is divided into
several plates that glide over the Earth’s rockyp inner layer above the soft core (mantle).
The plates act like a hard and rigid shell compared to Earth's mantle. The mantle sits
between Earth's dense, very hot core and its thin outer layer, the crust.

o Plate tectonics has become the unifying theory of geology. It explains the earth’s surface
movement, current and past, which has created the tallest mountain ranges and the
deepest oceans.

o Some scientists think that the shifting plates, which have the ability to help adjust our
planet’s temperature over billions of years, are a vital element for life.

WHAT ARE TECTONIC PLATES?

 Tectonic plates are gigantic pieces of the Earth's crust and uppermost mantle.
They are made up of oceanic crust and continental crust.
 Earthquakes occur around mid-ocean ridges and the large faults which mark
the edges of the plates.

 The World Atlas names seven major plates: African, Antarctic, Eurasian, Indo-
Australian, North American, Pacific and South American.

 California is located at the seam of the Pacific Plate, which is the world’s
largest plate at 39,768,522 square miles, and the Northern American plate.

 The Earth is always on the move due to the motion of the tectonic plates.
Seven of the major plates make up most of the seven continents and the
Pacific Ocean. They are named after nearby landmasses, oceans, or regions.

WHAT IS RING OF FIRE?

 The Ring of Fire is in the Pacific Ocean. It is made up of a string of
volcanoes, deep ocean trenches, and high mountain ranges. It is the site of
earthquakes around the edges of the Pacific Ocean.

 The tectonic plates map of the Earth shows where mountain building,
volcanoes, and earthquakes have occurred.

WHAT IS TECTONIC PLATE BOUNDARY?

o A tectonic plate boundary is the border between two plates. The

tectonic plates slowly and constantly move but in many different
directions. Some are moving toward each other, some are moving
apart, and some are grinding past each other. Tectonic plate
boundaries are grouped into three main types based on the different
movements.
TYPES OF PLATE BOUNDARIES:
1. SUBDUCTION ZONE (Convergent Boundary)- At
subduction zones, a convergent boundary occurs when
two tectonic plates push together. When an ocean plate
and a continental plate collide, the ocean plate slides
under the continental plate, and bends downward.
2. DIVERGENT ZONE - A divergent margin occurs when two
plates are spreading apart, as at seafloor ridges or
continental rift zones such as the East Africa Rift. Molten
rock rises from the Earth’s center to fill the gap.
3. TRANSFORM MARGIN- Transform margins mark slip-
sliding plates, such as California's San Andreas fault.
The San Andreas fault marks the location where the North
America and Pacific plates grind past each other in a
horizontal motion. The plates do not slide smoothly, but
build tension and release it in the form of an earthquake.
HOW DO TECTONIC PLATES CREATE EARTHQUAKES, VOLCANOES & MOUNTAINS?

 The Earth’s surface is active according to tectonic theory, moving as much as 1-2 inches
a year. The many tectonic plates shift and interact all the time. This motion reshapes the
Earth’s outer layer. Earthquakes, volcanoes and mountains are the result of this process.
 Scientists have discovered that the continents have come together and spread apart at
least three times in the Earth’s history. Geologists believe this motion is driven by
convection in Earth’s mantle which causes hot rock to rise and cooler rock to sink.
 When the denser tectonic plate dives beneath another plate it is due to the high energy
by the Earth’s gravity that pushes into the mantle. Earth’s tides, which are caused by a
gravitational tug of the Moon and the Sun, also put extra strain on geological faults.

EARTHQUAKE HAZARD

 Earthquake hazards include any physical phenomenon associated with an

earthquake that may produce adverse effects on human activities. While they are
often used as synonyms, it is useful to distinguish between "hazards" and "risk".
 Hazards are the natural phenomena that might impact a region, regardless of
whether there is anyone around to experience them or not.
 Risk refers to what we stand to lose when the hazard occurs; it is what we have built
that's threatened.
 Risk can usually be measured in dollars or fatalities. Hazard is generally measured in
more physical units: energy, shaking strength, depth of water inundation, etc.

1. GROUNSHAKING HAZARD- An earthquake generates seismic waves that

cause ground motion as they pass through the area. As those waves pass near
or underneath your house, your house can move from side to side and up and
down. The type of shaking your house experiences depends on how far it is from
the fault and the soil under and around it.

2. SURFACE RUPTURE HAZARD- An earthquake can push and pull the ground,
tearing the surface and pushing the ground apart and upward. These are known
as “surface ruptures.” A surface rupture may occur suddenly during an
earthquake, or it can happen more slowly—in either case, surface ruptures often
happen along pre-existing faults. If it happens close to your home, it can cause
considerable damage to structures and to the nearby land.

3. LANDSLIDE HAZARDS- Earthquakes often trigger landslides, which cause

significant—and often even catastrophic—damage to houses. The well-
remembered 1994 magnitude 6.7 Northridge earthquake triggered over 11,000
landslides. This contributed to the total $20 billion in property damage caused by
this one earthquake. If your house is in the path of an earthquake-induced
landslide, it is at risk for damage and may end up sliding downhill.
4. LIQUEFACTION HAZARD- Earthquake motion can turn loosely packed, water
saturated soil to liquid—this is called liquefaction. Liquefied soil loses its density
and, ultimately, the ability to support roads, buried pipes and houses.
Liquefaction is the destabilization of sand or soil when groundwater (water
underground) is forced out from between grains during the shaking of a moderate
or strong earthquake. If liquefaction occurs under a building, it may start to lean,
tip over, or sink several feet. The ground firms up again after the shaking has
stopped. Liquefaction is a hazard in areas that have groundwater near the
surface and sandy soil.

5. SECONDARY EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS- Secondary earthquake hazards are

caused by a consequence of the ground shaking, which is caused by
earthquakes. These secondary earthquake hazards can result in tsunamis,
seiches, floods and fires.

6. TSUNAMIS- A tsunami is a giant wave (or series of waves) created by an

undersea earthquake, volcanic eruption or landslide. More than 80 tsunamis
have been recorded over the past 150 years in California. Tsunamis in California
are not common and, for the most part, have caused little or no damage when
they have occurred. The last tsunami to hit California came from Japan following
a magnitude 9.0 earthquake in 2011. That earthquake triggered a massive wave
that traveled 5,000 miles and damaged more than 100 boats in Santa Cruz.

7. SEICHE- Seismic seiches are standing waves set up on rivers, reservoirs,

ponds and lakes when seismic waves from an earthquake pass through the area.
They are in direct contrast from tsunamis, which are giant sea waves created by
the sudden uplift of the sea floor often following an undersea earthquake.

8. FLOODING- Earthquakes also can cause flooding in several ways. They can
result in broken dams and levees on rivers. When an earthquake occurs, the
integrity of these structures may be damaged, potentially causing flooding in
nearby lowland areas. For residential structures, the shaking from an earthquake
can cause water pipes to crack, break or burst, causing water damage to homes,
basements, or the exterior grounds. If a water heater is not properly braced, it
can also fall, causing further damage.

9. FIRES- Why do earthquakes often cause damaging fires? Earthquake shaking

causes movement, sometimes resulting in damage to homes, personal
equipment and contents. This movement can result in released flammable gases
or liquids and other combustible material, which can come into contact with an
ignition source such as open flames or electrical arcing. Fires, often associated
with broken electrical and gas lines, are one of the most common side effects of
earthquakes. Gas is set free as gas lines are broken, and a spark can start a fire.
To complicate things, earthquakes can cause water lines to break, so there is no
water source to extinguish the fire. Homeowners should consider installation of
 an automatic shut off valve for their gas line, which automatically shuts off the
gas when a major earthquake occurs.

EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS MAP

o With 15,700 known earthquake faults in California and more than 500
active earthquake faults in the Golden State, most of us Californians
live within 30 miles of an active fault. From coastal areas to urban
cities, scientists tell us that there is a 99 percent chance that at least
one major earthquake is going to occur in our state in the next 30
years.

o An earthquake hazards map, like the one found on the U.S.

Geological Survey website, provides seismic hazards mapping
information to make you aware of and help you become familiar with
the earthquake hazards in your specific area.
HOW TO KEEP YOUR FAMILY SAFE DURING AN EARTHQUAKE?

 There are other ways in which you can protect your home and your family in the event of
a major earthquake. They include:
 Properly strap and secure water heaters and gas appliances to wall studs. Have a
professional install flexible fittings to avoid gas or water leaks.
 Do not hang heavy items, such as pictures and mirrors, near beds, couches or anywhere
people sleep or sit.
 Install strong latches or bolts on cabinets. Large or heavy items should be closest to the
floor.
 Learn how to shut off the gas valves in your home and keep a wrench handy for that
purpose.
 Place large and heavy objects and breakable items on lower shelves.
 Anchor overhead fixtures to joists.
 Anchor top-heavy, tall and freestanding furniture, such as bookcases and china cabinets,
to wall studs to keep these from toppling over.
 Ask about home repair and strengthening tips for exterior home features, such as
porches, decks, sliding glass doors, canopies, carports and garage doors.

Learn the seven steps to earthquake safety:

1. Secure your space by identifying earthquake hazards.
2. Plan to be safe by creating a disaster plan and deciding how you will communicate in an
emergency.
3. Organize disaster supplies in convenient locations.
4. Make or purchase earthquake safety kits.
5. Find out if your home needs seismic retrofitting.
6. Identify and fix potential earthquake hazards in your home.
7. Securing fixtures, furniture, appliances and other items inside your home.
Topic 4: FLOOD HAZARDS
FLOOD/ FLASHFOOD
- Floods and flashfloods are common products of torrential rains especially if it occurs
after a long period of dry conditions. Flood/ Flashflood Dam breaks can also result to
flooding, and can severely affect the communities nearby.
Flood hazard- is typically defined as a product of the depth and velocity of floodwaters. Fast-
flowing shallow water or deep water (even when flowing slowly) can unbalance people and
vehicles and sweep them away.
CAUSES OF FLOODS AND FLOOD DAMAGE
1. Heavy Rain
2. Spring Snowmelt
3. Dam and Leeve Failure
4. Business and residential growth in flood areas
5. Low absorption or no soil percolation
FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO FLOODING
1. Rainfall Intensity
2. Rainfall Duration
3. Topography
4. Soil Conditions
5. Ground covers
FLOOD HAZARDS
1. Heavy rainfall exacerbates problems with: Runoff, Absorption, Flood-control
measures
2. Ravine flooding can inundate downstream areas
3. In rocky and heavily paved areas, lack of absorption can cause flash flooding
FLOOD RISKS
1. Most communities have some risk of flooding
2. Damage increases with development in: Coastal areas, Floodplains
FLOOD PREPAREDNESS
1. Know flood risk in area
2. Prepare flood evacuation plan
3. Obtain flood insurance if living in floodplain
4. Keep important documents in water-proof box
5. Check portable radio for current information and emergency messages

PROTECTING PROPERTY
1. Elevate furnace, water heater, and electric panel
2. Move furniture and other items to higher level
3. Install check valves
4. Waterproof basement floor and walls

FLOOD MANAGEMENT
The aims of flood management are:
1. Protection of People and Property
2. Reduction of Flood Risk
 3. Monitoring Research, Research, Forecasting, and Warning

FLOOD MANAGEMENT
Hard Engineering (Structural)
o Embankments
o Dams and Reservoirs
o Channel Improvement
o Drainage Improvement
o Diversion of Flood Reservoirs

Soft Engineering (Non-Structural)

o Flood Plain Zooning
o Flood Preparedness
o Flood Forecasting
o Afforestation
o Public Relief
Topic 5: SOIL PROPERTIES
Each soil has different types and arrangements of these components which creates
unique soil properties or ‘soil types.
Soil properties affect;
o plant growth responses

o fertilizer requirements

o the soils’ response to management

o land use capability (i.e. suitability for different land uses such as grazing versus
cultivation)
o drainage and water runoff

o nutrient loss and leaching

o soil erosion

o Understanding soil properties is essential for nutrient planning and can be applied to
land-use decisions.
Soil properties such as soil structure, depth, texture, salinity, acidity, waterlogging or
compaction can limit plant growth even when the soil has adequate nutrients. Before
applying fertilizer, consider what is actually limiting plant growth. Is it really a nutrient
deficiency or is it a soil property? Soil properties can be observed in the paddock or
measured through soil testing.
A soil’s properties are largely determined by its parent material and weathering during its
formation Topography, age and agricultural practices can also affect a soil’s properties.
Three groups of soil properties influence plant growth:
• Physical, or the texture and structure of the soil.
• Chemical, which affects both the fertility of the soil and its physical properties.
• Biological or the organisms in the soil, such as bacteria, fungi, insects and earthworms.
It is the combination of these properties that determine soil health and the ability of the
soil to provide ecosystem services. Soil properties influence plant growth and guide fertilizer
decision making. Information relating to soil properties can be used to help guide investment
decisions on-farm to maximize the benefit, for minimal investment.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
 Physical properties of a soil that affect a plant’s ability to grow include:
 Soil texture, which affects the soil’s ability to hold onto nutrients (cation
exchange capacity) and water. Texture refers to the relative distribution of the
different sized particles in the soil. It is a stable property of soils and, hence, is
used in soil classification and description.
 Soil structure, which affects aeration, water-holding capacity, drainage, and
penetration by roots and seedlings. Soil structure refers to the arrangement of
soil particles into aggregates (or peds) and the distribution of pores in between. It
is not a stable property and is greatly influenced by soil management practices.
SOIL TEXTURE
o Soil texture, or the ‘feel’ of a soil, is determined by the proportions of sand,
silt, and clay in the soil. When they are wet, sandy soils feel gritty, silty soils
feel smooth and silky, and clayey soils feel sticky and plastic, or capable of
being molded. Soils with a high proportion of sand are referred to as ‘light’,
and those with a high proportion of clay are referred to as ‘heavy’.
SOIL TEXTURE CLASSES
o The names of soil texture classes are intended to give you an idea of their
textural make-up and physical properties. The three basic groups of texture
classes are sands, clays and loams.
o A soil in the sand group contains at least 70% by weight of sand. A soil in the
clay group must contain at least 35% clay and, in most cases, not less than
40%. A loam soil is, ideally, a mixture of sand, silt and clay particles that
exhibit light and heavy properties in about equal proportions, so a soil in the
loam group will start from this point and then include greater or lesser
amounts of sand, silt or clay.
o Additional texture class names are based on these three basic groups. The
basic group name always comes last in the class name. Thus, loamy sand is
in the sand group, and sandy loam is in the loam group (see Figure 4.2).
SOIL STRUCTURE
o Soil structure refers to the arrangement of soil particles (sand, silt and clay) and pores in
the soil and to the ability of the particles to form aggregates.
o Aggregates are groups of soil particles held together by organic matter or chemical
forces. Pores are the spaces in the soil. The pores between the aggregates are usually
large (macropores). Their large size allows good aeration, rapid infiltration of water, easy
plant root penetration, good water drainage, as well as providing good conditions for soil
micro-organisms to thrive. The smaller pores within the aggregates or between soil
particles (micropores) hold water against gravity (capillary action) but not necessarily so
tightly that plants cannot extract the water.
o A well-structured soil forms stable aggregates (aggregates that don’t fall apart easily)
and has many pores of varying sizes – See Figure 4.3a. A well-structured soil is friable,
easily worked and allows germinating seedlings to emerge and quickly establish a strong
root system.
 o A poorly structured soil has either few or unstable (readily broken apart) aggregates and
few pore spaces – See Figure 4.3b. A poorly structured soil can result in unproductive,
compacted or waterlogged soils that have poor drainage and aeration. Poorly structured
soil is also more likely to slake and to become eroded.

PORE SPACES
o The spaces between soil particles (clay, silt, and sand) and between and within
aggregates (clusters of soil particles) are called pore spaces. They are the portion of
the soil occupied by air and water.
o Soil air differs to atmospheric air as the composition is more variable within the soil,
can be more humid and has a higher carbon dioxide and lower oxygen content than
the atmosphere. The number and size of pore spaces are determined by the size of
the soil particles (soil texture) and the arrangement of the soil particles into
aggregates (soil structure). The larger pores (macropores) allow air and percolating
water to move easily through the soil. The smaller pores (micropores) don’t allow air
to move easily and also largely limit water movement.
o Soil biology also plays a role in helping to bind soil. An example of this is the
secretions of glomalin from arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. A sandy soil may have
insufficient organic matter to bind the sand grains into larger aggregates. In this
case, the soil will have many large pore spaces and very few small pores. The plant
roots will have plenty of air, but water will drain freely through the soil with very little
storage. On the other hand, a compacted, heavy clay soil will have many small pores
and few large pores. Plants suffer as water is so tightly bound in the small pores that
plant roots are unable to extract it from the soil. The soil is poorly aerated, and
drainage is poor. Consequently, the oxygen is exhausted.
SOIL WATER
o Water within the soil strongly influences plant growth and the biological functioning of the
soil. It provides a medium for substances to dissolve into, including nutrient elements,
allowing them to be accessible to plant roots. Water also enables nutrients to be
transported off the farm, and contributes to erosion and weathering processes. The soil
texture influences how water is held within the soil and also the rate that water will
infiltrate the soil.
I. TOO MUCH WATER- When all the soil pores fill with water during rainfall or
irrigation the soil can become saturated or waterlogged.
II. TOO LITTLE WATER- As the soil dries out, the soil particles (particularly clay)
tend to hold onto water more tightly than the plant is able to extract water.
III. THE RIGHT BALANCE OF AIR AND WATER- Just after the soil has been
saturated and starts to drain, the large pore spaces have air again and there is
ample water available for plants. This is when the soil is at field capacity.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
The chemical properties of soils that are important to plant growth are:
  Nutrient availability and cation exchange capacity, which affect the soil’s inherent fertility
and its ability to hold nutrient cations such as calcium, potassium and magnesium.
 The chemical characteristics of the soil solution, which affect pH and salinity.
 The solidity of the soil, which affects soil stability and nutrient cation supply.

Nutrient Availability and Cation Exchange Capacity

 In the soil, a large portion of plant nutrients are bound up in complex compounds that are
unavailable to plants. The smaller portion is in simpler, more soluble forms, which are
useable by plants. The complex compounds are gradually changed into the simpler
compounds by chemical weathering and biological processes. Thus, the chemical fertility
of a soil depends in part on how easily the plants can access the nutrients in a form they
require. This is referred to as the availability of a nutrient.
 The availability of nutrients within the soil is also dependent on a range of factors such
as soil pH, soil solution, soil type and the plant age, type and root system of the plant.
Plant nutrients are composed of single elements (for example, potassium (K)) or
compounds of elements (for example, ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3)). In all cases, the
nutrients are all composed of atoms.
 Mineral nutrients are absorbed by plants from the soil solution as ions. An ion is an
electrically charged particle formed by the removal or addition of electrons from an atom
or molecule. An ion with a positive electrical charge is called a cation. An ion with a
negative electrical charge is called an anion. Cations include sodium (Na+), potassium
(K+], calcium (Ca++), magnesium (Mg++) and aluminum (Al+++). Anions include
chloride (Cl-), nitrate (NO3-), sulphate (SO4--), carbonate (CO3--), phosphate (H₂PO₄-)
and boric acid (BO₃-).
 One plus sign or one minus sign means an ion has one positive or negative electrical
charge. Two or more plus or minus signs means an ion has two or more positive or
negative charges. Phosphorus availability is greatly influenced by adsorption reactions
with calcium, aluminum, iron, manganese and reactive surfaces of certain clay minerals.
These reactions can ‘fix’ the phosphorus and make it less available to plants. The
degree of fixation depends on pH. In alkaline soils the phosphorus will combine with
calcium, and in acid soils the phosphorus will combine with iron and aluminum, and in
both cases less phosphorus is available to the plant.
Cations and anions are not equally held by the soil particle. More positive charges mean an
increasing ability to bond with a negatively charged surface. More negative charges mean an
increasing ability to bond with a positively charged surface. The order of strength of adsorption
is; For example, plant root cells can secrete H⁺ ions that can displace weaker ions like K⁺
which then are available for plants to take up.
The cations and anions can be: Absorbed (taken up) by plant roots.
a. Leached from the soil via the soil water.
b. Adsorbed (attached) to the surfaces of negatively and positively charged soil
particles.
 c. The soil’s capacity to adsorb nutrients in the form of cations is called its cation
exchange capacity Cation exchange capacity is measured by a soil test.

As long as the nutrient cations and anions are adsorbed onto the soil particles, they
cannot be absorbed by plants or leached from the soil, unless the whole clay particle is carried
away via erosion.
However, they are not held too tightly and can be exchanged with other ions of a like
charge that are in the soil solution. Within these exchanges some cations (such as Ca²) are held
more tightly than other cations such as Na⁺and Mg². Once the nutrients are in the soil solution,
they can be absorbed by the plant’s roots, used by soil biology or lost to leaching.
SOIL SOLUTION
o Soil water is the water held within the soil pores. Soil solution is the soil water together
with its dissolved salts (cations and anions). The soil solution is the medium by which
most soil nutrients are supplied to growing plants. It also has a role in soil salinity and
pH.
o Soil Salinity- is an increased concentration of salts in the soil solution. In general, as
soil moisture is reduced, especially by evaporation, the concentration of soluble salts of
sodium, calcium, magnesium, and potassium in the soil solution increases. These salts
may already be present in the soil solution or they can be carried upward from the
ground water by capillary action if the watertable rises.
o The concentration of soluble salts can become so high as to interfere with the growth of
plants. Soils that have a salt concentration in the plant root zone that is sufficient to
interfere seriously with plant growth are called saline soils. Salinity can occur on dryland
farms and on irrigated farms. The salinity that occurs is the same in either case, only the
initiating causes and management methods may be different.
o Soil pH- The soil solution can be neutral, acid, or alkaline. This is called the soil pH. The
pH measures the concentration of positively charged hydrogen ions (H+) in the soil
solution on a logarithmic scale ranging from 0 to 14. When a soil solution contains more
H+ ions, it is acidic. When there are fewer H+ ions [i.e., more hydroxyl (OH⁻) ions], the
soil solution is alkaline.
SODICITY
o The sodicity of the soil refers to the amount of exchangeable sodium cations compared
to other cations adsorbed onto the soil. A soil with 6% or more of its exchangeable
cations as sodium is called a sodic soil.
o Excessive exchangeable sodium can cause clay particles to disperse when in contact
with water. A typical sign of dispersion is the blue-grey puddles found in winter in the
older basalt areas around lake margins and where drainage is poor.
o Sodic soils have poor structure and disperse readily when wet. Seedlings have difficulty
penetrating a drying dispersed surface, with consequent poor germination and survival.
 o Dispersion is caused by weak positive charges, such as sodium, and responds to
gypsum application, which replaces the sodium ions with calcium ions. Traffic on and
grazing these soils while we can make the situation worse.

BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES
LIVING ORGANISMS
Many living organisms are found in healthy soil, from large creatures, such as
earthworms, to the smallest bacteria. Soil organisms help to decompose organic matter. The
burrowing habit of the larger organisms incorporates the organic matter into the soil and also
creates large pore spaces that aerate the soil and allow faster water infiltration. The smaller
organisms, such as bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi, yeasts, algae and protozoa, further
decompose the organic matter, which releases nutrients in a form that plants can use.
ORGANIC MATTER
Organic matter is anything that is living or the remains of a living thing. However, in the
context of soil composition, organic matter is a build-up in the soil of decayed plant and animal
residues. Organic soils, such as peats, contain from 20% to as much as 95% organic matter.
Mineral soils contain anywhere from a trace to 15% or 20% organic matter. Organic matter is
composed of about 57% organic carbon. Australian mineral soils contain up to 10% of organic
matter, but most range from 1% to 7%. However, the influence of organic matter on soil
properties, and consequently on plant growth, is much greater than this small portion might
indicate.

THE SOIL PROFILE

o A soil profile describes the various layers within the soil and can be seen as a
vertical section through the soil. Each of the layers in the profile can affect plant
growth due to differences in soil physical, chemical and biological properties. A soil
profile can be created by digging a hole with a shovel, excavator or with an auger.
Where there are distinctive layers within the soil, the profile can be divided into
horizons.
o Soil depth- The depth of soil or ‘soil depth’ is the material that favors plant growth.
Physical and chemical barriers and high-water tables can restrict rooting depth which
can affect plant growth. For example, hard pans, or gravel layers. Pastures and
crops therefore prefer deep well drained soils with good texture and structure.
o Each horizon is a layer within the soil profile that has distinct characteristics, such as
color, texture or structure that are different from the layer above or below it. Where
there are no distinct horizons, this soil is referred to as a gradational soil.
SOIL PROFILE DESCRIPTIONS
 o Soils are called gradational, duplex or uniform based on how the soil texture changes
from the A to the B horizon.
SOIL FORMATION
o Soil formation is a function of regional climate, parent material, topography, relief,
biological factors and time. Parent material and landform are the initial reference
states for a soil and climate and biological factors determine the rate of soil
development. Time determines the stage of the soil forming processes as per shown
in Figure 4.8.
Soils are formed when inorganic matter (minerals) and organic matter breaks down into
small particles during a weathering process. Weathering can be a mechanical, chemical
or biological process. The inorganic portion of the soil is formed over many years from
solid rock (bedrock) found in the earth’s crust. These rocks are classified as:
 Igneous rock such as granite and basalt, formed from volcanic lava.
 Sedimentary rock, such as limestone, sandstone, mudstone, shale, dolomite and
conglomerates, formed from the deposit and cementation of the weathering products of
other rocks.
 Metamorphic rock, such as gneiss, schist, quartzite, slate and marble, formed from
igneous or sedimentary rocks subjected to high temperatures or pressures.
Weathering of the original bedrock produces parent material for mineral soils. Weathering of
the bedrock causes fragments to break off and when subject to further weathering become
mineral particles. As the mineral particles continue to weather, they are further decreased in size
and also release soluble materials, some of which become plant nutrients.
MECHANICAL WEATHERING
Mechanical weathering is caused by:
o Temperature changes, such as freezing of the water in a rock or the different rates of
expansion of the minerals composing the rock.
o Erosion and deposition from water, ice and wind.

Mechanical weathering essentially breaks the bedrock into smaller and smaller pieces and may
move it from its place of origin, but it doesn’t change its chemical composition.
Mechanical weathering also determines whether the parent material is considered to be
sedentary or transported. Sedentary parent material is either still at its original site above the
bedrock from which it was formed (residual soils) or has been moved by gravity down a slope
(colluvial soils). Transported parent material has been moved by water (alluvial, marine, or
lacustrine soils), ice (glacial soils) or wind (aeolian soils) from its place of origin.
CHEMICAL WEATHERING
Chemical weathering is caused by:
• Hydrolysis – the reaction between water and a compound
 • Hydration – the chemical union of water and an ion
• Carbonation – where carbon dioxide is dissolved into a liquid
• Oxidation – the loss of an electron by a substance, therefore gaining a positive charge.
The solvent action of the soil solution (water and its soluble salts).
Chemical weathering continues to reduce the size of rock fragments and mineral particles and
also changes their chemical composition.

BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING
Biological weathering involves chemical or physical weathering processes caused by an
organism.
For example;
• Mechanical weathering of rocks by plant roots or burrowing animals
• Chemical weathering caused by lichen releasing chelating agents
How soil formation affects soil properties?
- The parent material that forms a soil will affect is properties. For example, a quartz-
based granite will weather into a sandy soil, which will have a lower water-holding
and nutrient-holding capacity than a loam or clay soil. Soil formed from limestone
may be alkaline (have a high pH) because limestone consists largely of the mineral
calcite (CaCO3).
- The weathering process that forms a soil also affects its properties. For example,
less chemical weathering occurs in arid (low rainfall) regions than in humid (higher
rainfall) regions. This results in the formation of less clay particles and nutrients in
arid zones. Rainfall also acts to leach nutrients in higher rainfall areas. This is part of
the reason why arid regions often have alkaline soils, and humid regions often have
acid soils. It also helps to explain why high rainfall areas often have soils with poor
fertility: many of the nutrients have been chemically weathered and then leached
from the soil.
- The weathering process that forms a soil also affects its properties. For example,
less chemical weathering occurs in arid (low rainfall) regions than in humid (higher
rainfall) regions. This results in the formation of less clay particles and nutrients in
arid zones. Rainfall also acts to leach nutrients in higher rainfall areas. This is part of
the reason why arid regions often have alkaline soils, and humid regions often have
acid soils. It also helps to explain why high rainfall areas often have soils with poor
fertility: many of the nutrients have been chemically weathered and then leached
from the soil.
- The weathering process also influences the soils’ ability to hold onto nutrients. As soil
particles develop during formation, silt and sand sized particles remain relatively
inert; however, clay sized particles can develop a negative charge. This charge can
attract and hold positively charged particles called cations and can be measured as
the cation exchange capacity of the soil.
-